The Fugue of The Five Senses

The Fugue
of the Five Senses

and the Semiotics
of the Shifting Sensorium
Selected Proceedings
from the 11th International Conference of the Hellenic Semiotics Society
editors:
Εvangelos Kourdis
Maria Papadopoulou
Loukia Kostopoulou
The Fugue
of the Five Senses
and the Semiotics
e-book (pdf)
The Fugue of the Five Senses
and the Semiotics of the Shifting Sensorium
from the 11th International Conference
of the Hellenic Semiotics Society
editors:
Εvangelos Kourdis
Maria Papadopoulou
Loukia Kostopoulou
publisher:
The Hellenic Semiotics Society

Ελληνική Σημειωτική Εταιρεία
isbn 978-618-82184-1-3
© Thessaloniki, 2019
for the publication
the Hellenic Semiotics Society
for the proceedings
the authors
The Fugue
of the Five Senses
and the Semiotics
from the 11th International Conference of the Hellenic Semiotics Society
editors:
Εvangelos Kourdis
Maria Papadopoulou
Loukia Kostopoulou
Contents
Introduction
The Fugue of the Five Senses and the Semiotics of the Shifting Sensorium . . . . . . . . . 09
PLENARY SPEECH
Klaus Sachs-Hombach
Visual Communication and Multimodality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
I. ART
Irene Gerogianni
In the Company of Strangers. Avant-garde Music and the Formation
of Performance Art in Greece from the 1960s to the 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Μαρία Δημάκη-Ζώρα
Από το ρητό προς το άρρητο και από το ορατό προς το πολλαπλά αισθητό . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Ifigeneia Vamvakidou, Andromachi Solaki, Lazaros Papoutzis
Exploring the sense of touch through sculpture:
the communist monument in Florina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
May Kokkidou, Vaia Eleni Paschali
Beyond Senses: the existential agony of David Bowie
in the “Blackstar” video-clip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Karin Boklund-Lagopoulou
The senses in language: The function of description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Maria Kakavoulia, Periklis Politis
Metaphors of the lower senses in Greek modernist poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Λουίζα Χριστοδουλίδου, Μιχαήλ Παπαδόπουλος
Σημειωτικοί κώδικες μέσω της αφής και της κιναισθητικής διαφοροποίησης . . . . . . . . 98
Νεφέλη Κυρκίτσου
Η συμβολή της ψυχανάλυσης στην κατανόηση της κίνησης στη σύγχρονη τέχνη . . . 108
ΙΙ. MEDIA AND MULTIMEDIA

Spiros Polimeris, Christine Calfoglou
The multi-sensoriality of virtual reality immersion: An experimental study . . . . . . . . 120
6 The Fugue of the Five Senses. Semiotics of the Shifting Sensorium

Nassia Chourmouziadi
The Deadlock οf Museum Images & Multisensoriality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Elizabeth Stigger
An analysis of internationalization
through university foreign language homepages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Irene Photiou, Theodora A. Maniou
Game applications as a form of popular culture.
The engagement of human senses in multimedia environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Αναστασία Χολιβάτου
H αφηγηματικότητα στο πλαίσιο της διαδικτυακής δημοσιογραφίας.
Aπό την έντυπη αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία (Literary/Narrative Journalism)
στους σύγχρονους τρόπους πολυμεσικής αφήγησης (multimedia storytelling) . . . . . . 168
May Kokkidou, Christina Tsigka
Celle-ci n’est pas une chanteuse.
The deception of the senses on Lynch’s film Mulholland Drive (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Nicos P. Terzis
Listen so that you see! Seeing sounds, hearing images in Cinema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
ΙΙΙ. SOCIAL SEMIOTICS

Nicolae-Sorin Drăgan
Positioning acts as semiotic practices in TV debates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Katerina Fragkiadoulaki, Angelique Dimitracopoulou, Maria Papadopoulou
The function of images in argumentation against racism in videos
designed by university students: modality configurations’ effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Vassilis Vamvakas
Taste in Greek advertising after 1945: traditional and contemporary modes
of distinction and intimacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Evripides Zantides
The scent of Typography in fragrance advertising . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Sonia Andreou, Evripides Zantides
Mailing ‘Cypriotness’: the sensorial aspect of official culture through stamps . . . . . . 266
Mony Almalech
Visual and Verbal color: chaos or cognitive and cultural fugue? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Selected Proceedings from the 11th International Conference of the Hellenic Semiotics Society 7
IV. EDUCATION AND SEMIOTICS
Ιωάννα Μενδρινού
Πολυ-αισθητηριακή και πολυτροπική διάδραση
στο Θέατρο για Ανήλικους Θεατές . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Αλεξία Παπακώστα
Ο ψηφιακός κόσμος και οι νέες τεχνολογίες στην υπηρεσία
της πολυ-αισθητηριακής σημείωσης στο σύγχρονο θέατρο
για κοινό ανηλίκων θεατών . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Polyxeni Manoli
Greek students’ ability to retrieve information from EFL multimodal texts . . . . . . . . . 330
Anthony Smyrnaios
Against proliferation and complexity: the role of history teaching
in current and future multi-sensory obsession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Charalampos Lemonidis, Athanasios Stavrou, Lazaros Papoutzis
Multiple representations in textbooks:
Evoking senses during the learning process of mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
V. MATERIALITY AND SPACE

Alexandros Ph. Lagopoulos
Proprioception in society: The macro-spatial scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Αθηνά Σταματοπούλου
Διαισθητηριακή χαρτογράφηση:
Μεθοδολογία περιγραφής της σημειωτικής σχέσης υποκειμένου-πόλης . . . . . . . . 376
Μυρτώ Χρονάκη
Η πολυαισθητηριακή συνθήκη των τόπων του τοκετού . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Organizing & Scientific Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

Introduction:
The Fugue of the Five Senses

and the Semiotics
O ver the twentieth century, the course of semiotics has reflected the successive
phases of stimuli that were incorporated in the advances of cultural perception and
its relation to the sensory apparatus. Having as a starting point the study of language-
mainly in Europe where Ferdinand de Sausssure’s (1916) influence was most prominent
– semiotics progressed towards the study of the image and of visual communication,
which was evident in the studies of semioticians of the 1960s, under the influence of
Roland Barthes (1961, 1964). However, its subject matter was not limited to the study
of coding and/or decoding mechanisms of visual messages. Semioticians were inspired
by the composition of visual messages and integrated the stances of the Belgian
Semiotics School, known as Groupe μ (1992), which stressed the autonomy of the plastic
visual signs of the visual message, thus underlining the multidimensionality of visual
communication. Semiotics also focused on the study of mono-semiotic systems such
as colouring, and multi-semiotic ones, such as graphic design, typography, advertising,
cinema, television etc.
As Paolo Fabbri (1998) aptly observes, the image, apart from certain initial studies,
was neglected from semiotic research due to the difficulties encountered if one seeks
a linguistic model of the image, since the image has very distinct traits compared to
oral language. Even though Fabbri stresses the unfairness of this stance, which was the
main cause of delay in the development of a semiotics of cinema, television or painting,
it is nonetheless registered as a weakness of semiotics in the integrated study of visual
communication.
We argue that this weakness that Fabbri traces, is due to its disproportionate focus
on visual signs, to such an extent that for many scholars the connotation of the term
“semiotics” is linked to the study of visual messages and visual communication, and
it became virtually synonymous with the semiotics of vision. In this sense, the study
of the so-called minor senses, such as hearing, smell, touch, taste, seemed to be
compromised. We say seemed because it was not true; from the study of the relation
between image and language, we moved towards the study of the synergy of semiotic
systems as meaning- making mechanisms in audiovisual texts, and also, towards
the semiotics of the spectacle, thus incorporating the minor senses in this research
field, sometimes not in a distinct way. Vision was dominant in this research field, thus
reminding us of the fact that even the primary system of communication, language in its
written form, is a conventional visual system, as it was underlined in the beginning of the
20th century by Victoria Lady Welby (1983 [1903]).
The notion of multimodality, as it is examined in the theory of sociosemiotics
by Kress & van Leeuwen (1996), endeavored to fill this void in semiotics and visual
communication. This theory is seen as the most popular application of semiotic theory
not only for the community of semioticians but also for academia and the general public.
Kress and Van Leeuwen posited that contemporary texts are more than multisemiotic,
more than texts that are run by the sense of vision. They are multimodal since they
evoke several senses, in the representation of information, even minor ones.
From the beginning of the 1990s, the so-called minor senses evoked interest in the
fields of cultural history, sociology, anthropology and philosophy, questioning the parallel
advances of visual studies thus leading away from the hegemony of vision. The title of
11th International Conference on Semiotics «The Fugue of the Five Senses: Semiotics of
the Shifting Sensorium» that was co-organized by the Hellenic Semiotics Society and the
School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the AUTh in Thessaloniki (14th -16th
October 2016) alludes to the emblematic chapter «The Fugue of the Five Senses» written
by Claude Lévi-Strauss (1964) and reflects the growing interest of the Hellenic semiotic
community in the field of senses1. The conference aimed at exploring and furthering the
understanding of the contemporary shifting sensorium.
In this context, the study of the ways in which contemporary digital technologies,
multimodal texts, multimedial and multisensorial semiosis-in fields such as the arts,
museums, popular culture, architecture, civil life, learning, education, social interaction
practices and emotional economies inside and outside of the web- was enhanced in view
of deciphering how all these factors subvert and transform the traditional hierarchy of
senses. It also aims at stressing how this happens through the sweeping reassessment
of the previously degraded senses of touch, smell and taste, and the multiplication of
multisensorial and synaesthetic conditions of communication and experience. The
selected peer-reviewed studies that are included in the present volume touch upon
several cultural products and various facets of daily life.

PLENARY SPEECH
Klaus Sachs-Hombach’s text of his plenary speech discusses the differences between
communicative language use and communicative picture use based on their dependence
on the multimodal context of communication. The text underlines the equal significance
of both linguistic and pictorial signs, pointing to the importance of visual perception as a
condition of communication.
Ι. ART
Texts about art are gathered in the first part of this volume. Art as a field of inquiry lends
itself to semiotic approaches. Irene Gerogianni discusses the relationships between
Avant-garde Music and Performance Art in Greece from the 1960s to the 1980s and
claims that the absence of modernist roots in the visual arts leads performance arts
towards experimental music and broke the barriers between the visual arts and music,
through the corrosion of both forms. Drama is approached as site of multisensory
experience through the examination of modern Greek post-dramatic theatre works in
the contribution by Μaria Dimaki-Zora. The sense of touch is discussed by Ifigeneia
Vamvakidou, Andromachi Solaki and Lazaros Papoutzis in the case of the monument
in honor of the fighters of the Greek Democratic Army in Florina. May Kokkidou and Vaia
Eleni Paschali analyze the last video clip of David Bowie by means of a framework which
incorporates the lyrics, the music, and the visuals while focusing on the connotations of
mortality. Karin Boklund-Lagopoulou discusses the function of sensual description in the
creation of the illusion of realism and in the establishment of thematic continuity in fiction
taking as an example George Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire and its audiovisual adaptation
as the television series Game of Thrones. Maria Kakavoulia and Periklis Politis explore
the role of metaphors of sensory experience in Greek modernist poets and argue that
metaphors of touch, smell and taste are strongly related to the quest for an alternative
way of perceiving and understanding the world. Louisa Christodoulidou and Michael
Papadopoulos discuss the role of tactile and gestural semiotic codes during a novel
based performance. Finally, Nefeli Kirkitsou explores movement as the momentum of
the unconscious in works by Giorgio de Chirico that have the form of a mannequin.
ΙΙ. MEDIA AND MULTIMEDIA

The second part focuses on media and multimedia. The production and meaning-
making of media and multimedia texts trigger different senses at the same time. Virtual
reality environments as places of multi-sensoriality are discussed by Spiros Polymeris
and Christine Calfoglou who compare the effects of diverse modes of presentation (a
brochure, a website and a virtual reality environment) of tourist destinations on their
respondents’ choice of a place. Nassia Chourmouziadi questions the traditional ontology
of museums revolving around protection-authenticity-learning and suggests that a
multisensorial museum experience could provide a new look at the museum mainly
as public space, and secondly as protector of a collection of dead things. An analysis
of internationalization through university foreign language homepages is provided by
Elizabeth Stigger, who argues that semiotic analysis could provide fruitful insights into
the design of FLH of Japan Universities and could facilitate their attempt to incorporate
an internationalization agenda. Irene Photiou and Theodora Maniou study two facebook
games as multimodal texts and examine whether and how the engagement of the senses
of the users modify the gaming experience and challenge the traditional hierarchy of the
senses. Anastasia Cholivatou discusses narrativity in web journalism by highlighting
the relationships between narrative/literary journalism and modern/contemporary
multimedia storytelling. Based on David Lynch’s film Mulholland Drive, May Kokkidou
and Christina Tsigka discuss the unity which characterizes cinematic experience and the
collapse of the traditional boundaries between diegetic and non-diegetic music. Based on
Orson Welles’s Citizen Kane, Nicos Terzis discusses the expressive capabilities of sound
in cinema, which could claim an equal role to the image or even precedence over it.
ΙΙΙ. SOCIAL SEMIOTICS

The study of different aspects of social life through a semiotic perspective is of major
interest for semiotics and is discussed in the third part. Nicolae-Sorin Drăgan
examines the way in which social actors exploit different semiotic resources to position
themselves discursively during final debates for presidential elections, from the
perspective of positioning theory. Drawing on the fields of Multimodal Social Semiotics,
Argumentation and Rhetoric, Katerina Fragkiadoulaki, Angelique Dimitracopoulou
and Maria Papadopoulou analyze university students’ multimodal digital compositions
thematising the pathology of racism. Vassilis Vamvakas examines the significance of
taste as a field of cultural distinction and intimacy in post-war Greece through the history
of advertisements in the Greek press. Evripides Zantides explores the semiotic aspects
of the letterforms used to linguistically visualize the product meanings in fragrance
advertising. The connoted messages that postage stamps transfer from the State to its
citizens and the ways these everyday objects contribute in the construction of the official
cultural repertoire are presented by Sonia Andreou and Evripides Zantides. Mony
Almalech explores fugue and chaos in the area of visual and verbally described color and
claims that the visual and verbal colors differ from each other and their communicative
potential changes over time.

IV. EDUCATION AND SEMIOTICS
Teaching has been a largely logocentric area. The papers of this fourth part attempt
to expand educational approaches to include senses besides vision and hearing.
Ioanna Mendrinou discusses the multisensorial and multimodal interaction in the
theatre for young spectators. Alexia Papakosta explores the role and the affordance
of digital technology in performances for young spectators. Polyxeni Manoli presents
research data about Greek-speaking, elementary students’ familiarity with multimodal
texts in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and their ability to retrieve information
from multimodal texts before and after a teaching intervention. Anthony Smyrnaios
discusses the contemporary obsession of continually enhancing the human sensory
systems and its prospects, and proposes possible remedy through history teaching.
Charalampos Leimonidis, Athanasios Stavrou and Lazaros Papoutzis analyze multiple
representations in a textbook for mathematics and present an implementation with
students.
V. MATERIALITY AND SPACE

Materiality and space are fields that offer semiotics a three-dimensional perspective.
Alexandros Lagopoulos discusses semiosis as a social construct using the example of
the proprioceptive senses that diverge in different cultures in the context of the material
conditions of their existence. Athina Stamatopoulou discusses the semiotic dynamics
of the bi-sensorial relationship between subject and city. Furthermore, Myrto Chronaki
discusses the role of vision and its social interpretations in the development of space
in contemporary maternity homes based on the multisensorial nature of birth and its
interaction with space.
Endnotes
1. The Hellenic Semiotics Society has expressed its interest for the semiotics of senses through the
publication of a volume of the international semiotics journal Punctum dedicated to this topic (Pas-
chalidis 2017).
References
Barthes, R. (1961). « Le message photographique ». Communications 1: 127-138.
Barthes, R. (1964). « La rhétorique de l’image ». Communications 4: 40-51.
Caivano, José Luis ‘‘Color and semiotics: A two-way street’’. Color Research & Application 23(6): 390-
401.
Fabbri, P. (2008). Le tournant sémiotique. Paris: Lavoisier. Groupe μ.
Fabbri, P. (1992). Traité du signe visuel. Pour une rhétorique de l’image. Paris: Éditions Le Seuil.
Groupe M. (1995). ‘‘A rhetoric of visual statements’’. In T.-A Sebeok & D. J. Umiker-Sebeok, Advanc-
es in visual semiotics: the semiotic web 1992-93 (pp. 581-599). Berlin & New York: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Kress, G. and T. van Leeuwen (1996). Reading images – The grammar of visual design. London: Rout-
ledge.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1964). Mythologiques I: Le cru et le cuit. Paris: Plon.
Paschalidis, G. (2017) (ed.). The Fugue of the Five Senses: Semiotics of the Shifting Sensorium. Punc-
tum 3 (1), http://punctum.gr/?page_id=756.
Saussure, F. De (1916). Cours de linguistique générale. Paris: Payot.
Welby, V. Lady (1983 [1903]). What is Meaning? Studies in the Development of Significance. Amster-
dam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

The Fugue of the Five Senses. Semiotics of the Shifting Sensorium
PLENARY SPEECH
Selected Proceedings from the

11th International Conference of the Hellenic Semiotics Society
PLENARY SPEECH
Visual Communication
and Multimodality
Klaus Sachs-Hombach University of Tuebingen klaus.sachs-hombach@uni-tuebingen.de
Abstract
Since Platon, the status of pictorial representations has been controversial. On the
one hand, pictures were considered as inferior to words when it came to express-
ing abstract thoughts. On the other hand, an almost magical aura has been attribut-
ed to them. This ambivalent attitude has prevailed to the present day, with all kinds
of newly invented pictorial media such as photography or virtual reality evoking re-
actions that range from greatest enthusiasm to utmost skepticism.
Against this background, my talk makes an attempt at clarifying the differences be-
tween communicative language use and communicative picture use. This leads me
to some remarks on the dependence of both language and picture uses on a mul-
timodal context of communication, which ultimately results in two hypotheses: (1)
The use of pictures is as fundamental as the use of language. (2) Visual perception
is more suitable for (developing) those (interrelated) kinds of communication than
other kinds of perception.
Λέξεις-κλειδιά
visual communication , visual perception , picture theory , multimodality

Introduction
Considering myself as a philosopher, the following remarks are meant primarily as con-
cerned with conceptual clarification, in this particular case with clarifying the concept of
“picture”. This task might be classified as a kind of applied philosophy. A satisfying con-
ceptual clarification of the concept “picture” is supposed to give a clear understanding of
the specific functions pictures perform within communicative contexts. In consequence a
better understanding of communicative processes in general can be achieved since these
processes normally combine verbal and visual aspects. The combination of verbal and
visual aspects gives a particularly salient example of what is increasingly described as
“multimodality”. Multimodality is therefore a central topic in the following paper. I would
like to address this topic by defending two hypotheses:
I. The use of pictures is as fundamental as the use of language.
II. Visual perception is more suitable for developing those (interrelated) kinds of com-
munication than other kinds of perception.
Both of these hypotheses are so general that it is impossible to really give a proof for
them. All I can do here is, first, to elaborate a little on the meaning of my hypotheses,
and, second, to add some remarks on why I find them plausible. The elaborations I am
going to present relate to the communicative functions of different sign systems, to dif-
ferent concepts of multimodality, and to the relations between our senses and the differ-
ent sign systems. Let’s start with the first hypothesis: Why should we hold visual com-
munication to be as fundamental as verbal communication?
What is special about pictures?

In order to make this claim plausible, I am going to give some basic remarks on the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of using pictures in contrast to using words or sentences.
What is special about pictures and the use of pictures? There are of course various pe-
culiarities, but I would like to emphasize just one property as most fundamental: Pic-
tures are concrete or specific and, being so, allow us an immediate (perceptual) access
to the objects depicted. Using pictures is therefore suitable for orientating spatially and
grasping (topological) information more quickly/intuitively, for immersive illusions and
the evocation of emotional reactions and for structuring abstract facts and representing
something as a model.
Imagine a man is crossing a street. If you relate this to someone with the sentence “A
man is crossing a street”, the sentence leaves open, e.g., whether the man is wearing a
hat. Thus, verbal communication tends to be more abstract, ascribing just certain prop-
erties to certain objects. You might of course describe the scene in more detail. With lan-
guage you might indeed give a very detailed description and evoke mental images sim-
ilar to the ones evoked by pictures. But on the one hand this is not the standard use of
language. On the other hand it does still not give you the information simultaneously so
that at least the relations between the diverse aspects pictures present are not as easi-
ly accessible in a verbal description. Therefore, one might say that pictures are percep-
tion-based signs providing us with a perceptual basis for their interpretation and under-
standing (cf. Sachs-Hombach 2013, 73ff.). Language is only partially able to imitate this
property of pictures, and has to work hard to do so.
But using pictures also has some disadvantages. Compared to language, they pos-
sess less communicative means (e.g. conditionals or tenses), no explicit truth conditions
and less meta-communicative elements. Using pictures is therefore less suitable for re-
flecting upon the actual communicative process, for representing abstract relations and
for explicating or defining concepts.
At this point, one should distinguish two aspects of communicative power. In my un-
derstanding, language is the more powerful communicative instrument in terms of how
many different things you can do with words. Language allows you to do almost every-
thing, also imitating other sign systems. Language is therefore a rather universal tool.
But the costs are sometimes very high. It is often much easier to show something than
to describe it. Thus, language is in some respects less powerful in terms of efficacy.
Being the more universal tool, language is particularly suitable to express complicat-
ed conditionals rather easily. Negation is one of the simpler aspects pictures are sup-
posed to have difficulties with. You might also use pictures to express a negation with
the help of additional signs or in a specific context. Pictures are also able to imitate oth-
er sign systems to some degree, e.g., by being very abstract. This probably applies to all
more complex sign systems. But the costs are very high. The more one tries to imitate
language with pictures, e.g., as an international pictures language (like Otto Neurath has
designed one), the less they are still pictures in a full sense. One might say that they be-
come just substitutes for words or concepts in these cases.
It should have already become plausible that pictures do poorly in meta-communi-
cative affairs since they tend just to show something. In particular, pictures are not suit-
able for definitions. Imagine to define what a picture is by just using a picture. Of course,
there are exceptions. You might use a picture for presenting a norm. But for presenting
a norm you usually need a verbal context to do so. Pictures within art are also very spe-
cial. They are able to give you a better understanding of abstract concepts such as the
concept of hope, the concept of despair, or the concept of injustice. But this kind of pic-
torial representation of abstract concepts would not count as definition.
This gives us a hint regarding the answer to the question why pictures have been eval-
uated so ambivalent throughout history. My characterization suggests that the ambiva-
lent opinions and evaluations people have about pictures are a result of emphasizing on
the advantages of pictures and the one side and on their disadvantages on the other side.
Since the advantages and disadvantages are mutually dependent, you normally cannot

have the advantages without getting the disadvantages as well. I would like to call the
conceptual basis for this dependency the semantic anomaly of pictures. Understanding
this anomaly is very helpful for better understanding what makes pictures so special. The
anomaly stems from the fact that the meaning of pictures is at the same time more and
less determined (compared to the meaning of verbal texts). The meaning of pictures is
more determined since we are able to convey an immediate impression of a scene (close
to perception). But it is less determined due for two reasons: On the one hand, the refer-
ents/facts of the matter are not explicitly distinguished (there are no proper names with-
in pictures) and their existence is not guaranteed by perception alone, and on the other
hand, the communicative meaning (the “message”) is less determined and remains often
vague due to its sensitivity to the context of use.
One might further clarify this claim by explicitly distinguishing the different levels of
meaning just mentioned. It is important here that these different levels are connected
with different processes of interpretation. First and most importantly with regard to pic-
tures, there is the content. This is what one sees in a picture. The content is mainly at-
tained by perceptual and cognitive mechanisms. You might, e.g., recognize a mountain
in a picture. Second, there is the reference of the picture. This is what the picture stands
for. This would then be not just some mountain but one particular mountain, in this case
Mount Fuji. In order to determine the reference, you must already have determined the
pictorial content, and you need additional knowledge of the pragmatic context since the
content alone always gives you a variety of possible referents. Third, there is the sym-
bolic meaning. This is what pictures allude to. This seems to me more important in the
case of pictures than in the case of language. It certainly requires a determination of the
pictorial content, but the symbolic meaning is also based on the cultural background of
the participants in the communicative process. That a lion can be used as a symbol of
Christ (as it is the case in Narnia) has to be learned. As in many cases, the picture itself
does not indicate the specific symbolic meanings. Fourth and finally, there is the com-
municative meaning. This is what is intended with the use of the picture. One might call
this the message of the picture. Here you need not only all the processes already men-
tioned: perceptual mechanism and knowledge of context and culture. You also need at
least some communicative capacities such as those stated as conversational maxims
by Grice.
Understanding a picture relies mainly on perceptual, namely visual competences. This
applies particularly to the content of pictures. In contrast, the question which referents
pictures have cannot be decided by just perceiving a picture. Also, the symbolic meaning
of pictures depends primarily on additional cultural knowledge. Finally, depending on the
different meaning aspects, the communicative meaning of pictures is normally vague.
Although rooted in visual perception, one nevertheless needs conceptual knowledge in
order to understand a picture, e.g., knowledge about conventions of depiction, about dif-
ferent pictorial systems, and about the cultural standards and contexts of picture uses
(picture-games). So: Pictures are special. But why should they be considered as being as
fundamental as language?
Here is the core argument that I will only be able to briefly outline: If one compares
picture and language competences, one can give reasons for both the claim that using
language presupposes picture competence and the claim that using pictures presuppos-
es language competence. If one can justify both claims, a mutual dependency would have
been proven (like the one between egg and hen). The origins of language use and pic-
ture use should then be regarded as equally fundamental, as developing gradually, and
as mutually interdependent (cf. Schirra & Sachs-Hombach, 2013).
Why should picture use then be considered as prior to language use? Picture compe-
tence seems, in its basic aspect (interpretation of content), much more simple than lan-
guage competence, as pictures rely mainly on perceptual processes whereas languag-
es have a complex syntactical structure, are determined by various rules, and are thus
able to provide the more universal tool for communication. The complex derives from the
simple.
However, picture perception is not a self-evident competence and, therefore, is nor-
mally not ascribed to animals. In particular, seeing something in a picture, i.e., identify-
ing some object as a particular and persistent object, requires various abilities, name-
ly the ability to transcend the actual context and compare what you perceive in a picture
with what you have seen earlier in a different context. It needs some conceptual compe-
tence which is here (according to Jörg Schirra) called “context building” and which is nor-
mally viewed as an essential part of language competence.
If both arguments are convincing, as I believe they are, picture competence and lan-
guage competence are mutually dependent. The crucial question then becomes how
both competences interact in order to transcendent the actual context and to finally allow
us to switch arbitrarily between different contexts. How can context building be achieved
by combining picture competence and language competence? Context building is nor-
mally considered as being the basis for propositional language. At the same time, prop-
ositional language is the main device for building contexts. In order to avoid a circular
structure in explaining language and context building, we should assume some early
form of perception-based signs allowing a co-evolution of picture competence and lan-
guage competence: A shape of a stone might have deceived an observer to mistake the
stone for an animal. The crucial step is the ability to recognize this situation not only as
a deception but to transform the deception into an immersive mode so that the perceiv-
er is then able to recognize the form of the stone as similar to the form of some animal.
This kind of context building needs, of course, to be stabilized by the integration of some
early form of socially coordinated language but it seems to be much more difficult to ex-
plain the ability of context building without including some pictorial aspects.

Empirical support for this rather speculative proposal might be derived from the work
of Michael Tomasello (2008), who considers gestures as the basic achievement towards
human communication. In particular, iconic gestures are similar to what I have described
with regard to picture competence and picture use, as using iconic gestures entails the
ability to interpret the form of a gesture as the form of something that is not present in
the actual context.
Thus, the first part of my paper leads me to the thesis that the transition towards be-
haviourally modern humans can only be explained in the context of a theory of multimo-
dality. This means that verbal communication is always imbedded in forms of non-verbal
communication combining different communicative modes that cause very specific com-
municative effects. The overall communicative meaning depends on the functions the dif-
ferent semiotic modes have been assigned within the communicative act. The most gen-
eral function pictures are good at performing is visualization. Pictures might therefore
be considered as functioning analogue to predicates. A very general translation of a pic-
ture would than be: “… looks so and so”. Compared to pictures, language can perform
very different functions. With language one is able to assign a certain property to an ob-
ject. This is normally done with a proposition. There are now different ways to combine
verbal and pictorials elements, but considering what pictures can do best, namely visu-
alization, it suggests itself that language in this case specifies the concrete object that is
characterized by the picture. Pictures and language taken together can be used to form
a proposition that avoids the referential disadvantage of picture and providing perceptu-
al basis for the interpretation.
The economy of senses

I am now turning to my second hypothesis. Up to now I have mainly discussed sign sys-
tems and multimodality in the sense of semiotic modes. I shall now briefly comment on
what is meant by “multimodality” and will then come to the question that is at the core
of my argument: How are the different sign systems related to the different senses and
what reason can be formulated in order to justify my claim that the visual sense is more
fundamental in the context of communication, at least more suitable for developing our
communicative capacities, than other senses?
The term “multimodality” is used with very different meanings. In our contexts two
meanings are relevant: multimodality in the semiotic sense and multimodality in the per-
ceptual sense. “Multimodality in the semiotic sense” denotes combinations of resources
from at least two sign systems. These resources deliver the material basis and are part
of what we normally call “media”. Communication is multimodal in the sense of semiot-
ic resources if two or more modes are involved.
The text-image-relation is a standard example of multimodality in the semiotic sense,
that, for instance, Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen are mostly interested in (cf.
Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001; cf. also Stöckl, 2004). Imagine, e.g., a traffic sign where text
and image are combined in such a way that a driver can quickly understand the direc-
tions indicated in the sign (cf. Kress, 2010, 3ff.). In this example, the modes of text and
picture function complementarily as the text usually denotes or names the relevant ob-
ject and the picture provides quick orientation about the object named. The main aspect
that is still discussed controversially in this context is the concept of „mode“. According
to Kress, a mode is “a socially shaped and culturally given semiotic resource for making
meaning. Image, writing, layout, music, gesture, speech, moving image, soundtrack and
3D objects are examples of modes used in representation and communication.“ (Kress,
2010, 79) It is not clear, however, whether, e.g., color should be regarded as a mode in it-
self, whether there are elementary modes, or to what extent modes are stable sign com-
plexes.
Within a communicative act, the semiotic resources must, of course, be perceived
and interpreted in a certain way. The different perceptual channels or perceptual modes
are the elements for a multimodal communication in the perceptual sense. This second
meaning of “multimodality” is the standard meaning within psychology and neurophysi-
ology. The main question here is how humans form coherent, valid, and robust percep-
tions by processing sensory stimuli from different perceptual modalities. This is called
the binding problem. There is a broad consensus that a perception always integrates dif-
ferent sensory stimuli in order to create a coherent understanding of the world. The as-
sumption normally is that the stimuli of single senses often remain uncertain and ambig-
uous and therefore have to be determined by the integration of other senses. Within this
integration, the visual sense in particular is said to bias information of the other senses.
According to the Modality Appropriateness Hypothesis (Welch and Warren, 1980) this al-
so depends on the specific task at hand, e.g., time estimates rely more on hearing, local-
ization more on vision.
The two aspects or dimensions of multimodality, semiotic multimodality and percep-
tual multimodality, are certainly different, but they are also related. The anthropologi-
cal case I have mentioned entails a combination of spoken language and pictorial ele-
ments so that it exhibits multimodality in both senses: semiotic multimodality through
the integration of verbal and pictorial elements, and perceptional multimodality through
the integration of auditive and visual stimuli. But this is not necessarily so. If you have a
written text combined with pictures, as is the normal case in newspapers or books, it is
multimodal only in the semiotic sense and monomodal in the perceptual sense since on-
ly or mainly visual perception is involved in perceiving text and picture. Examples where
you have perceptual multimodality but semiotic monomodality are more difficult to find
since one might expect that the combination of different stimuli always needs as percep-
tual basis different sign systems. If you, e.g., read a text (as you do with this paper) and if
you would listen at the same time to me reading this text aloud, then one would never-

theless count writing as a sign system on its own that is different from spoken language.
But this depends, of course, on how you define “mode” or “resource”. Imagine the case of
a tactile picture that you view and touch at the same time. It would certainly be a multi-
modal perception, but would such a picture be described as using in the semiotic sense
a single mode or two different modes?
Whatever this case may be: Although the two phenomena of multimodality seem to
be rather independent or at least seem to be located on different levels, the relation be-
tween sign systems and their perception is not arbitrary. Spoken language is mainly re-
lated to hearing, written language is mainly related to seeing, and pictures are mainly re-
lated to seeing as well. Listening to spoken language might involve tactile qualities but
it would sound strange to say that someone perceives visually what someone is saying.
We can see gestures and infer from them what someone is saying or, more prominent-
ly, we can see the movements of lips and then use these movements for understanding
spoken language. But these cases are very specific and allow lips movements to be tak-
en as a separate mode. So, we can conclude that there is a certain flexibility in adapting
senses to different sign systems or in adapting different sign systems to different senso-
ry qualities, but that there is also a standard relation between specific sign systems and
specific senses or perceptual stimuli.
It is important to note that the sign systems are not only related to specific senses but
that there are also differences concerning the concrete mechanism of the relevant per-
ceptual processes. The perception of picture and the perception of written language are
both forms of visual perception but they are different in nature. In the case of language
perception, one has to identify letters and words. This is a kind of pattern recognition.
The semantic interpretation is an additional step that does not need perceptual compe-
tences. Contrary to this, the perception of pictures might also be characterized as pattern
recognition but already includes a semantic interpretation insofar as the identification of
various properties as patterns leads to determining something as something particular.
To recognize an object in a picture as a particular object is essentially assigning a mean-
ing to certain shapes and colors. Contrary to this, written language entails the alphabet
as an additional level so that the perceptual process has primarily to determine the sin-
gle elements, i.e., the letters. The meaning of the words and sentences has then to be
constructed on the basis of the recognized letters.
Building on these conceptual remarks on different meanings of multimodality, I am
now going to finally discuss the reasons for my second hypothesis: Why should visual
perception be considered as more important than other kinds of perception? I would like
to examine three reasons for my claim.
1) It is an advantage to combine different perceptual channels with different sign sys-
tems in order to relieve our cognitive system (less interference between the tasks in-
volved). In particular, the initial context building becomes easier if the combination of
verbal and pictorial elements, of speaking and showing, is organized and processed by
different sensory stimuli and by separate perceptual channels. The ability to recognize
a certain object is therefore improved once that object has been connected with a spe-
cific visual shape, like some kind of logo. Empirical support for this claim might be tak-
en from an extended dual coding theory (cf. Paivio, 1986). This is particularly important
when verbal and pictorial elements serve different tasks. In the context of the initial con-
text building, the verbal element is primarily important for naming or denoting a specif-
ic object in a socially controlled manner whereas the pictorial element is mainly impor-
tant to provide an empirical basis for perceptually determining this object. Accordingly,
the interpretation of pictorial elements can profit from our complex perceptual process-
es that are able to detect and identify certain stimuli. An extreme case would be a per-
ception where an object is mistaken to be some other object. Here, the crucial step is to
understand such a delusion as a delusion without then removing the erroneously per-
ceived object completely from the focus of attention but instead socially controlling it by
the means of an additional auditive stimulus that asks for a shared attention of the ob-
serving group. In summery: Visual perception is more suitable for developing our capac-
ity of communication than other modes of perception as it is able to provide in the very
beginning of our communicative capacities a better supplement to spoken language.
2) The visual sense and the auditive sense are distance senses. They give us as distance
senses most of the information we need for orientating in the world whereas taste and
smell are more related to our close surroundings. Eyes and ears are therefore better
candidates for obtaining an overview. As is well known, McLuhan has intensely argued
for the ear and against the eye assuming that the ear is the actual “human” sense that
has been suppressed by the eye after the invention of the alphabet (cf. McLuhan, 1964).
He gives two reasons for this. The auditive sense is more able to stimulate other sens-
es and it allows us better, via imaginative components, to connect with the world and
to join or unify the different senses and sensorial contents. Slightly different in the as-
sessment of the senses, I would assume that the transition towards behaviourally mod-
ern humans presupposes as well the visual sense. This transition is probably accompa-
nied by the impact of visual media in the basic sense of gestures or cave paintings that
could have evolved only with the support of the visual sense. Pictures in particular are
able to deliver perception-based contexts and can therefore support orientation and lo-
calization. They can be used as (topological) models and can thus provide us with some
kind of overview. Moreover, pictures are convenient means for storing, reproducing, and
sharing perceptual impressions. I think that this is not just a technical aspect. The abili-
ty to store information via pictures (and later via writing) is rooted in the specific advan-
tages pictures and the related visual perception possess.
3) As a third reason, one might argue that the visual sense, compared to the other sens-
es, is a more complex sense. Assuming that the more complex a sense is the more able

it is to contribute to human development, it would be likely that the visual sense ex-
erts a stronger impact on our communicative capacities. The claim that the visual sense
is more complex than the other senses can be supported by the findings of the Gestalt
psychology. According to the Gestalt psychology, the figure-ground-distinction is a very
general property of all kinds of perception. While listening to music you can, e.g., distin-
guish between the melody as figure and other sounds as background. The visual sense
is in so far more complex as it allows in addition a differentiation in depth.
VexierBild Ägypterin/candle stick, from: http://www.explora.info/images/pressefotos/vexiAegypterin_m.jpg
In many cases, the figure appears to be in front of the ground. As is demonstrated in this
illustration, the figure is not necessarily in the front. The differentiation of different levels
of depth (that is used widely in movies) is here organized according to the law of good
gestalt emphasizing the (one) face as the most familiar figure. As a consequence, the
candle is not seen as part of the figure but in front of it. This correlates with our ability to
adjust our eyes to different distances, thus being able to change the focus of our visual
perception. The perception of depth becomes in particular possible in relation to the ori-
entation of our eyes that diverge more or less from parallels (cf. Schirra & Kondor, 2016).
The visual sense is therefore much more suitable for orientation and localization. And
this is the supplement that fits best into the original communicative scenario described
as initial context building.
Conclusion
The initial assumption in my paper is that communication should be considered in gen-
eral as being always multimodal. I have argued that this assumption can be backed by
an argument concerning the development of our communicative capacities. According
to this argument, language competence is as fundamental as pictures competence. As
far as this argument is convincing, it also follows that visual perception should be re-
garded as more suitable for developing our communication capacities than other kinds
of perception.
References
Bateman, J. (2008). Multimodality and Genre: A Foundation for the Systematic Analysis of Multimodal
Documents. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A Social Semiotics Approach to Contemporary Communication. Lon-
don: Routledge.
Kress, Gunther & van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contempo-
rary Communication. London: Arnold.
McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. London / New York: McGraw-Hill.
Paivio, A. (1986). Mental Representations. A Dual Coding Approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Sachs-Hombach, K. (2013). Das Bild als kommunikatives Medium. Elemente einer allgemeinen Bild-
wissenschaft. Köln: Herbert von Halem Verlag.
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Halawa (Hg.), Glossar der Bildphilosophie. Retrieved from www.gib.uni-tuebingen.de/netzwerk/
glossar.
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Language. Studies in Communication Science, 7(2), 35-62.
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Hombach & J. R.J. Schirra (Eds.), Origins of Pictures. Anthropological Discourses in Image Sci-
ence (pp. 132-159). Köln: Herbert von Halem Verlag.
Stöckl, H. (2004). Die Sprache im Bild – Das Bild in der Sprache. Zur Verknüpfung von Sprache und Bild
im massenmedialen Text. Berlin / New York: de Gruyter.
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Welch, R.B. & Warren, D.H. (1980). Immediate perceptual response to inter-sensory discrepancy. Psy-
chol. Bull., 88, 638-667.

ART

In the Company
of Strangers
Avant-garde Music
and the Formation of Performance Art
ART
in Greece from the 1960s to the 1980s
Irene Gerogianni University of Ioannina i_gerogianni@hotmail.com
Abstract
For Greek artists working from the 1960s to the 1980s, the absence of modernist roots in
the visual arts within the country, either as signs of continuity or as signs of rupture, but
certainly as points of reference, provoked a feeling that performance artist Dimitris Alithi-
nos describes as the sense of the “adolescent who has never met his blood relatives.” For
this, performance art in Greece did not just stay within visual arts territory but also moved
into other spaces, such as experimental music. The latter, framed within the discourse of
the avant-garde, provided a context for a number of performance art practices in Greece
that coincided with the activity of the Association of Greek Contemporary Music and the
Contemporary Music Studio of the Goethe-Institut Athen. Around the central figure of the
architect and musicologist Yiannis Papaioannou, artists such as Gregory Semitecolo, Sta-
this Logothetis, Nikos Zoumboulis and Titsa Grekou collaborated with composers like The-
odoros Antoniou, Günther Becker, Anestis Logothetis and Jani Christou. However, as be-
comes evident through his critical writings, Papaioannou’s notion of the total work of art
was closer to “neo-pre- modernist” theories that traced the history of performance art to
ancient rituals, rather than the 1970s concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk, which aimed to
emphasise collaboration over authorship and performativity over Musikperformance. To il-
lustrate the difference between the two sets of ideas, the work of Thanasis Hondros and Al-
exandra Katsiani is introduced as an example of a performance art practice that sought to
break the barriers between the visual arts and music, through the corrosion of both forms.
Keywords Greek performance art , avant-garde music

F or Roselee Goldberg, the performance art historian, “performance was a permis-
sive medium that ignored traditional boundaries between disciplines –be they paint-
ing, sculpture, dance, music, or poetry– drawing for source material on past and pres-
ent” (Goldberg, 1980, p. 373). Goldberg, of course, is the author of the seminal perfor-
mance art history book Performance Art. From Futurism to the Present, written in
1978, which forms the first historiographical effort to document performative trends
in the visual arts as early as the turn of the century, finding traces in various Euro-
pean avant-gardes.
In Greece, however, the past that Goldberg refers to does not seem to identify with the
avant-garde, at least not within the Greek context. For Greek artists working from the
1960s to the 1980s, the absence of modernist roots in the visual arts within the coun-
try, either as signs of continuity or as signs of rupture, but certainly as points of refer-
ence, provoked a feeling that Greek performance artist Dimitris Alithinos describes as
the sense of the “adolescent who has never met his blood relatives” (Spiliadi, 1981). As
he says,
because of this peculiarity, Greek painters are de facto obliged to look at

their tradition in a comprehensive way. Forced to draw from poetry, mu-
sic, dance in order to create their language. […] I would say that because
of this oddity, the Greek painter is an “art composer” par excellence. […]
What will result from the synthesis of the arts, the new work, will speak,
will sing, will move in space, would be very much like what others call
“performance,” but the needs that have given birth to it are completely dif-
ferent (Spiliadi, 1981).
The truth in Alithinos’ comment is supported by the fact that performance art in Greece
did not stay within visual arts territory but moved into other spaces, such as experimen-
tal music.
What can also be derived from Alithinos’ quote is that the artist had been influenced
by the theories on the synthesis of the arts and of the total work of art (Gesamtkunst-
werk), which had started to be regularly employed within academic research in the ‘70s.
Of course, the Gesamtkunstwerk was not a new term, as it had been introduced in 1849
by Richard Wagner, in a programmatic position describing the artwork of the future. Far
beyond the proposition of collaboration between various arts, the term refers to a work
of art which would not result from a single artist but would be realised through the co-
operation of an artistic community (Wagner, 1849; 1850; 1852).
In Greece, the discussion around a “multi-artistic” vision coincided with the activi-
ty of the Greek Association for Contemporary Music and the Contemporary Music Stu-
dio of the Goethe Institute Athen, and around the central figure of architect and musicol-
ogist Yannis Papaioannou. Papaioannou studied music first and then architecture at the
National Technical University of Athens. In 1962 he co-founded, together with the com-
poser Günther Becker, the Laboratory of Contemporary Music of the Goethe Institute
Athen. Papaioannou was also the organiser of the Greek Weeks of Contemporary Music
that took place from 1966 to 1976. During these weeks, he had the opportunity to intro-
duce to the wider public the work of music composers such as John Cage, Jani Christou,
Greek-born Vienna-based Anestis Logothetis, and others.
According to art historian Eugenia Alexaki, who has studied Papaioannou’s work, the
latter was familiar with the idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk, as well as recent experiments
in avant-garde music (Alexaki, 2009, p. 58). As Alexaki underlines
Apart from his systematic preoccupation with the theory and history of
music and his special interest in avant-garde music, we find that he re-
alised in time the trends of new, experimental music in the area of mixed
art forms and from the mid 1960s he made a conscious and systemat-
ic effort to promote “multi-artistic works,” which was located in both his
writings and his initiatives for related events (Alexaki, 2009, p. 51-52).
Papaioannou introduced the term polytechno (multi-artistic) for any art form that contained
elements of another art, but he was particularly interested in the cooperation between mu-
sic and the visual arts, which is evidenced by his
close relationships in both fields, as well as his
systematic mediation between different parts,
that resulted in the numerous collaborations be-
tween visual artists and musicians.
One of the visual artists Papaioannou
worked with was Nikos Zouboulis. Their rela-
tionship began in 1972 when Zouboulis was still
a student in art school. At the time, Zouboulis
was looking for the music he was going to in-
vest his performance for his degree show with
and turned to Papaioannou, as he was consid-
ered to be a music connoisseur. The perfor-
mance piece –a reconciliation game, as the art-
ist calls it, between the industrial material and
movement– following Papaioannou’s sugges-
tion, found its score in the music of Stefanos Figure 1. Nikos Zouboulis, Happening, Doxiadis
School, Athens, 1972. Music by Stefanos Vasiliadis.
Vasiliadis [Fig. 1].
Papaioannou also recommended the artist to the composer Theodoros Antoniou,
founder of the Greek Contemporary Music Group. Their collaboration continued well af-
ter Zouboulis formed a duo with Titsa Grekou and they started producing performance

pieces together. In 1980, in their performance
Action-Reminiscence-Transpositions, which was
presented at the Desmos gallery in Athens, the
space was transformed into a theatre stage com-
plete with professional lighting and original mu-
sic by Antoniou [Fig. 2].
In 1982, Zouboulis and Grekou presented the
performance artwork Palindrome I as part of the
exhibition “Emerging Images” in the ICC (Interna-
tionaal Cultureel Centrum) in Antwerp. The artistic
duo brought outside inside, i.e., a building facade
inside the exhibition hall. During the performance,
an ancient column made of wood and white elas-
tic fabric was given life by Grekou, the performing
body of which gave the form of a relief or a Cary-
atid to the strict architectural element. The lighting
and excerpts from Günther Becker’s music Ferefo- Figure 2. Nikos Zouboulis and Titsa Grekou, Ac-
nia –a work recommended by Papaioannou– add- tion-Reminiscence-Transpositions, Desmos Art
ed to the theatrical atmosphere [Fig. 3]. Gallery, Athens, 1980. Music by Th. Antoniou.
Figure 3. Nikos Zouboulis and Titsa Grekou, Palindrome I, Internationaal Cultureel Centrum, Antwerp, 1982. Mu-
sic by Günther Becker.
The work was presented in variation, as Palindrome II, at the Goethe Institut Athen on
the twenty years’ celebration of the Laboratory of Contemporary Music, also in 1982.
Papaioannou’s collaboration with other artists would be realised through the events
of the Greek Association for Contemporary Music and especially the Greek Weeks of
Contemporary Music, which took place in 1966, 1967, 1968, 1971 and 1976. To get a
sense of the nature of these events it is important to have some background informa-
tion: in 1966, during the first Week, Papaioannou organised the exhibition “New Mu-
sic,” which exhibited, among others, the “polymorphic” scores of Anestis Logothetis; in
1967, during the second Week, works by Cage were presented, alongside the screen-
ing of a film about his work. In the second Week 2, the first experimental work of Jani
Christou was also presented. Papaioannou named Christou’s work “metamusic,” “be-
yond music, a synthesis of many arts, perceived by the receiver mainly through sight
and hearing” (Papaioannou, 1982). During the third Week, Christou’s Epicycle piece
was presented. The project involved choreographer Zouzou Nikoloudi’s dance group,
a film screening of paintings by Cosmas Xenakis –brother of Iannis Xenakis, and the
artist-performer Gregory Semitecolo.
Jani Christou’s collaboration with the paint-
er and performer Gregory Semitecolo would last
up until the composer’s death in 1970. Semiteco-
lo also participated as a performer in the proj-
ect Anaparastasis III - The Pianist, presented
in a world premiere at the Munich Academy of
Music in 1969 and for the first time in Greece at
the Hellenic American Union. During the perfor-
mance, Semitecolo, as the pianist, broke sever-
al of his vocal chords screaming unintelligibly,
citing archetypal forces to convince the piano to
accept him and bled caressing, threatening and
begging the glossy black volume and the white
keys (Maragou, 1993) [Fig. 4].
In 1975, beyond the context of the Weeks Figure 4. Jani Christou, Anaparastasis III - The Pi-
and in a space dedicated to the visual arts, Pa- anist Munich Academy of Music,1969. Performed
by Gregory Semitecolo.
paioannou curated the first collaboration of the
brothers Stathis and Anestis Logothetis, a painter and a composer respectively. The ex-
hibition, entitled “Correlations” was held at the Desmos art gallery from September 18th
to October 6th. The exhibition included records of the performances by Stathis Logothetis,
which had taken place in mid-September at Apollonion in Porto Rafti, a holiday resort in
the outskirts of Athens where the gallery owner kept residence. During the performanc-
es, Stathis Logothetis treated bed sheets with physical processes that meant to reflect

the passage of time, including their infusion into seawater, their rubbing against rocks
and soil, and their drying out by direct sunlight. The abused sheets were then spread to
the area around the art dealer’s house. The whole performance was invested with the
music of Anestis Logothetis. Papaioannou signed the exhibition catalogue text [Fig. 5].
Figure 5. Stathis Logothetis, Correla-

tions, Apollonio, Porto Rafti, 1975. Music
by Anestis Logothetis.
Stathis Logothetis was no stranger to music, as he had given up his studies in Medi-
cine to receive his musical training. He had received a diploma in the violin from the State
Conservatory of Thessaloniki in 1952 and continued his studies at the Music Academy of
Vienna from 1952 to 1953. From 1954 he turned to painting. In his mature work, Logo-
thetis abandoned the conventional use of the canvas, producing structures from cheap
materials, on which he was working to reveal the ravage of time. Notably, his composer
brother, Anestis Logothetis, was no stranger to performance art either, as he had pre-
viously worked with the Viennese aktionists, such as Otto Mühl in 1960, for whom he
wrote KATARAKT, while in 1961, he invested Hermann Nietsch’s work Aktion Perinet-
gasse with his music MEDITATION.
To return to Yannis Papaioannou, what is notable is that, in his manifesto-essay under
the title “Sound, Light, Color. The multiartistic composition of sound and visual processes
in today’s Greece,” the architect and musicologist also refers to the work of Dimitris Alithi-
nos, with whom, however, he never had the chance to collaborate (Papaioannou, 1982).
Which brings us back to Alithinos and his quotation on family ties and the company of
strangers. What becomes evident here is that the artist, as mentioned above, did not seek
a connection to an old tradition, as many would assume, but a recent activity that would
have provided a context for his work. When he refers to reaching out to “what is not silent,
has not stopped” in his country, he is clearly making a reference to music, theatre, poetry
of the early years of the dictatorship when the visual arts had responded to the new po-
litical scene with silence. It is possible that Alithinos had been influenced by Papaioannou
and his theories on the synthesis of the arts. But it is even more clear that his quest for
contextual elements of his work takes place in areas outside of the visual arts.
However, it should be said that the interpretative thread that runs through Papaioan-
nou’s work on the synthesis of the arts and the various experimentations towards a to-
tal work of art in the 1960s and 70s, is significant but limited. As Alexaki writes, Papa-
ioannou did call for multiartistic work that was not to be exclusively received in tradi-
tional spaces –museums, galleries, concert halls–, but one to be transferred to the pub-
lic space, through a discourse that did not put forward a politically subversive message
(Alexaki, 2009, p. 60; Papaioannou, 1970; 1974). Alexaki’s observation is confirmed by
the basic position of Papaioannou’s theory, repeated throughout his essays and speech-
es, that the origin of modern “multiartistic” work lies in primitive rituals. As he writes, “in
all cultures of the past, starting from the primitive ones, where rituals combined many
forms of art and other events and moving on to the great civilizations such as the one of
ancient Greece or China or India or Egypt and more recent ones, we always we find a col-
laboration of the arts playing a much greater role than absolute art,” and he argues that
this collaboration is lost in the 19th century (Alexaki, 2009, p. 60).
My concern with Papaioannou’s theory, but also with the way it is interpreted by Al-
exaki, is not limited to practical observations, such as that music takes a privileged po-
sition in the majority of the works presented in the events organised by the Greek Asso-
ciation for Contemporary Music, with visual artists, like Semitecolo, performing, rather
than authoring, the work. Neither to the fact that no women –apart from Grekou– were
admitted to this all-man club (and she was, through her relationship with Zouboulis).
In fact, my main skepticism arises from both Papaioannou and Alexakis’s percep-
tion of the concept of the political in relation to the works and the theories that envelop
them. Specifically speaking, although Papaioannou analyses the possibility of ‘multiar-
tistic’ practice as one to exercise institutional critique, both he and Alexaki refuse to rec-
ognise the work’s political status, denying, rather, to recognise institutional critique as a
political position. Alexaki, who studies the theoretical basis of Papaioannou’s activity, re-
fuses to examine critically the depoliticisation of synthetic art by the latter and, therefore,
never proceeds to the analysis of the theory of artistic composition, as articulated both in
Greece and abroad, as a political trend, either conservative or progressive.
For example, performance art historian Henry Sayre refers to the old and the new
Gesamtkunstwerk, while linking the old one with the Wagnerian conception of art as un-
divided and the new one as the coexistence of different arts. Sayre sites Bertolt Brecht
and his opinion for the old total work of art (Gesamtkunstwerk), according to which
So long as the expression Gesamtkunstwerk (or “integrated work of art”)

means that the integration is a muddle, so long as the arts are supposed to
be “fused” together, the various elements will all be equally degraded, and

each will act as a mere “feed” to the rest. The process of fusion extends to the
spectator who gets thrown into the melting pot too and becomes a passive
(suffering) part of the total work of art, witch-craft of this sort must of course
be fought against… Words, music and setting must become more independent
of one another (Sayre, 1989, p. 108).
According to Sayre, therefore, the cooperation of artists from different fields should
stand contrary to the passivity of the viewer through the new Gesamtkunstwerk, in which
the arts coexist in the same time and location, but are independent of one another. For
Sayre, “[t]he new Gesamtkunstwerk is above all a place for difference,” while the partner-
ship model he proposes underlines difference through cooperation (Sayre, 1989, p. 109).
For this, I consider important the different example of cooperation proposed by Tha-
nassis Hondros and Alexandra Katsiani. Their first performance work, titled the First
Contact, was presented on January 3rd, 1981 in the studios of Nikos Papazoglou in Thes-
saloniki. During the performance, the duo accompanied by two more performers, played
music, even though they did not know how, as they had never taken any lessons in the
musical instruments used – the piano, the guitar, drums, and keyboards. Given that the
performance took place in a professional music production space, the work was validat-
ed as a music project, at the same time that it was canceled out by the cacophony. The
audience was given a short text, which stated: “This is the first time we have touched mu-
sical instruments and the birth of the sounds is not based on memories and skills. The
process is as important as the result” (Hondros & Katsiani, 2013, p. 49) [Fig. 6].
Figure 6. Thanassis Hondros and Alexandra Katsiani, First Contact, in Nikos Papazoglou studio, Thessaloniki,
In 1984, Hondros and Katsiani, along with Ntinos Tragopoulos, formed a musical
group named “Civil Service Penthouse.” As all three of them worked for the state, the
first two as teachers and the Tragopoulos as a civil engineer, they sarcastically named
their group after two negatively charged words for Greece of the 1980s. The group was
active in various ways until 2006, mainly through musical performances in the public
space and the release of cassette and vinyl recordings, as well as CDs. Of the three, only
Tragopoulos was a self-taught musician, while Hondros and Katsiani, in their own words,
“never learned how to play an instrument, even though they played most of them.”
In January 1986, “Civil Service Penthouse” presented the performance The City Re-
sembles Language, at the School of Engineering of the Aristotle University of Thessa-
loniki. During the performance, Hondros played the guitar while wearing boxing gloves.
Tragopoulos was playing the guitar while Katsiani played drums, by throwing nuts on
them. Then she typed a text on the city and its similarities to language, which she deliv-
ered with a megaphone as Tragopoulos continued to play the guitar. In the performance
The City Resembles Language, the Civil Service Penthouse was able to escape the cliché
question whether its members knew how to play music, which had dominated their oth-
er works, since, “it is impossible to play the guitar while wearing boxing gloves or the
drums by throwing nuts” in the first place (Drygiannakis, 1994). This way, the attention
was focused on the work of art, where the production of music was used as a means,
but not as an end in itself [Fig. 7].
Figure 7. Civil Service Penthouse, The City Resembles Language,

School of Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 1986.

To conclude, Hondros and Katsiani’s relationship to music was evidently not the re-
sult of their intention of a synthesis of the arts. The aesthetic and sound they incidental-
ly produce were of secondary importance in the performative act itself. Rather than be-
ing close to Papaioannou’s notion of the total work of art, traced to ancient rituals, Hon-
dros and Katsiani’s work aimed to emphasise collaboration and performativity over au-
thorship and genius. Their work is one of the very few examples of a Greek performance
art practice that sought to break the barriers between the visual arts and music, through
the corrosion of both forms.
References
Alexaki, E. (2009). Μεταπολεμικές αναζητήσεις σύνθεσης των τεχνών και πειραματισμοί για ένα καθο-
λικό έργο τέχνης. Η πρόσληψη και η προβολή τους στην Ελλάδα κατά τις δεκαετίες 1960 & 1970.
Ο ρόλος του Γιάννη Γ. Παπαϊωάννου [Postwar explorations concerning the synthesis of the arts
and experimentations on a total work of art (Gesamtkunstwerk). Their perception and projection
in Greece in the 1960s and the 1970s. The role of Giannis G. Papaioannou]. In Η Τέχνη του 20ού
αιώνα: Ιστορία, Θεωρία, Εμπειρία. Πρακτικά Γ’ Συνεδρίου Ιστορίας της Τέχνης (pp. 47-62). Thessa-
loniki: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
Drygiannakis, Κ. (1994). Δημοσιοϋπαλληλικό ρετιρέ. Ψηλαφίζοντας το παρελθόν [Civil service pent-
house. Tracing the past]. [Web log post]. Retrieved from https://dimretire.wordpress.com/
apopseis/.
Goldberg, R. (1980). Performance: Art for All? Art Journal, 40(1/2), 369-376.
Hondros, Th. & Katsiani, A. (2013). Καλέ, τι κάνουν αυτοί; (Εμπειρίες από Εικαστικές Δράσεις και
μερικές σκέψεις) [Hey, what are they doing? Experiences from Visual Arts Actions and some
thoughts]. In A. Avgitidou & I. Vamvakidou (Eds.), Performance Now V. 1: Επιτελεστικές πρακτικές
στην τέχνη και δράσεις in situ (pp. 47-69). Athens: Ion Publishing.
Maragou, M. (1993). Γρηγόρης Σεμιτέκολο [Gregory Semitecolo], exh.cat. Athens: Nees Morfes Gallery.
Papaioannou, Y. (1970). Αφιέρωμα στο Γιάννη Χρήστου [Tribute to Janni Christou]. Χρονικό ‘70, 107-
119
Papaioannou, Y. (1974). Σκέψεις για μια Αναπτυξιακή Πολιτική στον Τομέα της Μουσικής στην Ελλάδα
[Thoughts on the Development Policy in the Field of Music in Greece]. Χρονικό ‘74, 270-279.
Papaioannou, Y. (1982). Ήχος, Φως, Χρώμα. Η πολύτεχνη σύνθεση ηχητικών και οπτικών διεργασιών
στη σημερινή Ελλάδα [Sound, Light, Colour. The multiartistic synthesis of sound and visual pro-
cesses in today’s Greece]. Χάρτης, 1.
Sayre, H. (1989). The Object of Performance. The American Avant-Garde since 1970. Chicago: The Uni-
versity of Chicago Press.
Spiliadi, V. (1981, February 1). Ο Έλληνας ζωγράφος είναι συνθέτης τέχνης [The Greek painter is an art
composer]. Ελευθεροτυπία [Eleftherotypia].
Wagner, R. (1849). Die Kunst und die Revolution. Leipzig: Otto Wigand Verlag.
Wagner, R. (1850). Das Kunstwerk der Zukunft. Leipzig: Otto Wigand Verlag.
Wagner, R (1852). Oper und Drama. Leipzig: Verlagsbuchhandlung J. J. Weber.
Από το ρητό προς το άρρητο
και από το ορατό
προς το πολλαπλά αισθητό
νέοι τρόποι θεατρικής έκφρασης
ART
στη νεοελληνική δραματουργία
Μαρία Δημάκη-Ζώρα Εθνικo και Καποδιστριακo Πανεπιστhμιο Αθηνων

mzora@primedu.uoa.gr
Περίληψη
Οι μορφές του μετα-δραματικού κειμένου και η προτεραιότητα των αισθήσεων έναντι του
κειμενικά εγγεγραμμένου λόγου και της εκφοράς του από τους ηθοποιούς, πυκνώνουν
τα τελευταία χρόνια δημιουργώντας μια νέα πραγματικότητα στη δραματουργία και
το θέατρο. Τα ευδιάκριτα μορφολογικά και δομικά στοιχεία του δραματικού κειμένου
παραχωρούν τη θέση τους σε έργα όπου κυριαρχεί η απροσδιοριστία και ο λόγος
«αναβαπτίζεται» μέσω της ίδιας της υλικότητας των λέξεων και της σωματικότητας
της επικοινωνίας. Έργα συγγραφέων όπως ο Βασίλης Βασικεχαγιόγλου, ο Δημήτρης
Δημητριάδης, ο Μάριος Ποντίκας, ο Γιώργος Βέλτσος, ο Άκης Δήμου, η Έλενα Πέγκα
κ.ά., διερευνούν τις αντοχές του λόγου ως ενδιάθετης νοητικής ικανότητας αλλά και ως
έναρθρης ομιλίας, υποκαθιστούν την πραξιακή δράση που απευθύνεται στην όραση
με τη γλωσσική δράση και αναδεικνύουν την «υλικότητα» του λόγου, ενισχύοντας
την αίσθηση του διαρκώς ατελούς και διαμορφώνοντας ένα σύνθετο επικοινωνιακό
γεγονός με πολυ-αισθητηριακές και πολυτροπικές διαδράσεις.
νεοελληνική δραματουργία , μεταδραματικό θέατρο

Στοιχεία για το μετα-δραματικό θέατρο
Το θεατρικό γεγονός, ως πολυσημειακό σύστημα επικοινωνίας, απευθύνεται στο σύνολο
σχεδόν των αισθήσεων του θεατή, αφού εμπεριέχει (α) τον γραπτό λόγο, δηλαδή τον εκ-
φωνούμενο λόγο του κειμένου, (β) τον οπτικό, δηλαδή τον λόγο της εικόνας, και (γ) τον
ακουστικό, δηλαδή τον λόγο του ήχου (Θωμαδάκη, 1993, σελ. 11). Χρησιμοποιεί, ταυτό-
χρονα και σε πολλαπλούς συνδυασμούς, διαφορετικούς κώδικες, αφού συναντώνται εδώ
τα ακουστικά με τα οπτικά σημεία, ενώ δυνητικά θα μπορούσαν να υπάρχουν ακόμη και
οσφρητικά και απτικά σημεία (Τσατσούλης, 1999, σελ. 26).
Στο πλαίσιο του μεταδραματικού θεάτρου, η παραδοσιακή ιεραρχία των παραμέτρων
του πολυδιάστατου καλλιτεχνικού δημιουργήματος που είναι το θέατρο, έχει μεταβληθεί
κυρίως ως προς το ότι το δραματικό κείμενο δεν θεωρείται πλέον ότι κατέχει δεσπόζου-
σα θέση. Τα υπόλοιπα στοιχεία, όπως ο σκηνικός χώρος, ο φωτισμός, ο ήχος, η μουσική,
η κίνηση, η σκηνογραφία και τα σκηνικά αντικείμενα, τείνουν να λάβουν ίσο βάρος στη δι-
αδικασία της δημιουργίας μιας παράστασης και της πρόσληψής της από το κοινό. Η δια-
πίστωση αυτή οδήγησε στην αναζήτηση εκ μέρους των δραματουργών και των καλλιτε-
χνών, νέων δραματουργικών μορφών και νέων σκηνοθετικών πρακτικών, υπό μια οπτι-
κή που δεν ενισχύει πλέον την υποταγή όλων των στοιχείων σε ένα (κυρίως στη γλώσ-
σα), αλλά προωθεί την τήρηση μιας δυναμικής ισορροπίας που πρέπει να διαμορφωθεί εκ
νέου κατά την παράσταση (Lehmann & Primavesi, 2009, σελ. 3-6) και να ενισχύσει τους
μηχανισμούς επικοινωνίας του σκηνικού θεάματος με το θεατρικό κοινό.
Τα τελευταία χρόνια δημιουργήθηκε μια νέα πραγματικότητα στη δραματουργία αλλά
και το θέατρο γενικότερα, που παρήγαγε θεατρικά κείμενα με μετα-δραματικά στοιχεία
και έδωσε προτεραιότητα στην πολυαισθητηριακή πρόσληψη της παράστασης έναντι της
απλής αποκωδικοποίησης των λεκτικών σημείων του κειμενικά εγγεγραμμένου λόγου,
μέσω της εκφοράς του από τους ηθοποιούς. Τα ευδιάκριτα μορφολογικά και δομικά στοι-
χεία του δραματικού κειμένου παραχωρούν πλέον τη θέση τους σε έργα όπου κυριαρ-
χεί η απροσδιοριστία και ο λόγος «αναβαπτίζεται» μέσω της ίδιας της υλικότητας των λέ-
ξεων και της σωματικότητας της επικοινωνίας. Τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες του 20ού και τις
πρώτες του 21ου αιώνα, η αμφισβήτηση της παντοκρατορίας του γραπτού λόγου, δηλαδή
του κειμένου, έχει αναδείξει την εικόνα ως κυρίαρχο στοιχείο της θεατρικής επικοινωνί-
ας, ως «βασικό εργαλείο μιας ασυνεχούς κατασκευής» (Τσατσούλης, 2006, σελ. 111-2),
ενός ατελείωτου παιχνιδιού αναπαραστάσεων, ατελών αποτυπώσεων και κατακερματι-
σμών (Patsalidis, 2014, σελ. 100-107).
Όπως το έθεσε ο Valère Novarina, για ένα μέρος του σύγχρονου θεάτρου, «αυτό που
δεν μπορούμε να πούμε, αυτό είναι που πρέπει να ειπωθεί» (Mounsef & Féral, 2007,
σελ. 1) και η επιθυμία για το ανείπωτο και το άρρητο οδηγεί τους νέους συγγραφείς στον
πειραματισμό και στη διερεύνηση των δυνατοτήτων της γλώσσας που αξιοποιείται στο
έπακρο, όχι όμως τόσο για να αποδώσει την ψυχοσύνθεση των δραματικών προσώπων
και να αναπαραστήσει το πλαίσιο των οικονομικών, κοινωνικών και πολιτικών συνθηκών,
όσο για να δίνει «σάρκα και οστά» στο κείμενο καθ’ εαυτό, το οποίο υπάρχει προς χάριν
της θεατρικότητάς του, πάνω στη σκηνή και διαμέσου του σώματος και της φωνής των
ηθοποιών (Ryngaert, 2007, σελ. 14-28), διαμέσου δηλαδή των αισθήσεων και όχι μόνο
του λόγου.
Ενδεικτικά είναι όσα γράφει ο Γιώργος Βέλτσος, σχετικά με το έργο του Αυτοκρατο-
ρία: «Την είδα πρώτα μέσα στους χρόνους των ρημάτων, δηλαδή μέσα από την ακριβολό-
γο ιδιότητα της γραμματικής, που διατυπώνει στα ρήματα, στις εγκλίσεις τους και τις φω-
νές, όλη την παλλόμενη αγωνία ενός σώματος, όταν υποφέρει το τέλος του χρόνου, και,
επειδή μιλά, γερνά αναζωογονούμενο. Μη έχοντας δική μου γλώσσα άλλη παρά των με-
γάλων δραματουργών, προβλέποντας το αδιέξοδο λόγω της γραφής των άλλων, αναγνω-
ρίζοντας συγχρόνως στην ποίηση τη διαβατήρια συνθήκη προς το θέατρο, γνωρίζοντας
επίσης, πως και η συνθήκη αυτή δεν είναι ικανή για να φανεί το θεατρικό έργο στη σκηνή,
έγραψα την Αυτοκρατορία μέσα στον κυκεώνα του να γράφεις ό,τι δεν μπορείς να γράψεις
και παρά ταύτα, να το επιτελείς» (Βέλτσος, 2014, σελ. 83).
Όψεις του μεταδραματικού στην ελληνική δραματουργία

Μιλώντας ειδικότερα για τη νεοελληνική δραματουργία, οφείλουμε να παρατηρήσουμε
πως η ρεαλιστική γραφή και η νεοηθογραφική ματιά στην αναπαράσταση της κοινωνι-
κής πραγματικότητας, παραμένει ανιχνεύσιμη παράμετρος της σύγχρονης ελληνικής θε-
ατρικής γραφής μέχρι και σήμερα (Γραμματάς, 2006, σελ. 175-225). Ωστόσο, ακόμη κι αν
οι δομές του χώρου και του χρόνου παραμένουν σε ρεαλιστικό πλαίσιο, ο συγκερασμός
τους με δεδομένα μιας σύγχρονης θεματικής και αισθητικής αντίληψης, προσδίδει στα έρ-
γα μια ανανεωμένη μορφή. Οι «χαραμάδες» της υποκειμενικότητας, που είχαν ανοίξει, στο
τοπίο του ηθογραφικού ρεαλισμού, ήδη από τα πρώτα χρόνια του μεταπολεμικού θεά-
τρου (Χατζηπανταζής, 2014, σελ. 540), έχουν σήμερα διευρυνθεί ακόμη περισσότερο, μέ-
σα από τη διαδρομή πολυάριθμων έργων και δεκάδων συγγραφέων, και έχουν εμπλουτί-
σει τον εγχώριο ρεαλισμό με μια διαφορετική αισθητική.
Θεματολογικά, οι νεότεροι θεατρικοί συγγραφείς της εποχής μετά τη νεοτερικότητα
(Λεία Βιτάλη, Δημήτρης Δημητριάδης, Άκης Δήµου, Μαρία Ευσταθιάδη, Βασίλης Κατσι-
κονούρης, Παναγιώτης Μέντης, Έλενα Πέγκα, Θανάσης Τριαρίδης, Ανδρέας Φλουράκης,
Χρύσα Σπηλιώτη και πολλοί άλλοι) φαίνεται πως όλο και περισσότερο επιδιώκουν να απο-
μακρυνθούν από την εστίαση στα «καθ’ ηµάς», να σημάνουν με τα έργα τους μια τελεί-
ως διαφορετική πραγματικότητα που αρνείται να προσαρμοστεί σε προδιαγεγραμμένα και
ελεγχόμενα όρια, επιλέγοντας έτσι να πραγματευθούν θέματα πολύ διαφορετικά από εκεί-
να των προηγούμενων γενεών και κυρίως επιλέγοντας να εκφραστούν μέσα από αισθη-
τικές φόρμες πολύ πιο ελεύθερες (Μαυρομούστακος, 2005, σελ. 109-118, 134-138, 152-
158, Γραμματάς, 2006, σελ. 175-225).
Οι αναζητήσεις πλέον εκφεύγουν από το συγκεκριμένο, το τοπικό, το ιστορικό και το

συλλογικό και εκτείνονται προς το ρευστό, το μη αυστηρά καθορισμένο, το παγκοσμιο-
ποιημένο, το διαφορετικό, το πολυπολιτισμικό και προς την αναζήτηση και την παρακο-
λούθηση της ευρωπαϊκής και παγκόσμιας θεατρικής πραγματικότητας (Πατσαλίδης, 2012,
Patsalidis, 2014). Ακόμη και αν, όπως έχει παρατηρηθεί, το νεοελληνικό θέατρο άργησε
να αποδεσμευθεί από την προσκόλλησή του στην αναζήτηση της «ελληνικότητας» (Fre-
ris, 2014, σελ. 108-112), ωστόσο φαίνεται ότι πλέον βρίσκεται σε μια φάση επαναπροσ-
διορισμού και συμπορεύεται, σε αρκετά σημεία, με αναζητήσεις και πειραματισμούς που
απασχολούν τη διεθνή θεατρική κοινότητα. Με αυτή την απομάκρυνση από τις παραδοσι-
ακές θεματικές αλλά και με τον προβληματισμό για την αναζήτηση μιας νέας αισθητικής,
οι σύγχρονοι δραματουργοί συγκροτούν μια καινούργια εκφραστική αντίληψη που ενσω-
ματώνει στοιχεία μεταδραματικής γραφής.
Ως στοιχεία ενός «μεταδραματικού» θεάτρου (Lehmann, 2006) θα μπορούσαν να επι-
σημανθούν, μεταξύ άλλων: η ελλειπτικότητα και σπασμωδικότητα του λόγου, η αμφισημία
που αποτελεί και στοιχείο ποιητικού λόγου, ο κατακερματισμός της δράσης και η ασυνέ-
χεια στην αλληλουχία της αφήγησης, το κολάζ λέξεων και φράσεων, η απουσία ή ο κερ-
ματισμός των δραματικών προσώπων και η αντικατάστασή τους από ομιλούσες φωνές
(Sugiera, 2004, σελ. 6-28, Arseniou, 2005, σελ. 80-92, Mounsef & Féral, 2007, σελ. 1-6,
Patsalidis, 2014).
Οφείλουμε να παρατηρήσουμε ότι η ώθηση προς τη διαδικασία ανανέωσης της θεατρι-
κής γραφής δεν μπορεί να αποσυνδεθεί από την αναστροφή με την ίδια τη θεατρική πρά-
ξη, όπου η δημιουργική παρέμβαση σημαντικών σκηνοθετών στο δραματικό κείμενο με-
ταθέτει την εστίαση από το ίδιο το κείμενο προς τη λογική και τη συνέπεια της εκάστο-
τε σκηνοθετικής εκφώνησης, που αξιοποιεί τη συλλειτουργία όλων των παραστασιακών
κωδίκων και διαμορφώνει μια πολυαισθητηριακή συνθήκη επικοινωνίας της σκηνής με
την πλατεία. Ενδεικτικό παράδειγμα η σκηνοθετική άποψη του Θ. Τερζόπουλου, «στις πα-
ραστάσεις [του οποίου], σταδιακά, μειώνεται η ποσότητα του λόγου ο οποίος υποκαθίστα-
ται από ελάχιστες λεκτικές μονάδες, συχνά επαναλαμβανόμενες και διαφοροποιούμενες
τονικά. Λέξεις που λειτουργούν ως συμπυκνωμένα νοήματα διεπόμενα από μιαν έντονη
μουσικότητα, σε βαθμό τέτοιον ώστε να φθάνουν να απεκδύονται τις πραγματικές σημα-
σίες τους και να αναβαπτίζονται σημασιακά στην ηχητική ενέργεια που παράγουν» (Τσα-
τσούλης, 2013, σελ. 246).
Εάν μελετήσουμε ένα τμήμα της σύγχρονης δραματουργίας μας υπό το πρίσμα των
αρχών της Γλώσσας, όπως τις είχε διατυπώσει ο F. De Saussure, θα δούμε ότι οι συγγρα-
φείς όλο και περισσότερο διερευνούν το σημαίνον στη γλώσσα του θεατρικού έργου ακρι-
βώς όπως το είχε ορίσει ο ίδιος, όχι δηλαδή ως έναν φυσικό ήχο μόνο αλλά ως το ψυχικό
αποτύπωμά του, μια αναπαράστασή του από τις αισθήσεις μας (Saussure, 1979, σελ. 99-
104, Λαγόπουλος & Boklund-Λαγοπούλου, 2016, σελ. 47). Ο εγγεγραμμένος κειμενικά
λόγος των θεατρικών προσώπων/χαρακτήρων εμπεριέχει άναρθρες κραυγές, επιφωνή-
ματα ή επίμονες επαναλήψεις λέξεων που προσλαμβάνονται ως ακουστικά κυρίως ερεθί-
σματα από το κοινό και, σταδιακά, μεταλλάσσονται σε φαινόμενα σημασίας, μέσα στο ευ-
ρύτερο πλαίσιο του έργου. Τα σημεία αυτά επιδιώκεται να προσληφθούν σε επίπεδο κι-
ναισθητικής αντίδρασης, έτσι ώστε να δημιουργηθεί μια σχεδόν σωματοποιημένη σχέση
του κοινού με τα επί σκηνής εκφωνούμενα (Τσατσούλης, 1999, σελ. 40).
Η ιδιαίτερη βαρύτητα που αποδίδεται στην υλική φύση του δραματικού λόγου ως εκ-
φωνήματος, τονίζεται ιδιαίτερα από δραματουργούς όπως ο Γιώργος Βέλτσος, που προ-
αναφέρθηκε, ή ο Βασίλης Βασικεχαγιόγλου, που γράφει στον πρόλογο του έργου του Κα-
νών ήδη από το 1994: «Ο Κανών προσαρμόσθηκε για το θέατρο. Με γνώμονα ότι το υλικό
ήταν στο κάτω κάτω ο Λόγος, κι επομένως τόσο κομμάτια όσο και συμπαγής, τόσο κινητι-
κός όσο και ακίνητος (κάτι σαν τους αρχαίους θεούς) ανέβηκε από τον θίασο Άττις του Θε-
όδωρου Τερζόπουλου […] οι ηθοποιοί με ερέθισαν να κάνω κι ορισμένα καινούργια κομ-
μάτια (που τα συν-άρμοσα) φωνητικά, κάτι σαν μοτέτα, ίσα ίσα για να ’χω την ευχαρίστη-
ση, εγώ, ο ακροατής, ν’ ακούω να μπαινοβγαίνει ο ένας μέσα στον άλλον (αυτή η γενετή-
σια κίνηση ήταν κι η σταθερή κατεύθυνση του έργου)» (Βασικεχαγιόγλου, 1994, σελ. 3).
Ο διάλογος των δύο προσώπων είναι εκτυπωμένος έτσι ώστε και τυπογραφικά να δηλώ-
νεται ότι πρέπει να συν-εκφωνείται, προσδίδοντας με αυτό τον τρόπο επιπλέον σημαινό-
μενα στην ηχητική εκφορά του λόγου.
Σχετικά με τον Δημήτρη Δημητριάδη και τη θεατρική του παραγωγή, έχει επισημανθεί
ότι η χρήση του ποιητικού λόγου αποκτά στα έργα του την πρωτοκαθεδρία σε σύγκριση με
το παραδοσιακό ή ρεαλιστικό θέατρο (Κονδυλάκη, 2015), για το οποίο ο ίδιος ο συγγραφέ-
ας έχει γράψει: «το είδος του θεάτρου που αποκαλούμε “ρεαλιστικό”, “τής καθημερινότη-
τας” ή “της κοινωνικής και πολιτικής κριτικής”, […] μίας ασφυκτικά περιορισμένης αισθητι-
κής που εν πολλοίς αντέγραφε την πραγματικότητα μεταφέροντάς την αυτούσια, αμετου-
σίωτη, επί σκηνής» (Δημητριάδης, 2013). Ο Δημητριάδης, όπως και άλλοι συγγραφείς των
τελευταίων ετών, δίνουν ιδιαίτερη σημασία στην ποιητικότητα του λόγου και τον ρόλο των
μεταφορικών μορφών(για τον όρο βλ. Greimas, 2005, σελ. 239-242) και φαίνεται πως αντι-
μετωπίζουν το πεδίο της εκφώνησης (énonciation), του ίδιου του κειμενικού λόγου, ανα-
πόσπαστo από τη γλωσσική πράξη (actedelangage) (Λαγόπουλος & Boklund-Λαγοπούλου,
2016, σελ. 108-111). Έτσι ο λόγος καθίσταται πράξη σκηνική και η εκφώνησή του από τον/
την ηθοποιό αποκτά την υπόσταση της «δράσης» πάνω στο θεατρικό σανίδι, αφού ακρι-
βώς «αυτή η κοινωνική, διαπροσωπική, εκτελεστική δύναμη της γλώσσας, το πραγματικό
“ενεργείν μέσω λέξεων”, είναι που κυριαρχεί στο δράμα» (Elam, 2001, σελ. 188-189).
Στο πρόσφατο έργο Χλιμίντρισμα του Μάριου Ποντίκα (2015), ένα σκηνικό τρίπτυχο
όπου η αποσπασματική, ενδοσκοπική και μεταδραματική γραφή είναι κυρίαρχη (Ποντί-
κας, 2015, σελ. 13), η Κασσάνδρα απευθυνόμενη προς τον Απόλλωνα αμφισβητεί και
αναιρεί τη δύναμη του μαντικού λόγου που κατέχει ως θεϊκό δώρο: «Απόλλωνα δεν τις
θέλω τις λέξεις σου / Άναρθρος λόγος ν’ ακουστεί / Οι λέξεις που μου έδωσες παγίδα /
Δεν τις χρειάζομαι και τις καταφρονώ / Άναρθρος, άρρητος λόγος ν’ ακουστεί» (Ποντίκας,
2015, σελ. 35). Το πρώτο μέρος κλείνει ακριβώς με τις άναρθρες κραυγές της Κασσάν-

δρας, η οποία, όπως το διατυπώνει μία από τις Ερινύες, η Αληκτώ, «ήχους φρικτούς αντί
λόγων και σπαραγμούς θα εκβράζει», αναδεικνύοντας έτσι την αδυναμία του λόγου, ως
έναρθρης ομιλίας, να αποδώσει νοήματα και να εμπεδώσει την επικοινωνία μεταξύ των
ανθρώπινων όντων. Στο δεύτερο μέρος, ο Κένταυρος Χ(ε)ίρων, ακρωτηριασμένος και μι-
σός πλέον, αφού το αλογίσιο μέρος του εαυτού του αποσπάστηκε και έφυγε αηδιασμένο
(«βαρέθηκε το άλογο, σιχάθηκε την ανθρωπίλα») επιθυμεί να αποδράσει από την ανθρώ-
πινη πραγματικότητα «μ’ έναν κλαυσίγελω, άηχο» και να καταφύγει «στα άδυτα δώματα
της σιωπής». Το έργο ολοκληρώνεται όταν πλέον ο Χ(ε)ίρων κατορθώνει να αποδεσμευ-
τεί για πάντα από την κυριαρχία των λέξεων και, κατ’ επέκταση, του λόγου, βγάζοντας μια
άναρθρη κραυγή παρόμοια με αυτή της Κασσάνδρας, και πλέον, όπως σημειώνει ο συγ-
γραφέας, «ο Κένταυρος Χ(ε)ίρων εισέρχεται στον άναρθρο λόγο της Κασσάνδρας, μέχρι
η γλώσσα του να αποκοπεί. Έγινε η Κασσάνδρα» (Ποντίκας, 2015, σελ. 73). Ο λόγος είναι
εδώ ο κατεξοχήν εχθρός του ανθρώπου, ως έναρθρη ομιλία αλλά και ως ενδιάθετη νοη-
τική ικανότητα που βαυκαλίζει τον αιωνίως βασανιζόμενο άνθρωπο με ψεύτικες ελπίδες.
Το έργο ολοκληρώνεται με την απόλυτη ήττα του λόγου, στον οποίο αρνείται κάθε δύνα-
μη επικοινωνίας και, συνεπώς, και την πρωτοκαθεδρία του ως στοιχείου της θεατρικής
επικοινωνίας. Ενδεικτικές είναι οι «αναγκαίες επισημάνσεις» του συγγραφέα που επιτάσ-
σονται του έργου και αφορούν στις πιθανές σκηνικές εικονοποιήσεις του έργου του: «λό-
γος άναρθρος και έναρθρος, ψιθυριστός πολλές φορές, μυγμοί, κραυγές, λυγμικά κλάμα-
τα, σκουξίματα συνιστούν μια συμφωνία ήχων (…) Η “σκηνική” μουσική του Γιάννη Χρή-
στου εκφράζει απολύτως την εκ των ων ουκ άνευ νοηματική και ηχητική ουσία αυτού του
κειμένου» (Ποντίκας, 2015, σελ. 73).Η μουσική και ο ήχος αναδεικνύονται σε στοιχεία εκ
των ων ουκ άνευ,όπως τα χαρακτηρίζει με έμφαση ο ίδιος ο δραματουργός, διευρύνο-
ντας πολύ τη λειτουργία τους μέσα στο έργο από την απλή πλαισίωση της δράσης.
Μουσικά σημεία
Η μουσική και ο ήχος γενικότερα, ως ακουστικά σημεία της παράστασης προσδίδουν συ-
νήθως ιδιαίτερη σημασία στα επί σκηνής δρώμενα, λειτουργώντας συμπληρωματικά ή
και αντιθετικά προς τα άλλα σημεία (Τσατσούλης, 1999, σελ. 36). Σε πολλά σύγχρονα έρ-
γα όμως, υπό την επίδραση και των γενικότερων τάσεων της διεθνούς θεατρικής πραγ-
ματικότητας, τα μουσικά και ηχητικά σημαίνοντα δεν δηλώνουν απλώς σημαινόμενα, αλ-
λά αποτελούν αυτά τα ίδια, μέσω της υλικότητάς τους, στοιχεία της σκηνικής δράσης που
συμβάλλουν στη διαμόρφωση του συνολικού μηνύματος, είτε με τη μορφή της εκφώνη-
σης είτε με τη μορφή της μουσικής ή απλώς με τη μορφή κάποιου θορύβου που προέρ-
χεται από τη σκηνή (Ovadija, 2013, σελ. 3). Γράφοντας για το μεταδραματικό θέατρο, ο
Hans-Thies Lehmann κάνει ιδιαίτερη μνεία στη μουσική και στην ανάπτυξη μιας «ακου-
στικής σημειωτικής» (auditory semiotics) σε σύγχρονες παραστάσεις, όπου η χρήση ηχη-
τικών και μουσικών σημείων εγκαθιδρύει μια άμεση, διαδραστική και πολυαισθητηριακή
σχέση με το κοινό στην πλατεία (Lehmann, 2006, σελ. 91-93).
Το έργο του Δημήτρη Δημητριάδη Ο Ευαγγελισμός της Κασσάνδρας (2009), κλείνει με
τις ακόλουθες σκηνικές οδηγίες: «Γαυγίζει. Το γαύγισμά της ακολουθούν υπερκόσμια
αστρικά γαυγίσματα που κατακλύζουν ατελεύτητα το σύμπαν […] Το σύμπαν κομματιάζε-
ται σαν θρυμματισμένη υλακή» (Δημητριάδης, 2012, σελ. 47). Η κατάλυση και η αναγέν-
νηση της συμπαντικής αρμονίας σηματοδοτείται από τον ήχο της Κασσάνδρας, την άναρ-
θρη κραυγή του ζώου που εκφέρεται κι έπειτα καταργείται, ενώ, αντίθετα, το σύμπαν κα-
ταστρέφεται μέσα στον εκκωφαντικό θόρυβο και ύστερα γεννάται πάλι από τη σιωπή.
Οι σιωπές, οι παύσεις, ο επιτονισμός του λόγου, ο ρυθμός της ομιλίας των δραματικών
προσώπων που υλοποιούνται από τους ηθοποιούς μπορούν επίσης να ανιχνευθούν ως
κειμενικά εγγεγραμμένα στοιχεία σε σύγχρονα δραματικά (ή μεταδραματικά) έργα. Οι ομι-
λούσες «φωνές» της σύγχρονης δραματουργίας, για τις οποίες η αναζήτηση ενιαίας ταυ-
τότητας και ψυχολογικής συνέπειας είναι μάταιη, αποδίδονται όχι τόσο με την αναφορική
λειτουργία της γλώσσας αλλά με τη σύμπραξη όλων των παραγλωσσικών σημείων που ο
δραματουργός μπορεί να επιστρατεύσει. Ο πολυφωνικός μονόλογος της Μαρίας Ευστα-
θιάδη Δαίμονας. Sostenuto assai cantabile (2010), με τον εύλογο υπότιτλο που συνδέει το
έργο με τη μουσική, στηρίζεται, όπως προδίδει και ο ειδολογικός χαρακτηρισμός (πολυ-
φωνικός μονόλογος), στις διαφορετικές φωνές του έργου, που αποδίδονται όμως από το
ίδιο πρόσωπο. Το μόνο στοιχείο που δηλώνει στο έντυπο κείμενο την αλλαγή των φωνών
είναι δυο κάθετες γραμμές, ανάλογα με την ομιλούσα φωνή που κάθε φορά ακούγεται.
Πολυφωνικότητα και πολυτροπικότητα

Αν στην παραδοσιακή ρεαλιστική δραματουργία, υπάρχει η δυνατότητα αναδιάταξης
μιας γραμμικής εξέλιξης των συμβάντων του δραματικού και σκηνικού χρόνου, στα μη-
ρεαλιστικά έργα είναι πιο πιθανό να ανιχνεύσουμε συνειρμικά πλέγματα σημασιών ή κο-
λάζ οπτικών εικόνων που συναποτελούν το έργο.
Στη δραματουργία της Έλενας Πέγκα, που διακρίνεται για τον διάλογο με άλλες μορ-
φές τέχνης και τις συνειρμικές εικόνες, υπάρχουν αρκετά παραδείγματα αξιοποίησης της
πολυτροπικότητας στη δραματική γραφή. Στο Όταν χορεύουν οι Go-Go dancers (2002), ο
χορός και η κίνηση των δύο προσώπων που υποδύονται τους χορευτές συν-αποτελούν
το σώμα του έργου, μαζί με τον κειμενικό λόγο των δύο άλλων ηρώων. Η μουσική και ο
χορός παρεμβάλλονται και διακόπτουν τον διάλογο, επιτείνοντας την αποσπασματικότη-
τα του έργου και συνδηλώνοντας, ως ηχητικά και οπτικά σημεία, την ερωτική ατμόσφαι-
ρα μέσα στην οποία δρουν τα δύο ομιλούντα πρόσωπα.
Η ίδια συγγραφέας, που έχει χρησιμοποιήσει ευρύτατα στη δραματουργία της και τον δι-
άλογο με προγενέστερα έργα, με ήδη γνωστούς ήρωες, θεατρικούς ή μυθιστορηματικούς,
αλλά και με πρόσωπα υπαρκτά, συγγραφείς ή καλλιτέχνες (Κύργια, χ.χ.), ασχολείται στο
έργο της Βαλς Εξιτασιόν (1997) με τη ζωή του συνθέτη Κώστα Γιαννίδη. Το έργο αξιοποιεί
εκτός από τον λεκτικό, τον καλλιτεχνικό κώδικα της μουσικής, κάνοντας έτσι πράξη τη δι-
αλογικότητα μεταξύ διαφορετικών μορφών τέχνης (Τσατσούλης, 1999, σελ. 129-130).

Το έργο του Άκη Δήμου Αιώνες μακριά απ’ την Αλάσκα (2000-01), είναι επίσης ενδεικτι-
κό της δυναμικής που αναπτύσσει το μουσικό σημείο, εγγεγραμμένο στον κειμενικό λόγο.
Εδώ ο συγγραφέας ορίζει ως πρόσωπα του έργου του τη Βιολέτα και τον Μουσικό, ενώ
ο δεύτερος δεν συμμετέχει στον διάλογο των δύο με λεκτικά σημεία παρά μόνο με τις νό-
τες της μουσικής του. Στις σκηνικές οδηγίες διαβάζουμε: «Ανάμεσα στα λόγια της Βιολέ-
τας μια μελωδία που επαναλαμβάνεται άλλοτε ολόκληρη κι άλλοτε διακεκομμένη (μου-
σικές φράσεις-ψηφίδες), υπογραμμίζοντας όσα λέει ή εκτρέποντας τον λόγο της, υπερα-
σπίζοντας ή ανατρέποντας τη ροή του έτσι ώστε λόγος/μουσική να συναποτελούν τα μέ-
λη μιας συνομιλίας» (Δήμου, 2006, σελ. 260).
Η συνειρμική παράθεση χαλαρά συνδεδεμένων εικόνων και η πολυτροπικότητα χα-
ρακτηρίζει μεγάλο μέρος της σύγχρονης δραματουργίας μας. Αναφέρουμε ενδεικτικά τον
μονόλογο Η Nelly’s βγάζει βόλτα τον σκύλο της (2003) της Έλενας Πέγκα, όπου ηρωίδα εί-
ναι η γνωστή φωτογράφος Nelly’s (ψευδώνυμο της Έλλης Σουγιουλτζόγλου-Σεραϊδάρη,
1899-1998), που κέρδισε διεθνή αναγνώριση με τη δουλειά της (Κάσδαγλης, 1989). Στο
έργο αυτό, τα βιογραφικά στοιχεία αξιοποιούνται, χωρίς όμως να αποτελούν το κέντρο
βάρους του έργου. Η αφήγηση της ιστορίας διακόπτεται από προβολές και σκηνές που
παρουσιάζουν εικόνες από την Αθήνα των ημερών μας όπως: «Βουβή δράση με τη Nel-
ly’s, έναν άντρα της ασφάλειας και μια νευρωτική νέα σημερινή γυναίκα» ή «Οι αφίσες μέ-
σα στο ταμπλό τους εναλλάσσονται γρήγορα» ή «Ένα ζευγάρι σημερινών γιάπηδων με-
ταμορφώνονται σε γυμνά μοντέλα της Nelly’s και παίρνουν χορευτικές πόζες που θυμί-
ζουν τις διάσημες φωτογραφίες της» (Πέγκα, 2003, σελ. 14,18,24). Η εναλλαγή της σκηνι-
κής μονολογικής αφήγησης με τις προβολές των φωτογραφιών και με την εικονική ανα-
παράσταση των σκηνών που προαναφέρθηκαν, η παρεμβολή της ανάγνωσης ενός σχετι-
κού κειμένου του Παύλου Νιρβάνα, καθώς και, κυρίως, ο διάλογος με άλλες τέχνες (φω-
τογραφία, μουσική) αλλά και με την τεχνολογία (βιντεοπροβολές) δημιουργεί μια σκηνική
πραγματικότητα που απέχει πολύ από τη ρεαλιστική αναπαράσταση της βιογραφίας της
γνωστής φωτογράφου και αποτελεί μια νέα αισθητική μορφή, μια πολυτροπική γραφή
(Κύργια, χ.χ.), που εγκαθιδρύει μια διαδραστική και πολυαισθητηριακή σχέση με το κοινό.
Ενδιαφέρουσα είναι, τέλος, η ανίχνευση σε ορισμένα έργα, κειμενικών στοιχείων που
θα μπορούσαν να πραγματωθούν σκηνικά και ως οσφρητικά ερεθίσματα για τους θεατές
(τουλάχιστον των πρώτων σειρών). Στο έργο του Ανδρέα Φλουράκη Ελληνική Κουζίνα
(2011),στο οποίο ο συγγραφέας, αντίθετα προς τα προηγούμενα έργα του, ακολουθεί μια
περισσότερο ρεαλιστική γραφή, η αναφορά στην προετοιμασία και την κατανάλωση των
ποικίλων εδεσμάτων του εστιατορίου, που αποτελεί τον δραματικό χώρο του έργου, εί-
ναι καθοριστική για την εξέλιξη της δράσης. Μια συνεχής «οπτική, γευστική και οσφρητι-
κή παρέλαση παραδοσιακών πιάτων» (Διαμαντάκου, 2011, σελ. 27), από κολοκυθοκορ-
φάδες και χορτόπιτα, μέχρι το απαραίτητο τζατζίκι, το οποίο οι ήρωες παρασκευάζουν επί
σκηνής, αποτελούν λεκτικά σημεία του έργου που θα μπορούσαν να αξιοποιηθούν, σε μια
σκηνική πραγμάτωσή του, ως οσφρητικά ερεθίσματα, υπηρετώντας τις δηλώσεις επιφα-
νείας όσο και τις δηλώσεις και τις συν-υποδηλώσεις βαθιάς δομής του έργου, όπου τα ελ-
ληνικά εδέσματα λειτουργούν ως φορέας μνήμης και συλλογικής ταυτότητας.
Στο Μαμ (2006) του Σάκη Σερέφα ο μοναχικός έφηβος Ζοζέφ μυείται στα μυστικά της
ζωής από τον οδηγό του σχολικού λεωφορείου που αποκαλείται Μεγάλος. Το μέσο αυτής
της μύησης είναι επτά μαγειρεμένες τροφές που αντιστοιχούν σε επτά στάδια γνώσης, ενώ
το έργο κλείνει με την κατάκτηση της πολυπόθητης αυτογνωσίας, μέσα από την κατανά-
λωση ενός ολόκληρου τάπερ με ταραμά που πρέπει να αδειάσουν οι δυο ήρωες επί σκη-
νής, ενώ ο συγγραφέας μας διαβεβαιώνει στο σημείωμα που προτάσσεται του έργου: «Οι
επτά τροφές που προσφέρει ο Μεγάλος στον Ζοζέφ έχουν προηγουμένως παρασκευαστεί
και δοκιμαστεί από τον υπογράφοντα συγγραφέα. Όλες τους» (Σερέφας, 2006, σελ. 15).
Με τα ενδεικτικά και μόνο παραδείγματα που προαναφέρθηκαν, αποπειραθήκαμε να
ανιχνεύσουμε τις αισθητικές αναζητήσεις των νέων ελλήνων δραματουργών, μέσω της
ανάδειξης κειμενικά εγγεγραμμένων σημείων των έργων, που οδηγούν από την αναπα-
ράσταση και την απλή θέαση στη βιωματική πολυαισθητηριακή συμμετοχή του θεατή.
Από τα μεταδραματικά, ποιητικά κείμενα στα οποία η πραξιακή δράση που απευθύνεται
στην όραση υποκαθίσταται από τη γλωσσική δράση με σκοπό να αναδειχθεί η «υλικότη-
τα» του λόγου, έως τα έργα που εστιάζουν στον κατακερματισμό του δραματικού προσώ-
που, τα πολυτροπικά έργα, αλλά και εκείνα που διατηρούν ένα οιονεί ρεαλιστικό πλαίσιο,
για να το υπονομεύσουν με τις νέες αισθητικές φόρμες και την υποδόρια ειρωνεία, φαί-
νεται πως οι δραματουργοί επιδιώκουν τη δημιουργία ενός σύνθετου επικοινωνιακού γε-
γονότος με πολυ-αισθητηριακές και πολυτροπικές διαδράσεις, έτοιμου να πραγματωθεί
πάνω στη σκηνή μπροστά στο κοινό της νέας ψηφιακής πραγματικότητας που όλοι βιώ-
νουμε.
Βιβλιογραφικές αναφορές
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Γραμματάς, Θ. (2006). Το ελληνικό θέατρο στον 20ό αιώνα: Πολιτισμικά πρότυπα και πρωτοτυπία (τ. Αʹ).
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Elam, K. (1980/2001). Η Σημειωτική Θεάτρου και Δράματος. (Καίτη Διαμαντάκου, μετάφραση-
εισαγωγή, Δημήτρης Τσατσούλης, επιμέλεια μετάφρασης). Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
Freris, G. (2014). Il teatro Greco contemporaneo e l’Europa: Tendenze e prospettive. In T. Gramma-
tas & G. Tentorio (Eds.), Sguardi sul Teatro Greco Contemporaneo. Societa, Identita, Postmoder-
no. (pp.108-112). [Ειδικό αφιερωματικό τεύχος του περιοδικού Culture Teatrali. Studi, interventi
e scritture sullo spettacolo (23)]. Lucca: Casa Usher.

Greimas, A. J. (1966) Sémantique Structurale: Recherche de méthode. Παρίσι: Larousse. Ελληνική
έκδοση: Δομική Σημασιολογία. Αναζήτηση μεθόδου. (Γιάννης Παρίσης, μετάφρ.). Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις
Πατάκη, 2005.
Θωμαδάκη, Μ. (1993). Σημειωτική του ολικού θεατρικού λόγου. Αθήνα: Δόμος.
Κονδυλάκη, Δ. (2015). Ο θεατρικός Δημήτρης Δημητριάδης. Εξερευνώντας τη δυνατότητα του αναπάντε-
χου. Αθήνα: Νεφέλη.
Κύργια, Ε. (χ.χ.). Η δραματουργία της Έλενας Πέγκα. The Greek Play Project. Ανακτήθηκε 1/10/2016
από http://www.greek-theatre.gr/public/gr/greekplay/index/reviewview/13
Lehmann, H. T. & Primavesi, P. (2009). Dramaturgy on Shifting Grounds. Performance Research. 14,
(3), 3-6.
Lehmann, H. T. (1999/2006). Postdramatic Theatre. (K. Jurs-Munby, μεταφρ.). New York: Routledge.
Mounsef, D. & Feral, J. (2007). Editor’s Preface: The Transparency of the Text. In D. Mounsef & J. Fe-
ral (Eds.), The Transparency of the Text: Contemporary Writing for the Text (pp. 1-6). New York:
Yale University.
Μαυρομούστακος, Π. (2005). Το θέατρο στην Ελλάδα 1940-2000: Μία επισκόπηση. (4η έκδ.). Αθήνα: Κα-
στανιώτη.
Nelly’s (1989). Αυτοπροσωπογραφία. Ε. Κάσδαγλης (επιμ.). Αθήνα: Ιδιωτική έκδοση.
Ovadija, M. (2013). Dramaturgy of Sound in the Avant-garde and Postdramatic Theatre. Montreal: Mc-
Gill-Queen’s University Press.
Patsalidis, S. (2014). Oltre il moderno. Teatro Greco di fine XX – inizio XXI secolo. In T. Grammatas
& G. Tentorio (Eds.), Sguardi sul Teatro Greco Contemporaneo. Societa, Identita, Postmoderno.
(pp.100-107). [Ειδικό αφιερωματικό τεύχος του περιοδικού Culture Teatrali. Studi, interventi e
scritture sullo spettacolo (23)]. Lucca: Casa Usher.
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al, 29, (1), 6-28.
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Εκδόσεις Κρήτης.
Exploring the sense
of touch through sculpture:
the communist
monument in Florina
ART
Ifigeneia Vamvakidou University of Western Macedonia ibambak@uowm.gr

Andromachi Solaki University of Western Macedonia machisolaki@gmail.com
Lazaros Papoutzis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki sfinas3@gmail.com
Abstract
On the occasion of the 70th anniversary of the founding of the Democratic Army in Greece for
many years, the communist party asked to implement the debt of honour to the fighters of the
Greek Democratic Army who fell in Florina’s battle at February 12 1949. In a field, southwest
of the city, a mass grave of about 800 fighters has been detected and in this area, it has been
established a public representation made by the sculptor Makris. In this paper we focus on the
sense of touch that can be perceived focusing our gaze on the public monument. It is crucial
to look at the cultural and social context of touch (Ericsson 2008). What is remarkable about
this particular monument is that the fighters’ bodies make a strong statement about revolu-
tion and violence. Men have been placed in a military defence circle-shape to show their uni-
ty. This 3dimensional positioning of the huge bodies, indicates the political, revolutionary sig-
nified. It also demonstrates the strong sense of comradeship between these soldiers. These
bodies provide a graphic reminder of the importance of interdependent relationships; in death
as in life, together and touching. Thus, this monument is a potent example of a sense of touch.
Their blank expressions still convey doubt, but the figures are all in touch with one another. As
Makris suggests, a sense of touch with our fellow human beings and with the world around
us, is perhaps, the best hope that any of us can have in an uncertain world.
Keywords Public monuments , history , social semiotics , tactile semiotics

Introduction
The pit, the field that had never been ploughed, and the communist fighters
are buried inside, has acquired a special monument: a monumental
memorial, which refers to the fighters who have defeated the death….
(Committee of the Western Macedonia Region of the communist party)
Historic Documentation
On the night of February 12th, 1949 (the last year of the Hellenic Civil War), the great ag-
gressive enterprise of the Democratic Army of Greece (DIE) for the occupation of the city
of Florina vs the Government Army, was manifested.
The government camp counted 702 corpses on the battlefield and another 350 sol-
diers had been arrested.
Within the city itself and the northwestern outskirts, 483 dead guerrillas had been
found and 294 were arrested; overwhelming was the number of wounded. The crash in
Florina, from which the Democratic Army never recovered allowed the departments of
Army to attack the defence device of the mountain Vitsi. From a military point of view,
the failure was absolute (in Margaritis, 2002, pp. Α50, 176, 239, 243, 307, 475).
In a field, southwest of the city, a mass grave of about 800 fighters has been detected
and in this area, a public monument made by the sculptor Makris has been established.
The revelation of the monument took place on Sunday (February 14, 2016), when
thousands of citizens from all the country arrived with a big demonstration. The Secre-
tary General of the communist party, Dimitris Koutsoumbas, transferred on behalf of the
party “a warm racing greeting to all the relatives and the descendants of the fighters….”1
Historical documentation in nowadays’ historic research is extended including mul-
timodal material such as oral and visual data. The pictures and the art crafts can be also
structured as a secondary archive in order to be analyzed by the historians, the sociolo-
gists and the culturists (Hobsbawm, 1998, p. 217). The new post-modern term for de-
fining the historic sources is the term “historical traces” which signifies the written, oral,
tactile historical data (in Burke, 2001). The social history had already revealed the cities’
history and the city as the core of the political scene. Thus, the concept of locality is not
perceived any more in the narrow confines of the experienced habitation space, but pen-
etrates in the diverse, historical site data (Vaina, 1997).
The theoretical model in this study refers to the political public sculpture as a) public
historical trace, b) utopia, c) “sign-text” which cultivates discipline practices. In this the-
oretical framework the researching questions are summarized in the following:
• Could the sense of touch be a communication medium for historic perception and em-
pathy?
• Which is the association to the physical nature?
• Is there a cross-modal association?
• How the shapes may respond to the audience?
Public Monuments and Ideology

Monuments are defined in historic studies, as the representation of a particular historical
event. Every artistic creation regardless whether it is monumental construction or plain
column, or memorial, had also been defined as the historical art-craft on the memory of
those who sacrificed themselves for their homeland.
The historic, public monuments can also be perceived as “signs” referring to their semi-
otic appearance, i.e. the messages, the informative and ideological role in which they are
formulated and they are chosen by the national and religious administrative authorities.
The extended context also includes all the national and religious anniversaries estab-
lished in the name of the national ideology, in the mythology of the homeland, in the de-
fence of history, in the cultivation of historical memory and in the name of ancestral values.
It seems that in public history, the monuments that honour the violent death at any
time, still maintain an identifier for both the persons/heroes, who are illustrated but al-
so for the public audience itself.
The represented fighters can be perceived as images which are identified either with
the heroes, or the victims nor the winners; i.e. the owners of honour, of faith, of glory, of
duty, of legality, of justice, of freedom. These images can also be used by the perceivers
in the “Lacan’s mirror stage” (in Bruce, 2004).
In historic studies, the war monuments may function in a dual process a) that of re-
calling these facts/deaths, and b) that of watching/toughing the specific visual sign (Ko-
sseleck, 2002, p. 308).
Nowadays, the increasing politicization of collective memory as well as the selective
idealization of national past seems to formulate the “new history” perception (Kokkinos,
2003).
Thus the historical knowledge is transformed into a public discourse to defend the
ethno cultural community and the ideological rationalization of collective, identity mech-
anism.
As we try to indicate the ideology in public monuments, the scientific disciplines that
are involved in this study are the history of public art, the public history itself, the histo-
ry of the city, the local history and the historic literacy.
The historical methodology which is applied focus on the “Eyewitnessing”: Peter
Burke reviews graphics, photographs, films, and other media from many countries and
periods and examines their pragmatic uses (Burke, 2001).
All these historical approaches are aiming to the deconstruction of monuments’ sig-
nifications for the adult citizens as well as for the students. This postmodern research

field comes from the Annales’ school (Iggers, 1997, ch. 5) historical model which formu-
lates another narrative and mnemonic landscape.
In this case-study for the public communistic monument, we focus on its ceremoni-
al function, which differs from mere habit and custom because it’s mostly symbolic, and
often dramatic, expressing and communicating ideas but also powerful feelings: it does
this through symbolic scenes, acts and words that bring diverse ideas together in a mul-
timodal level.
The public disclosure of monument with direct historical and political signifiers seems
to work as one of the basic mechanisms for the formation of individual and collective
communistic consciousness as well as a political legitimacy for the communist fighters.
Political ceremonies typically occur before the public; what they express and com-
municate typically helps to shape, central interests of those who participate in them and
those who observe them. In this way, they can help to determine what is politically sig-
nificant in a community, representing its past and future, and the social relations within
it. The effects of political ceremony are hard to be estimated, but are probably both cogni-
tive and emotional, conveying both a certain stereotypical picture of the social and politi-
cal world. There are also strong sentiments associated with strong loyalties to the com-
munist ideology and sometimes to the specific hostilities.
Social Semiotics and public sculptures

Sculpture can concurrently be referenced as the most traditional and the most innova-
tive of the visual arts. It is among the oldest and most contested forms of representa-
tion. In its complexity, sculpture is both noun and verb, both the means and the end to
production. Most basically, sculpture can be defined as an artistic medium in so much as
it acts as a mode of communication through which the artist emotionally and intellectu-
ally expresses himself to the audience. As such sculpture, “…is to be distinguished from
painting as the plastic art that gives preference to the tactile sensations as against visu-
al sensations” (in Read, 1964, p. 232) and as an art form that, “…gives satisfaction in the
touching and handling of objects.
That is the only way in which we can have direct sensation of the three-dimensional
space of an object” (Read, 1964, p. 228).
Intrinsic to sculptures third-dimensionality is mass and volume, both actualities of
form that cannot be captured in painting.
As W.J.T. Mitchell argues, “it [sculpture] does not project a virtual space, opening a
window into immensity as (say) a landscape painting does; it takes up space, moves and
occupies a site, obtruding on it or changing it” (Read 1964, p. 166). Essentially, sculpture
takes up real, tangible space.
In fact, it is possible to consider sculpture as the artistic embodiment of space, as does
Heidegger in his definition of this particularly artistic medium: “We would have to learn to
recognize that things themselves are places and do not merely belong to a place,” and that
sculpture is thereby “…the embodiment of places” (Heidegger, 1969, pp. 6-7).
The 20th century has witnessed the re-configuration of painting and sculpture. How-
ever, sculpture became the defining force, and painting adopted the concerns of “…plas-
tic values, geometric forms, and the analysis of objects in terms of their weight, density,
and volume” (in Butler, 1975, p. 14).
What then was sculpture to do?
What else but to re-constitute the medium so that, “…the qualities of three-dimen-
sional mass, contained surfaces, stability, and certain types of materials and settings are
not essential to sculpture” (Butler, 1975, p. 18).
The sculptural medium has freed itself to explore other dimensions, that are rooted
not only in the physical, but in the emotional and intellectual.
Social semiotics as an approach to communication, analyses how people make signs
in the context of interpersonal and institutional power relations to achieve specific aims.
In the context of multimodality, the implication is that all modes should be studied with
a view to the underlying choices available to communicators, the meaning potentials of
resources and the purposes for which they are chosen.
Social semiotics has been strongly influenced by the work of Michael Halliday (1978),
Robert Hodge and Gunther Kress in their seminal text Language as Ideology (1979; 1993).
Tactile semiotics refers to the meanings of touch that can be explored in the realistic
political monuments (Gumtau, 2005). We could define the term Tactile Semiotics as the
meanings, that we ascribe to different types of haptic sensations.
Many researchers of haptic communication devices are calling for a system of design
parameters. As well as studying psychophysics, it may be beneficial to look at the cul-
tural and social context of touch.
It is possible to explore this field with the help of low-tech prototypes and methodol-
ogies more common in art and design.
This research proposes parameters for describing tactile and visual texture using the
specific realistic public political monument because of a) its ceremonial function, b) its
shape, c) its three dimension existence and d) its official monumental propaganda.
A special place among the first activities of the Soviet government was monumen-
tal propaganda, which started after the publication of 12 April 1918 the Council of Peo-
ple’s Commissars, signed by Lenin’s decree “On the monuments of the Republic” stating
as: “In commemoration of the great revolution, which transformed Russia, the Council
of People’s Commissars decrees:
onuments erected in honor of the kings and their servants and not hav-
M
ing interest from either historical or artistic hand, are subject to removal
from squares and streets and part of the transference (Lenin, 2008, p. 203).

hile modernism is most often considered in terms of stylistic innovation, Social Re-
W
alists believed that the political content of their work made it modern. Social Realists
turned away from the painterly advancements of the School of Paris.
Description of the Monument

Socialist Realist sculptures are usually monumental pieces with a strong figurative ele-
ment. Between “Propaganda and Cultural Diplomacy” we remark the nostalgia towards
Socialist Realism in Post-Communist world.
The year of (2014) could be considered as the year of socialist realism since Sotheby’s
auction house held a non-commercial exhibition in London, called Soviet Art.
The sculptures of the political monument that we present are designed by the well-
known sculptor Agamemnon Makris, in his days at Hungary, while he was expelled by
the French state due to his political views and ideology.2
It’s also interested that part of the funding and designing costs were covered by the
Communistic Party of Greece Friends Club of Hungary.
The sculptures had been designed by the casts of the Mauthausen monument “For the
prisoners and victims” (Image 1) which had been produced and placed in the Nazi con-
centration camp in 1959. The specific sculpture designs were offered by the sculptors’
daughter Kleio Makri (CPG 2016, p. 3).
Image 1. The Mauthausen monument. Image 2. The Greek Democratic Army mon- Image 3. The Greek
ument in Florina. Celebration of revealing, Democratic Army
February 14, 2016. Logo.
The monument stands on a base of three levels, forcing the viewer to raise his head
in order to perceive the full composition of the project.
There is also an inscription in which a label is written in capital letters: “These are the
ones who won death. Honor and glory to the male and female fighters of the Greek Dem-
ocratic Army”. In front of that base, the symbol-logo of the Greek Democratic Army lies
at the floor (Image 3).
The monument consists of eight male bronze statues, hav-
ing their hands raised upon their heads.
These male statues wear regular clothes (shirts, pants) and
are barefoot.
They are placed one next to the other in a rectangular form,
while their hands form a circle shape on the air (Image 4).
The monument can be perceived and touched holistical-
ly on all the sides. The surroundings of the monument consist
of fencing with plates indicating the names of the fighters who
lost their lives during the Battle of Florina on February 12, 1949. Image 4. The Battle of Flori-
na Monument.
Historical semiotic analysis
The analysis of the monument is also based on structural semantics to reveal the appar-
ent mechanisms of the production of meaning (Barthes, 1977; Greimas, 1966,3 Kress et
al, 1996; Lagopoulos & Boklund-Lagopoulou, 1992; Randviir & Cobley, 2010).
A basic principal of structural semantics is that the elements of a culture permeate all
the semiotic systems of this culture. It assumes that the basic structures of the text are
‘hidden’.
A basic concept of structural semantics is the isotope, namely all units ratio (referenc-
es) according to their semantic content (semantic code).
The specific analysis documentates (15) semantic codes, covering the semantic con-
tent of the responses to the level of detail of interest, that is, it reports the values or de-
merits in an individual and social level.
Thus the following semantic codes are documented: reversal, resistance, of values,
arise, national, propagandistic, political, historical, temporal, monumental, people, literary.
Taking advantage of the specificity of this monument, we seek the non-linguistic com-
munication of communist/marxist ideology and how it can be perceived. The visual se-
miotic perspective in this case discloses that it is a social research process: thus we pro-
ceed from “language of the image” to the “semiotic” mode.
In a sculpture analysis we can focus on two main axes, (a) the sculpture itself (pro-
duction) and (b) how people receive the message (consumption) by gaze and touch.
In this research we focus on both. The method of analysis of the monument followed
structurally the same mode as shown in Table 1 below.
On the left the monument and on the right information about (a) the linguistic mes-
sage, (b) the virtual message (persons and objects) and (c) the dominant codes of the lan-
guage and the virtual message, respectively (see Table 1).
We remark that the shapes, the position, the material and the artistic synthesis in the
3d dimension are all dominated on our gaze and in specific on our sense of touch: the
bodies represented in a huge shape signify their male/martial identity.

Table 1. Analysis
Visual data Codes

Linguistic
Monument BODIES / Political (fists,
data / the title OBJECTS
FIGHTERS Democratic, KKE)
These are the ones who Eight (8) male – Clothes Militant
won death. Honour and statues raising – Artistic label Insurrectional
glory to the male and their hands up- – Red cloth Tactical
female fighters of the on their heads – Inscriptions with the
Greek Democratic Army names of the deceased
According to Burke’s analysis, we perceive an image of power that acts as visual pro-
paganda, portrays and creates a “public image” of communist fights.
It can also be involved a) in the images of
ideas, as it implies abstract concepts, transla-
tions and symbols designed to make them vis-
ible and specific and carry messages mainly po-
litically, turning the artist into a “political citizen”,
b) into the category of social images that present
society through representative photos of individ-
uals and profile social phenomena of liberation
and c) it can also be perceived as cultural mate- Image 5. Political manifestation/ceremony of
rial, which functions as a literal testimony of the KKE at the Monument of the Battle of Florina,
past. July 2016.
Results
The parameters that support the tactical perception of this monument can be found both
in the time and place (before-after) of monuments’ construction as well as in the ceremo-
nial’s day.
Touch influences the way that the human brain constructs representations of space. In
fact, there are multiple representations, which include ‘personal, peripersonal, and extrap-
ersonal space. Personal space refers to the space occupied by the body.
Peripersonal space refers to space surrounding our body within the reach of our limbs.
Extrapersonal space refers to space beyond the reach of our limbs (Simpson, 2001, p. 70).
The semantic codes as reversal, militant, propagandistic, political, historical, tempo-
ral, monumental, insurrectional, tactical construct an official communist political dis-
course deriving from Social Realism.
Before the monument’s official construction there was only a political grave where the
communists venerate and put flowers honoring the fighters by toughing the marble of
the grave as a gesture of contact and respect.
As Nora had argued (1996) “We speak so much of memory because there is so little of
it left”, i.e. modern societies invest so heavily in “lieux de memoire” (memory sites, such
as monuments, museums, archives, and historic places), because these have replaced
“real environments of memory,” the living memory that was once nourished spontane-
ously in premodern societies.
Nora’s claim echoes the anti-monument rhetoric of early American republicans.
Like the republicans before him, Nora suspected that modern commemorations were
invented to make up for a lack of organic unity within modern nations and societies.
David Lowenthal in his work, The Past Is a Foreign Country (1985), made a similar
point, arguing that modern societies try desperately to resurrect the past because it has
already disappeared from living culture.
Few scholars have attempted to theorize the relationship between commemoration
and tradition, what we might call the exterior and interior faces of historical conscious-
ness. On the one hand are public sites and rituals of memory, and on the other hand are
ingrained habits of thought and action that persist in individuals, families, and commu-
nities across long spans of time.
While few scholars would agree with Nora that interior memory has disappeared,
most scholars have focused on the exterior struggles to construct memory in one form
rather than another.
Thus the funeral ritual as a public, traditional and symbolic ceremony signifies their
political ideology.
In this context, communists who were visiting the grave before the monument’s con-
struction tend to cry, even sob and wail, because this political representation of funeral
force them to concentrate on the fact of the death, excruciatingly painful, because of this
heroic death in war.
It’ the first time for Florina’s citizens and visitors, that the well-known Florina’s fight
in the civil war, had been documented in a visual and tactical monument.
People are also invited to share communistic memories with others in the citizenship
community.
The most interesting in mourning need, is that develops or supports in this case the
communist “self-identity”. We claim that the political ceremony helps young people to
begin this difficult process of developing a political “self-identity”, because it provides a
social venue for public acknowledgment.
On the other hand, since no official communistic, political monument had been estab-
lished in the city of Florina, many people seem not to know how to correspond to these
fighters, whose political identity was absent in national public historiography.
We do agree on Greene’s statement that “despite the dogmas and inquisitions that
an embrace of myths can encourage in radical movements, it is impossible to imagine
politics without them. There is a material existence to myths that rationalist theories of

“false consciousness” don’t recognize. The myths, the symbols and rituals of radicalism
remain a part of how we remember our past, how we imagine our future, how to forge a
common bond of solidarity so that we know how to live and how to die for the commu-
nist ideal” (Greene, 2015).
Finally, the political, official funerals seem to serve as the central gathering place for
citizens and comrades, because of the ceremony’s day and the particular three-dimen-
sional monument.
Image 6. The monument of the Battle of Florina before. Local archive.
The sense of touch is involved and also promoted for all the visitors, both in the previous
simple fighters grave, but also in the manifestation memory, since “touch is the primary
way to acquire information or access a work of art. For others, tactile experiences help
to complete their mental image of an object” (Hatwell, 2003).
Remarks
In the educational context, we could formulate a citizenship teaching proposal for the
particular 3d monument in Florina by using Greek Civil War history and the monuments’
connotations as a vehicle.
We should add tactile interactivity to sculpture’s perception, because it reinforces the
element of touch, making the sculpture an object to be touched, or a vehicle of touch
communication.
Touching something facilitates the transference of haptic and tactile information that
carries with it tangible messages, although there is “an essential dimension of instrumen-
tation [that] lives outside of language or text. Craft knowledge, ‘fingertip knowledge,’ ‘tacit
knowledge,’ and ‘know-how’ are useful concepts in that they remind us that there is more
to knowing than saying.
Creative thinking can be accomplished by surrendering one’s will to the materials and
if we accept that we make mistakes, which is really just a defiance of our expectation,
and if simply observe the unexpected properties of the materials we ‘make’, we gain the
ability to see new and existing possibilities outside of our internalised imaginary cycle (in
Rauscher, 2015).
What is remarkable about this particular monument is that the fighters’ bodies make
a strong statement about revolution and violence. Men have been placed in a military de-
fence circle-shape to show their unity. This 3dimensional positioning of the huge bodies,
indicates the political, revolutionary signified. It also demonstrates the strong sense of
comradeship.
Thus, this monument is a potent example of a sense of touch. Their blank expressions
still convey doubt, but the figures are all in touch with one another. As Makris suggests,
a sense of touch with our fellow human beings and with the world around us, is perhaps,
the best hope that any of us can have in an uncertain world.
Endnotes
1. In newspaper Rizospastis, https://www.rizospastis.gr/story.do?id=8787386
2. The sculptor’s short bionote as written in the Greek National Gallery.
See at http://www.nationalgallery.gr/site/content.php?sel=680&artist_id=4761&set_locale=2
3. Lagopoulos and Boklund-Lagopoulou (1992), Boklund-Lagopoulou (1980), Christodoulou (2003,
2007, 2012).
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Beyond Senses:
the existential agony
of David Bowie in the
“Blackstar” video-clip
ART
May Kokkidou University Of Macedonia ugenius@otenet.gr
Vaia Eleni Paschali University of Western Macedonia elvpaschali@yahoo.com
Abstract
Released just two days before his death, “Blackstar” is David Bowie’s swan song. In the
“Blackstar” video-clip, Bowie dramatizes and communicates a trans-conscious expe-
rience of failing/ impairing senses. In this video, Bowie operates as the central archi-
tect of a musical-visual universe that is philosophical in nature and poetic in structure.
Connecting the dots in retrospect, we can’t help wondering whether there is a hidden
and personal in nature discourse linked with Bowie’s impending death. In this paper,
we will discuss the relationship between the lyrics, the music, and the visuals – the co-
hesion /opposition between telling and showing – and the emergent meanings, focus-
ing on the connotations of mortality (cultural, spiritual, ontological, and philosophi-
cal), which derive from the vagueness and the polysemy of the narrative. Our semiot-
ic analysis will draw on Cook’s work for multimedia studies, on Goodwin’s theory for
music videos and on Barthes’ study of images. Also, we will correlate the representa-
tional (mise-en-scène) and non-representational signs (music, editing, lightening, col-
ors, drama) to determine to what extend they bring out the video’s main concept of the
(dying) senses and the beyond.
Keywords
Bowie , Blackstar , music video , dying senses

Introduction
David Bowie was one of the most intriguing figures within the popular culture. For al-
most five decades, he gave lessons of non-conformity, challenging all conventional, so-
cial, cultural, and artistic norms. One thing that made him stand out was his persistence
to bring the intellectualism into the mainstream (Power et al., 2015). Speaking to the
BBC in 1976, Bowie claimed that his career was built on the desire to be the investiga-
tor of new ideas and to turn people’s attention to new things and new perspectives (see
Johnson, 2015, p. 9).
Bowie’s polysemy in expression is reflected on the subversive tone of his art, on his
tendency to overcome the aesthetic boundaries and bring different music genres togeth-
er, and on his various personas he had deployed throughout his career as well (Power et
al., 2015). Kathryn Johnson (2015) argues that Bowie’s extraordinary sophisticated work
can be interpreted not only as an external form of expression but also as part of a pro-
cess of becoming a ‘medium’ himself (p. 15). We may claim that Bowie was a kind of “ho-
mo symbolicus”, in Ernest Cassirer’s terms.
Released two days before his death (January 8, 2016), “Blackstar” is David Bowie’s
swan song. It lasts 9:59 minutes and can be described as an avant-garde jazz fusion
piece close to Bowie’s tendency for eclecticism. It is a mélange of art-rock, jazz, rit-
ualistic chanting, and dramatic ballad. The tune was originally conceived and used as
the opening theme for the Sky Atlantic television series “The Last Panthers”. The song
seems to be about the intertemporal issue of mortality. Inevitably, everything ends.
Blackstar
The “Blackstar” video-clip was directed by Johan Renck and created in collaboration with
Bowie. It has cinematic aesthetics and is a multiplex work with various layers of mean-
ing. It is netted by autonomous stories, performed by various characters. The stories
unfold on 3 different levels of narration: the real, the surreal or hallucinational, and the
infinite. The characters that narrate/ sing and link the stories between them are main-
ly three and are impersonated by Bowie himself: the Button-Eye, the Dramatic Singer
and the Missionary. The video could be considered as an amalgam of genres: conceptu-
al, narrative, and dramatic.
The video-clip begins in a remote planet somewhere in the Universe. There lies the
corpse of a dead astronaut. The Serpent approaches the corpse, detaches his skull and
delivers it to the mythical Villa of Ormen, where a death ritual is about to begin. Behind
Villa of Ormen, three crucifixions are taking place as a heavy storm approaches the vil-
lage. At the same time in the ‘real world’ Bowie bandaged, with buttons for eyes is stand-
ing outside an attic trying to defend himself from an imaginary enemy. As soon as his
projections, the scarecrows on the crosses, are fatally attacked by the enemy, the storm
blows away the light in Villa of Ormen and suddenly everything sinks into darkness. The
video ends with a frame of a black star and its components.
Instruments of Analysis
The analysis of the video is based on Goodwin’s theory for music videos, on Cook’s mod-
el for multimodal text analysis and on Barthes’ studies. Andrew Goodwin (1992) focuses
on the relationships between the lyrics and the visuals, and between visuals and music
as well, examining whether the visuals illustrating, amplifying or contradicting the lyr-
ics and/or the music. Nicholas Cook (1998) made one of the first attempts to construct
a model of how music, lyrics, and moving image can function together and interact in
various multimedia environments, based on the notion of metaphor. He identified three
types of interaction: (a) conformance (when the media are considered to be communi-
cating the same message) (b) complementation (when a medium adds, independent-
ly from the others, functional non-redundant information in the overall project), and (c)
contest (when the media function in a competitive manner, such as when the meaning of
each contradicts the other). All these generate associations from where new meanings
arise. Barthes (1977) discusses the denotations and connotations of a visual text trying
to net them together. The more connotations derive from a visual sign, the more mean-
ings come out of it. The Barthesian semantic and hermeneutic codes constitute a basis
for deepening into the video’s multimodal world. Hence, the ambiguity of lyrics, the inno-
vative musical elements, and the surreal images make the “Blackstar” video-clip’s anal-
ysis a complex one.
Failing Senses (or Trans-consciousness): the core representational code

In Blackstar video-clip, all frames almost share one thing in common: Bowie who is
standing a little off center of the frame and uses all his expressive means to send over a
multi-layer message. In this paragraph we will examine the video-clip’s frames as im-
ages that ontologically add to the process of signification for the whole artistic outcome.
After deepening into them separately, we bring them together to come up with their
Figure 1 Figure 2

common representational “code” which indicates whether the meaning of the song ends
in its artistic vagueness or goes beyond.
In the videο-clip, the senses have a protagonist role and are either stretched or de-
prived. Sight is bound or failing. The lack of vision is resulting to an inability to react, pre-
dict or think. First in the video-clip appears Button-Eye, one of the main characters im-
personated by Bowie, having his eyes bound, with buttons for eyes. Although he is try-
ing, he cannot see. His regular vision is not helping him make out the enemy. Because of
this deprivation of sight, he is standing at the same place and his moves are restrained.
His image conveys vulnerability and intense agony.
Often the image of the film blurs, until the final scene when the screen goes black and
we stop seeing altogether. This short repetitive blurriness in the video implies gradual
loss of physical contact. Sight is falling apart. Oddly, eyes are used in an erotic way as
well. During the film extreme close up shots bring them in front of the viewer, awkwardly
close. The Serpent is flirting Bowie. This flirting is surreal as if it is taking place in a hal-
lucinational mind. Her sight is cool, steady and unearthly, whereas Bowie is nervous and
frightened. She is sure of herself whereas he blinks nervously as if he is trying to clear
his vision. From the coloring of the scenes we can see that the Serpent and Bowie do not
belong in the same dimension. The Serpent’s frame also is blurry at the edges where-
as Bowie’s is clean. This blurriness adds to the inexplicable of the Serpent’s nature. One
thing is sure; she is not human. Their eye contact is metaphysical.
Finally, the photography of the video enhances the vagueness of the lyrics. The use
of dark and dull hues in the picture-frames serves to bring out a side of the song which
is dark and black. The video-clip ends up in a blank, empty screen. We have complete-
ly lost sight of what is coming. At the same time the reappearance of the black star icon
creates a cycle.
Hearing is not any better in the film either. Button-Eye, along with his eyes, has both
his ears bound as well. Although he makes efforts, his hearing is very weak. Hence, he is
unable to keep efficient contact with his surroundings. During the film we hardly hear any
filmic sound. In the remote planet (outer space, infinity) no sound is expected anyway as
Figure 3 Figure 4
sound waves cannot be transmitted. The motion is mute. Also, there is no evidence of ac-
tivity over there. Only the corpse of the dead astronaut is lying absolutely still. Oddly, the
dancers in both settings (in the attic and in the Villa of Ormen) make no physical sound.
Although the choreographies are dynamic and powerful, although we witness physical
and emotional effort, no sound reaches our ears. All the exertion of the intense activity
is kept silent. No sound comes out not even in the scene of the crucifixions. It is a char-
acteristic scene when we hear through our sight. From their grimaces, we witness im-
mense fury, horrific howls, terrible threats and loud insults, which betray a fragile emo-
tional state and excruciating pain. However, their voice is struggled.
The sense of touch is kind of mystical in the film. The second character impersonat-
ed by Bowie, the Dramatic-Singer, has a dual nature. First he touches his heart, then he
touches his head and after he makes funny faces. He uses his hands to express himself.
The first gesture connotes someone who takes an oath, speaks from his heart, makes a
confession or bows out of gratitude. The second one connotes someone who is envision-
ing or trying to think hard under pressure. The third one connotes irony, pessimism, and
sarcasm. At some point, Bowie abandons the farcical style and acts more as a preach-
er. With his hands joined at heart he starts his sermon (“Something happened on the day
he died/ […] I’m a blackstar”). The melody sweetens as a sad prophecy is being revealed.
It is a moment of meditation and catharsis. Now he has come clean. He has shared with
his devoted congregation his painful secret. For a moment, there is peace.
The sense of touch also attracts our attention during the pagan ritual, when the
women touch the ground with their bare hands. Their movement is strong. The touch of
the ground is cold and stiff. The choreography implies that a fight against earth and dust
is a fight a priori lost. Finally, in the crucifixion scene, the scarecrows upon the cross-
es have their bodies bound. Their senses are hypersensitive as their killing processes
slowly and painfully. The three scarecrows are projections of the Button-Eye character.
Their inability to use their hands in order to fight, to soothe the pain or to escape con-
veys strong feelings of defenselessness and exposition. Like them, Button-Eye is total-
ly unarmed.
Figure 5 Figure 6

As the physical senses in the film are giving up, the mind proceeds to a trans-con-
scious state. The three dancers in the attic are a visualization of this. From the beginning,
they adopt a ceaseless, repulsive trembling. Their reflex movement is repetitive, strong
and directed to the ground. They are in shock. Their faces look as if they are possessed.
This is possibly associated with the fragile, emotional condition of Button-Eye Bowie; a
state of fear, stress and agony.
From our analysis, we can see that the theme of dying senses is the core code of the
visual part of the video-clip and is associated with the song’s central concept of mortali-
ty. Eventually everything sinks into the darkness of inexistence. Bearing that in mind, and
knowing in retrospect that Bowie was dealing with terminal cancer the same period he
was putting together the single, it is safe to assume that the issue of mortality in “Black-
star” has to do with Bowie’s very own existential struggle. Button-Eye character is him.
All in all, Bowie demonstrates all signs of a man tragically aware of his upcoming end.
The theme of senses seems to be a visualization of dying but also at the same time they
give away an ultimate try to cling to life. The real essence of the video is an ontological
enigma of the transcendent and the case of one who met his personal physical and emo-
tional limits to get there. The idea of the trans-conscious and of the failing senses per-
vades the entire work.
The ‘Beyond Senses’ idea

through a semiotic cross-modal analysis of the “Blackstar” video
In the “Blackstar” video, music appears to be the dominant system. The song consists
of two parts of music worlds. The first part is based mainly on modal paths (a tempered
Phrygian mode) embellished with an eastern aura. The second part is written following
the western tonalities. The videο underscores the song’s harmonic shift from modal to
tonal, with a color scheme that moves from orange to blue.
Throughout the song, a connotative lack of energy can be observed in restricted me-
lodic movement (monotone melodies); short, repetitive phrases; slow tempo; descending
phrases; musical processes from high to low tension, and from faster to slower vibra-
tions. The editing of the video is rather conventional; it has an exceptionally slow rhythm
(the camera constantly moves in slow motion) connoting Button-Eye’s slow death. The
slow rhythm of the editing can be also associated to the idea of self-reflection. The tem-
po of the song is not fast, and this is reflected in the pace of the cutting, which most of is
happening on the pulse of the song. Most plans change in accordance with music with a
rather predictable way (e.g., when melody is moving upwards the camera is zooming at
an object). This may imply that there are no surprises: everything in nature is ephemer-
al, eventually death will come. At the other extreme, the conventional editing presents a
remarkable contrast to the cryptic lyrics. Yet, in spite of the slow editing, the video cre-
ates a sense of anxiety.
In several instances, the video literally features elements of the lyrics: when the lyrics
talk about “a solitary candle” a candle is shown in the video; in the line “I’m a blackstar”
we see Bowie holding the book with the black star on its cover; in the line “your eyes”
there are close-up shots to the blindfold Bowie. Moreover, the same lyrics are presented
with the same images (e.g., the blindfold scene). This conformity (Cook, 1998; Goodwin,
1992) shows again lack of the unexpected.
The video opens with an image of a blue planet during its sun’s perpetual eclipse. The
music begins softly with a melancholic instrumental theme (a blend of electronic and
acoustic instruments), with an ambient tone (flowing synths) and a chant-like Phrygian
melody, establishing a slow dramatic pace. The combined effect is somehow gothic.
In the first two verses, Bowie’s vocal melody is horizontal: he “speaks” the lyrics in a
rather weak voice. The recurring “Ah-ah-ah” is the first clear melodic theme of the song.
It gives the impression of a certain ritual and ends with the verse “at the center of it all”,
where the intensity decreases without finding solution, neither lyrical nor musicologi-
cal. Throughout the first stanza, the drums are playing in a parade motion giving an ep-
ic character to the piece and evoking the idea of wandering. Harmony in this part of the
song is more modal, attached to rock conventions.
Then, the music narration becomes tonal. This tension between the modality and the
tonality serves to add further to the video the element of ambiguity. From “Ah-ah-ah”,
the melody moves on stressed notes. It peaks with a seventh chord in the end line of the
first stanza “your eyes”, which is mostly stressed and, most interestingly, not solved. In
purely musicological terms, the seventh chord carries the biggest stress and is only the
tonal chord that can lead to the promise of redemption. Therefore agony and anxiety are
evoked. In this part, we see the Serpent-girl from the Villa of Ormen carrying the skull of
the dead astronaut. Although she holds a macabre parcel, and is aware of the content,
she carries it light-heartedly. She looks like she is showing off. This contradiction makes
us feel as if this unearthly creature is already on the other side.
There is a short bridge between the first stanza and its repetition where Donny Mc-
Caslin’s improvises with his saxophone on the first musical theme, with a somber tim-
bre, while drumming sways highly energetic. After this bridge, we see Bowie wearing a
blindfold, like a convict waiting for his execution. He sings outside an attic where three
people (a black guy, a pale white one, and a girl) jerk like broken marionettes in a pecu-
liarly mechanical way. Bowie seems in physical and mental pain. We hear an internal cry
in his voice. Then, we see the corpse of the dead astronaut floating in space like an as-
teroid, traveling to infinity or even passing to another dimension.
After the “ah-ah-ah” motif, begins an eerie instrumental bridge where the saxophone
sounds rather muffling on the erratic rhythmic beat of the drums which might be sug-
gestive of the asymmetric heart operation. It is an aurally striking moment in the song
where the five musicians produce a sound worthy of a far larger ensemble. A sequence

of baroque-pop chords bears a sense of a gospel’s sonic power. The jazz sound and the
hypnotic quality of the music –gregorian-type chants, various electronic beats, and dark
vocals– accompany Bowie’s transformation to a messianic figure, after his appearance
in the attic. Bowie appears holding up a “Blackstar bible”, with dumbfounded followers
behind him. He is like bravely presenting his concluded musical testament. The music is
rather chaotic when we see women quivering and the shaking dancers in the attic. The
ad libitum character of the music bridge may connote Bowie’s final effort to be released
from the bonds of his illness.
When the hypnotic vocals shift to a lyric music part, Bowie, as Dramatic-Singer, ap-
pears to sing alone in an attic, with his natural voice (4:42). Coupled with other musical
elements, the appearance of Bowie as singer at this point of the narration draws extra
attention to this section of the song.
In the attic scene, the style of the song turns to a rock ballad. Bowie sings in serious
and thoughtful manner while he acts as if praying. He narrates in third person (“some-
thing happened on the day he died”) intending to be more distant. The four lines, “some-
thing happened […] and bravely cried” carry a sense of disappointment and loneliness.
Bowie’s voice glides up and down his register. The vocal melody leaps into a high F# on
“spirit” (4:47). In the question-phrases “How many times does an angel fall?” and “How
many people lie instead of talking tall?” Bowie appears to communicate a hidden mes-
sage.
From this part, we observe a cyclical interchange between the first (“I’m a blackstar”)
and the third person which may imply Bowie’s need both to speak directly about the dra-
matic situation he experiences and his need to take a distance from it. Even though sing-
ing in the third person, he still is someone who speaks about himself.
And then, a drastic change occurs. In the lyrics that follow “I can’t answer why (I’m
a blackstar) […] I’m the Great I Am (I’m a blackstar)” he adopts a classic rock style, still
low though in energy, which confines into the chorus while alternating lead and back vo-
cals. This part is more dissonant and hard, with Bowie’s facial expression full of sarcasm.
The B tonal center can be linked to the Phrygian chant-melody of the opening and closing
sections. The high-register backing vocals repeatedly state “I’m a blackstar” while also
claiming other kinds of stars: “porn star”, “gang star,” “film star,” “marvel star” and “pop
star”, terms associated to the world of entertainment except from the “wandering star”
which expresses more his role- playing games of his multiple personas. There is no third
person anymore. Bowie emphasizes his present state “I’m a blackstar”.
From the line “I’m-a take you home (I’m a blackstar)”, there is a difference in his voice
in terms of confidence and irony. He operates in a flamboyant manner, making exagger-
ated eccentric gestures. Taking poses as a fashion model, he articulates the superficiali-
ty of show business. The grotesque here may designate the impermanent nature of fame
or the dark pleasure of the mass for peeping.
Vocally, this section features Bowie with an almost sneering voice as opposed to his
more fragile voice in the first section, stressing the shift to sarcasm. The most stressed
word of this section may be “boo” which is sung after a little pause, coupled with a char-
acteristic movement. In one aspect, he may be telling us that a black star is a dead star
whose energy will continue to be released in space-time indefinitely. At the same time,
he points out that no one is irreplaceable (“Somebody else took his place”). Bowie over-
all plays off a lot with the idea of a “Dead man singing”.
In the session beginning with “I am blackstar, way up, on money”, Bowie raises his
hands, exhibiting bodily tension. He dances; with open arms in the air, he is moving slow-
ly. The high angle use of the camera makes him look weak. This part offers great con-
trast with the rest of the piece in terms of energy. It is by far the most dynamic session of
the song. In the line “I want eagles in my daydreams and diamonds in my eyes” the mel-
ody moves to lower pitches adding an irony as it comes to contrast to the image of flying
eagles.
When we hear for the second time “Something happened on the day he died” we are
introduced to the crucifixion scene, where three scarecrows, Christ-like figures, are upon
their crosses. They clearly are in pain. In some snapshots, they seem as if they are try-
ing to release themselves off the crosses while in others they seem like dancing, swing-
ing their hips. In this scene we see various close-ups to the scarecrows and to the Mis-
sionary-Bowie.
A short bridge brings the song back to its opening theme, amplifying the song’s cy-
clical structure. The third stanza is a varied repetition of the first one, with some new or-
chestration components. The vocals enter sounding almost hypnotic. This time drums are
not heard in a parade manner but rather as a heartbeat or as a ticking of a clock. The last
part of the video shows a pagan ritual –the funeral ceremony for the long dead astronaut–
where we see an expressionless female ritualist and girls forming a circle, kneeling, and
worshiping the skull of the dead astronaut. The girls replicate the spasmodic movements
of the three figures in the attic. According to the lyrics, the women “smile”, but in the vid-
eo the girls are very serious and sad, something that is one more shadowy aspect of the
video. The last character of the video is a demonic grim figure, a monstrous creature with
a hook that moves in a blue fog. It goes towards the scarecrows and finishes them off.
It is only at the end of the video that editing becomes faster and more aggressive, with
blended images jumping off from the candle, the pagan ceremony, the blindfold Bowie –
his face appears in extreme close-up, the scarecrows, and the monstrous creature. The
music induces a distinctly menacing atmosphere and the free improvisations, over an
unstable beat, reinforce this feeling.
The song is completed with the arrival at the dominant chord followed by the “ah-ah-
ah” descending 3-notes theme which Bowie sings in an intensely expressive manner. Af-
terwards there is an instrumental cadence with various disparate music sounds contrib-

uting to an atmosphere of confusion and chaos. Here, the saxophone has been replaced
by the flute, with a softer tone. McCaslin’s flute, Guiliana’s drums, and Lefebvre’s bass are
combined resulting in an improvisatory performance with an ostinato, ascending and ver-
tical. Then the rhythmic beat is gradually driven in decay, along with other musical ele-
ments. Reaching the end, the music sound falls silent, giving the sense of sinking into sol-
itude. The cadence is interrupted in a violent way suggesting the unavoidable loneliness in
death and Bowie’s inability to change the present situation. All that is heard is a sigh.
Concluding Remarks and Discussion

Most music videos are made to promote a song or an album, and increase the publicity of
the artists (Goodwin, 1992). This is not the case with “Blackstar”. In the “Blackstar” song
and video, Bowie opened for us a door to his mind to communicate his hopeless pres-
ent, making at the same time an indirect statement for his passing: he is nothing but a
blackstar. During his last months of life, he had not stopped being imaginative, creative
and even, in his dark moments, ironic and sarcastic. He acted as a free-willed human
being heavily burdened under the awareness of his forthcoming end. Jean-Paul Sartre
(1946/2007) has described the destiny of humans encountering this kind of freedom as
a curse: “Man is condemned to be free. Condemned because he did not create himself,
yet is nevertheless at liberty, and from the moment he is thrown into this world he is re-
sponsible for everything he does” (p. 29).
Therefore it is not risky to assume that the “Blackstar” project was Bowie’s material
response to his imminent death. Furthermore, it is documented that Bowie was fully in-
volved in all stages of the creation and production of his music video, in terms of concept,
imaginary and narrative content (Power et al., 2015) with lots of his work colleagues and
fellow artists testifying exactly the same thing.
Barthes’ theory on denotation /connotation has helped us to enrich our interpreta-
tion and discuss “Blackstar” video’s potential meanings. Based on Goodwin’s and Cook’s
models, we noticed that in most video scenes, the image is initiated with certain musi-
cal features (rhythm, melody, harmony, musical structure). Though the visual and the
acoustic semiotic systems are qualitatively different we found out that they share sever-
al structural and conceptual features. The modes relate to one another through confor-
mance and mainly through complementation allowing for the transfer of attributes from
one mode to the other (Cook, 1998, p. 70). Images add to the meaning of the lyrics and
do not contradict them. The music illuminates the analysis of the images and vice versa.
From the above analysis it became clear that the “Blackstar” song and video have multi-
ple meanings. Bowie himself had stated back in 1995:
Taking the present philosophical line we don’t expect our audience to neces-
sarily seek an explanation from ourselves. We assign that role to the listen-
er and to culture. As both of these are in a state of permanent change there
will be a constant “drift” in interpretation. All art is unstable. Its meaning is
not necessarily that implied by the author. There is no authoritative voice.
There are only multiple readings. (as cited in Johnson 2015, p. 2)
Mortality is implied in various ways in the video. The song outlines the dystopia of pass-
ing with its poetic language. With respect to death, Philip Tagg (1993) discusses the cul-
tural specificity of music associated with this fact of life and indicates the connection be-
tween musical sounds and their paramusical contexts or areas of connotation. For him,
certain music structures and elements communicate the idea of death due to their con-
nections with bio-acoustic parameters of human actions and behaviors. In the “Black-
star”, the slow tempo and the atmospheric musical bridges, alongside with the conven-
tional editing, connote lack of activity and maybe our steady pace towards the end. Be-
sides Bowie’s reflections on mortality and transformation were parts of his work right
from the start in his music history: since “Space Oddity”, he had returned repeatedly to
the themes of illness, death, and mortality, changing them from terminal events into mo-
ments of metamorphosis and transcendence (Boyce, 2016, pp. 529-529).
Bowie uses the song as a means of catharsis. The theatrical-sarcastic “boo” session
of the video, stands as a sign for Bowie’s notion of death. Life becomes an ironic spec-
tacle in the waiting for the end. His performance manifests a blend of agony and scorn-
ing. Bowie is mocking death with a mysterious grin. In Mikhail Bakhtin’s thinking (1968),
“In the sphere of imagery cosmic fear (as any other fear) is defeated by laughter. […] Ter-
ror is conquered by laughter.” (p. 336). In this perspective, we also acknowledge the the-
atrics of Bowie’s shows which include all the pantomimed routines in general (Peraino,
2012, p. 157).
The gradual failing of senses and consciousness is shown by the surrealistic video’s
images and narration. As the scenes go back and forth, as stories unfold on different lev-
els of narration, as characters become more and more rash, spasmodic and fictional; the
meaning of the video turns more and more symbolical. The trans-conscious state calms
down only when the Missionary, holding the Blackstar Book and showered with light, is
revealing the only way it is going to be; the mortal one.
Coda
The hidden discourse of “Blackstar” music project seems to be Bowie’s untold struggle
with his illness. Bowie turned his audience to mourners of his expected demise. He made
his pain a narrative; a way to reflect on his existence both as a rock star and as a human
being in a philosophical manner.
The video appears as an existential palimpsest. The visuals enhance the otherworld-
ly atmosphere in which the lyrics’ ambiguity often echoes as the protagonist’s effort to

make a statement. If one was to take this a step further, the rhythmic tension and the vo-
cal melodies, which are often deliberately not tonally centered, along with the occult lyr-
ics and the dynamism of the images paralyze the senses, making the viewing-listening
experience a challenging one.
In this paper, we presented a framework which elucidates the most interesting as-
pects of this video. We incorporated a semiotic analysis towards the video’s textual ele-
ments, trying to reflect on its meanings through the dialectical correlation between the
visual, the lyrical, and the musical languages. While this is by no means an exhaustive
analysis of this work, it may become the basis for further studies.
References
Bakhtin, M. (1968). Rabelais and his World (trans. H. Iswolsky). Cambridge: The MLT Press.
Barthes, R. (1977). Image, Music, Text. London: Fontana Press.
Boyce, N. (2016). Strangers when we meet: David Bowie, mortality, and metamorphosis. The Lan-
cet, 387, 528-529.
Cook, N. (1998). Analysing Musical Multimedia. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Goodwin, A. (1992). Dancing in the Distraction Factory: Music Television and Popular Culture. Minneap-
olis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Johnson, K. (2015). Davis Bowie is. In E. Devereux, A. Dillane, & M. J. Power (Eds.), David Bowie: Crit-
ical Perspectives (pp. 1-18). New York: Routledge.
Peraino, J. A. (2012). Plumbing the Surface of Sound and Vision: David Bowie, Andy Warhol, and the
Art of Posing. Qui Parle, 21(1), 151-184.
Power, M. J., Dillane, A., & Devereux, E. (Eds.) (2015). Where are we now? Contemporary Scholarship
on David Bowie. In E. Devereux, A. Dillane, & M. J. Power (Eds.), David Bowie: Critical Perspec-
tives (xiii-xvi). New York: Routledge.
Sartre, J.-P. (1946/2007). Existentialism is Humanism (trans. C. Macomber). London: Yale Universi-
ty Press.
Tagg, P. (1993). ‘Universal’ music and the case of death. Critical Quarterly, 35(2), 54-98.
The senses in language:
The function
of description
ART
Karin Boklund-Lagopoulou Aristotle University of Thessaloniki boklund@enl.auth.gr
Abstract
In fiction, the function of sensual description is primarily to create the illusion of real-
ism. However, it is also crucial in establishing thematic continuity. According to A.J.
Greimas, both the syntactic and the semantic structures of a text can be understood
as a series of transformations from an abstract deep level to a textual surface lev-
el. If the link between the surface textual structure – where descriptions are located –
and the underlying semantic structure is lacking, the result is a feeling that the text
is incoherent. This is also true of the syntactic dimension. An endless series of narra-
tive ‘events’ or episodes that does not appear to lead to any significant change in the
narrative, or confer any clear direction on it, results in a growing frustration, a feeling
that the text isn’t “going” anywhere. The need for continuity between surface textual
structure and underlying syntactico-semantic structure is demonstrated by looking at
descriptions of sensations in A Song of Ice and Fire by George Martin and its success-
ful audiovisual adaptation as the television series Game of Thrones.
Keywords
description , narratology , A.J. Greimas , George R.R. Martin

The representation of sensation
It was Louis Hjelmslev (1943/1961, p. 109) who first pointed out that “in practice, a lan-
guage is a semiotics into which all other semiotics may be translated – both all other lan-
guages and all other conceivable semiotic structures.” In other words, a message in any
semiotic system can be translated into natural language, although it may well be less ef-
fective, less attractive, and a lot more extensive if it has to be expressed in words.1 Still,
with the help of specialised technical vocabulary, it is possible to give a verbal description
of a musical melody, of the flavour of a wine, of the feel of a texture, or even of a painting
– a description that will allow at least a specialist to understand what the original sensa-
tion is like, though of course not to replicate its effect on the actual senses (it is not pos-
sible to “taste” a verbal description of the flavour of a wine).
Empirically, verbal statements are in fact very frequently used to “translate” sensa-
tions – we say “careful, it’s hot” or “what’s that loud noise?” Literary texts are full of de-
scriptions of sensations of all kinds: not just visual sensations – although the visual is
dominant in description as it is in social life in general – but also sensations of hearing,
smell, taste, touch, and other more esoteric senses. This is especially evident in narra-
tive fiction, though it also occurs in other literary genres (lyric poetry, for example).
An interesting question for visual adaptations of fiction is how sensations of smell,
taste and touch can be conveyed in visual images. This is an issue that has long been de-
bated in adaptation theory; the arguments are clearly presented by Linda Hutcheon, who
points out that different media have evolved their own semiotic conventions for coping
with this kind of transcoding (Hutcheon 2006, especially the first two chapters). An in-
triguing example can be found in the recent graphic-novel adaptation, by Stéphane Heuet
(2013/2015), of Marcel Proust’s A la recherche du temps perdu. The most famous scene
in Proust’s work is the one where the narrator eats a piece of madeleine cake dipped in
tea, and the taste brings back to him a rush of memories of his childhood stay in the vil-
lage of Combray. Heuet gives this scene a full three pages (pp. 13-15), starting with the
narrator’s reaction and continuing with images of his aunt Léonie, of the village and of
the water-lilies in the river, with the steam of the tea superimposed on the whole spread.
We should note, though, that the “meaning” conveyed is not really the taste of the
madeleine, but the memories which the taste evokes in the narrator. In other words, it is
not really the sensation as such which is described.
The graphic novel also makes use of portions of the verbal text (in Arthur Goldham-
mer’s translation in the English edition). Partly, textual fragments are used to represent
sounds that the narrator remembers – the voices of his aunt, of his parents, of himself
as a child.
Elsewhere in the story, Heuet does something similar with music. There is a scene
in which one of the central characters in the book, Swann, listens to a piece of music
and the music, like the taste of the madeleine, brings back to him memories of the past.
Heuet represents this (pp. 150-51) by superimposing a sequence of musical notes on a
series of small images of scenes which have already appeared earlier in the graphic nov-
el. In this case, a trained musician could perhaps “read” the sound of the melody directly
from the musical notation – if, indeed, the composition were not an imaginary creation
by Proust himself.
The cinema has the advantage – or disadvantage – of using sound as well as imag-
es, and is thus obliged to provide an actual piece of music where a verbal text can be
content with an imaginary one. So, when Chilean director Raúl Ruiz adapted Proust’s
novel for the screen (Le temps retrouvé, 1999), his collaborator Jorge Arriagada need-
ed to create real music to represent the “Sonata for piano and violin” by the imaginary
composer Vinteuil that Proust had invented. The interesting thing is that, on the basis
of Proust’s description, it was possible to do so.2 However, in this case also, Proust is
not interested in the sound of the music per se, but in its associations for the charac-
ter who hears it.
Visual images and sounds can thus move with some success from written text to cin-
ematic representation. However, taste, smell and touch, not to mention other more ex-
otic sensations such as balance and orientation, are more difficult to convey. The most
common solution, in addition to the use of dialogue, is to have the actors mimic the ef-
fect of these sensations for the viewer: showing by their facial expressions that they are
attracted or repelled by a smell or a flavour, by their costumes that the environment is
hot or cold, by their reactions and movements that they feel dizzy or tired, are in pain, or
are sexually aroused.
Both graphic image and cinema, unlike verbal texts, have to specify the physical en-
vironment of the narrative. This can be an advantage – it makes the message richer –
but it is also a constraint. A writer can choose not to describe the room where an action
takes place, can decide not to give details of the landscape or cityscape through which
the characters move, can avoid indicating what clothes they are wearing and even to
some extent what their physical characteristics are. The visual artist has fewer options
in this area, and the cinematographer has no choice: the characters of the story have to
be represented by physical actors, and the physical environment has to be specified, be-
cause it is part of the photographic frame.
Whether we are dealing with verbal language, images, or film, however, the functions
of description in a text remain largely the same.
The primary function of sensual description is probably to create the illusion of real-
ity, the “effet du réel”. I need hardly add that this effect is indeed an illusion. It is entirely
possible to give a very realistic description of something that does not and indeed cannot
exist. This is the standard technique used by writers of fantasy and science fiction to cre-
ate for the reader that feeling of reality which is necessary for our enjoyment of the sto-
ry. In fact, the more carefully the writer describes the fantasy world, the more willing we

are to suspend our disbelief and be carried along by the narrative. In Tolkien’s Lord of the
Rings, the author’s minute attention to time and space is crucial in making the geogra-
phy of Middle Earth come alive for the reader.
Inversely, if the description is threadbare or inconsistent, we tend to find it boring and
put the book down (or turn off the television), no matter how realistic the story. I recent-
ly had occasion to observe this in reading a murder mystery set in Reykjavik, the capital
of Iceland. The author provides virtually no descriptions of the landscapes and cityscapes
in which the action occurs. The result is that the reader has no sense of place – the sto-
ry seems to take place in a vacuum.
Description and narrative structure

However, I would argue that to interpret description only in terms of the creation of a “re-
ality effect” is not enough. Description, like action, has to be anchored in the structure of
the narrative.
In Proust’s novel, the taste of the madeleine dipped in tea is central to the interpretation
of the whole five-volume novel, because Proust is writing (among other things) about the
associations between present experience and memories of the past, and about how sensa-
tions mingle with thought processes in human consciousness. In Flaubert’s Madame Bova-
ry, the description of a bourgeois home is not simply about establishing a realistic setting,
but also about demonstrating the stifling atmosphere of bourgeois married life.
According to the narrative theory of A.J. Greimas, the structure of a text can be mod-
elled as a series of transformations from an abstract, deep level to a textual surface lev-
el (see Fig. 1). The deep level involves basic semantic choices (values) and their potential
Generative process
Components
Syntactic Semantic
Structures Levels
Deep level Fundamental syntax Fundamental semantics
Semio-narrative
Narrative level Narrative syntax Narrative semantics
Discursive Level of discourse Discursive syntax Discursive semantics:

= discursivisation: – thematisation
– actantialisation – figurativisation
– temporalisation
– spatialisation
Textualisation
T e x t a s r e a l i s e d
Figure 1. The generative process according to the narratology of Greimas (adapted from Greimas and Courtés, 1979,
p. 160 and Hénault, 1983, p. 124)
logical development (the “semiotic square”). The intermediate level is the level of narra-
tive, where the organisation of narrative roles takes place and the value structure of the
story is put in place. At the surface or discursive level, actantial roles are matched with
characters (actors), the action is situated in time and space, and values are developed
into themes (thematisation) which can be given further verbal form in a process which
he calls figurativisation. Figurativisation is the process by which the fictional world of the
text is created and elaborated, largely through descriptions.3
This, for Greimas, is the “generative process” or model that governs the production
of narrative texts.4 In reverse, it is also a model of interpretation. Reading a story or
watching a film, we encounter the text as realised: the figurative, descriptive language
(verbal or visual) of the discursive, surface level of narrative discourse, with charac-
ters, settings, actions and episodes. We interpret this surface by working our way
backward (upward, in Figure 1), through the actantial roles and the themes of the nar-
rative level to the fundamental syntax and semantic antitheses which the story sets in
motion.
If the link between the surface structure and the underlying semantic structure can-
not be perceived by the reader, the result is a feeling that the text is incoherent.
This is also true of the syntactic dimension. An endless series of narrative “events” or
episodes that does not appear to lead to any significant change in the narrative, or confer
any clear direction on it, results in a growing frustration, a feeling that the text isn’t “go-
ing” anywhere.
Narrative coherence in Game of Thrones

This necessary relationship between discursive surface structure and underlying syntac-
tico-semantic structure can be amply demonstrated by looking at the plentiful descrip-
tions of sensations of all kinds in the (currently) five books, published in seven volumes,
of the series A Song of Ice and Fire by George Martin and their very successful audiovis-
ual adaptation as the television series Game of Thrones.
Martin’s books are bursting with episodes and characters. Consider, for instance, the
lists of characters, given as an appendix at the end of each volume. In the first book, this
appendix comprises 18 pages. In the next book it has grown to 34 pages. In Book III it
covers 50 pages, in Book IV 68 and in Book V 60. It has also acquired several subdivi-
sions. In the first book, only the members of the principal noble houses are given. By the
time the story reaches volume 7 (the second volume of Book V), the appendix has been
divided into six separate sections, devoted to The Kings and their Courts, Other Hous-
es Great and Small, The Sworn Brothers of the Night’s Watch, The Wildlings or the Free
Folk, a section called Beyond the Wall, and a new section on Essos beyond the Narrow
Sea, including subdivisions for Braavos, Old Volantis, Slaver’s Bay, The Queen Across
the Water, and the Sellswords of the Free Companies. Even considering that Martin is fa-

mous for casually killing off his characters, clearly the narrative has grown enormously
in the telling.
His acknowledgements at the end of each volume also make it clear that Martin is in-
creasingly having trouble controlling the different strands of his narrative. Even though
the television series has drastically simplified the story, eliminating many secondary
characters and dropping whole sequences of episodes, it still has to cover a huge multi-
plicity of interlacing storylines. In fact, although the television series is known for its im-
pressive settings and costumes, it has the narrative structure of a soap opera: love, hate,
sex, murder, marriage, divorce, families, lovers, bastards, dynasties, jealousy, intrigues,
vengeance, factions, politics, power…
The multiplication of storylines affects what we usually think of as “character develop-
ment”. A character in a novel is created both syntactically, through the successive actan-
tial roles they occupy in the narrative (in other words, through their actions in the story),
and semantically, through the qualities ascribed to them by the text (from descriptions
of what they look like to the feelings and thoughts they are described as having). This is
a cumulative process: if character A is described as having blond hair in the first chapter,
he should still have blond hair 700 pages later, unless he has explicitly changed the col-
our of his hair in one of the intervening episodes. More importantly, the actions he per-
forms in chapter one of the narrative, and the motives ascribed to him there remain part
of his “character” throughout the story.
The multiplication of episodes that results from serialisation, because it involves
the same characters in many different situations, means that characters easily accu-
mulate contradictory attributes, which leads to inconsistencies in characterisation. In
the case of Game of Thrones, for example, Sir Jaime Lannister in the beginning of the
story casually throws a child out a window to protect his incestuous love affair with his
sister. By the time the narrative reaches Book V, Sir Jaime has become a chivalrous
knight, a diplomat and a leader of armies. The reader (or audience of the television se-
ries), if he or she has not simply forgotten what the same character did in Book I, will
have to find some way of interpreting this change in order to maintain the coherence
of the text. We can say that the character has “matured”. Or we can say that the char-
acterisation is incoherent.
Description and thematic structure

A similar problem can be observed in the case of descriptions. Martin’s books are full of
sensual descriptions of all kinds, often highly metaphorical. A sword is “alive with moon-
light, translucent, a shard of crystal so thin that it seemed almost to vanish when seen
edge-on” (Bk I p. 8). Cloth is “so smooth that it seemed to run through her fingers like
water” (p. 25). Night air is chilly on bare skin (p. 103), wine is “cool fire” as it trickles down
your throat (p. 120), unwashed men have “a sour smell” (p. 114), blood feels “like warm
rain” as it sprays across your face (p. 127). The descriptions continue to be vivid and sen-
sual throughout the series. In Book V (vol. 2, p. 145), a hall rings with
Yunkish laughter, Yunkish songs, Yunkish prayers. Dancers danced; mu-

sicians played queer tunes with bells and squeaks and bladders; singers
sang ancient love songs… The air was redolent with the scent of saffron,
cinnamon, cloves, pepper and other costly spices.
The section where Arya Stark becomes blind involves 14 pages of narrative (Bk V, vol 2,
pp. 66-79) based entirely on sound, touch, smell and taste: “the rough feel of the crust
beneath her fingers, the slickness of the oil, the sting of the hot pepper” (Bk V, vol 2, p.
67). Martin’s device of allowing some of his characters to temporarily share the con-
sciousness of animals or birds gives him opportunities for vivid descriptions of sound
and smell:
Where before there had been silence, now he heard: wind in the trees,
Hodor breathing, the elk pawing at the ground in search of fodder. Famil-
iar scents filled his nosdrils: wet leaves and dead grass, the rotten carcass
of a squirrel decaying in the brush, the sour stink of man-sweat, the musty
odor of the elk (Bk. 5, vol 1, pp. 73-74).
There is no doubt that the fictional world of Westeros is vividly brought to life in Martin’s
books, and much of this “reality effect” is due to his skilful use of description. But just
as the welter of characters and episodes eventually makes the reader lose track of the
storyline, so the wealth of descriptions ultimately becomes self-defeating. There seems
to be no clear direction to it. The text seems to be assigning semantic characteristics to
characters and places almost at random.
For example, in Book I, there is a long description of the city of King’s Landing as
seen through the eyes of Catelyn Stark (pp. 161-163). The description ascribes a num-
ber of semantic attributes to the city: the city is wealthy and luxurious, is a den of vice
and corruption, is a hub of commerce bristling with life, is a ruin of its ancient splen-
dour, is the seat of ruthless power. We read it, and are ready to interpret King’s Land-
ing as any of these things. But a few hundred pages later, we have already encountered
plenty of other places equally vicious, equally corrupt, equally in ruins, and equally cru-
el and deceitful: the Eyrie, Castle Black, the Twins, the Dothraki lands. And this is just
the beginning. It is impossible for a reader to construct a semiotic geography of West-
eros.
The crucial link between deep semantic structure and discursive surface structure are
the themes of a text. In Greimas’s model, thematisation takes place on the discursive,
surface level of the text. Ideally, in other words, the descriptive elements in the text come
together to form larger thematic continuities, and we interpret the story in terms of

these recurring themes that we encounter when reading it. But like characters, themes
need to be internally coherent and consistent with the narrative semantic structure as a
whole. Otherwise, readers will not be able to work out the fundamental semantic oppo-
sitions behind the story – in other words, make sense of the text.
Thematic coherence (or lack of it) in Game of Thrones

Martin’s books have a huge amount of figurative material that could potentially be unit-
ed into themes, but until he brings the narrative to a conclusion, we do not know which
thematic strands, among all the figurative discourses, will turn out to be significant and
above all, how they are supposed to interconnect.
Obviously, central to the whole series is the political theme of the struggle for pow-
er. This is the theme that Martin must bring to a satisfactory conclusion if the books are
to have any coherence at all. It branches off into several subordinate themes: issues of
legitimacy and governance, loyalty to lord or to family, the rule of law, what constitutes
ethical or chivalrous conduct, even the relationship of church and state. At the moment
it is not clear how he is going to bring any of these to a conclusion.
The narrative originally seemed to promise us the story of the Stark family. There
isn’t much left of the Stark family by now, but clearly Martin will have to do something
with the members who are still alive. His attempt to kill off Jon Snow seems to have
failed due to general outrage on the part of his fan base. One question is how he will
manage to connect the fate of the Stark family with the resolution of the themes of
power. But the Stark family is also related to the theme of “winter is coming” and the
walking dead who will presumably appear together with winter. We have been prom-
ised that in the last two seasons of the television series, winter will indeed have come,
but since these seasons are also said to include fewer episodes than the earlier ones,
winter is going to have to hurry.
Then there are the skinchanging abilities of Bran Stark. This theme has been carefully
developed throughout all seven volumes and presumably is meant to lead to something
significant. Part of it are the direwolves (at last count, there were still three direwolves
alive).
There is one theme around which we might group many of the sensual descriptions
and which forms the basis for much of the feeling of realism created by the books. Mar-
tin has a particular fondness for extreme, disgusting sensual descriptions – stink, dirt,
decay, burning flesh, festering wounds, rotting corpses, etc. This element could perhaps
be organised under a heading like “the horrors of war”, but it seems to be equally fre-
quent in peacetime, so probably we are meant to understand it as the horrible nature of
life in general.
Finally, there is the thematic result of the soap-opera narrative structure. It could per-
haps be summed up as “the chaotic nature of human relations”. It is fairly easy to relate
this to the struggle for power, since very nearly all the actors in Martin’s books are com-
pletely untrustworthy and totally unethical in their conduct.
This is a very brief and incomplete account of some of the major themes that Martin
has set in motion. At the end of seven substantial volumes, it is not at all clear how they
relate to each other or to the numerous strands of the plot – in other words, what the
story is ultimately about.
The television series has tightened the narrative structure by drastically reducing both
the number of episodes and the number of characters. But the basic problem remains.
Thematic coherence has improved only marginally.
The feeling of incoherence is probably at least partly responsible for the impressive
amount of internet activity generated by the series, and the enthusiastic speculations on
what will happen next. This is not only a desire for closure. We cannot find a satisfactory
interpretation of the story until we know how it will end.
Of course, from the point of view of the author and his publisher, as well as all those
involved in the production of the television serial, this is an ideal situation. With such
passionate audience expectation, they could go on for years producing new episodes (as
Martin may very well be doing).
However, the risk is that the readers, or viewers, will eventually tire of being constant-
ly frustrated in their attempts to make sense of the story – and ultimately, decide that it
is simply boring.
Endnotes
1. Anne Hénault takes a similar position in Hénault, 1983, pp. 180-90. Umberto Eco argues for a more
complex position in his discussion of the relationship between verbal and non-verbal semiotic sys-
tems (Eco, 1976, pp. 172-174; for the full discussion, see Eco, 1976, pp. 172-217).
2. At least one other composer, Gonzague Zeno, has created another version of the Vinteuil sonata.
Both can be found on YouTube.
3. The elements of this theory, which was developed by Greimas and his students over a period of
more than two decades, can be found in Greimas and Courtés 1979 and 1986. For a more accessi-
ble presentation of the process, see Hénault (1983) especially pp. 123-144.
4. The same model can also account for the production of non-narrative texts, but this is a subject
which does not concern the present paper.
References
Bernioff, D. & Weiss, D. B. (Producers) (2011-2018) (scheduled). Game of thrones [Television series].
Based on A song of ice and fire by George R. R. Martin. New York, NY: HBO.
Greimas, A. J., & Courtès, J. (1979). Sémiotique: Dictionnaire raisonné de la théorie du langage. Pa-
ris: Hachette.
Greimas, A. J., & Courtès, J. (1986). Sémiotique: Dictionnaire raisonné de la théorie du langage, tome
2. Paris: Hachette.
Hénault, A. (1983). Narratologie : sémiotique générale. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.

Hjelmslev, L. (1943/1961). Prolegomena to a theory of language. (Trans. F. J. Whitfield). Madison, WI:
University of Wisconsin Press.
Heuet, S. (Adaptor & artist). (2013/2015). In search of lost time: Swann’s way. A graphic novel by Mar-
cel Proust. (Trans. A. Goldhammer).
Hutcheon, L. (2006). A theory of adaptation. New York, NY & London: Routledge.
Martin, G. R. R. (1996-2011). A song of ice and fire (Vols. 1-7). London: Harper Voyager.
Ruiz, R. (Dir.). (1999). Le temps retrouvé [Motion picture]. Music Jorge Arriagada. France: Gemini Films.
Metaphors
of the lower senses
in Greek modernist poetry
ART
Maria Kakavoulia Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences

mariakakavoulia@gmail.com
Periklis Politis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki ppolitis@jour.auth.gr
Abstract
Poetry can be a rich source of metaphors and, in particular, sensory metaphors. Our
paper explores metaphors of sensory experience in the work of three Greek modern-
ist poets: Matsi Chatzilazarou (1914-1987), Eleni Vakalo (1921-2001) and Katerina An-
ghelaki-Rooke (1939- ). Given that the body and its senses play a central role in their
poetry, we study the lower senses of touch, smell and taste in three collective editions
of poems (Chatzilazarou, 1989, Vakalo, 1995, Anghelaki-Rooke, 2014). We explore the
conceptual metaphors for the lower senses on the basis of their semantic mappings
(source/target domain correspondence) while focusing also on their linguistic expres-
sion. We argue that of all senses touch is predominant in the data we study whereas
smell and taste are mostly related to the experience of feelings or memory.
Keywords
metaphor , lower senses , poetry , modernism

Introduction
Rhetorical tropes in literature, and especially metaphor in poetry, have been the object
of study since antiquity (Ricoeur, 2003). Poetry has been considered to be a rich source
of metaphors and, in particular, sensory metaphors (Stewart, 2002).
Our paper explores metaphors of sensory experience in the oeuvre of three Greek
modernist poets: Matsi Chatzilazarou (1914-1987), Eleni Vakalo (1921-2001) and Kat-
erina Anghelaki-Rooke (1939- ). Given that the body and its senses play a central role in
their poetry, we study the lower senses (touch, smell and taste) in their poems (Chatzila-
zarou, 1989; Vakalo, 1995; Anghelaki-Rooke, 2014). In particular, we explore the concep-
tual metaphors for the lower senses on the basis of their semantic mappings between
source and target domains, while focusing also on their linguistic manifestation.
Modernism and the senses

The transition from 19th century literary movements to modernism involved a shifting of
values in various domains (art, thought, literature, science), a focus on the ‘logic’ of the
unconscious, a representation of the subject as fragmented, a rendering of time as dis-
continuous (non linear), an emphasis on the body and its senses, etc. Vision and sight,
the fascination with the visual and the relevant emerging technologies, were key features
of modernism (Danius, 2002). However, in modernism the visual never came ‘pure’, but
it was always ‘contaminated’ by the work of the other senses (Marcus, 2014; Mirzoeff,
1998; Jay 1998).1
The senses are vehicles of our perceptual apparatus and our bodily experience. As
compared to the senses of touch, smell and taste the motifs of sight, vision and hear-
ing predominate in Greek modernist poetry (Kakavoulia, 2004). In this respect, the three
Greek modernist poets divert from the canon: rather than privileging the visual they em-
phasize the physicality of the body and, particularly, the lower senses.
The poetic oeuvres of Matsi Chatzilazarou (1914-1987), Eleni Vakalo (1921-2001)
and Katerina Anghelaki-Rooke (1939-) belong to three different generations of Greek
modernist poets. Yet, they all give priority to the body and the senses, they all share
questions about the self and the writing female subject. From a literary history point
of view, Chatzilazarou appears in 1944 (as Matsi Andreou) with her collection of po-
ems "Μάης, Ιούνης και Νοέμβρης" (Chatzilazarou, 1944). Chatzilazarou belongs to the
poets with a marked influence of surrealism and the Avant-garde automatic writing
technique (Frantzi, 2015; Arseniou, 2003), while Vakalo has been classified as a post-
war generation poet with various influences (Kakavoulia, 2004).2 Katerina Anghelaki-
Rooke (1939- ) published her first collection of poetry before 1967. Anghelaki-Rooke
is considered to be a poet of the so-called “generation of the Seventies” (along with a
few other poets as Y. Kontos, T. Mastoraki, and others) even though she stands out
in that she writes large poetry syntheses, while aspects of one's personal life and/or
the physiology of the female body become central topics of her poems (Beaton, 1999,
p. 267).
The priority given to the lower senses in the poems of Chatzilazarou, Vakalo and Rooke,
along with their innovative writing practices and a shift towards unexpected topics was pos-
sibly an effect of the influence of psychoanalysis, of surrealism and of the quest to fore-
ground the human body, and in particular the female body (Douka-Kambitoglou, 2005). Al-
ready in 1976, in the literary journal Καινούργια Εποχή (New Era) Vakalo underlines what she
calls "knowledge through the body" ("δια του σώματος γνώση") reminding us of Lakoff and
Johnson’s (1999) term “embodied knowledge”. Vakalo links embodied knowledge to issues
of female subjectivity and ways of perceptual experience (Vakalo, 1976, p.100).
Conceptual Metaphors in Poetry

Research on metaphor from the perspective of the senses has mainly focused on the
sense of sight or hearing (Ortiz, 2011) and rarely on the senses of touch, smell and taste.
In poetry the senses are both treated as physical qualities, but also ‘function’ as source
domains that illuminate abstract notions (values, ideas, etc.) or emotions. Research on
lower sense metaphors in poetry is even less frequent. This paper aspires to fill in the
gap by briefly discussing the metaphorical use of “touch”, “smell” and “taste”, the so-
called “lower” senses, in the work of the above mentioned three poets.
In contrast to the view of metaphor as a literary curiosity, cognitive linguists such as
Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Sweetser (1990), and Turner (1991) have argued that met-
aphor is not just a figure of speech, but an ordinary way of thinking (Lakoff & Johnson,
1980, Semino & Steen, 2008). Metaphor is a ubiquitous phenomenon in everyday lan-
guage and, moreover, it represents the product of a cognitive process by which we un-
derstand one notional domain in terms of another (e.g. KNOWING IS SEEING). Thus con-
strued, metaphoric language is the manifestation of conceptual structure organized by a
“crossdomain mapping”: a systematic set of correspondences between two domains, or
conceptual categories, that results from importing frames or cognitive models from one
domain to another.
In “conceptual metaphor theory” metaphorical expressions are the linguistic manifes-
tation of underlying conceptual knowledge. Whereas traditional approaches of metaphot
have tended to consider metaphorical uses of words and phrases on a case-by-case ba-
sis, cognitive linguists have pointed to patterns in the metaphorical uses of word mean-
ings. For example, when we say “I see what you mean” or “The truth is clear”, we em-
ploy words whose literal meaning concerns the domain of vision, used metaphorically
to characterize the domain of understanding. In such cases, the real topic of discussion
(e.g., understanding) is known as the ‘topic’ or ‘target’ domain, while the domain char-
acteristically associated with the vocabulary (e.g., seeing) is known as the ‘vehicle’ or
‘source’ domain.

The power of metaphors in poetry relies basically in their ability to use mechanisms
of everyday language and common knowledge, while at the same time extending, elab-
orating, compressing or combining elements of this everyday thought in ways that cre-
ate the aesthetic ‘alienation’ and the sense of the ‘extraordinary’ or unusual perspective
(Lakoff & Turner, 1989, p. 67; Kövecses, 2010, pp. 49-62).
Metaphors abound in poetry, but one should be very careful when introducing over-
simplified dichotomies such as conventional vs unconventional metaphors, everyday vs
poetic metaphors etc, because metaphors differ in status and function according to vari-
ous parameters (Semino & Steen, 2008). A basic conceptual metaphor, for instance LIFE
IS A JOURNEY, can have an unconventional form by its mere linguistic manifestation (“In
the middle of life’s road / I found myself in a dark wood”, Dante’s Divine Comedy). In oth-
er words, in terms of conceptual mappings metaphors can be extremely conventional,
while at the same time they can be unusual in terms of linguistic performance. The dis-
tinction between the metaphorical thought (conceptual metaphor) and the language that
expresses that thought (linguistic metaphor) has been at the centre of many cognitive
approaches to metaphor theory. Metaphors in poetry can also function as megameta-
phors for the interpretation of whole poetic collections.
Cross-linguistic studies of the conceptual metaphors related to the lower senses include
the following mappings (Sweetser, 1990; Ibarretxe-Antuñano 1999, 2006), see Table 1.
Table 1 Mapping of the Lower Senses Metaphors
Source
domain TOUCHING SMELLING TASTING
Target IS IS IS
Domain
1 FEELING EXPERIENCING A FEELING FEELING
2 KNOWING KNOWING/UNDERSTANDING KNOWING
3 PRESSING/HURTING A VOLUPTUOUS FEELING PRODUCING A FEELING
4 REACHING THE LIMITS SUSPECTING ENJOYING
5 PERCEIVING/TRAILING
MOVING/ AFFECTING DISLIKING
SOMETHING
6 TRYING/ EXPERIENCING
TEMPTING HAVING AN INSIGHT
SOMETHING
7 GUESSING/SENSING
APPROPRIATING
INTUITIVELY
8 DEALING
PROPHESYING
WITH SOMETHING
9 CONCERNING INVESTIGATING
10 CONSIDERING CORRUPTING
Metaphors of touch
From the analysis of our data, the previously mentioned poetry collections of three Greek
modernist poets, we concluded that the sense with numerous metaphors was by far the
sense of touch in all three collections. The prevalence of tactile imagery, in particular
conceptual metaphors of touch, did not match all possible mappings of everyday met-
aphors as listed above (Ibarretxe-Antuñano, 2006), but only some of them (see Tables
2-6), indicating thereby that touch (holding, grasping, weighing, caressing, etc.) is expe-
rienced as mainly emotion, cognition and spatial awareness (feeling, knowing, coming
closer) (Ong, 1991).
Table 1. TOUCHING IS FEELING
Conceptual
mapping TOUCHING IS FEELING
Linguistic
realization
Touch, dab (αγγίζω), touching (άγγιγμα)… / xαϊδεύω (caress, stroke) / χά-
The act of touching
δι (caress)
Palm (παλάμη), movements (of members of the body) κινήσεις (μελών

The organ of touching
του σώματος)…
Jubilation (αγαλλίαση), desire (πόθος), love (αγάπη), pleasure (ευχαρί-

στηση)…, the lover (εσένα), (the newborn baby) αυτό που γεννιέται, my
The object of touching
wounds (τις πληγές μου), each other (άνθρωποι χαϊδεύονται), the breast
(τα στήθια), Me (εμένα), flesh (σάρκα), the back (πλάτη)
Loving (ερωτική, αγαπητική), recalling joyful memories (ανακλητική αγλα-

The quality of touching ής μνήμης), adoring (χάδι της λατρείας), superficial love (χωρίς ποτέ να
φθάνουν στο κουκούτσι), emotionally affecting (με πήρε άγγιγμα)
Touching = experience of loving and adoring feelings
Examples
1. “Αγαλλίαση η δροσερή παλάμη στήριγμα της πλάτης μου” (Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 67)
2. “… είναι της καρδιάς μου χάδι ν’ αγγίζω αυτό που γεννιέται” (Chatzilazarou, 1989,
p. 87)
3. “… η παλάμη της αγάπης / όταν ζυγιάζει τα στήθια μου” (Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 170)
4. “Ό,τι έγινε μες στον αέρα ήταν / Με πήρε άγγιγμα / Μα ίσως να είχε για μένα κλείσει
ένας καιρός” (Vakalo, 1995, p. 95)
5. “… άνθρωποι… / χαϊδεύονται χωρίς ποτέ / να φτάνουν στο κουκούτσι / έντομα / χαί-
ρονται τα φωτεινά διαλείμματα / στο δέρμα τους” (Rooke, 2014, p. 137)

The touching is feeling metaphor is most frequent in our data and it is realized by a set
of correspondent lexical items (such as verbs and nouns) related to ‘touch’ and to ‘ca-
ress’. The act of touching as feeling/ loving is performed by verbs such as touching, ca-
ressing, stroking (αγγίζω, αγγίζομαι, χαϊδεύω, χαϊδεύομαι) or nouns (touch/ άγγιγμα, ca-
ress/χάδι), even by descriptive expressions such as “you will lay on me” (θα στρωθείς
απάνω μου, Rooke, 2014, p. 155). The organ of touching is the body, the hands, the skin,
the palm, members of the body, etc. The object of touching is concrete (the body, the
breast, the baby, the wounds, the back, the flesh, etc.) and abstract (psych) (the heart,
the self, memories, the beloved one, the dream, the wounds). The quality of touching is
sentimental, erotic, recalling joyful memories, tender and protective, emotionally affect-
ing, soft. In the second example of the touching is feeling metaphors, ‘loving’ is linguis-
tically performed by a metonymy, “the caress of the heart”, that also includes touching.
Table 2. TOUCHING IS KNOWING
Conceptual
mapping TOUCHING IS KNOWING
Linguistic
realization
The act of touching Touch, dab (αγγίζω), touching (αφή)…
The organ of touching Hands (χέρια), skin (δέρμα), the fingers (τα δάχτυλα)
Many things (πολλά πράγματα), the person in love, the lover (το πρόσω-
πο στον έρωτα, η ουσία του), the inconceivable (το ακατανόητο), things (τα
πράγματα), the unknown (τα άγνωρα), the world’s history (το παρελθόν του
κόσμου)
Experiential (βιωματική), penetrating (διεισδυτική), revealing (αποκαλυπτι-

The quality of touching
κή), experimental (πειραματική), presumptive (υποθετική)
Touching = experiential knowledge of an unknown (Other)
Examples
1. “Mην τα φοβάσαι τα χέρια μου / ξέρουνε πολλά περισσότερα από ό,τι έμαθε ποτέ το
βλέμμα μου” (Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 90).
2. “Το πρόσωπο στον έρωτα / δεν έχει οριστική μορφή / και μόνο απ’ την αφή / φωτίζε-
ται η ουσία” (Rooke, 2014, p. 159)
3. “Oι άνθρωποι τ’ άγνωρά τους θαρρούνε πως άγγιξαν” (Vakalo, 1995, p. 171)
The act of touching is an act of knowing performed by verbs (to touch/ αγγίζω), or the
noun ‘touch’ (αφή). The organ of touching is the hand, the fingers or the skin (rare ref-
erence to the organ in the touching-as-knowing metaphor). The object of touching can
be “many things” (πολλά πράγματα), an abstract concept such as the mystical or the un-
known things (τ’άγνωρά τους), the world’s history (το παρελθόν του κόσμου), the in-
conceivable (ό,τι ποτέ σου δεν κατάλαβες πώς έγινε), the true face of the ‘other’, when
in love, the “essence” of the lover (το πρόσωπο στον έρωτα / η ουσία του). The quality of
touching is experiential, revealing, experimental, daring, presumptive. In general, touch-
ing is a sensorial, experiential knowledge of otherness, of unknown things, persons,
emotions or mental processes, etc.
Table 3. TOUCHING IS PRESSING/HURTING
Conceptual
mapping TOUCHING IS PRESSING
Linguistic
realization
Hold (κρατώ), dig into (χώνω), drive into (μπήγω), grasp, catch (πιάνω),
The act of touching
touch (αγγίζω)
The organ of touching Hug (αγκαλιά), fingers (δάχτυλα), hands (χέρια)
Me (εμένα), The little house (το σπιτάκι), the day (η μέρα), time, life (και-
ρός, ζωή), the woman (η γυναίκα), the skin (το δέρμα), the bird (το πουλί)
Loving (αγαπητική), voluptuous (ηδονική), passionate (περιπαθής), fiery
(φλογερή), exciting (διεγερτική), tender (τρυφερή), threatening (απειλητική)
Touching = a loving, threatening or voluptuous “pressure” on an Other
Examples
1. “Το πουλί κι ο αιχμάλωτος για να φύγουν την πρώτη στιγμή απ’τα χέρια σου προσπα-
θούν / πιάνοντας το πουλί…” (Vakalo, 1995, p. 65).
2. ”τα ελαφρά σου δάχτυλα / σαν γάντζοι είναι μπηγμένα / στο φλογισμένο δέρμα / στον
λίγο μου καιρό” (Rooke, 2014, p. 184).
The act of touching as an experience of pressure, physical and psychological pressure,

is based on a metonymic extension of touch, so that the range of its metaphorical uses
is rather limited. The touching as pressing metaphor is linguistically performed by a va-
riety of verbs denoting the experience of pressing as an act ranging from light pressure
(κρατώ, hold) to more intense (πιάνω, grasp) or even threatening pressure (μπήγω, σφίγ-
γω, to hold something/someone tight so that it prevents one from going away, a ”jail-
ing” touch). The organs of touching include ελαφρά δάχτυλα / light fingers, χέρια/hands,
arms, a whole body. The objects of touching are: a woman’s body / τη γυναίκα, a prison-

er/αιχμάλωτος, a home, a little house / σπιτάκι, the burning skin of the poet/ φλογισμέ-
νο μου δέρμα, time (metonymically rendered as the day) / η μέρα, a frightened bird/ ένα
τρομαγμένο πουλί. The quality of touching can be loving, voluptuous or passionate, fiery,
exciting, tender or fearsome. Pressure that is too great and too sudden creates fear, be-
comes threatening. In our material, the touching as pressing metaphor signifies a loving,
threatening or passionate pressure on another person or creature.
Table 5. TOUCHING IS REACHING LIMITS
Conceptual
mapping TOUCHING IS REACHING LIMITS
Linguistic
realization
The act of touching Touch, dab (αγγίζω), lean (ακουμπώ), reaching out a hand (άπλωνε το χέρι)
The organ of touching Body (σώμα), hand (χέρι)
Limits/names of things (όρια/ονόματα πραγμάτων), seashores (ακρογιά-

The object of touching λια), evenings (βράδια), stars (άστρα), angels (άγγελοι), the wall of the
world (τοίχος του κόσμου), the perishable, the mortal (το φθαρτό)
Cognitive (γνωσιακή), emotional, affective (συναισθηματική), experiential
(βιωματική), mystical
Touching = psycho-physical contact with a distant or inaccessible Other
Examples
1. “Με ζωγραφική εσύ αγγίζεις τα όρια που χρωματίζουνε τα πράματα και τα ονόματά
τους” (Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 40)
2. “Γιατί αυτό θα πει ηδονή: / ν’αγγίζεις το φθαρτό / και να παραμερίζεις το θάνατο”
(Rooke, 2014, p. 476)
The act of touching as an experience of reaching limits, of bordering on an inaccessible

or distant other, is linguistically performed by verbs denoting the experience of leaning
(ακουμπώ) or touching (αγγίζω) or reaching out (άπλωνε το χέρι). The organs of touch-
ing include the body (το σώμα μου) or the hand (το χέρι). The objects of touching are rare-
ly concrete such as in white snow or white roses (άσπρα χιόνια/ ή άσπρα τριαντάφυλλα),
and mostly abstract or distant: the stars (τα άστρα), the world’s wall (τοίχο του κόσμου),
what is mortal and perishable (το φθαρτό), the angels (τους αγγέλους), morning sea-
shores (πρωινά ακρογιάλια), the evenings (βράδια), things and their names (τα πράματα
και τα ονόματά τους). The quality of touching can be experiential, cognitive, affective and
mystical. The touching as reaching limits metaphor borders on knowledge beyond the
ordinary, an experience of transcendence. In our material, the touching as reaching limits
metaphor signifies a psycho-physical contact with a distant or inaccessible Other/-ness.
Table 6. TOUCHING IS MOVING/AFFECTING
Conceptual
mapping TOUCHING IS MOVING/AFFECTING
Linguistic
realization
Lean (ακουμπώ), put the hand on (βάζω (το χέρι κπ), spread with (αλεί-
The act of touching
φω)…
The organ of touching your little hand (το χεράκι σου)…, little nails (τα νυχάκια)
Pride (περηφάνια), where it hurts (όπου πονεί), hardness (σκληράδα), chest

(στήθος), the frozen time (η παγωνιά του χρόνου), air (αέρας)
The quality of touching beneficial, physical/psychological influence
Touching = affective psycho-physical influence on an Other
Examples
1 ”να βάλεις το χεράκι σου όπου πονεί … εσύ ή ό,τι άλλο μαλακό να πάρει τη σκληράδα”
(Rooke, 2014, p. 132)
2. “θα λιώσει του χρόνου η παγωνιά / μόλις και μ’ ακουμπήσεις” (Rooke, 2014, p. 225)
3. “Ο αέρας νωρίτερα τη θαλάσσια αρμύρα σου φέρνει / και τα είδη της θάλασσας και τα σχή-
ματα / ο αέρας που έρχεται / στην αφή μας πιο πριν τ’ακουμπάει” (Vakalo, 1995, p. 38)
The act of touching as moving or affecting is linguistically performed by verbs such as

leaning (ακουμπώ), put the hand on (βάζω το χέρι) or spread with (αλείφω). The organs
of touching include the body, your little hand (το χεράκι σου) or the little nails (τα νυ-
χάκια του). The objects of touching are abstract concepts or psychological states: fro-
zen time (του χρόνου η παγωνιά), pride (περηφάνια), where it hurts (όπου πονεί) and
concrete entities and their properties: the chest (τις ροζ πλατείες του στήθους), hard-
ness (τη σκληράδα), the air (αέρας). The quality of touching in this type of metaphor is
beneficial, healing, experiential, and affective. In our material the touching as moving/
affecting metaphor signifies an affective psycho-physical influence of touch on anoth-
er person, the Other.
Metaphors of smell
In our data conceptual metaphors of smell had fewer occurrences than those of touch,
but significantly more occurrences than those of taste. Conceptual metaphors of smell
did not meet most of the mappings of everyday language as listed previously (see Table
1) in our paper. Most of the metaphors of smell performed the SMELLING IS EXPERI-
ENCING A FEELING or SMELLING IS A VOLUPTUOUS FEELING mapping, indicating that

the act of smelling is mainly a pleasant or unpleasant experience, an experience of feel-
ing, of intuitive knowledge or of recognizing a characteristic feature of something (Clas-
sen, 1993; Ibarretxe-Antuñano, 1999).
Table 7. SMELLING IS EXPERIENCING A FEELING
Conceptual
mapping SMELLING IS EXPERIENCING A FEELING
Linguistic
realization
The act of touching Sense (νιώθω), smell (μυρίζω), faint (λιποθυμώ)
The organ of touching (Nose) (μύτη)
Rose (τριαντάφυλλο), rank smell of goats (τραγίλα), thyme’s scents (οσμές

του θυμαριού), anxiety (άγχη), magnolias (μανόλιες), perfume (άρωμα)
The object of touching evening fragrances (ευωδιές των δειλινών) Pride (περηφάνια), where it
hurts (όπου πονεί), hardness (σκληράδα), chest (στήθος), the frozen time
(η παγωνιά του χρόνου), air (αέρας)
Awareness (συνειδητοποίηση), voluptuousness (ηδονισμός), psychic pas-

sion (ψυχικό πάθος ), horror (τρόμος)
Smelling = experiencing a positive or negative feeling
Examples
1. “…τόσες μανόλιες μας λιποθυμούν” (Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 20)
2. “Θρηνώ τις χαίτες των κοριτσιών που’ ναι ριγμένες επάνω στα μαξιλάρια του συμβα-
τικού έρωτα / Θα τους δώσω μέσα στην ποδιά μου ένα άσπρο τριαντάφυλλο / κι ένα
κόκκινο –ίσως τα δούνε, ίσως τα μυρίσουνε” (Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 25)
“Όμως τα άλλα άγχη … / ακόμα με τρομάζουν απαίσια / η μυρουδιά τους η σιχαμερή
3.
κόντεψε πολλές φορές να μοιραστεί το κρεβάτι μου” (Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 167)
The act of smelling as experiencing a feeling is linguistically performed by verbs such as

sense (νιώθω), smell (μυρίζω), faint (λιποθυμώ). The organ of smelling is the nose (μύ-
τη). The objects of smelling are roses (άσπρο τριαντάφυλλο), rank smell of goats (τραγί-
λα), thyme’s scents (οσμές του θυμαριού), anxiety (άγχη), magnolias (μανόλιες), a per-
son’s identity (το πρόσωπο … ένα άρωμα), evening fragrances (ευωδιές των δειλινών).
The quality of smelling in this type of metaphor is passionate, erotic, perceptual, evalua-
tive, defensive, horrifying, and consciousness raising. In our material the smelling as ex-
periencing a feeling metaphor signifies the experience of unpleasant feelings (disgust,
fear, anxiety) and the experience of erotic attraction, passionate love or a pleasant mood,
the process of becoming aware of something, of realizing a hidden truth or of trans-
gressing temporal boundaries by evoking memories of the past.
Metaphors of Taste
The conceptual metaphors of taste were the rarest in our data. The sense of taste is
characterized by its discriminatory character (Ong, 1991, p. 28) and its four properties
(sweet, sour, bitter, salty). In our data conceptual metaphors of taste meet partly the
mappings as shown in Table 1. Thus, conceptual metaphors of taste correspond to the
TASTING IS FEELING, TASTING IS EXPERIENCING SOMETHING, TASTING IS KNOWING
SOMETHING mappings.
Table 8. TASTING IS FEELING
Conceptual
mapping TASTING IS EXPERIENCING A FEELING
Linguistic
realization
Taste (γεύομαι), sweeten (γλυκαίνω/-ομαι), embitter (πικραίνω/-ομαι), feel

The act of touching
a sweetness (νιώθω μια γλύκα, γλυκό σιρόπι δένει μέσα μου).
The organ of touching Mouth (στόμα), lips (χείλη), tongue (γλώσσα)…
The body (το σώμα), the blood (το αίμα), you (εσένα), me (εμένα), fear (φό-
The object of touching βος, τρόμος,) melancholy (μελαγχολία), forbidden fruit (απαγορευμένο
καρπό)…
Loving (ερωτική, αγαπητική), scaring (φοβιστική), fearful, consoling, neg-

ative…
Tasting = experience of loving or “dark” feelings
Examples
1.
“η παράδοση της καρδιάς μας φέρνει έναν τρόμο γλυκύτερο μα ίδιο με τη συσπείρω-
ση που γίνεται των μυών μπροστά σε απειλή” (Vakalo, 1995, p. 65)
2.
“Κάτι γλυκό / σαν σιρόπι δένει μέσα μου / είναι ο φόβος για τη μαύρη τρύπα που από
πάνω της σα μυγίτσα κρέμομαι” (Rooke, 2014, p. 315)
3. “μαζί γευόμαστε την μελαγχολία του χρόνου” (Rooke, 2014, p. 477)
4. “στη γλώσσα μια γεύση προδοσίας” (Rooke, 2014, p. 199)
The TASTING IS FEELING metaphor is less frequent in our data, and it is realized by a
set of corresponding lexical items (verbs, nouns, adjectives such as sweet, bitter etc.).
The act of tasting is linguistically performed by verbs such as taste (γεύομαι), sweeten
(γλυκαίνω/-ομαι), embitter (πικραίνω/-ομαι) or even by descriptive expressions such
as Ι feel sweet/ sweetness (ένιωθα μια γλύκα). The organ of tasting is the mouth (στό-

μα), the lips (χείλη), the tongue (γλώσσα). The object of tasting is both concrete (the
body, the blood, you, me) and psychologically abstract (happiness, fear, melancholy,
sins, forbidden fruits, etc.). Sweet and bitter designate pleasant or unpleasant feel-
ings, whereas taste words when used in more abstract ways mean daring, risking, or
producing feelings of danger or fear. The quality of tasting is tender, loving, consoling,
but also saddening, fearful, negative. In general, tasting is an experience of loving or
negative feelings.
Metaphors of the lower senses without an agent

In our data, a distinct category of lower senses metaphors belongs to those which do not
have a specific actor or agent performing the act of touching, smelling or tasting. In this
case metaphors of touch, smell or taste appear as agent-less events (Ibarretxe-Antu-
ñano, 2006). For example, touch, smell and taste (with their properties, pleasant or un-
pleasant, etc.) are the source domains in the following metaphors:
– LANGUAGE IS A TOUCH (Λέξεις που … μας χαϊδεύουν, Rooke, 2014, p. 38),
– LOVE IS A PERFUME (άρωμα έρωτα, Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 179)
– LIFE IS AN OINTMENT (το μύρο της ζωής, Rooke, 2014, p. 423), and
– POETRY IS A SMELL (είναι λοιπόν η ποίηση / η μυρωδιά που στο δωμάτιο / άφησαν
φεύγοντας οι αγγέλοι, Rooke, 2014, p. 424)
– TASTES ARE MYTHS (Μυθολογία των Γεύσεων, Vakalo, 1995, p. 44), and SEASONS
ARE TASTES > TIME IS A TASTE (ένα φθινόπωρο γλυκό, Rooke, 2014, p. 254).
Synaesthetic Metaphors
We explored the lower senses based metaphors separately. However, in the poems we
examined, the domains of the different senses are interrelated, even more so since the
body, the physical body, remains at the centre of the poetic universe of all three women
poets. There are cross domain mappings between the different senses and one sensory
modality as the primary sense can be evoked by another sensory modality; such map-
pings are realised through synaesthetic linguistic expressions; in particular, synaesthet-
ic metaphors. In synaesthetic metaphors a term expressive of one sense transfers its
meaning to another sense with a variety of extensions as far as the organ, the act or the
agent is concerned (Cacciari, 2008; Yu, 2003; Ullmann, 1945). Since synaesthetic meta-
phors do not constitute the main focus of this study, we will only briefly indicate some
examples (Table 9).
Table 9. Synaesthetic metaphors
Matsi Chatzilazarou
vision → touch το βλέμμα σου χαϊδεύει την κοιλιά μου
(1989, p. 172)
Katerina Anghelaki-Rooke
touch → taste Αγγίζω και σε γεύομαι
(2014, p. 216)
Matsi Chatzilazarou
touch → smell τα χάδια σου μυρίζουνε γαρύφαλλο
(1989, p. 67)
Katerina Anghelaki-Rooke
smell → taste άρωμα γλυκούτσικο
(2014, p. 328)
The crossmodal nature of sensory experience occurs in the SEEING IS TOUCHING meta-
phor: “το βλέμμα σου χαϊδεύει την κοιλιά μου” (Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 172). When touch
words are transferred to taste we have the TOUCHING IS TASTING metaphor as in “Αγγί-
ζω και σε γεύομαι” (Rooke, 2014, p. 216). Moreover, touch words are also shifted to de-
note smell, as in the TOUCHING IS SMELLING metaphor (“τα χάδια σου μυρίζουνε γαρύ-
φαλλο”, Chatzilazarou, 1989, p. 67). Also, the close interrelation of taste and smell gives
metaphors such as SMELLING IS TASTING as in “άρωμα γλυκούτσικο” (Rooke, 2014,
p. 328).
Even though synaesthetic metaphors, and the interchangeability of senses in the tar-
get and source domains, are not part of our main focus in the present study, there is
great potential for further research in the field of modernist poetry, because cross-sen-
sory correspondences create new meanings or point out unfamiliar relationships.
Conclusions
In our data we came across various modes (literally, metaphorically, metonymically) of
representation of the lower senses (actions, organs, object, quality, etc.) in the poems of
the surrealist Matsi Chatzilazarou (1914-1987), the modernist Eleni Vakalo (1921-2001)
and the late modernist Katerina Anghelaki-Rooke (1939- ). Our study traced only the
lower senses metaphors and their linguistic realizations through their poems.
We focused on the way lower sense metaphors conceptualize the experience of ab-
stract entities such as feelings, ideas, thoughts, other bodily experiences, emotions, spa-
tial relationships, etc. The relationship between the lower senses and the linguistic met-
aphors in Greek modernist poetry had rarely, if at all, been explored. The re-examination
of the three authors’ poems through the perspective of sensory metaphors gave us ma-
ny wonderful examples of linguistic metaphors of the lower senses, some of which we
referred to as examples of the relevant mappings (Tables 1-9).
Among the senses considered in our study, the sense of touch predominated in all
collections of poetry with a variety of mappings and through an overabundance of touch

words (soft, hard, etc.) and tactile imagery; the sense of smell had less frequent occur-
rences while the sense of taste significantly fewer. The TOUCHING IS FEELING metaphor
was the most frequent mapping in our material - compared to others such as TOUCH-
ING IS AFFECTING, TOUCHING IS KNOWING, and TOUCHING IS PRESSING / HURTING.
Some further yet partial conclusions can be also drawn concerning differences be-
tween the three authors in the use of lower senses metaphors. Sensory metaphors of
smell were significantly more frequent in Chatzilazarou’s poems rather than in Vakalo’s
or Rooke’s who had an equal proportion of them, whereas sensory metaphors of taste
were hierarchically more frequent in Anghelaki-Rooke’s poems, secondly in Vakalo’s po-
ems and last in Chatzilazarou’s poems. For both the senses of smell and taste the dom-
inant mapping was SMELLING IS EXPERIENCING A FEELING and TASTING IS FEELING.
In other words, all three poets explored the sense of touch as another way of knowing,
‘seeing’, and feeling things, and the senses of smell or taste as parts of the physical uni-
verse that indicated a relationship between smell or taste and emotions (positive or neg-
ative), memory or nostalgia. Moreover, in our data there is a numerous presence of sy-
naesthetic metaphors with a rich potential for further research.
Conceptual metaphors of the senses typically draw from the “higher” senses of vision
or hearing (source domain) in order to describe (target domain) non sensory experience
(abstract concepts). In our data, however, consisting of women’s poetry with a distinct
emphasis on the physical body, a diverse phenomenon is observed: the lower senses of
touch, smell and taste create the metaphorical bridge to abstract notions such as knowl-
edge, life, love, intellectual or affective processes (for instance TOUCHING IS KNOWING).
The corporeal, ‘practical’ (Hegel) senses of smell, taste and touch affirm the embodi-
ment of the perceiver; affirm a move from the abstract, disembodied senses of vision or
hearing to an embodied “aisthesis” (smell, touch, taste) that is better connected to “noe-
sis”, to mental or emotive experiences. The poems, thereby, suggest that true and deep
knowledge or emotions can be reached by attending to senses other than only vision:
touching, smelling, tasting.
The lower senses metaphors are strongly related to the quest for an alternative way
of perceiving and understanding the world in the poetry of all three Greek modernist po-
ets we studied.
Endnotes
1. Already in early modernism as, for instance, in the poems of the symbolists Stéphane Mallarmé and
Charles Baudelaire, there are many synaesthetic transpositions to be found.
2. Dallas (2000) correctly considers Vakalo’s poetry as closely related to that of M. Sachtouris and E.
Gonatas and not strictly belonging to a specific post-war poetic movement.
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Σημειωτικοί κώδικες
μέσω της αφής
και της κιναισθητικής
διαφοροποίησης
με αφόρμηση την πολυτροπική ανάγνωση
αποσπάσματος από το μυθιστόρημα
Ο Αφέντης Μπατίστας και τ’ άλλα
ART
του Κώστα Μόντη
Λουίζα Χριστοδουλίδου Πανεπιστημιο Αιγαiου xristod@rhodes.aegean.gr
Μιχαήλ Παπαδόπουλος Πανεπιστημιο Αιγαiου papadomichael@gmail.com
Περίληψη
Ο σύγχρονος άνθρωπος κατακλύζεται από πολυτροπικά κείμενα τα οποία εμπεριέχουν
μια πολύπλοκη αλληλεπίδραση γραπτού λόγου, εικόνων, γραφικών ή ηχητικών στοι-
χείων, δηλαδή τρόπων που λειτουργούν συμπληρωματικά για την παραγωγή νοήματος
(Κress, 2010). Τα λογοτεχνικά έργα παρότι εμπεριέχουν εικονιστικά στοιχεία εντός του
γραπτού τυπωμένου κειμένου, τυπικά, μπορούν να χαρακτηρισθούν ως μονοτροπικά,
από την άποψη ότι δεν αξιοποιούν μη λεκτικούς σημειωτικούς τρόπους. Προσεγγίζοντας
ένα απόσπασμα από το μυθιστόρημα Ο Αφέντης Μπατίστας και τ’ άλλα του Κώστα Μόντη,
και προσδίδοντάς του, κατά την παρουσίασή του, με τη χρήση ηχητικών ερεθισμάτων,
πολυτροπικό χαρακτήρα, στοχεύουμε να αναδείξουμε, σε ένα πρώτο επίπεδο, τις σημα-
σιοδοτικές μεταβολές που συντελούνται και σε ένα δεύτερο επίπεδο να διερευνήσουμε
τους σημειωτικούς κώδικες που αναδεικνύονται μέσω αυτής της παρέμβασης. Πρόκει-
ται για κώδικες που εκφράζουν την ανθρώπινη αντίδραση, μέσω της αφής και της κιναι-
σθητικής διαφοροποίησης, σε περιστάσεις που σχετίζονται με την επίτευξη ενός σκοπού
ή την αποτυχία, το καλωσόρισμα και την αποδοχή ή την αποστροφή.
Ο Αφέντης Μπατίστας και τ’ άλλα , Μόντης , αφή , κιναισθητική διαφοροποίηση

Εισαγωγή
Η παρούσα εργασία προσεγγίζει ένα απόσπασμα από το μυθιστόρημα Ο Αφέντης Μπατί-
στας και τ’ άλλα του Κώστα Μόντη, επιδιώκοντας μέσω της ενίσχυσης του πολυτροπικού
χαρακτήρα του κειμένου να αναδείξει σημεία και σημειωτικούς κώδικες που περιέχονται
σε αυτό, διερευνώντας συγχρόνως και τους σημειωτικούς τρόπους με τους οποίους αυ-
τά εκδηλώνονται. Πρόκειται για σημεία και κώδικες που εκφράζουν την ανθρώπινη αντί-
δραση, μέσω της αφής και της κιναισθητικής διαφοροποίησης, σε περιστάσεις που σχετίζο-
νται με την επίτευξη ενός σκοπού ή την αποτυχία, το καλωσόρισμα και την αποδοχή ή την
αποστροφή. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό ανιχνεύονται και οι πιθανές αισθητηριακές-τροπικές μετα-
βολές που έχουν υποστεί οι συγκεκριμένοι σημειωτικοί κώδικες, δηλαδή, οι αλλαγές που
έχουν ανακύψει με το πέρασμα του χρόνου όσον αφορά τα μέσα και τους τρόπους έκφρα-
σής τους. Ως απώτερος στόχος τίθεται η ενδυνάμωση της αναγνωστικής υποψίας, ιδιαίτε-
ρα στη σημερινή εποχή η οποία χαρακτηρίζεται από την αναγνώριση της πολυσημίας των
κειμένων και από το αυξημένο ενδιαφέρον, όχι μόνο για τη δημιουργία αλλά και την πρό-
σληψη του μηνύματος.
Θεωρητικές προσεγγίσεις
Πολυτροπικότητα
Η χρήση της γλώσσας μονοπωλεί συνήθως το ενδιαφέρον, κατά τη διαδικασία της παρα-
γωγής νοήματος, παρά το γεγονός ότι η νοηματοδότηση δε στηρίζεται αποκλειστικά σε
αυτήν. Ένα πλήθος σημειωτικών μέσων, όπως εκφράσεις, κινήσεις, χειρονομίες, συνδρά-
μουν τον λόγο διαδραματίζοντας, ανάλογα, σημαντικό ρόλο. Βασική θέση της πολυτροπι-
κότητας είναι ότι η επικοινωνία συντελείται με πολλούς σημειωτικούς τρόπους και όχι μό-
νο μέσω της γλώσσας. Ως πολυτροπικά, λοιπόν, χαρακτηρίζονται τα κείμενα που βασίζο-
νται σε πολλαπλά σημειωτικά συστήματα και δημιουργούνται με συνδυασμό περισσότερων
του ενός σημειωτικών τρόπων: γλωσσικού, οπτικού, ηχητικού κ.λπ. (Χοντολίδου, 1999).
Οι αρχικές προσεγγίσεις των πολυτροπικών κειμένων επικεντρώνονταν ιδιαίτερα στον
τρόπο διασύνδεσης του λεκτικού και του εικονιστικού μηνύματος. Με βάση το συγκεκρι-
μένο κριτήριο, ο Barthes διακρίνει δυο μεγάλες κατηγορίες για τις οποίες χρησιμοποιεί
τις έννοιες της αγκίστρωσης και της αναμετάδοσης. Στην πρώτη κατηγορία εντάσσονται τα
κείμενα στα οποία το εικονιστικό μήνυμα αποτελεί μια απλή εικονογράφηση ή επεξήγηση
του γραπτού μηνύματος, ενώ στη δεύτερη κατηγορία ανήκουν τα κείμενα στα οποία το ει-
κονιστικό μήνυμα προεκτείνει το λεκτικό (1977, σελ. 38-41).
Σύμφωνα με τους G. Kress και T. Van Leeuwen, οι οποίοι αποτελούν τους κυριότερους
εκφραστές της σύγχρονης πολυτροπικής θεωρίας, το πολυτροπικό νόημα παράγεται σε
τέσσερα επίπεδα ή στρώματα: στο επίπεδο του λόγου, με την έννοια ότι αυτός αποτελεί κοι-
νωνικό προϊόν που παράγεται με πολλούς σημειωτικούς τρόπους και όχι αποκλειστικά με
τη γλώσσα, στο επίπεδο του σχεδίου, το οποίο σχετίζεται με την αναζήτηση των κατάλλη-
λων, για κάθε περίσταση, σημειωτικών τρόπων, σε εκείνο της παραγωγής, ως διαδικασίας
συγκρότησης σημειωτικών προϊόντων και τέλος, στο επίπεδο της κατανομής που συνδέε-
ται με την αποκωδικοποίηση και διανομή των σημειωτικών προϊόντων (2001α, σελ. 4-8).
Χαρακτηριστικό στοιχείο των νεώτερων προσεγγίσεων είναι η αμφισβήτηση της πρω-
τοκαθεδρίας της γλώσσας στη διαμόρφωση του πολυτροπικού νοήματος και η παράλ-
ληλη αναγνώριση ισότιμου ρόλου και σε άλλους σημειωτικούς τρόπους (Kress & Van
Leeuwen, 2001β: 16).
Σημειωτικά συστήματα - Kιναισθητική διαφοροποίηση και Αφή

Καθημερινά ο σύγχρονος άνθρωπος έρχεται σε επαφή, αποκωδικοποιεί, ερμηνεύει και
χρησιμοποιεί ένα πλήθος από σημειωτικά συστήματα. Κάποια από αυτά έχουν διαμορ-
φωθεί ειδικά για την επικοινωνία, όπως η φυσική και η γραπτή γλώσσα, ενώ κάποια άλλα
χρησιμοποιούν τη γλώσσα συνδυαστικά με άλλους κώδικες. Εκτός όμως από τη γλώσ-
σα υπάρχουν κι άλλα σημειωτικά συστήματα, όπως η τέχνη, η μουσική, ο χορός, οι κινή-
σεις του σώματος, ακόμα και οι εκφράσεις του προσώπου (Boklund-Λαγοπούλου, 1979,
σελ. 15). Τα τελευταία από τα παραπάνω συστήματα σχετίζονται άμεσα με την κιναισθη-
τική διαφοροποίηση, δηλαδή με την ικανότητα αίσθησης της έντασης της κίνησης και τη
σωστή κινητική συμπεριφορά (Drabik, 1996).
Το σύστημα χειρονομιών και το κινησιακό σύστημα συνέχονται από σημασιολογικές
συμβάσεις εξίσου αυστηρές με τις συμβάσεις οι οποίες διέπουν το γλωσσικό σύστημα
(Elam, 2001, σελ. 50). Η σωματική κίνηση, ως επικοινωνιακό διάμεσο, αποτελεί αντικεί-
μενο της σημειολογίας των κινησιακών σχέσεων, μιας επιστήμης που έχει αναπτυχθεί κυ-
ρίως στην αμερικανική ήπειρο με σημαντικότερο εκπρόσωπο τον Ray Birdwhistell. Κε-
φαλαιώδης ανακάλυψη της συγκεκριμένης επιστήμης είναι ότι κάθε πολιτισμός επιλέγει
από ένα τεράστιο απόθεμα έναν αυστηρά περιορισμένο αριθμό διακριτών μονάδων κίνη-
σης (Elam, 2001, σελ. 92).
O Birdwhistell ορίζει τις διακριτές αυτές εκφράσεις-κινήσεις ως κινήματα, σε αντιστοι-
χία –κατά κάποιο τρόπο– με τα φωνήματα. Τα κινήματα συνδυαζόμενα μεταξύ τους δημι-
ουργούν πιο σύνθετες μονάδες, τις κινημορφές. αυτές με τη σειρά τους μπορούν να συ-
γκροτήσουν σύνθετες κινημορφές οι οποίες, κατ’ αναλογία, μπορούν να συσχετιστούν με
τις λέξεις και να αρθρώσουν κινημορφικές κατασκευές που να διαθέτουν πολλές από τις
ιδιότητες μιας ομιλούμενης συντακτικής πρότασης (Birdwhistell, 1971, σελ. 101).
Το συντακτικό σχήμα του Birdwhistell δέχθηκε αρκετές επικρίσεις, κυρίως διότι ερμη-
νεύθηκε ως μια απλή αναλογική εφαρμογή με βάση το γλωσσικό σύστημα (Elam, 2001,
σελ. 93). Κατά τoν Daniel Stern (1973, σελ. 117), η σημαντικότερη διαφορά μεταξύ των
δυο ειδών μονάδων είναι ότι, ενώ το γλωσσικό σύστημα είναι συμβολικό γεγονός, οι κι-
νησιακές μονάδες δεν είναι σύμβολα, καθώς, παρά το σημειωτικό τους υπόβαθρο, έχουν
κατά πρώτο και κύριο λόγο φυσιολογική και πρακτική λειτουργία.
Κάποια άλλα σημειωτικά συστήματα σχετίζονται με την αίσθηση της αφής που συνδέε-
ται με το μεγαλύτερο σε έκταση όργανο του σώματος, το δέρμα. Όταν μιλάμε για την αφή
ως αίσθηση, εννοούμε πέντε σωματοαισθητικές ποιότητες: την αίσθηση της πίεσης, της
δόνησης και τρομώδους κίνησης, της θερμοκρασίας, της κίνησης του σώματος και του
πόνου (Μαντοκούδης, 2012).
Η αίσθηση της αφής συνδέεται με την ανάπτυξη της απτικής συμπεριφοράς η οποία με
τη σειρά της συμβάλλει στη διαμόρφωση της απτικής επικοινωνίας (Stevenson & Poole,
1976). Ως απτική συμπεριφορά νοείται η επικοινωνία που έχει ως βάση της την επαφή
και τα απτικά βιώματα τα οποία δημιουργεί (Κοντάκος & Σταμάτης, 2004). Μια χειραψία,
ένα χάδι ή ένα άγγιγμα βιώνονται με όλες τις συναισθηματικές τους διαβαθμίσεις μέ-
σω συγκεκριμένης απτικής συμπεριφοράς που υπέχει θέση φρασεολογικού κώδικα επι-
κοινωνίας ο οποίος, είναι δυνατόν, εφόσον γίνεται κατανοητός, να διδάσκεται (Βρεττός,
2003).
Είναι γεγονός πως η απτική επικοινωνία επιδέχεται διαφορετική ερμηνεία και προ-
σλαμβάνει διαφορετικό νόημα και περιεχόμενο, καθώς πραγματώνεται σε διαφορετικά
επικοινωνιακά περιβάλλοντα (Κοντάκος & Σταμάτης, 2004). Ωστόσο, μέσα από σχετικές
έρευνες, έχει διαπιστωθεί πως άνθρωποι, από ένα αναπτυγμένο, κοινωνικά, και παρεμ-
φερές πολιτισμικό περιβάλλον, μπορούν να ερμηνεύσουν με μεγάλη επιτυχία τον θυμό,
τον φόβο, την αηδία, τη συμπάθεια, την αγάπη και την ευγνωμοσύνη μέσω της αφής
(Hertenstein, Keltner, Holmes & McCullough, 2009). Μάλιστα, είναι αξιοσημείωτο πως οι
κοινωνικοί κώδικες όχι μόνο σχετίζονται με την ερμηνεία της σωματικής επαφής, αλλά
διέπουν σε μεγάλο βαθμό και τη συχνότητά της (Argyle, 1969, σελ. 93).
Τόσο η αφή όσο και η κιναισθητική διαφοροποίηση ανήκουν στο μη λεκτικό επικοινω-
νιακό φάσμα. παρόλα αυτά διαδραματίζουν ένα σημαντικό επικοινωνιακό ρόλο και η με-
λέτη τους έχει συμβάλει στην αμφισβήτηση της πρωτοκαθεδρίας της όρασης στο σημει-
ωτικό πεδίο.
Σημειωτικοί κώδικες σε απόσπασμα του μυθιστορήματος

ο Αφέντης Μπατίστας και τ’ άλλα
Το μυθιστόρημα Ο Αφέντης Μπατίστας και τ’ άλλα εκδόθηκε το 1980 και αποτελεί το εκτε-
νέστερο πεζογραφικό έργο του Κώστα Μόντη. Ο λογοτέχνης είναι ήδη ευρύτατα γνωστός
τόσο από το ποιητικό του έργο όσο και από τη νουβέλα Κλειστές πόρτες, την οποία εξέ-
δωσε το 1964, επιτυγχάνοντας να ανατρέψει την εικόνα που αποτύπωναν τα Πικρολέμο-
να του Λώρενς Ντάρρελ για τον Έλληνα της Κύπρου. Είχε βέβαια εκφράσει νωρίτερα τις
πεζογραφικές του αναζητήσεις μέσω της σύντομης αφηγηματικής φόρμας του διηγήμα-
τος, καθώς και των ταξιδιωτικών ανταποκρίσεών του από τα φοιτητικά χρόνια.
Ένα από τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά του Αφέντη Μπατίστα και τ’ άλλα είναι η πρόδηλη δι-
μερής δομική του κατασκευή (Ηροδότου, 1994, σελ. 501-502). Στο πρώτο μέρος του μυ-
θιστορήματος, αρχικά, κυριαρχούν οι ιστορίες της γιαγιάς για τον προπάππου της, εξελ-
ληνισμένο Βενετσιάνο, αφέντη Μπατίστα, ενώ στη συνέχεια η αφήγηση μετατρέπεται σε
χρονικό της οικογένειας με εμφανή τα αυτοβιογραφικά στοιχεία. Το δεύτερο μέρος αποτε-
λεί ένα σύντομο αφήγημα με ήρωες έναν εξισλαμισμένο πρόγονο του αφηγητή, τον Τουρ-
κομπατίστα και τον γιο του Αντωνέλλο. Ο τελευταίος, μετά τον γάμο του με μια Ενετή και
τη μετεγκατάστασή του στο νησί, οδηγείται στον φόνο ενός Τούρκου και, συνακόλουθα,
φυγοδικεί.
Στη μεγαλύτερη έκταση του μυθιστορήματος, ως φορέας της αφήγησης, εμφανίζε-
ται ο εξωδιηγητικός συγγραφέας-αφηγητής, ο οποίος, με συχνές παρεκβάσεις, διακόπτει
τη διήγηση διατυπώνοντας αυτοαναφορικά σχόλια, κρίσεις, συμπεράσματα και προβλη-
ματισμούς ακόμα και για την ίδια τη λογοτεχνική διαδικασία. Κάποιες φορές αυτές οι πα-
ρεκβάσεις σχετίζονται με το ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον του για τις κινήσεις των προσώπων της
αφήγησης, την ερμηνεία και τη σημασιοδότηση των αντιδράσεων και των συμπεριφορών
τους. Μία τέτοιου είδους παρέκβαση εμπεριέχεται στο απόσπασμα που προσεγγίζει η με-
λέτη μας και που παρατίθεται στη συνέχεια. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, πρόκειται για αφηγηματι-
κό τμήμα από τις πρώτες σελίδες του μυθιστορήματος στο οποίο ο αφηγητής περιγράφει
τις επισκέψεις στη γιαγιά του:
«Ήμουνα ο πιο τακτικός επισκέπτης της γιαγιάς. Ανέβαινα αργά και φαρ-
διά σαν πιτσίλισμα σε νερό τα σκαλιά που μ’ έβγαναν στο περιθώριό της, το
περιθώριο που η ίδια το θέλησε.
– Μου αρέσει έτσι ξεμοναχιασμένα κ’ ήσυχα, κόρη μου, έλεγε στη μητέρα.
– Κ’ η σκάλα;
– Έξι σκαλιά είναι. Θα τ’ ανεβαίνω σιγά-σιγά.
Έχετε προσέξει πως πατάν στο τελευταίο σκαλί τα μικρά παιδιά, με πόση
νίκη, με πόση τελεία, με πόσο τέρμα, με πόσο “φτάξαμε”; (Έτσι, πληθυντικά,
“φτάξαμε”. Έχει σημασία ο πληθυντικός) [...]
Ήμουνα όπως είπα, ο πιο τακτικός επισκέπτης της γιαγιάς κι ο πιο πιστός.
Καθώς τ’ αδέρφια μου μεγάλωναν κ’ έκαναν απουσίες ή ξέκοβαν ολότελα
απ’ το μετζανώγι ένα-ένα, εγώ παρέμενα. Πλαφ, πλαφ, πλαφ το πιτσίλισμα
στην ξύλινη σκάλα και πλααφ το φτάξιμο και το κάρφωμα της παντιέρας.
– Γεια σου, γιαγιά!
Μου άνοιγε την αγκαλιά της και μου απαντούσε μ’ ένα δίστιχο:
Καλώς τ’ αυτιά τ’ ακούραστα, τ’ αυτιά τα πεινασμένα,

καλώς τα μάτια των ματιών τα πολυαγαπημένα» (Μόντης, 1980, σελ. 11-12).
Στο εν λόγω απόσπασμα το ενδιαφέρον του Μόντη εστιάζεται σε μια φαινομενικά ασήμα-
ντη λεπτομέρεια: στον τρόπο που ο μικρός ήρωας ανεβαίνει τις σκάλες, για να επισκεφτεί
κάθε φορά τη γιαγιά του. Ο αφηγητής, με ευφάνταστη διάθεση, παρομοιάζει με ήχο από
πιτσιλιές τον θόρυβο που προκαλούν τα πατήματά του και επικεντρώνεται ιδιαίτερα στο
τελευταίο θριαμβικό πάτημα το οποίο σηματοδοτεί το τέλος της ανάβασης, την επίτευξη
του σκοπού, το κάρφωμα –όπως εύστοχα αναφέρεται πιο κάτω– της παντιέρας. Στο ση-
μείο αυτό ο ήρωας διακόπτει τη διήγηση και απευθυνόμενος στους αποδέκτες της αφή-
γησης θέτει το ερώτημα «αν έχουν προσέξει πως πατάν το τελευταίο σκαλί τα μικρά παι-
διά». Ο Μόντης, προφανώς, με το παραπάνω ρητορικό ερώτημα, επιδιώκει να δώσει έμ-
φαση στο συγκεκριμένο μέρος της αφήγησης και να αναπροσανατολίσει τον αναγνώστη
από τα εν γένει γεγονότα της διήγησης σε μια έκφανση-εκδήλωση της ανθρώπινης συ-
μπεριφοράς.
Κάτι αντίστοιχο επιχειρείται με την ενσωμάτωση ηχητικών ερεθισμάτων που προσο-
μοιάζουν τα βήματα του μικρού ήρωα κατά την ψηφιακή προβολή-παρουσίαση του απο-
σπάσματος στο πλαίσιο του Συνεδρίου. Η εμπλοκή μιας και μόνο ακόμα αίσθησης, της
ακοής, ενδυναμώνει τον πολυτροπικό χαρακτήρα του κειμένου, συμβάλλοντας όχι μόνο
στην επικέντρωση του ενδιαφέροντος στο επιδιωκόμενο σημείο της αφήγησης, αλλά και
στην ανάδειξη στοιχείων που σχετίζονται με τη σημασιοδότησή του.
Η παρέμβαση τού αφηγητή, αλλά και τα ηχητικά ερεθίσματα μάς παρακινούν να εστια-
στούμε ιδιαίτερα στο τελευταίο πάτημα. Να αναλογιστούμε «με πόση νίκη, με πόση τελεία,
με πόσο τέρμα, με πόσο “φτάξαμε”» το πράττουν τα παιδιά. Να καταφύγουμε στη μνήμη
μας, για να ανασύρουμε ανάλογες στιγμές τις οποίες έχουμε βιώσει είτε ως παρατηρη-
τές είτε ως πρωταγωνιστές. Έτσι, θα καταστεί ακόμα πιο φανερό πως αυτή η διαφοροποί-
ηση στην κίνηση του σώματος, αυτό το έντονο πάτημα, συνδέεται από πολύ μικρή ηλι-
κία με όσα μας αναφέρει ο αφηγητής, δηλαδή με τη νίκη, με το τέρμα και με την επίτευξη
ενός σκοπού. αποτελεί με άλλα λόγια, ένα σημείο. Και δεν πρέπει να μας κάνει εντύπωση
το πώς τα παιδιά κατέχουν αυτή τη γνώση και οδηγούνται σε αυτή τη συσχέτιση. Αρκεί να
σκεφτούμε τον σημαντικό ρόλο του παιχνιδιού στη μετάδοση αντίστοιχων πληροφοριών
(εδώ υπεισέρχεται και ο πληθυντικός που επισημαίνει ο συγγραφέας) αλλά και τη συμπε-
ριφορά των ενηλίκων. Είναι σύνηθες, για παράδειγμα, το φαινόμενο οι γονείς να καταφεύ-
γουν στον επιτονισμό του τελευταίου ψηφίου μιας σειράς αριθμών ή ενός πλήθους αντι-
κειμένων, όταν προσπαθούν να εκπαιδεύσουν σε πολύ μικρή ηλικία τα παιδιά τους (ένα,
δύο, τρία… οκτώ, εννέα δέκααα). Και είναι επίσης γνωστή και η θέση ορισμένων θεωρη-
τικών ότι «τα σημεία δεν είναι ποτέ αυθαίρετα» (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996, σελ. 7). Μά-
λιστα, το διαφοροποιημένο πάτημα, φαίνεται να είναι μια συνειδητή επιλογή, να έχει δη-
λαδή επικοινωνιακό (προθετικό) χαρακτήρα, διατρανώνοντας το «τέρμα» και την επιτυ-
χία, αν και δεν αποκλείεται κάποιες φορές να εκδηλώνεται αυθόρμητα ως μια μηχανική
επανάληψη (Πεφάνης, 1999, σελ. 72). Είναι δύσκολο να διαπιστωθεί αν αυτό που αποδί-
δει την ιδιαίτερη σημασιοδότηση στο συγκεκριμένο πάτημα είναι μόνο η διαφοροποίηση
του παραγόμενου ήχου ή αποκλειστικά η μεταβολή της κινητικής συμπεριφοράς ή αν τε-
λικά πρόκειται για συνδυασμό και των δύο.
Οι άνθρωποι, γενικά, χρησιμοποιούν συχνά τις κινήσεις τους σώματος, την αίσθηση
της αφής, τις χειρονομίες και τις εκφράσεις του προσώπου, προκειμένου να μεταδώσουν
το μήνυμα της νίκης και της επιτυχίας. Έτσι, δεν είναι σπάνιο μια αγκαλιά, δυο υψωμένα
χέρια ή ένα πλατύ χαμόγελο να συνδέονται με τις συγκεκριμένες έννοιες (Young & Ellis,
1989, σελ. 112). Βέβαια, ένα άγγιγμα, μια χειρονομία ή ένα χαμόγελο αποτελούν αναλογι-
κά σημεία, τα οποία διαβαθμίζονται σε ένα συνεχές φάσμα. Μπορούν δηλαδή να σημάνουν
άπειρες λεπτές διακρίσεις, καθώς δεν είναι δυνατό να καθορίσουμε τον αριθμό των χα-
μόγελων ή των γέλιων που διαθέτει ένα άτομο στο ρεπερτόριό του (Cook, 1992, σελ. 67).
Συνεπώς και το κάθε έντονο πάτημα του μικρού ήρωα της αφήγησης, όταν φτάνει στο τέ-
λος της σκάλας, δεν μπορεί να είναι ακριβώς το ίδιο. Αυτή η διαφοροποίηση όμως δεν
επηρεάζει τη σχέση του σημαίνοντος με το σημαινόμενο. ακόμα κι αν είναι λίγο διαφορε-
τικό το πάτημα, η σημασία του διατηρείται.
Πέρα όμως από την επιτυχία υπάρχει και η αποτυχία, που κι αυτή εκφράζεται πολύ συ-
χνά μέσω μορφασμών ή κινήσεων του σώματος. Έτσι, το κλάμα, το κατεβασμένο κεφάλι
και η δυσφορία στην έκφραση του προσώπου πολλές φορές συνδέεται με την ήττα ή την
αδυναμία επίτευξης κάποιου σκοπού.
Στο παραπάνω απόσπασμα από τον Αφέντη Μπατίστα και τ’ άλλα, η γιαγιά εμφανίζεται
να υποδέχεται τον εγγονό της ανοίγοντας την αγκαλιά της και τραγουδώντας ένα δίστι-
χο. Η ανοιχτή αγκαλιά και το τραγούδι, με αυτού του είδους το περιεχόμενο, εκφράζουν
το καλωσόρισμα της γιαγιάς και αποτελούν σημεία, καθώς η συγκεκριμένη συσχέτιση εί-
ναι γνώριμη. Μάλιστα στην περίπτωση αυτή έχουμε την ανάμειξη δύο σημειωτικών συ-
στημάτων, της γλώσσας και των κινήσεων του σώματος (Σετάτος, 1986, σελ. 27), εφό-
σον η γιαγιά τραγουδούσε ανοίγοντας συγχρόνως την αγκαλιά της. Η αγκαλιά, ως σημείο,
εκφράζει και έναν σημαντικό αριθμό συμπαραδηλώσεων, δηλαδή «δυνατών σημαινομέ-
νων» (Thwaites, Lloyd & Warwick, 1994, σελ. 57-58), όπως αγάπη, στοργή, τρυφερότη-
τα, ασφάλεια κ.ά., εμπλέκοντας κατά την πραγμάτωσή της και την αίσθηση της αφής. Το
ίδιο ισχύει και στην περίπτωση του τραγουδιού, ενώ δεν πρέπει να λησμονείται η ύπαρξη
μιας ολόκληρης κατηγορίας τραγουδιών με αποκλειστικό θέμα το καλωσόρισμα.
Η φιλοφρονητική υποδοχή κάποιου μπορεί βέβαια να σημασιοδοτείται και με άλλους
τρόπους, όπως με μια θερμή χειραψία, ένα νεύμα, ένα χαμόγελο ή μια έκφραση του προ-
σώπου. Στον αντίποδα, η αποστροφή σε κάποιο πρόσωπο ή κάποιο αντικείμενο μπορεί να
αποδίδεται με την αμυντική στάση του σώματος και την αρνητική διάθεση απέναντι στην
παραμικρή σωματική επαφή, με γκριμάτσες δυσφορίας, με το κλείσιμο της μύτης, των μα-
τιών ή τη μεταστροφή του βλέμματος.
Θα πρέπει να επισημανθεί πως ο σημασιοδοτικός χαρακτήρας των ανθρώπινων κινή-
σεων, και ειδικότερα των χειρονομιών, δέχθηκε κατά καιρούς ισχυρή αμφισβήτηση. Η
Julia Kristeva), στην προσπάθειά της να εισαγάγει ένα μη γλωσσολογικό μοντέλο χειρο-
νομίας, υποστήριξε «ότι η σχέση με την οποία συνδέονται το υποκείμενο, το αντικείμενο
και η ίδια η “πράξη” της χειρονομίας, είναι ενδεικτικού και μη σημασιοδοτικού χαρακτήρα
(1968, σελ. 49 και 1969, σελ. 30). Συνεπώς, «η ένδειξη προηγείται της σήμανσης στο πλαί-
σιο του “έργου” της χειρονομίας» (Elam, 2001, σελ. 95).
Ο Birdwhistell, μέσω της ανάλυσης των κινησιακών σχέσεων, επισημαίνει με τη σει-
ρά του πως οι αποκαλούμενες χειρονομίες είναι στην πραγματικότητα ετεροκαθοριζό-
μενες μορφές, με άλλα λόγια είναι τύποι που δεν μπορούν να υπάρξουν αφ’ εαυτών και
απαιτείται κάποιου είδους παρέμβαση (διαθεματική, προθεματική κ.λπ.), προκειμένου να
αποκτήσουν ταυτότητα (Birdwhistell, 1971, σελ. 119). Και πράγματι, στην περίπτωση του
αποσπάσματος που προσεγγίζουμε, διαπιστώθηκε ότι η ανοιχτή αγκαλιά της γιαγιάς και η
κίνηση των χεριών της συνδυάζονται με ένα τραγούδι. Πιθανότατα, αν απουσίαζε το τρα-
γούδι, η αγκαλιά να συνοδευόταν από μια διαφορετική έκφανση του γλωσσικού σημειω-
τικού συστήματος, όπως για παράδειγμα, μια φιλοφρόνηση ή ένα ζεστό καλωσόρισμα.
Πρέπει να επισημανθεί πως οι έντονες μεταβολές που παρατηρούνται στον σύγχρο-
νο κόσμο, ειδικότερα στον τομέα της τεχνολογίας, έχουν συμβάλει στην υιοθέτηση νέ-
ων αισθητηριακών τρόπων έκφρασης για αρκετούς σημειωτικούς κώδικες. Ένας χαιρε-
τισμός, για παράδειγμα, στις μέρες μας μπορεί να υλοποιείται μέσω ενός ηλεκτρονικού
μηνύματος και η υποδοχή κάποιου μπορεί να συμβαίνει στο πλαίσιο μιας τηλεδιάσκεψης.
Είναι αντιληπτό ότι η φυσική επαφή –μέσω μιας πιθανής χειραψίας– μπορεί να απουσιά-
ζει εντελώς από τέτοιου είδους διεργασίες. Παράλληλα, η τηλεόραση, ο κινηματογράφος,
το διαδίκτυο και ο παγκοσμιοποιημένος χαρακτήρας του σημερινού κόσμου έχουν άμεση
επίδραση στην εξάπλωση αλλά και αναγνώριση κάποιου σημείου ή σημειωτικού κώδικα.
Έτσι, το υψωμένο χέρι με τα δύο δάχτυλα να σχηματίζουν το σήμα της νίκης (victory) είναι
μια αναγνωρίσιμη χειρονομία, σχεδόν παντού, και ένας νέος, ιδιαίτερος, αθλητικός πανη-
γυρισμός μπορεί να κοινοποιηθεί και να υιοθετηθεί, σε παγκόσμιο επίπεδο, εντός λίγων
ωρών.
Γενικότερα, είναι προφανές πως όλοι οι σημειωτικοί κώδικες, συμπεριλαβανομένων
και αυτών που μας απασχόλησαν, υπόκεινται σε επιδράσεις και μεταβολές, καθώς «ένα
σημειωτικό σύστημα σε μια ζωντανή κοινωνία δεν αποτελεί μια σταθερή και δεδομένη δο-
μή, αλλά ένα δυναμικό, εύκαμπτο σύνολο, μέσα σε ένα ευρύτερο πλαίσιο που είναι η εξέ-
λιξη και η λειτουργία της κοινωνίας αυτής» (Boklund-Λαγοπούλου, 1979, σελ. 15).
Η σημειωτική αποτελεί ένα θεωρητικό σύστημα μελέτης που εξετάζει την τέχνη, την
επιστήμη και την πραγματικότητα ως σύστημα σημείων (Σαμαρά, 2002, σελ. 14), παρέχο-
ντας ταυτόχρονα τα μεθοδολογικά εργαλεία και προσφέροντας το έναυσμα για την υιοθέ-
τηση μιας πιο διεισδυτικής, ανατρεπτικής ματιάς απέναντι και στις πιο, φαινομενικά, κοι-
νότυπες εκδηλώσεις της ανθρώπινης συμπεριφοράς. Η παρούσα ανακοίνωση, δίχως να
παραγνωρίζει τη σημαντική προσφορά της σημειωτικής στη μελέτη των αφηγηματικών
περιεχομένων, επιχείρησε μια εναλλακτική προσέγγιση-θέαση ενός λογοτεχνικού κειμέ-
νου, μια διαφορετική ανάγνωση, με πρόθεση να αναδείξει μια ακόμα πτυχή από τον πο-
λυδιάστατο κόσμο των σημείων. Στο πλαίσιο αυτής της προσπάθειας και παρά την περι-
ορισμένη έκταση του εξεταζόμενου αποσπάσματος, κατέστη για μία ακόμα φορά προφα-
νής η εγγενής πολυτροπικότητα της λογοτεχνικής γλώσσας, καθώς οι παραστάσεις που
συνθέτει εντός ενός λογοτεχνικού έργου απηχούν στις διαφορετικές αισθήσεις του ανα-
γνώστη, ενεργοποιώντας τες, έστω και νοερά.

Βιβλιογραφία
Πρωτογενής πηγή
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Δοκίμια-Μελέτες
Argyle, M. (1969). Social interaction. London: Methuen.
Barthes, R. (1977). The Rhetoric of the Image. Στο Image-Music-Text. Μτφρ. Heath S. 1964 (σελ. 32-
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Birdwhistell, R. (1971). Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body-Motion Communication. Harmond-
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Ηροδότου, Μ. (1994). Ο αφέντης Μπατίστας και τ’ άλλα του Κώστα Μόντη: Ένα διπλό βιβλίο. Ακτή, Εʹ
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Κυριακίδη.
Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design. New York: Rout-
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Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T. (2001α). Multimodal Discourse. The modes and media of contemporary
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and New York: Routledge.
Kress, G. (2010). Multimodality: A Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary. Communication. New
York: Routledge.
Kristeva, J. (1968). Le geste, pratique ou communication? Langages 10, 48-64.
Μαντοκούδης, Γ. (2012). Η αφή.
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print/3/
Η συμβολή
της ψυχανάλυσης
στην κατανόηση της κίνησης
στη σύγχρονη τέχνη
ART
Νεφέλη Κυρκίτσου
Jean-Marie Πανεπιστημιο
Klinkenberg Πατρων
University nkyr@upatras.gr
of Liege jmklinkenberg@ulg.ac.be
Περίληψη
Δεδομένου του ευρέως φάσματος της σημειωτικής μέσω της κριτικής εξέτασης των συμβό-
λωνAbstract
και της έρευνας της ερμηνείας σε πολλούς τομείς, η αναφορά μας στη σχέση μεταξύ τέ-
χνης και ψυχανάλυσης,
How can radically new στοχεύει στον εμπλουτισμό
phenomena του γνωστικού
be identified? How canπεδίου της σημειωτικής
we detect and measure με
νέεςobjects
προσλαμβάνουσες παραστάσεις. Το 1919, ο Sigmund Freud στο εμβληματικό
which have never been described before? Semiotic theories that have devel- έργο του Το
ανοίκειο,
oped in θαthe
εστιάσει στη σχέση
structural μεταξύ
stream find ψυχανάλυσης και τέχνης,
it difficult to describe με αποτέλεσμα
novelty, να εμφανιστεί
as they have to fit the
η ομοιότητα
description ανάμεσα
of theστο όνειρο και
evolution το καλλιτεχνικό
of semiotic systems έργο,
intoβάσει της διττήςframework.
a diachronic ταυτότητάς τους.The
Πράγματι,
study ofόπως συμβαίνει
novelty με an
requires τη σημασία
embodied τουperspective.
ονείρου στην ψυχανάλυση,
The productionέτσι και στις as
of novelty, αναπα-
well
ραστατικές τέχνες η to
as the decision εικόνα λειτουργεί
identify ωςas
a pattern αναγκαίο
new, are αφετηριακό εργαλείο πρόσληψης
indeed pragmatic processes in τουwhich
καλ-
λιτεχνικού έργου και
interpretative andσυγχρόνως
rhetoricalως εμπόδιοare
modules για working.
την κατανόηση του λανθάνοντος
This lecture will showπεριεχομέ-
an active
νουprinciple
του. Επιπλέον,
presentενώinστη
bothζωγραφική,
modules:στη γλυπτικήThis
mediation. και στην
termαρχιτεκτονική
(as used by ηLévi-Strauss)
εικόνα χαρα-
κτηρίζεται ως επί
designates theτοnew
πλείστον από την υποχρεωτική
conjunctions that can develop ακινησία, στις αρχές
between του 20ού
the opposite αιώνα
terms of οιa
καλλιτεχνικές πρωτοπορίες θα συνδεθούν με την απόπειρα απόδοσης της
structure. By questioning the oppositions which structure meaning and which there- κίνησης. Οι δημι-
ουργοί
foreθα απομακρυνθούν
constitute βαθμιαία
the basis από τα παραδοσιακά
of encyclopaedias, εκφραστικά
all mediations μέσα,end
in fact καθώς η επιδίωξη
up reorganis-
πραγμάτωσης ψευδαίσθησης κίνησης
ing those encyclopaedias. στο καλλιτεχνικό
This concept thus allowsέργοsemiotics
θα αποτελέσει
to be το νέο ανθρωπο-
endowed with a
κεντρικό
dynamicνόημαandτης τέχνης. Ως εκaspect.
evolutionary τούτου, η εικόνα θα προσφέρει ένα επιπρόσθετο ερμηνευτι-
κό και συνάμα αποτρεπτικό στοιχείο ανάλυσης του έργου τέχνης. Προκειμένου να μελετήσου-
με τα ερμηνευτικά πλεονεκτήματα σε συνδυασμό με τα νέα εμπόδια κατανόησης της αναπαρά-
στασης της κίνησης στη σύγχρονη τέχνη, θα εξετάσουμε την κίνηση ως ορμή του ασυνειδήτου
Keywords
σε έργα του Giorgio de Chirico, που εμφανίζουν την μορφή του ανδρείκελου.
novelty , mediation , correlations
Keywords Giorgio de Chirico , ψυχανάλυση , τέχνη , ανδρείκελο
Το ανδρείκελο στο έργο του Giorgio de Chirico
Προκειμένου να συμβάλουμε στο επιστημονικό πεδίο της σημειωτικής που διερευνά τη
διάσταση της κίνησης, θα αναφερθούμε στις συνθήκες διέγερσης της δυναμικής κινητικό-
τητας εντός του ανθρώπινου ψυχισμού στον χώρο της τέχνης και συγκεκριμένα στο έρ-
γο του Giorgio de Chirico, επιχειρώντας να αναδείξουμε την πολυδιάστατη οπτική υπό την
οποία δύναται να αναγνωσθεί η έννοια της κίνησης εν γένει.
Ο Giorgio de Chirico1 γεννήθηκε το 1888 στον Βόλο από Ιταλούς γονείς και πέθα-
νε στη Ρώμη το 1978. Φοίτησε στη Σχολή Καλών Τεχνών του Πολυτεχνείου της Αθή-
νας, έχοντας δασκάλους, μεταξύ άλλων, τους Ιακωβίδη, Βολανάκη, Ροϊλό και Μαυρου-
δή. Ο θάνατος του πατέρα του το 1906 τον οδήγησε στο Μόναχο, όπου φοίτησε στην Βα-
σιλική Ακαδημία Καλών Τεχνών και ήρθε σε επαφή με το έργο των Arthur Schopenhauer
και Friedrich Nietzsche. Το 1911 αναχώρησε για το Παρίσι. Εκεί, η γνωριμία του με τον
Guillaume Apollinaire ήταν καθοριστικής σημασίας για την ένταξή του στους καλλιτεχνι-
κούς κύκλους της γαλλικής πρωτεύουσας.2 Στη συνέχεια, η ζωή του μοιράστηκε ανάμε-
σα στην Ιταλία και την Γαλλία, όπου πραγματοποίησε πολυάριθμες εκθέσεις ζωγραφικής
και σταδιακά καταξιώθηκε ευρύτατα ως καλλιτέχνης.
Οι εκφραστές του σουρεαλιστικού κινήματος, το οποίο ανθούσε εκείνη την περίοδο
στην Ευρώπη κατέταξαν αρχικά το έργο του De Chirico στους κόλπους τους, λόγω του
μεταφυσικού στοιχείου (Pittura Metafisica) που το χαρακτήριζε. Η σύνδεση των έργων
του de Chirico με το ασυνείδητο τον ενέπλεξε με τον σουρεαλισμό.3 Ο André Breton, ο
οποίος εκτός από ποιητής και συγγραφέας ήταν και ψυχαναλυτής, υποστήριξε ότι επειδή
το ασυνείδητο λειτουργεί με εικόνες, ακριβώς όπως και η τέχνη, συνεπάγεται ότι η τέχνη
είναι το καλύτερο μέσο για να βγει το ασυνείδητο στην επιφάνεια.4 Για εκείνον, ο σουρε-
αλισμός ήταν η μέθοδος, μέσω της οποίας μπορούσε να εξισορροπηθεί το ασύμβατο με-
ταξύ ονείρου και πραγματικότητας.5
Έτσι, στις αρχές του 20ού αιώνα, σε μια περίοδο όπου στον καλλιτεχνικό χώρο συνυ-
πάρχουν νέες τάσεις που επεξεργάζονται την κίνηση μέσω εννοιών σχετικών με τη μετα-
βαλλόμενη γεωμετρία, την ταχύτητα και τον δυναμισμό –με εμβληματικότερα παραδείγ-
ματα τον Κυβισμό και τον Φουτουρισμό–, ο de Chirico εστιάζει σε μια εντελώς διαφορε-
τική κατεύθυνση: προκαλεί την κίνηση στον ψυχισμό του παραλήπτη. Η μεταφυσική δι-
άσταση στο έργο του, κτίζεται με την ατμόσφαιρα της αποξένωσης και της μοναξιάς, τον
συνδυασμό ετερόκλητων αντικειμένων, τις αινιγματικές καταστάσεις, τη δομική και μορ-
φολογική ακινησία, τη σιωπή και το ανεξήγητο. Η απομάκρυνση από την ορθολογικότη-
τα του Διαφωτισμού, με όρους αναμονής του απρόσμενου και του απροσδόκητου, ξενίζει
και προκαλεί αναστάτωση. Η αναμέτρηση με το απρόβλεπτο θέτει σε λειτουργία μια δια-
δικασία εσωτερικής φύσεως του υποκειμένου, η οποία διέπεται από ακατάσχετη ανησυ-
χία. Η διέγερση ενός «εσωτερικού δυναμισμού»6 οδηγεί αναπόφευκτα τον θεατή να θέ-
σει τον εαυτό του ενώπιον των υπαρξιακών ερωτημάτων που εκουσίως απέφευγε να
αντιμετωπίσει. Οι έννοιες του de Chirico δεν μεταφράζονται στη γλώσσα. Η απουσία κά-
θε κανονικότητας λειτουργεί απαγορευτικά σε λογικές προσεγγίσεις. Στα έργα του «μι-
λάει» απευθείας η εικόνα και τα ερωτήματα που εγείρονται δεν προσδοκούν απαντήσεις
στον συνειδητό κόσμο. Στην ανάγνωση ενός έργου του Picasso ή του Braque, ο παρα-
λήπτης καλείται να ανασυνθέσει με τα διανοητικά εργαλεία του την γεωμετρικά κατακερ-
ματισμένη πληροφορία, προκειμένου να επιστρέψει στη φυσική πραγματικότητα. Η συμ-
μετοχή του παραλήπτη εκπληρώνεται με την ανασύνθεση του εικονιζόμενου χωροχρο-
νικού παζλ. Αντίθετα, οι αναπαραστάσεις του de Chirico δεν σχετίζονται με ασκήσεις νοη-
μοσύνης που απαιτούν επαυξημένη λογική κρίση, αλλά με τη δύναμη ορισμένων μορφών
να αναμοχλεύουν υποτιθέμενες τακτοποιημένες καταστάσεις του ανθρώπινου ψυχισμού.
Μπροστά σε έναν πίνακα του de Chirico, το δωμάτιο της ψυχής του θεατή τελεί σε πλήρη
ακαταστασία. Ο καλλιτέχνης εντάσσει τον παραλήπτη σε συνθήκες εσωτερικής αταξίας, οι
οποίες δεν αντιμετωπίζονται με την παρέμβαση της λογικής. Επιπρόσθετα, η μεταφυσική
στρατηγική του de Chirico δεν επιτρέπει σε κανέναν να αποδεσμευτεί από την υποχρέωση
του προσωπικού αναστοχασμού, αφού επιβάλλει την υποκειμενική ανάγνωση των – μέχρι
πρότινος– αντικειμενικών δεδομένων.
Κατά τον Δασκαλοθανάση, η βασική συνιστώσα που οδηγεί στην «παράδοξη διάστα-
ση» της ζωγραφικής του de Chirico είναι η χρήση οικείων στοιχείων τοποθετημένων
εκτός του φυσικού περιβάλλοντός τους.7 Ο διχασμός μεταξύ πειθαρχίας και παράδοξου
που χαρακτηρίζει το έργο του de Chirico είναι που προσδίδει στη μεταφυσική του την ιδι-
αιτερότητά της.8 Κάθε οικείο στοιχείο μετασχηματίζεται σε ανοίκειο ακριβώς επειδή απο-
καλύπτεται η έως τότε επίπλαστη σχέση μαζί του. Με ανάλογο τρόπο, ο Freud στο έργο
του Το ανοίκειο (Das Unheimlich), παραθέτοντας εκτενή γλωσσολογική και ετυμολογική
ανάλυση της λέξης «ανοίκειο» στην γερμανική, οδηγείται στο συμπέρασμα ότι η λέξη φέ-
ρει τέτοια αμφισημία, που καταλήγει να συμπίπτει με την αντίθετή της.9 Ο de Chirico, σαν
έτερος ψυχαναλυτής, πραγματεύεται την εσωτερική σύγκρουση οικείου και παράδοξου,
οδηγώντας τον θεατή να στραφεί αναγκαστικά προς τον εαυτό του και να παραμείνει ανα-
στατωμένος. Τα έργα του λειτουργούν ως ένας αόρατος καθρέφτης, αφού κάθε εικόνα σε
παραπέμπει στον εαυτό σου. Η μεταφυσική ζωγραφική προκαλεί τον καθένα να γίνει ψυ-
χαναλυτής του εαυτού του: τα αναπάντητα ερωτήματα υποκειμενικοποιούνται με τη βοή-
θεια της καλλιτεχνικής πράξης, που έχει πλέον αποκτήσει με τον de Chirico τη δύναμη να
απευθύνεται σε κάθε παραλήπτη χωριστά.10
Ψυχαναλυτική προσέγγιση του έργου του Giorgio de Chirico

Η Giuliana Katz11, σε ομιλία της το 2013 στο πανεπιστήμιο του Τορόντο με τίτλο Ιταλική τέ-
χνη: ψυχαναλυτική ερμηνεία της ζωής και του έργου του de Chirico12, επιχειρεί μια ψυχανα-
λυτική προσέγγιση του έργου του Giorgio de Chirico μέσω της ανάλυσης των σημαντικό-
τερων γεγονότων της ζωής του. Ο θάνατος της αδερφής του σε πολύ νεαρή ηλικία, ο ερ-
χομός ενός νέου παιδιού στην οικογένεια και ο θάνατος του πατέρα του αποτέλεσαν συμ-
βάντα που σημάδεψαν μαρτυρικά τη ζωή του καλλιτέχνη και τα οποία διαφαίνονται στους
πίνακές του σε όλη τη διάρκεια της καλλιτεχνικής πορείας του. Το πρώτο χρονολογικά
τραγικό συμβάν, ο θάνατος της αδερφής του, αναπαρίσταται, σύμφωνα με την Katz, στο
έργο Το μυστήριο και η μελαγχολία ενός δρόμου, καθώς ο καλλιτέχνης φαίνεται να αποδί-
δει την απώλεια και το άγχος του αποχωρισμού. Τα εν λόγω συναισθήματα θα παραμεί-
νουν έκδηλα, με μικρότερη ή μεγαλύτερη ένταση, σε όλη την καλλιτεχνική πορεία του
de Chirico. Ο θάνατος της αδερφής του, ο οποίος συμπίπτει χρονικά με την γέννηση του
αδερφού του, Andrea, θα επιβαρύνει ακόμα περισσότερο την ευάλωτη ψυχή του νεαρού
τότε de Chirico, καθώς οι οικογενειακές ισορροπίες αλλάζουν άρδην. Ο αδερφός του θα
γίνει εμφανώς το αγαπημένο παιδί της μητέρας του, γεγονός που η Katz αποδίδει στην
εξωτερική ομορφιά του.13 Στους μετέπειτα πίνακές του, ο de Chirico θα αφήσει να διαφα-
νεί η επίδραση που άσκησε στον ψυχισμό του η ελλειμματική για τον ίδιο σχέση με την μη-
τέρα του. Για παράδειγμα, στην αυτοπροσωπογραφία του με την μητέρα του14, εκείνη κοι-
τάζει τον θεατή, απαξιώνοντας τον υιό της που βρίσκεται δίπλα της, ενώ ο de Chirico πα-
ρουσιάζεται ωσάν να είναι η σκιά της εκφράζοντας την εξάρτησή του από εκείνη15, αλλά
και τον δευτερεύοντα ρόλο που πίστευε ότι έπαιζε στη ζωή της.
Στην προσπάθειά του να αντικαταστήσει την πραγματική μητέρα με την ποθητή, και
καθώς η επιθυμία του για εκείνη παραμένει ανεκπλήρωτη, ο de Chirico στρέφεται προς
τη φιγούρα του πατέρα του και επιχειρεί να τον μιμηθεί. Έτσι, επαληθεύοντας την φροϋ-
δική άποψη περί οιδιπόδειου συμπλέγματος και με απώτερο στόχο να ανακτήσει τη χα-
μένη αγάπη της μητέρας του, παίρνει τη θέση του πατέρα.16 Πρόκειται για μια διαδικασία,
η οποία στην ψυχολογία ονομάζεται ταύτιση και σύμφωνα με τον Freud αποτελεί τη φυ-
σική ροή της εξέλιξης του παιδιού. Ωστόσο, στην περίπτωση του de Chirico, η διαδικασία
της ταύτισης πραγματοποιείται βεβιασμένα λόγω της προβληματικής σχέσης με τη μητέρα
του. Μετά τον θάνατο του πατέρα του το 1906, ο de Chirico θα βυθιστεί σε κατάθλιψη, γε-
γονός το οποίο σύμφωνα με τον ψυχίατρο Henry Krystal17 εντείνεται από τις διαρκείς με-
τακινήσεις του καλλιτέχνη και την απουσία σταθερού τόπου αναφοράς.18 Οι έρημες μορ-
φές και τα αγάλματα των έργων του αποδίδουν πλέον τα αισθήματα της ατελείωτης μονα-
ξιάς και του θρήνου που ο ίδιος βίωνε καθημερινά. Κατά τον Krystal, η απουσία των μορ-
φών δηλώνει την οργή και την απώλεια, καθώς και τις άμυνες του καλλιτέχνη απέναντι
στα τόσο οδυνηρά για εκείνον συναισθήματα.19 Η Αριάδνη, πίνακας του 1913, όπως υπο-
στηρίζει ο Krystal αποτελεί μια «αυτοπροσωπογραφία» του de Chirico, όπου ο ίδιος κεί-
ται παθητικός και εξαρτημένος από τον πατέρα που τον έχει εγκαταλείψει, περιβαλλόμε-
νος από βιομηχανικά κτήρια, μια σαφή αναφορά στην εργασία του πατέρα, ο οποίος ήταν
μηχανικός και ειδικευόταν στους σιδηροδρόμους. Την περίοδο από το 1911 έως το 1915,
αρχίζει να ζωγραφίζει επίμονα, σχεδόν εμμονικά, σταθμούς ή άλλα έργα με έκδηλα εργο-
στασιακά στοιχεία, γεγονός που σχετίζεται σαφώς με την ανάμνηση και τη νοσταλγία της
πατρικής φιγούρας. Αργότερα, η σύνδεση θα γίνει ακόμα πιο άμεση όταν θα μεταφέρει
στους πίνακές του σχεδιαστικά εργαλεία, σιδηροδρόμους και άλογα: τα σχεδιαστικά ερ-
γαλεία σχετίζονταν με το κυρίως επάγγελμα τού πατέρα, όπως και οι σιδηρόδρομοι, ενώ
οι ιπποδρομίες αποτελούσαν μια από τις αγαπημένες απασχολήσεις του.20
Διαφαίνεται πλέον καθαρά η διπλή πληγή του καλλιτέχνη: η προδοσία της μητέρας και
η εγκατάλειψη (έστω και ακούσια) του πατέρα επαναλαμβάνονται διηνεκώς σε πληθώ-
ρα έργων, ανάμεσα στα οποία και Το αίνιγμα της ώρας: τόποι έρημοι και αποξενωμένοι
– όπως ο δεσμός με την μητέρα– περιβάλλονται από το μηχανικό περιβάλλον του πατέρα.
Για τον de Chirico, ετερόκλητα στοιχεία, όπως οι μορφές του βιομηχανικού πολιτισμού και
της ελληνικής αρχαιότητας, δύνανται να συνυπάρχουν καθόσον φέρουν την ίδια αξία: και
οι δύο περιπτώσεις αναφέρονται σε μια αρχαιολογία της ψυχής.21 Σε πλήρη αντίθεση με
τους φουτουριστές, οι οποίοι επιχειρούσαν εκείνη την περίοδο να πείσουν για το λαμπρό
μέλλον που θα εξασφάλιζε στην ανθρωπότητα η χρήση της μηχανής, στον de Chirico η
μηχανή καθίσταται μέσο σύνδεσης με το οδυνηρό παρελθόν του.22
Την περίοδο 1915-1917, όταν ο de Chirico ζει απομονωμένος σε ένα νοσοκομείο στην
Ferrara λόγω του Πρώτου Παγκοσμίου Πολέμου, εισάγεται στη σκέψη του η μορφή του
ανδρείκελου (mannequin)23, μια έννοια καταλυτική, καθώς μέσω αυτής ο καλλιτέχνης αρ-
χίζει να αποδίδει το σύνολο του ψυχικού κόσμου του. Αφενός, επηρεασμένος από τα θλι-
βερά κοινωνικά γεγονότα που διαδραματίζονταν σε παγκόσμιο επίπεδο, οδηγείται στο να
απεικονίσει την ανθρώπινη ύπαρξη ως στερούμενη συναισθημάτων, αφετέρου όμως, το
ανδρείκελο αποδίδει κάτι πολύ περισσότερο για τον ίδιο, καθώς αντανακλά εξίσου ικα-
νοποιητικά τον ψυχισμό του. Το ανδρείκελο, ως ανθρώπινη μορφή στερούμενη ζωής,
αποτυπώνει πρωτίστως τα συναισθήματα του de Chirico για τον αδερφό του, που τόσο
φθονούσε εξαιτίας της αδυναμίας που του έτρεφε η μητέρα τους.24 Ο Krystal, αναλύο-
ντας το μέγεθος του τραύματος που είχε προκαλέσει στον de Chirico η στάση της μητέρας
ως προς τα δύο παιδιά της, εξηγεί ότι το ανδρείκελο ήταν ο άνθρωπος μέσα από τα μά-
τια του καλλιτέχνη: «χωρίς καρδιά, αισθήματα, μυαλό, αισθήσεις»25. Χαρακτηριστικό έρ-
γο της περιόδου το Duo (1916), αναπαριστά δύο άψυχα σώματα έτσι διαμορφωμένα ώστε
να είναι ανίκανα να κινηθούν χωρίς δεκανίκια ή άλλα ορθοπεδικά όργανα.26 Οι ανθρωπο-
ειδείς μορφές του de Chirico παρουσιάζουν την δική του ανάγκη στήριξης από την μητρι-
κή φιγούρα, αυτή που τόσο στερήθηκε στην παιδική ηλικία του. Η Νίκη Λοϊζίδη στο βιβλίο
της Ο Τζιόρτζιο ντέ Κίρικο και η σουρεαλιστική επανάσταση, βρίσκει αναφορές του ανδρεί-
κελου του de Chirico στο Ανοίκειο του Freud και πιο συγκεκριμένα στο μυθιστόρημα του
Hoffmann με τίτλο Sandman27 όπως αυτό παρατίθεται από τον Freud: ο ήρωας Νατάνι-
ελ ερωτεύεται την Ολυμπία, η οποία ωστόσο αποδεικνύεται ότι δεν είναι παρά μια μηχα-
νική κούκλα, ένα ανδρείκελο, που έφερε τα δικά του μάτια. Κατ’ αναλογία, ο θεατής του
Duo αμφιβάλλει εάν οι φιγούρες που στέκονται μπροστά του έχουν πράγματι ζωή ή εάν
πρόκειται για αντικείμενα που μόνο εξωτερικά προσομοιάζουν με έμψυχα όντα. Για την
Λοϊζίδη το ανδρείκελο είναι η «διαμελισμένη εικόνα ανθρώπου-αντικειμένου»28. Η μορ-
φή του ανδρείκελου, όπως και η μορφής της Αριάδνης, που αναφέρθηκε παραπάνω, εί-
ναι ο ίδιος ο de Chirico, ένας de Chirico καταρρακωμένος από τη στέρηση της μητρικής
αγάπης, και ο οποίος απαρνιέται τα συναισθήματά του σε μια απέλπιδα προσπάθεια να νι-
κήσει τον πόνο και την θλίψη του μετατρεπόμενος σε αντικείμενο που χρήζει συναισθη-
ματικής στήριξης. Το ανδρείκελο, ως η παροντική κατάσταση στην οποία έχει περιέλθει ο
καλλιτέχνης και συγχρόνως ο κόσμος γύρω του, αναζητά τον πατέρα ως το αναγκαίο στή-
ριγμα για να ξαναζωντανέψει.
Ο άσωτος υιός (1922), έργο που μόνο από τον τίτλο υποδεικνύει την εμβληματική ση-
μασία που έφερε για τον ταραγμένο ψυχισμό του de Chirico, αναπαριστά τον υιό που ως
ανδρείκελο πια, με άδειο πρόσωπο, πέφτει στην ξύλινη υποστήριξη του πατέρα.29 Το αν-
δρείκελο, ως ένα σώμα απογυμνωμένο από συναισθήματα, με τις γεωμετρικές χαράξεις
που του προσθέτει ο de Chirico, είναι ο ίδιος: έχει απομείνει ένα κουφάρι και το μόνο που
επιθυμεί είναι να πέσει ανήμπορος στην γονική αγκαλιά που θα τον στηρίξει και θα τον
ανορθώσει σωματικά και ψυχικά.
Η ζωή σε πίνακες
Η καλλιτεχνική πορεία του de Chirico αποτελεί μια διαρκή ανάκληση της μνήμης. Μέσα
από τη διαδικασία της καλλιτεχνικής δημιουργίας ξαναζεί την παιδική ηλικία του και βιώ-
νει ολοζώντανα τα ψυχικά τραύματά του. Η ζωή του προβάλλεται στις απεικονίσεις του,
με την αναβίωση του παρελθόντος του να αποτελεί τη μόνη ελπίδα λύτρωσης από τα πά-
θη του παρόντος. Ο de Chirico επαναφέρει διαρκώς τον εαυτό του σε παρελθοντικές οδυ-
νηρές καταστάσεις, επιχειρώντας αδιάλειπτα να αλλάξει τις τραυματικές συνέπειες. Ακό-
μα και σε έργα που δεν εμφανίζουν τα συνήθη απειλητικά τοπία με τις έρημες φιγούρες,
οι παιδικές μνήμες του καλλιτέχνη αναβιώνουν, όπως στο έργο Έπιπλα στην κοιλάδα, που
αναφέρεται στους σεισμούς στην Ελλάδα των παιδικών χρόνων του, όπου εκείνος και η
οικογένειά του κοιμόντουσαν στο ύπαιθρο και έβγαζαν τα υπάρχοντά τους εκτός σπιτιού
για να τα διαφυλάξουν.30
Στο έργο Έκτορας και Ανδρομάχη (1917), τα αντικείμενα δημιουργούν μια αδιάφορη
γεωμετρική χωρικότητα, δίχως συγκρούσεις. Το ανδρείκελο παρουσιάζεται απλά ως ένα
αντικείμενο που αντικαθιστά την ανθρώπινη μορφή, χωρίς να μετατρέπεται σε κυρίαρ-
χο στοιχείο του έργου31, ακριβώς όπως ο de Chirico δεν δύναται να καταστεί πρωταγωνι-
στής της ζωής του, διότι κατακλύζεται από τα φαντάσματα του παρελθόντος. Ο Νίκος Δα-
σκαλοθανάσης διαβάζει το συγκεκριμένο έργο ως συναρμολόγηση διαφορετικών τμημά-
των υλικών, τα οποία έχουν ανάγκη από μια δύναμη στήριξης για να μην καταρρεύσουν32,
ενώ στην ανάγνωση της Katz και του Krystal, τα γεωμετρικά όργανα αφορούν πάντοτε
στη μνήμη των εργαλείων του πατέρα.33
Η επαναφορά των βιωμάτων του σε πίνακες έχει ένα τεράστιο πλεονέκτημα για τον
καλλιτέχνη: όντας ο ίδιος ο δημιουργός τους, δύναται πλέον να ελέγξει το αποτέλεσμα. Με
τη ζωγραφική ο de Chirico κατασκευάζει το στήριγμα που δεν βρήκε στην παιδική του ηλι-
κία και διαλεγόμενος με τις μορφές των έργων του, ο ίδιος αποδεσμεύεται σταδιακά από
τα ψυχολογικά φορτία του. Η μορφή του ανδρείκελου μετατρέπεται από ένα ολοκληρω-
τικά άψυχο σε ένα βαρύ και θλιμμένο ον, το οποίο, όσο αξιολύπητο και αν παρουσιάζε-
ται, έχει ανακτήσει τα συναισθήματά του ξεφεύγοντας από την κατάσταση του απόλυτου
αντικειμένου. Από το 1925 κι έπειτα, η μορφή του ανδρείκελου αλλοιώνεται και η εμμονή
– της περιόδου της Ferrara– στην ένωση αποσπώμενων αντικειμένων που συνθέτουν αν-
θρώπινες φιγούρες, δίνει τη θέση της στην αναζήτηση στέρεων προτύπων που οδηγούν
σε εικονικά ανάγλυφες μορφές.34 Για παράδειγμα, στη σειρά Οι Αρχαιολόγοι, το ανδρείκε-
λο έχει πάρει ήδη άλλη διάσταση:
«Στη σειρά των Αρχαιολόγων διαμορφώνεται ένας νέος τύπος ανθρώπινης

μορφής, με βαρύ, ωοειδές κεφάλι, και κορμό που αρμολογείται με
εξίσου βαριές και αδέξιες γειτνιάσεις αρχαίων ερειπίων. Σε αντίθεση με
το ανδρείκελο της πρώτης περιόδου, που στεκόταν σε στάση θεατρικά
προφητική ή οραματιστική, οι Αρχαιολόγοι υιοθετούν αντιθεατρικές,
βαθύτατα εσωστρεφείς και κουρασμένες πόζες. Είναι μορφές που
ενσαρκώνουν μια ανέλπιδη επίκληση της αίγλης του παρελθόντος.»35
Το οπτικό ερέθισμα που προσφέρει ο ζωγραφικός πίνακας είναι η δίοδος για ένα ανέγγι-
χτο ψυχολογικό πεδίο, το οποίο με λεπτομερή παρατήρηση και ψυχαναλυτική προσέγγι-
ση, αποκαλύπτει όχι μόνο την ψυχική κατάσταση και τις σκέψεις του καλλιτέχνη όταν δη-
μιουργούσε, αλλά βοηθά και στην ερμηνεία του έργου τέχνης. Πρόκειται για μια ερμηνεία
που βασίζεται στην ενσυναίσθηση, δηλαδή στην ικανότητα να κατανοούμε τα συναισθή-
ματα του άλλου.
Για τον de Chirico, η ζωγραφική αποτελεί ένα μέσο εξωτερίκευσης των ισχυρά στρεσο-
γόνων συμβάντων που σημάδεψαν τη ζωή του. Η καλλιτεχνική δημιουργία αποτελεί για
τον ίδιο ένα ιδιότυπο είδος ψυχανάλυσης και ψυχοθεραπείας. Παρά το ότι ενδεχομένως να
μην θεράπευσε ποτέ πλήρως τις ψυχολογικές πληγές της τραυματικής παιδικής περιόδου,
με την ζωγραφική κατάφερε να εξωτερικεύσει και να επικοινωνήσει τα ενδόμυχα πάθη του
και έτσι να τα αποδεχτεί και να τα προσπεράσει. Στους ακίνητους πίνακές του μας προσφέ-
ρει το κλειδί για να διαβάσουμε τον γεμάτο κίνηση ψυχικό κόσμο του και επομένως να με-
ταβούμε από την απλή στατική ανάγνωση του αμφιβληστροειδούς σε έναν κόσμο δυναμι-
κό, όπου οι πέντε αισθήσεις δεν επαρκούν. Έτσι, προκειμένου να καταστεί κατανοητό το
ενδότερο νόημα των έργων του de Chirico κρίνεται απαραίτητη η συμμετοχή της ενσυναί-
σθησης, εκείνης της εγγενούς ανθρώπινης ιδιότητας ή του επίκτητου χαρακτηριστικού κα-
τόπιν εκπαίδευσης, που συμμετέχει στην ανάγνωση του κόσμου ως επιπρόσθετη αίσθηση.
Όπως υποδεικνύουν οι δεσμοί μεταξύ της στατικής εικόνας και της ακατάπαυστης εσωτε-
ρικής εγρήγορσης στο έργο του de Chirico, καθίσταται κατανοητό ότι η διάσταση της κίνη-
σης δεν εκλαμβάνεται μόνο ως εξωτερικό ερέθισμα, αλλά ενυπάρχει ως εννοιολογική δι-
άσταση στον ανθρώπινο ψυχισμό, αντιπροσωπεύοντας τον έντονο εσωτερικό δυναμισμό.
Εν κατακλείδι, προκειμένου να κατανοήσουμε σύνθετες έννοιες όπως της κίνησης,
οι οποίες άπτονται και της αναλυτικής προσέγγισης της σημειωτικής, απαιτείται να στρέ-
ψουμε το βλέμμα στις ποικίλες διαστάσεις που λαμβάνουν οι ίδιες έννοιες σε διαφορετικά
γνωστικά πεδία. Η συνδυαστική οπτική και η υιοθέτηση της μεθοδολογίας προσέγγισης
άλλων πεδίων δύναται να προσφέρει επιπλέον στοιχεία, συμβάλλοντας στην γενική ερευ-
νητική προσπάθεια κατανόησης των εννοιών.
Σημειώσεις
1. Τα βιογραφικά στοιχεία του Giorgio de Chirico προέρχονται από τα βιβλία: 1) Δασκαλοθανάσης Νίκος
(2001), Η ζωγραφική του Giorgio de Chirico, Αθήνα: Opera και 2) Καφενταράκη Δέσποινα (2013), Η
Αινιγματικότητα του Τζιόρτζιο ντε Κίρικο, Αθήνα: Μετρονόμος.
2. Καφενταράκη Δέσποινα, Η Αινιγματικότητα του Τζιόρτζιο ντε Κίρικο, ό.π., σελ. 25.
3. Ωστόσο, ο De Chirico δεν ένιωθε την ανάγκη να ανήκει σε κάποιο κίνημα, γεγονός που επιβεβαιώνε-
ται από το 1927 κι έπειτα, όπου το μεταφυσικό στοιχείο υποχωρεί και ο ίδιος έρχεται σε οριστική ρή-
ξη με τους σουρεαλιστές συναδέλφους του. Βλ. σχετ. Λοϊζίδη Νίκη (2013), Ο μοντερνισμός και οι μύ-
θοι του: Δώδεκα μελέτες για τα μοντέρνα καλλιτεχνικά κινήματα, Αθήνα: Νεφέλη, σελ. 33-39.
4. Argan Giulio Carlo (2014:2002), Η μοντέρνα τέχνη 1770-1970, μτφρ. Παπαδημήτρη Λίνα, Κρήτη: Πα-
νεπιστημιακές εκδόσεις Κρήτης, σελ. 245.
5. Arnason H. H. (1955), Ιστορία της σύγχρονης τέχνης: Ζωγραφική, γλυπτική, αρχιτεκτονική, φωτογρα-
φία, μτφρ. Κοκαβέσης Φώτης, Θεσσαλονίκη: Παρατηρητής, σελ. 261.
6. Ο Παναγιώτης Πάγκαλος χρησιμοποιεί τους όρους «δυναμική ακινησία», «στατική ένταση» και «εσω-
τερικός δυναμισμός» για να περιγράψει το έργο του αρχιτέκτονα Aldo Rossi, το οποίο αντλεί τα βασι-
κά μορφολογικά χαρακτηριστικά του από την ζωγραφική του Giorgio de Chirico, βλ. σχετ. Πάγκαλος
Παναγιώτης (2012), Η ιστορία του χρόνου στην αρχιτεκτονική του Aldo Rossi, Αθήνα: Gutenberg, σελ.
88-90.
7. Βλ. στο: Δασκαλοθανάσης Νίκος, Η ζωγραφική του Giorgio de Chirico, Opera, ό.π., σελ. 18. Αντίστοι-
χα, για τη μέθοδο αποκοπής αντικειμένων από το συνηθισμένο νόημά τους στο κίνημα του σουρεα-
λισμού, βλ. Argan Giulio Carlo, Η μοντέρνα τέχνη 1770-1970, ό.π., σελ. 246.
8. Βλ. στο: Δασκαλοθανάσης Νίκος, Η ζωγραφική του Giorgio de Chirico, ό.π., σελ. 18.
9. Freud Sigmund (2009:1919), Το ανοίκειο, μτφρ. Βαϊκούση Έμη, Αθήνα: Πλέθρον, σελ. 13-25.
10. Αν σύμφωνα με τον Arnason, «η ουσία του σουρεαλισμού ήταν η εξατομίκευση και η απομόνωση»
και κάθε καλλιτέχνης έθετε ως πρωταρχικό στόχο να είναι μοναδικός, ο De Chirico στρέφει αυτή την
αναζήτηση της μοναδικότητας προς τον θεατή: τον αναγνωρίζει ως ξεχωριστή οντότητα και δημιουρ-
γεί έργα που απευθύνονται στην ιδιαιτερότητα του εκάστοτε παραλήπτη. Βλ. Arnason H. H., Ιστορία
της σύγχρονης τέχνης: Ζωγραφική, γλυπτική, αρχιτεκτονική, φωτογραφία, ό.π., σελ. 262.
11. Η Giuliana Katz είναι πτυχιούχος κλασσικής αρχαιολογίας με διδακτορικό στην ιταλική λογοτεχνία και
είναι απόφοιτος του Toronto Art Therapy Institute. Σήμερα είναι καθηγήτρια στο πανεπιστήμιο του
Τορόντο. Το ερευνητικό πεδίο της εκτείνεται από την τέχνη και την λογοτεχνία μέχρι την ψυχανάλυ-
ση. Πιο αναλυτικά, βλ. https://www.utm.utoronto.ca/ λήμμα Giuliana Katz.
12. Katz Giuliana (2013), μαγνητοσκοπημένη ομιλία στο http://www.faculty.utoronto.ca/arc/college/
archives/ Oct. 30, 2013.
13. Αυτόθι.
14. The artist and his mother, Collection Edward James, London.
15. Βλ. σχετ. Katz Giuliana (2013), μαγνητοσκοπημένη ομιλία, ό.π. και Krystal Henry (1966), Giorgio de
Chirico: Ego states and artistic production, American Imago, Spring 1966, vol. 23, issue 3, σελ. 220.
16. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, «η ταύτιση είναι η διαδικασία κατά την οποία το παιδί προσπαθεί να μοιάσει
στον γονέα του ιδίου φύλου, υιοθετώντας τις αντιλήψεις και αξίες του.», στο Feldman S. Robert
(2009:2008), Εξελικτική ψυχολογία – Διά βίου ανάπτυξη, μτφρ. Αντωνοπούλου Ζωή, Αθήνα: Guten-
berg, σελ. 318.
17. Ο Henry Krystal ήταν ψυχίατρος και καθηγητής στο Michigan State University. Επιζών από τα στρα-
τόπεδα συγκέντρωσης των Ναζί κατά τον Βʹ Παγκόσμιο Πόλεμο και ο οποίος ανέπτυξε θεραπευτικές
μεθόδους αντιμετώπισης του ψυχολογικού τραύματος γνωστού ως «η ενοχή του επιζήσαντα». Τα βι-
ογραφικά στοιχεία προέρχονται από αφιέρωμα της εφημερίδας New York Times στον Henry Krystal
με αφορμή τον θάνατό του. Βλ. σχετ. «Henry Krystal, 90, Holocaust Trauma Expert and Survivor.»
στο New York Times, 17 October 2015, page D8 of the New York edition.
18. Krystal Henry, Giorgio de Chirico: Ego states and artistic production, ό.π., σελ. 216-218.
19. Ό.π., σελ. 218.
20. Ό.π., σελ. 212.
21. Katz Giuliana, μαγνητοσκοπημένη ομιλία, ό.π. Ενδεχομένως στην έννοια της «αρχαιολογίας της ψυ-
χής» να βρίσκεται η απάντηση στο γιατί ο De Chirico επιμένει σε κείμενα και συνεντεύξεις του ότι το
έργο του δεν σχετίζεται με την ελληνική μυθολογία ούτε τον ενδιαφέρει η ελληνική αρχαιότητα. Πα-
ραθέτουμε λόγια του καλλιτέχνη: «Το ότι σε μερικούς πίνακές μου υπάρχει και μια ελληνική κολώνα
ερμηνεύεται πως τάχα μιμούμαι τους Έλληνες… αγαπώ την Ελλάδα όμως δεν αισθάνομαι καμία επί-
δραση της αρχαίας ελληνικής σκέψης στο έργο μου.» Επίσης: «Η Ελλάδα δεν έχει την παραμικρή σχέ-
ση με τη ζωγραφική μου. Ναι μεν κατά καιρούς έχω βάλει στους πίνακές μου ναούς, κάποια αγάλ-
ματα και κομμάτια από σπασμένες κολώνες, αλλά αυτό δεν σημαίνει ότι είμαι επηρεασμένος από την
Ελλάδα… η Ελλάδα δεν έχει καμία, μα καμία σχέση, απεναντίας εγώ είμαι κατεξοχήν ανθέλληνας.»
στο Καφενταράκη Δέσποινα, Η Αινιγματικότητα του Τζιόρτζιο ντε Κίρικο, ό.π., σελ. 22, παράθεση από
Μάρκου Γ. (1990), Κουβεντιάζοντας με τον Τζιόρτζιο ντε Κίρικο, Αθήνα: Ιδιωτική έκδοση, σελ. 44-45
και σελ. 59 αντίστοιχα.
22. Katz Giuliana, μαγνητοσκοπημένη ομιλία, ό.π. Η ανάκληση της ιστορικής μνήμης στα έργα του De
Chrico δεν είναι μια περίπτωση οικειοποίησης του παρελθόντος, ανάλογη με την χρήση των μηχανι-
σμών άμυνας, όπως η ενδοβολή, η ταύτιση και η παλινδρόμηση. Δεν πρόκειται για απόπειρα ανάδει-
ξης του παρόντος που αντλεί στοιχεία από το ένδοξο ιστορικό παρελθόν.
23. Λοϊζίδη Νίκη (1987), Ο Τζιόρτζιο ντέ Κίρικο και η Σουρεαλιστική Επανάσταση, Νεφέλη, Αθήνα 1987,
σελ. 161.
24. Krystal Henry, Giorgio de Chirico: Ego states and artistic production, American Imago, Spring 1966,
vol. 23, issue 3, p. 223.
25. Αυτόθι (μετάφραση δική μας).
26. Λοϊζίδη Νίκη (1987), Ο Τζιόρτζιο ντέ Κίρικο και η Σουρεαλιστική Επανάσταση, ό.π., σελ. 178.
27. Βλ. σχετ. Freud Sigmund, Το ανοίκειο, ό.π. Το πρωτότυπο κείμενο του Hoffmann υπάρχει στην συλ-
λογή μυθιστορημάτων του συγγραφέα Hoffmann E.T.A. (2015), Νυχτερινά, μτφρ. Καλιφατίδης Γιάν-
νης, Αγγελή Ηλιάνα, Αθήνα: Σμίλη.
28. Λοϊζίδη Νίκη, Ο Τζιόρτζιο ντέ Κίρικο και η Σουρεαλιστική Επανάσταση, ό.π., σελ. 167.
29. Katz Giuliana, μαγνητοσκοπημένη ομιλία, ό.π.
30. Αυτόθι.
31. Δασκαλοθανάσης Νίκος, Η ζωγραφική του Giorgio de Chirico, Opera, Αθήνα, 2001, σελ. 90.
32. Δασκαλοθανάσης Νίκος, Η ζωγραφική του Giorgio de Chirico, Opera, Αθήνα, 2001, σελ. 90.
33. Katz Giuliana, μαγνητοσκοπημένη ομιλία στο http://www.faculty.utoronto.ca/arc/college/archives/
Oct. 30, 2013, και Krystal Henry, Giorgio de Chirico: Ego states and artistic production, American
Imago, Spring 1966, vol. 23, issue 3, p. 221.
34. Δασκαλοθανάσης Νίκος, Η ζωγραφική του Giorgio de Chirico, ό.π., σελ. 150. Σε μια επιστολή από την
αλληλογραφία του De Chirico με τον Breton, την οποία δημοσιεύει ο Breton στο περιοδικό Littéra-
ture τον Μάρτιο του 1922, ο De Chirico αναφέρει ότι οι άνθρωποι έχουν πλέον ανάγκη από πιο στέ-
ρεα θεμέλια, βλ. σχετ. André Breton, Une lettre de Chirico στο Littérature, no.1 (new series), March
1922, σελ. 11.
35. Λοϊζίδη Νίκη, Ο Τζιόρτζιο ντέ Κίρικο και η Σουρεαλιστική Επανάσταση, ό.π., σελ. 194.
Argan, G. C. (2014:2002). Η μοντέρνα τέχνη 1770-1970 (μτφρ. Παπαδημήτρη Λίνα). Κρήτη: Πανεπιστη-
μιακές εκδόσεις Κρήτης.
Arnason, H. H. (1955). Ιστορία της σύγχρονης τέχνης: Ζωγραφική, γλυπτική, αρχιτεκτονική, φωτογραφία
(μτφρ. Κοκαβέσης Φώτης). Θεσσαλονίκη: Παρατηρητής.
Δασκαλοθανάσης, Ν. (2001). Η ζωγραφική του Giorgio de Chirico. Αθήνα: Opera.
Feldman, S. R. (2008/2009). Εξελικτική ψυχολογία – Διά βίου ανάπτυξη (μτφρ. Αντωνοπούλου Ζωή).
Αθήνα: Gutenberg.
Freud, S. (1919/2009). Το ανοίκειο (μτφρ. Βαϊκούση Έμη). Αθήνα: Πλέθρον.
Jackson, B. (1999). Art, Culture and the Semiotics of Meaning: Culture’s Changing Signs of Life in Po-
etry, Drama, Painting and Sculpture (Semaphores and Signs), United Kingdom: Palgrave Mac-
millan.
Καφενταράκη, Δ. (2013). Η Αινιγματικότητα του Τζιόρτζιο ντε Κίρικο, Αθήνα: Μετρονόμος.
Λοϊζίδη, Ν. (2013). Ο μοντερνισμός και οι μύθοι του: Δώδεκα μελέτες για τα μοντέρνα καλλιτεχνικά
κινήματα. Αθήνα: Νεφέλη.
McMurtrie, R. J. (2016). The semiotics of Movement in Space. New York: Routledge.
Μάρκου Γ. (1990). Κουβεντιάζοντας με τον Τζιόρτζιο ντε Κίρικο. Αθήνα: Ιδιωτική έκδοση.
Πάγκαλος, Π. (2012). Η ιστορία του χρόνου στην αρχιτεκτονική του Aldo Rossi, Αθήνα: Gutenberg.
Διαλέξεις
Katz Giuliana (2013), μαγνητοσκοπημένη ομιλία στο http://www.faculty.utoronto.ca/arc/college/ar-
chives/ Oct. 30, 2013.
Περιοδικά/Εφημερίδες
Krystal, Η. 90, Holocaust Trauma Expert and Survivor στο New York Times, 17 October 2015, page D8
of the New York edition.
Breton, Α. (1920). Une lettre de Chirico, Littérature, 1.
Krystal, H, (1966). Giorgio de Chirico: Ego states and artistic production, American Imago, (23)3.
MEDIA & MULTIMEDIA

MEDIA & MULTIMEDIA
The multi-sensoriality
of virtual reality immersion:
An experimental study
Spiros Polimeris Panteion University spolimer@panteion.gr
Christine Calfoglou Hellenic Open University xkalfog@yahoo.gr
Abstract
The immersion properties of digital culture and its all-engulfing effects have been re-
peatedly referred to in the literature (see Polimeris & Calfoglou, 2015 for an overview).
This paper attempts to shed some further light on the potency of the digital medium
and, more specifically, of virtual reality, by conducting research comparing the effects
of diverse modes of presentation of tourist and cultural tourism destinations on re-
spondents’ choice of a place. The results are discussed in light of virtual reality dis-
course entailing a multi-sensorial immersion meaning-making experience, ocular,
auditory and also, potentially, haptic, unlike the purely ocular non-immersion dimen-
sions of a brochure or the ‘augmented’ ocular dimensions of a website. The degree to
which the ‘aura’ of a destination interferes with the effect of the medium is also dis-
cussed. Participants’ relatively reduced awareness of the powerfulness of the medium
and its multi-sensorial semiotics is considered in relation to affect as “always just be-
yond the control threshold of” and “travers(ing)” rather than “possess(ed)” by the sub-
ject (Shaviro, 2010; cf. Salvatore & Freda, 2011).
Keywords
multi-sensoriality , VR , aura , affective processes
Introduction
In ‘The Aesthetics of Mixing the Senses’, Howes (n.d.) elaborates on ‘a full-bodied, cross-
modal aesthetics’ (p. 80), to be found in the Ancient Greek symposion, in contradistinc-
tion with the “ ‘refined’ (ibid.) understanding of the nature of aesthetic experience” shov-
ing aside the nonvisual senses, which was brought about by 18th century philosophers.
In doing so, he clearly demonstrates that the ‘fugue’ of the senses has not always been
a harmonious one and that the contrapuntal element has not always been given voice in
perception. Digital technology has allowed the polyphony of the senses to revive, how-
ever. Late 20th and early 21st century digital technology has actually led to the creation of
multi-sensorial virtual reality (henceforth VR) environments, whose immersion proper-
ties have given the multi-sensorial a strong boost. Immersion may involve “the body’s
capacity to supplement technology” (Hansen, 2003, p. 4), the human subject being “de-
voured by the process” (Polimeris & Calfoglou, 2015, p. 76), while the body-machine in-
terplay arouses multiple senses to the point of alertness. As a matter of fact, immer-
sive environments have been said to involve both ‘sensorial deprivation’, due to the dis-
tance from the ‘real thing’, and “a perpetual synaesthetic negotiation in order to recon-
nect different stimuli into a coherent whole” (Wynants et al., 2008, p. 157). In other words,
they give rise to a different kind of cross-modal aesthetics and a new type of narrative
(cf. Cobley, 2001).
In an attempt to explore VR effects and shed further light on the digital immersion ex-
perience and the plurality of the senses involved in it, this paper presents an experiment
in which the participants select among a number of tourist and cultural tourism desti-
nations presented to them in diverse modes and seeks to explore the degree to which
VR environments will assert their dominance over the other two modes of presentation,
namely the brochure and the website. It is laid out as follows: We first present the rele-
vant theory, highlighting its semiotic implications, and then, in the next section, we de-
scribe the experiment, the results of which are presented and discussed in the final sec-
tion. We will attempt to highlight the insight affect theory gives us into subject behaviour
and go on to suggest that the ‘aura’ of a cultural product may need to be redefined to re-
spond to the ‘augmented’, multi-sensorial needs of a digital world.
Virtual Reality environments: Where has all the ‘aura’ gone?

Immersion was referred to above as an all-engulfing reality. This has meant that the me-
dium can be shatteringly powerful in leading subjects to specific choices. With regard to
the selection of a destination in particular, which is what we have sought out to explore in
the present study, its impact may be all-sweeping. This is probably enhanced by the fact
that, as has been argued (see, e.g., Selby & Morgan, 1996, Powell. & Kokkranikal, 2015),
one’s perception of a place may well determine one’s decision to visit it (see also discus-
sion in Polimeris & Calfoglou, 2015). An earlier, small-scale version of this experiment
(ibid.) indicated an advantage of the virtual over the 2D-digital, namely the website. This
advantage has been argued in the literature (e.g. Yu, 2013) to be a result of increased sub-
ject control and interactivity, the ‘illusion’ of body dominance, to which multi-sensorial-
ity contributes, as work done on the digital modification of space and multi-sensoriali-
ty seems to suggest (e.g. Breffeih & Azarbayjani, n.d.). We are witnesses to this ‘expan-
sion of the body into space’ which McLuhan (1964) refers to so eloquently and which has
led both to a redefinition of space and time in the digital universe (Polimeris & Calfoglou,
2014, 2016) and a concomitant redefinition of the role of the senses in perception. As Sos-
nowska (2015, p. 2) puts it, “The so-called ‘language of new media’ is largely based on the
very concept of sensory language”. Thus, it is quite natural to expect the virtual and mul-
ti-modal to override the non-virtual.1
The potency of the medium, with its multi-sensorial dimensions, may be said to coun-
teract the individual charm, the ‘aura’ of a place. Benjamin (1936/1968) defines the con-
cept as the distance required to give an object its “uniqueness and permanence” (p. 4).
We borrow the term from Benjamin’s description of a work of art to refer to the unique-
ness of a place, a destination, in its physical sense, its bodily presence, as against its vir-
tual existence. In Benjamin’s terms (ibid.), the aura of a place is now battled against by
the masses’ “desire ( ) to bring things ‘closer’ spatially and humanly, which is just as ar-
dent as their bent toward overcoming the uniqueness of every reality by accepting its re-
production”. Applied more generally, this definition could be a very apt comment on the
impact of virtual reality, of the way it appropriates objects, creating digital synaesthetic
effects. In other words, the place as a unique physical entity might give way to the cov-
etous wish to devour it digitally. This is a dimension we explore in the experiment de-
scribed in the next section.
But how could the impact of the medium on one’s choice of a destination be translated
in semiotic terms? On the basis of Peirce’s argument that “a sign is something A, which
brings something, B, its interpretant sign determined or created by it, into the same sort
of correspondence with something, C, its object, as that in which itself stands to C” (Peirce,
1902/1976, vol. 4, pp. 20-21), in an “infinite process of semiosis” (Salvatore & Freda, 2011,
p. 120), namely the need for this tryad to exist in order for a signification to be achieved,
we hypothesise the following: If A is our idea of a place, B is the place as presented and
C is the place itself, then, in the case of a virtual tour, the interpretant, the interpreting
sign, would involve the mediation of the digital-virtual. The question, therefore, is how
robust is this sensorially enriched experience in signifying C, the destination, the place,
and whether the virtual interpretant is more effective than its non-virtual counterparts.
Could it be that the actual experience fades away if pitted against the virtual one, giving
rise to the so-called ‘avatar blues’ (Piazza, 2010)? On the other hand, if the aura of the
place, as suggested earlier, its singularity outdoes its VR replication, as a result of hav-
ing visited the particular place, for example (‘I’ve been there’), then perhaps this would
mean that the multi-sensoriality of the actual experience is a stronger interpretant than
the virtually mediated, synaesthetic one.
The question arising, however, is whether this sense-making process is conscious.
As a matter of fact, it may be tempting to attribute potential VR, immersion effects to
affective semiosis (cf. Taffou, 2015). This would involve a pre-semiotic – semiotic inter-
face in Salvatore & Freda’s (2011)2 terms, merging the signs referred to above with non-
intentional sense-making (but cf. Leys, 2011). As Salvatore & Freda (2011, p. 131) put
it, “people cannot help affectively making sense, just as they cannot help perceiving or
thinking. (For) every experiential encounter with the world triggers a movement of affec-
tive semiosis that shapes the existential meaning […] of such an experience for the sub-
ject”. Most relevantly, affective semiosis is a homogenising process, “a mental operation
whose product is the transformation of the flow of experience into […] a single global
mental state associated with the totality of the experience the subject is part of …” (ibid.).
If affective semiosis follows this ‘categorisation mode’, we might expect respondents’
perception of the virtually presented destination to be a syncretic one, treating it as the
class it belongs to rather than as a distinct object of visit. In other words, Rome, for ex-
ample, might be seen not as Rome but as a collection of beautifully presented sights. As
might be expected, such an outlook would further testify to a destination’s loss of aura.
The experiment
On the basis of the issues discussed in the previous section, we designed an experiment
in which we presented participants with a number of destinations in the form of a bro-
chure, a website or a VR environment with the following threefold aim:
– We were interested to see whether participants’ choices would reveal any preference
for one of the three presentation modes, suggesting, for example, that the VR pres-
entation mode, allowing the digital visitor a virtual tour of the destination advertised,
with its multi-sensorial immersion component, is more popular and thus selected
more often than the other two, namely the brochure, with its purely ocular dimen-
sions, and the website, with its enriched, ‘augmented’ visual – auditory features, en-
hancing the plain illustrated reading text of a brochure. The synergy of signs at work
in the virtual tour might add to the effectiveness of the medium.
– We also wanted to see whether the ‘aura’ of the destination, its popularity in lay
terms, would counteract the strength of the medium.
– Third, we wished to examine the degree to which participants were conscious of me-
dium effects in their decision.
More specifically, the questionnaire participants were given involved the following: There
were two types of destinations, represented by 3 questions each, each question involv-
ing 3 items: tourist destinations, cities, and cultural tourism destinations, namely muse-
ums, like the Mozart Museum or the Smithsonian. At the end of each group of questions
there was a question inviting participants to decide which of the 9 items they had been
exposed to they would visit if they had the chance to right at that point. This was meant
to test for the lasting effect of the presentation medium. In other words, depending on
respondents’ choice at this point, we could obtain further evidence as to the strength of
the brochure, the website or the VR presentation or mitigate our arguments in favour of
presentation medium effects. The destinations in both groups varied in terms of popu-
larity, so each choice involved low- medium- or high-popularity cities or museums. This
was meant to explore our second research question, namely the degree to which the ‘au-
ra’ of the place, as defined in the previous section, interfered with the effect of the medi-
um. In other words, we were interested to see whether the effects of the medium were
the same, independently of the strength the destination carried on its own. This would
mean that the place as a physical entity may give way to the place as a digital entity.
In addition, to eliminate the possibility of randomness and explore participants’ con-
sciousness of the potency of the medium, in response to our third research question, we
asked them to state the reason for their choice.
The questionnaire was given to 89 respondents (36 of whom were adults, Universi-
ty students mostly) and another 53 secondary schoolers. No significant differences be-
tween the two groups were obtained, so we decided to treat them jointly in our discus-
sion. The questionnaire was available online and respondents clicked each city or muse-
um button and saw a presentation of the city or museum in the form of either a website
or a virtual tour or a brochure. Each destination in a row was presented through a differ-
ent medium. They then ticked the relevant space in the questionnaire hard copy, opting
for one of the 3 items/destinations in each row. The results were subjected to quantita-
tive analysis, though some qualitative analysis was reserved for the open-ended ques-
tions.
Results and discussion

Let us now take a look at the results. Overall, the VR mode took the lead over the website
and the brochure. As we can see in Table 1 below, VR destinations fared much better than
their rivals, as they got an overall 45%, that is 236 responses out of a total of 529, while
websites got 27% of the total of responses (146) and brochures 28% and 147 responses:
Table 1. Overall number of responses by presentation mode.
Brochure 28% (147)

Website 27% (146)
Virtual tour 45% (236)
Total 100% (529)
We can first of all see that websites, though non-linear and sensorially enriched
compared to brochures, do not present any particular advantage. On the other hand,
our initial hypothesis regarding the robustness of VR effects is confirmed. As expected,
the immersive VR environment engulfed respondents and led them to favour the specif-
ic tourist and cultural tourism destinations. In semiotic terms, it appears that the multi-
sensorial virtual medium acted as a more effective interpretant for the object described
than the visual or the ‘augmented’ visual one. We thus had evidence for the potency of
the semiotic system synergy, achieved through immersion, in the VR destination pres-
entation mode.
If we look at the results for each item/question more closely, we will see that, in con-
formity with the overall trend obtained, the virtual superseded the other two modes in
all cases but one, while the differences were statistically significant at the .05 level in all
cases but two. Even in these two items, however, the destination presented virtually had
the lead. What is worth commenting on a bit further, however, is that in one of the items
where the difference observed was significant, the highly popular cultural destinations
one, the brochure outperformed the other two modes most dynamically. It seems that
this is when the multi-sensorial recedes in favour of the uni-sensorial and, more spe-
cifically, vision. On closer inspection, we can see that this choice involved the Louvre
Museum, which a number of participants had visited quite recently, so the visual mode
could be relied on safely, since the destination was identified semiotically via the mem-
ory of the actual visit, which acted as a stronger interpretant of the destination than its
3D representation.
This takes us to our second point, regarding the effects of the destination ‘aura’. The
results obtained for highly popular destinations show that, for highly popular cities, the
mode effect was not significant, while for highly popular museums it was but inversely,
the brochure mode outdoing the virtual and the website, as we saw above. We can there-
fore deduce that the distinct ‘aura’ of a destination may sometimes blunt presentation
mode effects, though further examples would help us draw firmer conclusions. In oth-
er words, the uniqueness of the place may weaken the power of immersion, bypassing
the mediation of the virtual interpretant and the synergy of the senses effect. If we adopt
Benjamin’s (1968) definition of aura as the “associations, which, at home in the memoire
involuntaire, tend to cluster around an object of perception” (p. 186), and assume that
a VR presentation is not compatible with the realm of imagination (Bolter et al., 2006,
p.26), then our data also partly argues in favour of the involuntary and the imaginative.
So, where does affective semiosis come into play? What evidence is there of semio-
sis “… just beyond the control threshold of and “travers(ing)” rather than possess(ed) by
the subject (Shaviro, 2010, p.3), as alluded to in our third question? When respondents
were requested to provide a reason for their choice, it appears that a mismatch between
VR selection and acknowledgement of the role of the presentation mode was obtained.
More specifically, as can be seen in Table 2 below,
Table 2. Reason for destination selection
Frequency Percentage
presentation mode 27 30.3
popularity 12 13.5
other 50 56.2
Total 89 100.0
the proportion of those who attributed their choice to the presentation mode and had
selected a VR-presented destination went down to 30.3% as against the initial 45% we
saw in Table 1. Interestingly, an overwhelming 56.2% attributed their choice to reasons
more or less unrelated to immersion or popularity,3 which may suggest that VR immer-
sion effects acted upon their subconscious. These results gain a further boost if pitted
against the final choice of a destination made by our respondents, in answer to the ques-
tion ‘Which of all the above destinations would you visit if you had the chance to right
now?’. Once again, the 30,3% we get in Table 2 above falls short of the 41.6% selecting
the virtual in answering this question4. It would therefore seem to us that, in Leys’ words
(2011, p.450), “there is a disjunction or gap between the subject’s affective processes and
his or her cognition or knowledge of the objects that caused them”. In other words, par-
ticipants make a choice, presumably under the impact of the medium employed for the
specific destination, without realizing what led them to the specific choice. This disjunc-
tion suggests that the issue of awareness may need to be explored further. In multi-sen-
soriality terms, we could say that the participants are partially unaware of the strength
of multi-sensorial stimuli. This may complicate the signification process, for affect has
been referred to as an a-signifying intensity (see Massumi, 2002). On the other hand,
isn’t this process complicated anyway by the fact that the mediation function performed
by the interpretant becomes the sign itself, as in the famous McLuhan (1964) motto ‘the
medium is the message’?
As noted earlier, the homogenizing properties of affect may lead to generic percep-
tion, which, of course, the subject is unaware of. This, along with the concomitant loss
of aura of the object, in our case the destination, may trap the subject within a synaes-
thetic perception which eliminates the subject’s need to ‘be’ there. This feeling is greatly
enhanced by the fact that immersion may tap affect and the subconscious. These are ac-
tually the two sides of the same coin: the body helping technology and technology elimi-
nating the body – the ‘corporeal phantasm’, in Levitt’s (2012) terms. Referring to the im-
plications of immersion technology, Levitt (ibid.) speaks of “an affect-driven culture that
sells effects, sensation, experience and states of feeling” (p.2). As we saw earlier, the
subject may experience depression over the non-virtual. Our subjects apparently man-
aged to resist this trend to a certain extent, when dealing with a highly popular cultural
tourism destination, by selecting the visual mode, the brochure. Their choice of the spe-
cific presentation mode may have allowed them to perceive the object differently, as sug-
gested earlier, associations forming in the memoire involuntaire.
Let us now return to the sensorium. According to Simmel (1912), the increasing dom-
inance of sight in the modern world impacted emotions by heightening “the sense of ut-
ter lonesomeness, and the feeling that the individual was surrounded on all sides by
closed doors” (Howes, 2013, p.6). Is this lonesomeness counteracted by the multi-sen-
sorial element, the combination of sight, hearing (the accompanying music) and the feel-
ing that the viewer may have haptic contact with the place presented in a VR presentation
mode both in our experiment and, perhaps, more generally? There can be no definitive
answer, of course, but immersion, though multi-sensorial or, rather, synaesthetically so,
may be said to involve substitution of the interpretant, the interpreting sign for the actual
object, and this may be more lonesome still. “Perception is a social activity”, says How-
es (ibid., p. 9) and there might well be a social-dialogic element in virtually ‘imprisoning’
the senses of viewers globally within seconds of time but the ‘consensus’ achieved may
blunt rather than sharpening the senses, thus twisting perception.
Concluding remarks
So, what are we left with? Although there appears to be some resistance to immersion
effects, especially in so far as the aura variable is concerned, the future is digital and ste-
reoscopic, so perhaps this variable needs to be redefined. In the not distant future, the
non-replication idea of Benjamin’s aura may be fully inapplicable and the contribution of
virtual modality to shaping one’s perception of a specific entity may be most dominant.
We may therefore need to see how this new kind of ‘aura’ is constituted in the new semi-
otic triangle, where the interpreting sign, woven in with the digital medium, has become
all-powerful. In the definition of ‘aura’, uniqueness might be replaced by its very oppo-
site, namely massive, synaesthetic accessibility (cf. Betancourt, 2006), and the notion of
a place ‘as such’ may perish, so the place to be visited, the cultural or other destination
in our study, may eventually be a synthesis of immersion experiences.
Endnotes
1. For a social semiotic account of multimodality see O’Halloran et al. (2010).
2. The authors actually draw on Matte Blanco’s (1975) theory of the unconscious in formulating their
idea of affective processes.
3. They came up with statements like ‘It’s a beautiful place’, for instance.
4. For cultural tourism destinations, virtually presented destination responses went down to 31.5%,
which suggests that participants were not adamant in their decisions. This would need to be ex-
plored further with the help of more data per person.
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MEDIA & MULTIMEDIA
The Deadlock
οf Museum Images
& Multisensoriality
Nassia Chourmouziadi University of the Aegean nassiah@aegean.gr
Abstract
Musealisation as tool for collective memory management, constitutes a violent inter-
vention in the social life of material objects, which – among other things – transforms
them into almost exclusively visual stimuli. This loss of materiality contravenes the
consolidated museum practice that is based on the tangible evidence of “authentic” ob-
jects, as well as its undoubted educational mission. I argue that the triptych “protec-
tion – authenticity – learning” that has been the ontological base of modern museum is
characterized by inherent contradictions. Therefore, any attempt to re-determine mu-
seum practice should re-examine it. In this vein of thought, it is imperative to challenge
vision’s domination, using something more than limited naïve dashes of other sensori-
al stimuli, that leave intact the dominant visual approach. In other words, I argue that
multisensorial museum experience can threaten traditional museum’s ontological fea-
tures, and, therefore, can lead to a “new” museum that will act principally as “public
space”, and secondly as the protector of a collection of dead things.
Keywords
museums , multisensoriality
One of the dearest presences of my childhood was Kitsos Makris1, mostly for the very
funny stories he used to tell us. Like the one about this poor guy who one day visited the
museum-like house of this highly acclaimed folklorist and found himself in apprehen-
sion in front of a collection of popular religious icons. He felt compulsive to kiss them and
pray with his fingers crossed out of respect. He even asked for a stool to reach the ones
who were hanging high. Whenever he told that story he used to laugh hard with the lack
of awareness on the part of the guy and we used to laugh along, not because we knew
anything about religious icons, but because we did know a few things about museums.
Obviously, a similar kind of confusion is what the sign hanging at Nea Moni in Chios2 tries
to clear up: when you pass through the heavy wooden gate of the Monastery you face a
big label saying: “The sacred Nea Moni is not a museum. It is FIRST of all a place of wor-
ship, and SECONDLY a monument of Christian architecture and art. Therefore, the visitor
is a PILGRIM, who should fear God and His Holy Mother”. Needless to say, in a museum
a visitor cannot taste the fear of God or His Holy Mother.
In the same way, in the very familiar modernist museum someone fails to engage in a
range of emotions, as their visit seems designed to be a purely visual and cognitive experi-
ence (Chourmouziadi, 2006, 2010). Of course, things were not so in the beginning. Both at
the first private collections and at the first public museums of the 18th century, art and an-
tiquity lovers could pick up exhibits and closely examine them in their own time (Candlin,
2008; Dudley, 2010; Rees Leahy, 2012). However, the promotion of the public aspect of the
museums was not solely associated with a romantic predisposition to democratise them3,
but rather more with their role in educating citizens (Bennett, 1995, 2006). Thus, the influx
of ignorant working class people in museum halls, which presented world order in a crys-
tallised manner, established between visitors and exhibits a safe distance that we all take
for granted, today. Moreover, already as early as the first decades of the 20th century, the
appropriate exhibition toolkit had been developed to foster a comfortable viewing, regard-
less of the need for a more sensory approach (Bacci & Pavani, 2014; Howes, 2014).
So then, the established modern museum exhibition is exclusively directed to the
“pure gaze”4 (Bennett, 1998, 2006; Duggan, 2007), as a long lasting philosophical tradi-
tion considers vision to be the sense that maintains a sort of distance from the object
observed and leads to its critical evaluation and understanding (Belova, 2012). The rest
of the human senses, deemed as “inferior” to vision by many intellectuals due to their
association with the early stages of cognition and with instinctive, uncontrollable reac-
tions5, are banned from a museum experience altogether. In the same time, the behav-
ioural norms imposed on the visitor along with the whole ritual of the visit itself (Dun-
can, 1995; Rees Leahy, 2012, p. 7) are tailored to address a logically thinking individual.
A visitor capable of full cognitive vigilance who refrains from speaking loudly, roll on the
floor or eat in the premises, somebody who in many cases does not even need a rest or
water, an entity who yearns nothing but spiritual satisfaction.
The entire museum “technology” is developed to support this notion; linear narrative
structures based on the information provided by well-organised collections, clean spac-
es, designated paths, elegant shelves with neatly arranged objects. Moreover, the coded
representation of verbal information, the additional visual material, the ample lighting,
etc. “facilitate” the visitor towards learning by seeing.
However, despite the progress of exhibition practices and the fact that no one has ev-
er challenged the educational aspect of a museum visit6, in reality its learning outcomes
have without fail been rather disappointing. Admittedly, despite the hundreds of archeo-
logical reports about prehistoric times, the Flintstones were the ones who predominant-
ly formed our collective image of the period (Χουρμουζιάδη, 2006). Panting then while
trying to catch up with the times, almost a century after the formulation of pedagogical
theories regarding hands-on learning7, museums have started to doubt whether this fix-
ation on vision has been effective after all and are hesitantly attempting to introduce a
few more sensory stimuli.
However, the intention of such an introduction is primarily educational in the narrow-
est sense of the word. So, the use of the adverb “hesitantly” does not only refer to the
small number of examples or to the use of mere soundbites, but also to how limited the
use of sensory stimuli is, so much resembling infant education practices. This boils down
to I see a hammer and I hear a bash, I see a clay water pipe system and I hear running
water, I see a violin and I listen to a few notes8. On the other hand, especially in art mu-
seums where the educational goal gives way to the other core element of the modern-
ist museum, namely contemplation, the use of marketing practices has been attempt-
ed. That is the use of ambient pleasant sounds and smells (Cirrincione et al, 2014) in the
hope that this discreet sensory touch will foster vision and thus enhance the positive im-
pact the works of art have on a visitor, exactly like the way such stimuli work in a super-
market to increase consumption.
All these attempts comfortably leave intact the well-guarded management methods
of a museum collection. Recently, there have been several interesting critical voices stig-
matising exhibition practices that caused objects to loose their materiality and be convert-
ed into plain representations of themselves (Dudley, 2012). A practice that in fact entails
an inherent conflict of the modernist museum itself, whose objects are indispensable for
they are tangible evidence of the exhibitor’s perspective. As a result, some innovative pro-
posals discard the iconographic role assigned to the museum objects and seek the rein-
statement of the things themselves. This is not done by stripping exhibitions off interpre-
tive material and embrace early museum practices9, but rather it means focusing on how
active exhibits can become. In other words, by seeking ways of letting objects function as
transmitters of a wide range of sensory stimuli. This trend in its extremity, along with a
New Age concept, seemingly suggests that if we let our senses run rampant while visiting
a museum we will acquire a better understanding of it (Hamilakis, 2014, p. 3).
I will not pause here to dwell on the fainting episodes that such proposals may cause
to heads of archeological museums all over, nor on the obvious technical difficulties that
have to be to overcome. I will only say that apart from their provocative nature, these
approaches could trigger, once more, the long-lasting dilemma regarding museums,
whether objects or ideas should be at the heart of setting up an exhibition (Dudley, 2012;
Weil, 1990; Witcomb, 1997). In my opinion this is a pseudo dilemma.
Before I attempt an alternative approach to the question of “whether a visit to a mu-
seum should have a multi sensory character”, I would like to make a key observation.
The fact that so far we have been preoccupied with what visitors see, does not mean that
they are not experiencing a museum with all their senses (Bacci & Pavani, 2014; Levent
& Pascual-Leone, 2014, p. xvi). Firstly, because viewing something invariably spawns
sensory associations and secondly, because as they browse through an exhibition they
have a sense of themselves walking on the marble floor, they listen to other people whis-
pering, they are aware of the high ceiling above them, they pick the faint smell of the de-
tergent from the freshly cleaned floors, they can not wait to have something to eat after
their visit. Furthermore, this apparently agonising effort to suppress all other senses but
vision is not emotionally neutral, as the cold and exclusively cognitive process regarding
the objects viewed would have required. Rather than the museum objects themselves, it
is this effort to keep other senses but vision at bay that provokes awe and admiration for
the greatness of ancestors, that instills anguish to hold on to the past and fear for a na-
tion’s decline and other things along these lines.
Consequently, since all senses are present in a museum visit, I argue that it would be
meaningful to examine the role they can play into replacing the traditional museum with
something substantially different, rather than trying to restore the outdated modernist
one. This entails challenging three key concepts: the narrow school-like perception of a
museum’s educational role, the central and dominant role the museum objects hold for
themselves, and the belief that visitors are mere consumers of the museum product.
On the contrary, if the primary scope of an exhibition is to critically approach an issue,
it might be imperative to ensure that it stimulates visitors emotionally by utilising their
embodied experience more than just employing their pure logical analysis. Only then, I
think, will we be able to achieve the psychological and cognitive twists required to ena-
ble visitors to confront their stereotypes, to question familiar representations, to com-
prehend discrepancies in interpretation, to be forced to identify contradictions and con-
flicts. In this case, the information put forward is assessed and interpreted by the visi-
tors themselves10.
Hence, an exhibition can neither be just the aesthetically pleasing arrangement of
a collection nor just the narrative made up from a collection’s objects. I believe that it
should be a three-dimensional opportunity for discussion. This discussion primarily rais-
es issues and sets the framework, as it also intrigues and leads to further research
which later facilitates the visitor to form an opinion. A similar “critical museology” pro-
duces exhibitions that seek emotional stimulation and demand comprehensive physical
involvement so that they manage to shake off indifference and most importantly pave the
way to overthrow the established.
Nevertheless, a museum does not produce technologies, but rather borrows and em-
ploys what others invent. Well, what I describe could get ideas from ephemeral art instal-
lations, as Claire Bishop (2005, p. 7) puts it, where “rather than imagining the viewer as
a pair of disembodied eyes that survey the work from a distance, … presupposes an em-
bodied viewer whose senses of touch, smell and sound are as heightened as their sense
of vision”. Visitors do not simply contemplate the work of art; they immerse into it, be-
come involved at a multi sensory level and ultimately contribute to its completion (Bac-
ci & Pavani, 2014). In this way the distinct role of the museum objects is abolished since
they are treated as one of the many tangible and intangible pieces of the composition.
The exhibition equipment itself is in its own accord an exhibit as it plays an instrumental
role in the narrative as well as in stimulating the senses. Things are not just represent-
ed or described, they are somehow there, as well. The original coexists with the copy as
they cooperate to construct a meaningful whole.
On the other hand, visitors are decentered. Exiled from their predetermined Renais-
sance central viewing position and forced to choose by themselves where to stand11. So,
in practice multiple short-lived positions, sometimes highly uncomfortable, should be
taken in order to approach the exhibits. The visitor cannot complete the visit if he/she
does not intervene with what he/she is being shown, even by merely moving through
space. Therefore, one could claim that he/she leaves traces behind that may possibly al-
ter some of the exhibition aspects, and up to a point, even render him or her a co-creator.
In an exhibition like this, vision is largely not on its pedestal. The glimpse has become
more important than the gaze (cf Duggan, 2007). The moving body interacts with the ex-
hibition and utilises touch, hearing and proprioception. Smell and taste could even come
to play, even indirectly, with the enhancement of synesthetic stimuli that can cause vis-
ual, audio and tactile reactions.
Finally, I would like to emphasise that although the exhibition concept that I briefly
presented is inspired by artistic events, I for once am concerned about the possibility of
making good use of all things mentioned in exhibitions with more “down to earth” top-
ics, like the ones that historical museums have to manage. In their case, the search for a
multi sensory approach is not only about supporting or assisting the cognitive and men-
tal processes, but even more so, about the management of non-defined, non-rational
processes that play a cardinal role in shaping people’s perceptions. Because we love our
homeland, and the taste of its sweets or the smell of its freshly cut grass reminds us of
this love12. But this love is not based on anything rational. The appeal a taste or a scent
have on us cannot be rationally explained no matter how hard we try. Similarly, we hate
foreigners because they are “filthy”, darker, their faces are not easy on the eye and we
find them intimidating, their language sounds harsh and offensive, because we are afraid
they would do us harm (Crang & Tolia-Kelly, 2010). Possibly, no matter how many logical
and well-documented papers we are given to study about equality and solidarity, our ir-
rational fears and the things we love, our instinctive attractions and repulsions might re-
main ingrained within us forever. Maybe, then, it is worthwhile to try to overcome them
by organising exhibitions that from one point onwards aim to go beyond the rational and
the clearly drafted. As I say this I remember what I proudly used to recite as a student in
primary school “what I feel about my home-land is like a turmoil inside me13”.
Endnotes
1. Kitsos Makris (1917-1988) was a prominent folklorist, honored by the Academy of Athens for his
work. Albeit self-taught, in 1987 he was awarded the degree of Honorary Doctor of Philosophy by
the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. He has published 47 books and studies, many of which were
translated in English, French, German and Serbian. He bequeathed his folklore collection and his
enormous archive to the University of Thessaly, along with his house that, today, functions as a folk
museum.
2. Nea Moni is an 11th century monastery, recognised as an UNESCO World Heritage site, due to its
byzantine architecture and its magnificent mosaics.
3. It is widely commented how the transformation of Le Louvre from a private collection - contemplat-
ed only by the royal court and meant to underline the taste and the political power of French royal
family- to one of the first public museums in the world, was closely related to the democratic spirit
of French Revolution. Along with the demolition of La Bastille, the “opening” of Le Louvre was one
of the most symbolic acts of the new regime (Abt, 2006; Bennett, 1995; McClellan, 1994)
4. The “pure gaze” is a concept discussed by P. Bourdieu (1984, pp. 1-7). It is something possessed by the
culturally and artistically competent, opposed to the ordinary way of seeing the world, which privileg-
es function over form. The pure aesthetic demands a distance from life and necessity. For Bourdieu,
this distance is enabled by the lives of ease enjoyed by those who hold this aesthetic disposition.
5. The origins of the theoretical discussion about the senses, their significance and their hierarchy
can be traced, as usual, in the work of Plato and Aristotle. It was enriched by Decartes and Lock,
reintroduced by theologists and modernists, and had a vigorous come-back, as usual, in the mid
20th century (Howes, 2005).
6. The long tradition that considers museums as educators can be traced from the first examples
engaged in the nation ideology formation procedures – as ideological state apparatuses (Althusser,
1971), to the contemporary museumscape. Even if the size and the variety of the latter cannot easily
establish a relation with nationalistic narratives in every museum, the education of the masses
remains the main role of museums, as it is clearly mentioned in the ICOM’s (International Council of
Museums) official definition (http://icom.museum/the-vision/museum-definition).
7. The significance of experience in learning was first introduced by John Dewey in his classical book
“Experience in Education” (1938). He focused on the participation by students in experience and
radical democracy and the creation of praxis among learners. His work influenced many others,
such as constructivist learning theory, which can be considered the theoretical base of informal
learning (Hein, 1998).
8. The sonic design in a museum exhibition is a far more complicated issue. The immersive effect of
the exhibition soundscape can not only support the interpretative process, but can alter the visitors
experience altogether (Bubaris, 2014; Zisiou, 2011).
9. New Museology criticized early museums on the grounds that they left the objects “to speak for
themselves”, referring to the limited and not at all imaginative interpretative material that accom-
panied the exhibited objects of the collection.
10. Andrea Witcomb (2013; 2015), for instance, makes a very interesting analysis of the role that affect
plays in exhibitions, which try to topple long lasting stereotypic colonialist approaches.
11. Claire Bishop argues that installation art’s relationship to the viewer is underpinned by two ideas:
“activating the viewing subject” and “decentring”. The first refers to the need of the visitor to move
around and through the work in order to experience it, rather than just staying still to optically
contemplate it. The later is inspired by Panofsky’s critique of renaissance perspective (Bishop, 2005;
2012).
12. Nadia Seremetakis, making a splendid correlation between the smell and taste of a specific kind of
peaches and homesickness, argues that “memory cannot be confined to a purely mentalist or sub-
jective sphere. It is culturally mediated material practice that is activated by embodied acts and se-
mantically dense objects” (Seremetakis, 1996, pp. 7).
13. It is the final verse of the short poem by Aristotelis Valaoritis (1824-1879), “My love for my country”.
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MEDIA & MULTIMEDIA
An analysis
of internationalization
through university foreign
language homepages
Elizabeth Stigger Alexander College lizhas3@gmail.com
Abstract
Increasingly the concept of internationalization is being incorporated within the stra-
tegic development of higher education (HE) institutions. This is often tied closely with
educational policies that have been developed to attract international students. This
paper utilizes semiotics to analyze how the foreign language homepages (FLH) at
Japanese universities are creating meaning within the internationalization of HE. As
a relational analysis, this paper interprets lower-, mid-, and higher-ranking univer-
sities’ FLH with regards to how the information placed on these webpages is repre-
sentative of the degree to which internationalization strategies have been incorpor-
ated within Japanese university environs, by being informative to prospective inter-
national students. First, how internationalization is contextualized within Japanese HE
is outlined. Then, the construction of a semiotic analysis of Japanese university FLHs
is introduced. The primary discussion focuses on a sensual analysis of low-, mid-, and
high-ranking university FLHs and the quality of information provided for international
students on these webpages. The discussion highlights the importance of the results
of the semiotic analysis in facilitating the further development of the FLHs at Japanese
universities, in an attempt to incorporate an internationalization agenda through con-
necting with the international student population.
Keywords
Internationalization , Foreign language homepages , Japanese higher education
Introduction
Within higher education (HE) increasing importance is being placed on the incorporation
of globalization. Here globalization is the connection between countries, which is charac-
terized through movement in people, economics, ideas, values, and knowledge (Knight,
2008). Under this conceptualization, internationalization is the strategic plans developed
through policies and practices to achieve globalization (Altbach & Knight, 2007). In ed-
ucation, educational policies are often being developed to promote a nation within the
global marketplace. These policies influence how individual universities are able to in-
corporate an internationalization agenda within their infrastructure.
Within Japan, the utilization of globalization as the basis for educational reforms, has
also lead to a situation where HE has been linked to an export product. Currently, the
Ministry of Sports, Science, Culture and Education (MEXT) has official policies concern-
ing the attraction and enrollment of international students at Japanese universities, in
part to develop Japan as a knowledge economy (MEXT 2012, 2014). Furthermore, in Ja-
pan, the number of international students enrolled at a university has been connected to
indicators of a university as being world-class. World-class is a testimony of the rigor of
programs offered and research output (Yonezawa & Shimmi, 2015). It is within this realm
that the assessment of university homepages – the foreign language homepage (FLH) –
directed towards international students is of importance. How a university develops and
maintains its FLH is an integral sign of the degree to which the internationalization agen-
da has been adopted by the university. It is also indicative of the degree to which interna-
tional students may be incorporated within the university’s educational culture and the
support they might expect. The type of information placed on a FLH, and the overall ef-
fect of the webpage therefore are of importance. The FLH forms the sensual image, what
is directly seen of a university to potential students, even before they enroll.
The Internet is often a first source for information gathering, particularly for students
considering their study abroad options (Zhang & O’Halloran, 2012). Accordingly, this pa-
per will address how FLHs are sites of meaning-making within the internationalization
of HE, through an examination of Japanese universities’ websites. After briefly outlining
the sampling methods taken in this study, the discussion will focus on a semiotic analy-
sis of FLHs at Japanese universities according to rank, and the implication of the mean-
ings of internationalization embedded within these homepages. The focus will be on the
sensual, through an assessment of the quality of information on the FLHs, through the
semiotic analysis. The visual sense of the FLH is closely linked with how a university can
develop a connection and thereby attract international students.
Method
In the analysis of FLHs, I will take a social-constructionist approach to cultural semiot-
ics. This approach addresses how language and images, as a sign-system, play a prima-
ry role in the construction of social reality (Barthes, 1957/1984; Bignell, 2002).
Denotation, connotation and purpose
A sign, as the basic unit of meaning has two parts, the signifier and the signified. The
signifier is a sound or a mark (the material), and the signified is a concept, which com-
bine to attribute meaning to a sign (Allen, 2003; Bignell, 2002). The relationship between
the signifier and the signified is described by the denotation and connotation. The deno-
tation is the literal meaning of the signifier. The connotation is the associations or emo-
tional responses that are connected to the sign (the signified; Maasik & Solomon, 2011).
Barthes was concerned with how the denotations and the connotations together cre-
ate a message. For example, if looking at a webpage, near the title bar you would see
the signifier , the signified, or concept ‘movement; going back’ is not even questioned
because we have become so accustomed to making this link to the meaning of this sign.
The signifier and the signified have an arbitrary connection, yet, cultural conventions
have cemented relationships that often appear so natural that we do not question their
existence (Kennedy & Hills, 2009). Accordingly, a semiotic analysis is a two-stage pro-
cess. The first stage is identifying the literal elements within the sign – the denotation,
and then the second stage, the connotation, involves the cultural associations connected
to the sign. It is by identifying the combination of these two elements that an interpreta-
tion of the sign can be attributed (Allen, 2003; Bignell, 2002). To analyze how meaning is
created in a sign requires analysis of these two separate elements so that the way they
work together can allow the wider cultural associations to become visible.
Mythic meaning
A myth operates from an existing semiotic system. It takes a sign, which already has
meaning attributed to it, and uses this as a signifier for a wider cultural concept (Barthes,
1957/1984), this would be a second-order analysis (Griffin, 2009). For example, one pur-
pose of a Japanese university’s homepage in the national language is to provide informa-
tion about a university to the local population – a first order meaning. With the develop-
ment of this same homepage in another language (a FLH), the interpretation of this image
changes to an image of the university as international through the provision of information
to non-Japanese speakers. What contributes to the myth in this study is that the FLH has
become an expectation of practice. As in, all Japanese universities should have a homep-
age in the national language as well as one that targets international students, but its con-
notative meaning has come to represent the nature of something else (Gaines, 2010). The
myth is that FLHs are a sign of the internationalization of Japanese universities.
The Semiotic Framework
As semiotics provides a framework from which a visual image can be assessed, the an-
alytical structure for FLHs must be defined. The analysis of FLHs is based on how Jap-
anese universities have integrated the ideals of internationalization within their devel-
opment as world-class through the information that they have placed on their FLHs. As
a website is key in maintaining public relations (Chang, 2011), the information that one
would expect to see on a homepage directed towards international students was coded.
The codes were then grouped into categories which contribute to the meaning of Jap-
anese universities as having adopted an internationalization agenda within their infra-
structure. From this two units of analysis were defined: structure/content, and images
(Appendix A). Each of these categories were further subcategorized and attributed de-
fining elements (Appendix B). For example, the structure/content category is defined by
the conventional placement of information such as the placement of the logo, universi-
ty name, search box and language navigation key, language options, types of informa-
tion including courses/programs, fees, university calendar, and support for international
students. The image category is defined by types of photographs and multimedia options
such as virtual tours, and connections to social media. The discussion below will primar-
ily focus on the overall structure/content on FLHs, concerning the usability of these pag-
es as representations of the internationalization of Japanese universities.
Analysis of FLHs
In Japan, there are over 1,200 post-secondary institutions. Traditionally, higher-ranking uni-
versities in Japan have been concerned with their international image. However, for more
than a decade, Japanese educational policies have been focusing on increasing the inter-
national student population in Japan. A result of this is that Japanese universities, wheth-
er they are at a developmental stage where they are capable of supporting an international
student body or not, must visually project an international outlook (Stigger, 2018). Utilizing
Webometrics*, a sampling analysis of every third Japanese university’s FLH was complet-
ed, using the defined boundary for assessment (Appendix B). This enabled an assessment
of the common trends and outliers in FLH construction of the universities in relation to each
other. Using Webometrics, for the ease of access only, Japanese universities were placed in
to the categories of low (ranking numbers 980-654), mid (653-327), and high (326-1) rank.
The following analysis will focus on common trends according to each of these ranks.
Low-ranking universities
Many Japanese lower-ranking universities did not have a FLH. This trend continues
through to the higher end of the mid-ranking universities. Occasionally, a FLH was not
found, but some of the main navigation links had been translated. This can be seen at
Niimi College (Figure 1). While not all the navigation links are translated, and these links
take users to subpages in Japanese, these links provide the industrious internation-
al student direction. This direction enables international students to use other methods
to translate the information found on these pages. Additionally, at this level, instead of
having no FLH, occasionally an underdeveloped FLH was found. This is of significance,
* Available at <http://www.webometrics.info/en/Asia/Japan>
because it suggests that the university is aware of how FLHs have been incorporated by
Japanese universities as a visual sign of internationalization. The connotation of interna-
tionalization at these universities suggests that the university acknowledges the impor-
tance of developing an internationalization outlook, but this is still developing.
When there was a FLH, it was usually only in English. Occasionally, in addition to an
English FLH, Chinese and/or Korean FLHs could be found. At first glance, Kurashiki City
College exemplifies what has come to represent the norm of FLH structure (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Niimi College
Figure 2. Kurashiki City College
The access to the FLH is traditionally placed in the upper right-hand corner of the Japa-
nese homepage. Other distinctive features of the homepage are also traditionally place,
the university name and logo appear in the upper left-hand side, a search box in the
right-hand side, and below this a main navigation tool bar. However, as the user looks
closer at Kurashiki City College’s FLH, they will notice that information is limited. Both
the English and Korean FLHs are one long page, which inform about the university at a
very superficial level. All the key navigation tabs, while traditionally placed have not been
translated, even the university’s name appears in Japanese. This homepage illustrates
how access to key information, such as Admissions <入試情報>, which potential inter-
national students would be interested in, is unavailable. One connotation that these vi-
suals appears to imply, is that the international student must have a command of Japa-
nese in order to function at these universities.
When considering the international student market in Japan, the choice of languag-
es displayed on FLHs is of significance. The core language for homepages should be
the national language, Japanese. This is often followed by English, as the first addi-
tional language, and this may be followed by additional links to other secondary lan-
guages to target specific groups (Callahan & Herring, 2012). However, Callahan and
Herring’s (2012) summation of language use on websites negates the fact that at ma-
ny Japanese universities there are often no native speakers of English studying at the
university. In fact, as Phan (2013) outlines, most international students in Japan are
from Asia. This raises questions as to why English FLHs, as a visual representation
of Japanese universities, are developing. If the purpose of these homepages is for at-
tracting international students, then having translated pages in other Asian languages
would be more logical than having a FLH in English. However, Japan is attempting to
develop its HE system as world-class within the context of globalization. Here, Eng-
lish is the lingua franca, and it is emphasized by MEXT (2014) as the foreign language
to learn in Japan. In such circumstances, English use has become a visual representa-
tion of the globalization process in Japan (Yonezawa, 2011). Furthermore, to develop
as world-class, requires that Japanese universities implement reforms. The incorpo-
ration of English within the university’s infrastructure has become one benchmark of
these reforms.
Mid-ranking universities
The trends found at the lower-ranking level are still common at the mid-ranking level.
However, it was found that some mid-ranking universities had completely separate FL-
Hs, with no navigation link connecting the FLH to the Japanese homepage. Despite hav-
ing a navigation box labeled ‘Language’, on the Japanese homepage, the only language
option was often Japanese. Yet, through a separate web search, a link to a FLH can be
found. On these FLHs, a great deal of information appears in Japanese. The main navi-
gation links are written in Japanese with English translations. While these links lead to
subpages containing English information, the information is very limited. These subpag-
es typically end with an invitation to email the university for more information. It is sig-
nificant that with these homepages is there is no access between the English and Japa-
nese homepage. Visually and sensually, the two homepages are completely separated.
This could negatively influence the connotation that the prospective international student
might develop, as they are invited to look, but they are otherwise not integrated within
the university’s student community.
Sometimes the navigation link to the FLH is hidden within the mainframe of the Jap-
anese homepage. This is the case at Niigata Sangyo University, where there is a link en-
titled “For Foreigners” (Figure 3) in the right-side column of the mainframe.
Figure 3. Niigata Sangyo University hidden FLH navigation link
Once connected to the subpage the main navigation links still appear in Japanese with
no translations. There are, however, downloadable files concerning the courses offered
within a link, entitled ‘Camps Guide’. This link however, was mistranslated from the Jap-
anese <学校案内>. It should read ‘Campus Guide’ (Figure 4). This represents a common
problem at all ranks of universities’ FLHs, the foreign language versions of the Japanese
homepage often contain mistranslations, spelling mistakes, and incorrect grammar or
punctuation usage.
Figure 4. Niigata Sangyo University misspelling
As at other universities, the ‘Camps Guide’ file offers surface information about the dif-
ferent departments at the university. It also provides an outline for the application pro-
cess, including the expected tuition costs to be borne by the international student. What is
particularly unusual about Niigata Sangyo University, is that it explicitly explains that the
greater the prospective international student’s Japanese ability, the less they will have to
pay in tuition. However, what this discount actually is, is not stated. While this might be an
attempt to make a connection to potential international students, it is also sensually in-
forming them that they must have Japanese language skills to study in Japan.
There are two other trends at this level. The first concerns the use of translation ma-
chines. At the higher end of the mid-ranked universities, it is common to find functions
that enable online translations of the Japanese homepage. Hyogo University (Figure 5) of-
fers an online Google translation of its Japanese homepage not only in English, but also
in Korean and Chinese. As can be seen in Figure 5, not all the details have been translat-
Figure 5. Hyogo University
ed when on the English homepage. While this may provide direction for prospective inter-
national students, an online translation machine only performs direct translations of indi-
vidual words. This negates that meaning is contextual, and individual words do not neces-
sarily translate directly from one language to another. The decontextualized translations
may be seen as offering generalized information, however, as on homepages with spelling
mistakes or other language errors, the overall effect can be interpreted as unprofessional.
Mistakes can cause confusion which deters extensive usage of the webpage (Lynch & Hor-
ton, 2008). Accordingly, the presentation of information is of importance, as the meaning-
making of the FLH, as a representation of the internationalization of HE within Japan, in-
fluences the connotation of the university as being an integrated, challenging, and creative
place to study. These should be key factors in MEXT’s promotion of Japan’s HE as a part of
world-class HE.
The second trend is the appearance of accreditation seals. The accreditation seals
were rarely seen at the lower-ranking universities. The trend of displaying accredita-
tion seals became most apparent within the mid-ranking universities and continues un-
til the upper half of the higher-ranking universities, where after that it is unusual to see
them again. The importance of displaying seals of accreditation is that they are a visu-
al representation of the university as being ‘world-class’. By displaying seals of accredi-
tation these universities are attesting to the rigor of their academic programs, and their
research performance. Accreditation seals are connected directly to the degree to which
these universities are visual, particularly with regards to their desire to perform well
within global university ranking systems (Deem, Mok, & Lucas, 2008).
To increase their visibility within the global HE market necessitates that many univer-
sities must develop how they use English, as a lingua franca. Phan (2013) notes that the
idea of world-class universities is a phenomenon developed in Western countries. Yo-
nezawa (2010) more specifically adds that the notion of world-class attests to Ameri-
can standards. Both authors express that universities in other nations are attempting to
achieve world recognition according to values that are not necessarily their own. This is
creating a huge divide between universities in Japan (Phan, 2013; Yonezawa, 2011). The
result of the pressure to appear to be world-class, as displayed on the FLHs of Japanese
universities, is that it is increasing the divide between universities that are able to achieve
this distinction and those that merely attempt to display it. Those universities who are
unable to develop easy to use and read FLHs, and rather are uploading homepages that
are hard to navigate and/or contain limited information, are not contributing to the visu-
al image of Japan as being part of world-class HE.
It appears that MEXT is attempting to steer potential international students specifi-
cally to the Top Global Universities (TGU). The TGU project is a continuation of a govern-
mental funding project, in which 37 universities have been chosen specifically by MEXT
to develop content programs in English. The explicit purpose is to support internation-
al students and developing the university as world-class (Yonezawa & Shimmi, 2015).
The pressure, in general to internationalize, is however felt by other universities in Ja-
pan. This pressure is seen through the development of uninformative FLHs at both low-
er- and mid-ranking universities. Using the semiotic analysis, where the analytic process
is both bounded and relational, the results seem to suggest that the development of the
FLH, by lower- and mid-ranking universities is not to encourage prospective internation-
al students to study in Japan, but rather is a visual response to pressures within the HE
system to develop an internationalization ideology.
High-ranking universities
As would be expected, Japan’s highest-ranking universities offer the most tailored infor-
mation for prospective international students. At these universities, the structure of the
FLHs distinctly changes from informing prospective international students about surface
details of the university to providing specific information regarding courses of study, in-
structors and their research interests, and university life. These details become a sensu-
al base for international students, enabling them to make informed decisions concern-
ing studying at a specific university.
Language use was a significant difference in the presentation of information at this
level. The importance of language use is not what it is, but rather what it does through
how the sign constructs and transmits meaning (Hall, 1997). Signs in media are used not
only for their denotation value, but also to trigger a range of connotations which are al-
so attached to the sign (Bignell, 2002). These additional connotations are what separates
the FLHs at the higher-ranking universities from those at the other ranks.
The highest-ranking universities are striving to make a sensual connection with pro-
spective international students. At this level information divided into specific categories
is found. It was common to find information specifically for international students under
navigation links titled “International Program”, “Prospective Students” or “For Students:
Past, Present & Future”. Providing these navigation links represents a sensual interest
in the international student, as information regarding the university is easily assessible.
However, these links also connote that the university understands that the international
student body’s information needs are not the same as those of Japanese students. This
is significant, as through providing navigation links to specific sets of information, the
university is demonstrating that it is not only interested in attracting international stu-
dents, but it is able to provide the specific types of information international students re-
quire. These visual representations can translate into the welcoming and support of an
international student body within the university.
Education is increasingly focusing on the perceived needs of the market within a glo-
balized economy (Rizvi & Lingard, 2011). When a nation attempts to market its HE sys-
tem as world-class, the presentation of information on its FLHs contributes significant-
ly to the meaning to which an internationalization agenda has been incorporated by in-
dividual universities. Dividing information according to whether or not the internation-
al student is a prospective, current or alumni student is just one part of how the mean-
ing of being an international university is achieved. Whereas at lower ranking universi-
ties images portraying international students were rare, at the highest-ranking level the
number of these images increase significantly. Furthermore, the photographs with dis-
tinctly non-Japanese, non-Asian students do not just show students part-taking in cul-
tural fares such as at festivals or wearing a kimono. Photographs of non-Asian students
studying in an integrated class or performing research activities can also be seen, as ex-
emplified by Saitama University (Figure 6). Many of the highest-ranking universities also
make direct testaments to the incorporation of globalization (Figure 6). Phrases which
encourage students to consider their education as global appear, such as “Go Global” and
“Knowledge into Action” at Chuo University, or “Creating a future beyond borders” at Rit-
sumeikan University, are commonly found. Furthermore, higher-ranking universities al-
so refer to their research prowess, and encourage students to connect to the university’s
research activities through providing access to current research links.
Figure 6 Saitama University
Lastly, many universities encourage prospective international students to consider

‘why’ they should apply to their specific university. The ‘Why X university’ navigation link
connects users to sub-links about the campus, the voice of current international students,
courses, and information about living in Japan. Furthermore, most FLHs offer links to
promotional videos, as well as provide navigation links to twitter and Facebook accounts.
At Hokkaido University (Figure 7) navigation links to Facebook, twitter, Instagram, You-
Tube and the university’s open course (online access to individual courses) are provided.
The higher-ranking universities are thus
employing the FLH not only as a visual
representation of their institution within
a global HE market, but also using this
information to sensually connect to pro-
spective international students. Figure 7. Social media links at Hokkaido University
Discussion
In a semiotic analysis of FLHs, it is important to consider how the sign, the FLH itself, is
a sensual display of the place a university is within the HE system. Within the internation-
alization of HE, the FLH represents an attempt to appeal to the social consumption of ed-
ucation. However, the mere fact that a university has a visual display of internationaliza-
tion, through its development of a FLH, does not equate to it as being international. Fur-
thermore, the use of the FLH as a visual representation of a university being internation-
al becomes particularly questionable when universities upload underdeveloped webpag-
es, which lack relevant information for potential international students, only in English.
Within Japan, universities are increasingly facing pressure to develop strategies to im-
prove their position within the knowledge economy though educational and research
practices (Yonezawa, & Shimmi, 2015). This has led many universities to strive towards
achieving the status of world-class. While universities are under pressure from the gov-
ernment concerning education development, pressure to conform and competition with
higher status universities are also influencing how a university internationalizes. How-
ever, not all universities have been able to successfully incorporate the ethos of inter-
nationalization within their existing infrastructure (Stigger, 2018). The semiotic analysis
reveals that lower- and mid-ranking universities are masking the discourse on incorpo-
rating an internationalization agenda, through visuals such as the development of FLHs.
The analysis illustrates that language use and presentation are distinguishing features
of FLHs. The semiotic analysis provided a structure from which analysis of FLH develop-
ment can be understood as either a response to, or the incorporation of, international-
ization within a university’s organizational ethos.
The development of an international agenda within an HE system is often the result
of outside pressures. The development of a FLH is an acknowledgement by a universi-
ty of the importance of internationalization within an increasingly global HE system. The
force behind the development of the internationalization of Japanese HE is often attrib-
uted to subsidies from MEXT (Phan, 2013; Yonezawa, 2011). However, these subsidies, in
the form of special grants as awarded to Japan’s highest-ranking universities, the TGUs,
exasperates the difference between universities that can and cannot sustain a large in-
ternational student population. The semiotic analysis reveals that that the FLH at mid-
to lower-ranking universities, are underdeveloped, and in particular do not pertain the
necessary information that prospective students would require in an assessable format.
Accordingly, the meaning-making in these FLHs is not internationalized. Rather, the de-
velopment of these types of FLHs indicate that they are a surface change, in response to
the visual expectations of how a university within international HE should look. Conse-
quently, these lower ranking FLHs do represent that the university understands the sen-
sual importance of being visual internationally. What is important here is that underde-
veloped FLHs are symbolic of problems within the internationalization of HE. When the
FLH does not make a positive connection to potential international students, these web-
pages indicate the very opposite of being adaptive within the international HE market.
This indicates that these homepages exist in a peripheral context.
In an internationalized HE market, the university must be dynamic. It must be accept-
ed that the role of the university is changing in terms of the professionalization and vo-
cationalization of education. A university’s homepages, both its Japanese and its FLH,
are a product of the marketization and internationalization of HE. A FLH is thus, a visu-
al display of the university in transition within the everchanging landscape of HE. It is im-
portant that universities understand that the degree of the development of their FLH,
through the information placed on it, contributes to not only the meaning-making pro-
spective international students interpret from reading them, but also the meaning-mak-
ing that others concerned with international HE form of specific institutions.
Conclusion
The semiotic analysis of FLH reveals the degree to which a university is incorporating
an international agenda. The FLH is a sensual display of the position which a university
is in, with regards to its development of an infrastructure that is supportive of interna-
tionalization. As relevant information for the international student population is limited,
the FLHs, at most Japanese universities, are indicating to the prospective international
student that they will need a high command of Japanese language skills to function as
a university student. This is not only negatively influencing the image of Japanese HE as
world-class, but it could also potentially be deterring prospective international students
from making initial contact. The internationalization of Japanese HE cannot only be con-
cerned with policies on the development as world-class within international HE; these
values have to be integrated within a university’s organizational values and presented co-
herently to prospective international students. Webpages are a first step in information
gathering. Therefore, to facilitate in the development of the visual representation of Jap-
anese HE within the international HE market, the information found through the semi-
otic analysis of FLHs should be used to further develop informative webpages targeting
specific user groups, including international students.
Appendix A: Defining the Three Units of Analysis
Appendix B: The Boundary for Assessment of each FLH
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MEDIA & MULTIMEDIA
Game applications
as a form of popular culture
The engagement of human senses
in multimedia environments
Irene Photiou Frederick University of Cyprus photiou.irene@gmail.com
Theodora A. Maniou Frederick University of Cyprus manioud@yahoo.gr
Abstract
Social-media games are platforms in which the emotional mood of the users inter-
acts with contemporary popular culture. The investigation of the motives and emotion-
al background of users while playing a game may be important in identifying the me-
chanics of their organization and function, particularly since these applications often
figure prominently in the day-to-day practices of their users (Jarvinen, 2009).
In addition to their previously investigated features – their storytelling, promotion of
socialization and intimacy between gamers, and their substitution (in part) of interper-
sonal interaction – new characteristics seem to arise which explain and/or enhance
their popularity. With the transition from Web 2.0 to 3.0, the latest versions of these
applications offer their users new experiences based on the interaction of their sens-
es within the game as well as between players. This work uses social semiotics to
study two popular Facebook games, as case-studies. Specifically, we approach them
as multimodal texts and examine how the engagement of the senses of the users is
attempted and/or achieved. Our aim is to investigate whether and how they modify the
gaming experience and challenge the traditional hierarchy of the senses.
Keywords
Human senses , games , multimedia
Introduction
Lee & Jung (2014) use the term Homo Ludens to ascribe to human nature our tenden-
cy to exist as playing beings, through the wide use of games in various forms. Digital
games seem to constitute the latest popular trend occurring within visual technologies
(Shinke, 2008).
Since the beginning of Web 2.0, web games in the social media constitute platforms
through which the emotional engagement of users interacts with the existing popular
culture. The analysis of the motivation and emotional engagement of the players during
the use of (popular) games contributes to the identification of the organisational and op-
erational means that feature in the everyday practices of the players (Jarvinen, 2009).
Besides the already identified characteristics of these practices, such as socializa-
tion, narration, the use of games as substitutes of interpersonal communication (Ku-
jath, 2011) and the intimacy developed among users, new characteristics, mainly based
on human senses, seem to be involved in the gaming experience. At the same time, with
the transition from Web 2.0 to 3.0, the updated game applications offer their players nov-
el practices that seem to promote the interaction of the senses for every individual both
separately and among groups.
This article examines two popular games offered via Facebook through a social semi-
otic analysis. The aim of the research is to assess these games as multimodal venues of
popular culture and examine the way(s) they attempt and/or achieve the engagement of
human senses. Additionally, we examine the way(s) that the use of these games modi-
fies the communicative experience and whether it overturns the traditional hierarchy of
the senses.
Theoretical approaches to human senses
Aristotle was first to describe the five (basic) senses: vision, hearing, taste, touch and
smell. In 1906, Charles Sherrington introduced the term proprioception in order to de-
scribe a so-called sixth sense (Shinkle, 2008, p. 911). According to McCloskey (1982,
p. 14), the term derives from the latin word proprius, meaning one’s own, and refers to
the sensory procedures responsible for the conscious assessment of the parts of one’s
body and their alignment and movement, as well as the unconscious, reflexive adjust-
ments of balance and body movement.
Anthropologists propose that the five senses, which correspond to the fundamental
sensory organ systems, constitute a socially defined spectrum of senses, which arises in
western societies and does not necessarily reflect those in other cultures (Guerts, 2003;
Howes, 1991 & 2005). From 2000 onwards, academics have introduced other categories
of senses to describe experiences which humans seem unable to attribute to the five bio-
logical ones (Guerts, 2003; Pink, 2006; Backstrom, 2009). Some constitute combinations
of the basic senses, while others comprise sensations related to them: e.g., balance, kin-
esthetic and synesthetic sensations (Pink, 2011). Kinesthetics is understood as the con-
scious mechanisms of proprioception and provide us with knowledge of the relative po-
sitions of the parts of the body and their rate of movements (Shinke, 2009, p. 911). Syn-
esthetics is a more complicated notion and has been investigated for more than a cen-
tury; according to Marks (2011), synesthesia can be understood as a cross-modal phe-
nomenon, during which a stimulus presented in one sensory modality produces an addi-
tional sensation in another.
However, none of these senses and/or sensations can function independently, which
serves to enhance the multimodality of any experience and its interpretation in the se-
miotic world (Kress, 2000, p. 184). In fact, according to Ingold (2000, p. 268), perception
modes not only interact but also co-exist and overlap under the auspices of a general
system of body orientation; i.e., ‘looking, listening and touching … are not separate ac-
tivities, they are just different facets of the same activity: that of the whole organism in
its environment’ (p. 261).
In the past, western scholars ascribed the premier place among the biological sens-
es to vision, classifying hearing as secondary, and touch, smell and taste as minor sens-
es. This hierarchy has been widely accepted, creating in this way a ‘sociology’ of sens-
es (Spykman, 1925/2009; Simmel, 1910/1997). However, the rise of electronic (and lat-
er digital) media has led to the agitation of the dominance of vision (see McLuhan, 2005),
while after 1990, the so-called minor senses started to attract interest in various scien-
tific fields, e.g., anthropology, sociology, communication, visual studies (Pink, 2011).
Digital games as a form of popular culture:

The engagement of senses in a multimedia environment
Games in digital multimedia environments - like those found in the social media, com-
prise various and varying application modes, with complex programming codes, impres-
sive graphics and audio-visual effects (Katzenbach, Herweg & van Roessel, 2016, p.843).
Their content, surface(s) and frame(s) of operation have been developed to offer unique
experiences to their users (Eastin & Griffiths, 2016). Prensky (2001) attributes the addic-
tiveness of these games to a combination of a variety of modes, dominant ones being
the interaction among users and the emotions they generate through the attempt and
assessment of goals.
We perceive popular culture as the combination of all those social values that do not re-
quire abundant wealth, specific interest or knowledge (cultural capital) in order to be pro-
duced and consumed (Parker, 2011). Therefore, due to their widespread acceptance, we
find that these games constitute a significant format of popular culture in the digital era.
Freeman (2006) introduced the term emotioneering in order to describe the engage-
ment of the senses in multimedia game environments. In essence, the term describes
the way(s) through which such applications guide users via a sequence of emotional ex-
periences. These emotional experiences, the first reception point of which are undoubt-
edly the human senses, influence the body often causing intense reactions, e.g., rise in
blood pressure and temperature, secretion of adrenaline (Shinkle, 2008). Given the com-
plexity of multimedia environments, the shaping of such reactions cannot be the out-
come of one major human sense, but rather the combination of multiple senses and sen-
sations, depending on the category of each application (e.g., strategy, simulation, action
games).
Finally, interactive technology allows players to collaborate and co-synthesize the
content (Griffiths, Eastin & Cicchirillo, 2016). In this way, players are actively involved in
the creation of the narrative of their favourite games rather than being passive consum-
ers (Malliet, 2006), which enables them to feel in control of the game. This procedure ac-
tivates and is, in turn, activated by a complex series of ‘multisensory’ experiences (i.e.,
emotioneering).
Aim and research questions

Given that computers, tablets and mobile phones – the three media usually employed in
digital entertainment – are audio-visual devises, they (can) only produce light, moving
image and sound. Thus, their immediate interaction with their users produces outputs
that cannot directly stimulate the senses besides vision and hearing. Due to this fact, we
refer to these two as ‘immediate senses’ here. The so-called minor senses (smell, taste,
touch) can be produced only indirectly, based on the interaction of the medium with each
player and the invocation of personal, synesthetic, multimodal experiences from the au-
dio-visual stimuli being presented.
In this work, we consider popular Facebook games as multimodal ‘texts’ of popu-
lar culture and study how the engagement of the senses of the users is attempted and/
or achieved in their environments. Furthermore, we investigate if/how the use of these
applications transforms the communication experience of the players through the over-
turning of the traditional hierarchy of the senses. Specifically, our research focuses on
the three following issues:
1. Are the minor senses stimulated by the chosen multimedia games? If so, which?
2. Which semiotic modalities and resources are mustered to engage these senses?
Which sensory modalities interact and/or amalgamate in order to stimulate them?
3. Do the chosen multimedia games contribute in upsetting the traditional hierarchy of
the senses and/or varying the communication experience of their users?
We focus our examination on two games, Candy Crush Soda Saga (hereafter, Soda Saga)
and FarmVille 2. The former belongs to the gaming category ‘Match 3,’ which is not intu-
itively linked to the stimulation of (minor) senses; it was specifically selected to contrast
the latter, which is a ‘Simulation’ game. Furthermore, both are among the most popu-
lar ones in Facebook, as indicated by their number of users. Although different statistical
sites place them at different positions within the top ten, each seems to have tens of mil-
lions of users globally (Hankins, 2016; Statista, 2016); this disagreement possibly arises
from the fact that numbers vary daily.
Methodology
The investigation of the semiotic modes and resources in Soda Saga and FarmVille 2 is
achieved through a social semiotic analysis in which we perceive the games as multi-
modal texts. We adhere to the view that semiotic resources are products of the society or
community, culture and/or socio-historical context in which the communication occurs,
and as such, their ascribed meaning may fluctuate. Their selection and re-contextualiza-
tion depends on the occasion of the communicative event, the creator(s) of the text, their
aims and/or benefits, the recipients of the text and their interests (Kress, 2011, Bezemer
& Kress, 2008). Therefore, we use the term semiotic resource to refer to any communi-
cative artefact within a text, used to assign (new or pre-existing) meaning with respect
to the topic of the communicative process (van Leeuwen, 2005).
Our adopted definition implies that a given semiotic resource may generate various
conceivable interpretations, based either on pre-existing uses, referred to as potentials,
or on future, novel ascribed meanings, defined as affordances (van Leeuwen, 2005, see
also Gibson, 1979). This is because the perception of meanings for a resource is selec-
tive, subject to the needs and interests of the producer(s) and recipient(s). Depending
on culture and personal course of assigning meaning, it is possible for members of the
same community to attribute weight to different properties of a semiotic resource and
arrive at a spectrum of interpretations for it (Kress & van Leeuwen, p. 19).
Since texts are (usually) created within and for particular media, the intrinsic proper-
ties of said medium are as significant in creating meaning as the needs and cultural values
of the society and individuals for which the text is produced. We refer to these properties
as semiotic modes. For example, the discourse, sound, shape, color, image, movement,
arrangement and/or alignment of stimuli are all semiotic modes used in the selection of
specific meanings in audio-visual media (Bezemer & Kress, 2008, Kress & van Leeuw-
en, 2001, Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996). Any communicative creation may combine sev-
eral modes in order to highlight (a) particular meaning(s). Thus, every text is unavoidably
viewed multimodally by its producers and recipients, taking into consideration the amal-
gamation of its modes in order to interpret it (Iedema, 2003). In our social semiotic anal-
ysis of Soda Saga and FarmVille 2, we attempt to interpret multimodally the following se-
miotic resources: discourse, music and other acoustic effects, shapes, colors and other
graphical effects and their alignments, as well as the combination of audio-visual stimuli.
Although the users of these applications are members of various societies, social se-
miotics is beneficial to our research because gamers are organized and behave as if they
are members of a community in both games. For example, it is common for them to re-
quest assistance from each other or participate in multiplayer competitions within each
game, while they frequently exchange visits and ‘products’ in FarmVille 2, and ‘lives’ and
other helps in Soda Saga.
Since semiotic resources and modes are specifically produced for each game, an ad-
ditional benefit of using social semiotics is the consideration that multiple interpreta-
tions may be ascribed to a particular stimulus, which may engage the minor senses dif-
ferently in each user. We emphasize that the interpretations of audio-visual stimuli pre-
sented here, and subsequent associations with (minor) senses, are products of our own
meaning-making processes. We consider this the main limitation of this work, since
these procedures are the products of a culture, training and education arising in (specif-
ic) developing and developed countries. Furthermore, although the majority of players of
these games may come from these types of societies, we make no claim that our inter-
pretations represent all possible (or even the most popular) views encountered in them.
The involvement of the senses in multimedia environments
FarmVille 2
In FarmVille 2, players assume the role of farmers, whose purpose is to develop their
farms into viable, profitable agrarian units that produce various animal and plant prod-
ucts and generate enough income to cover costs and allow continuous upgrades. In the
primary game interface, users interact with a spectrum of functions on their farm, for
example, to plant diverse plant species, feed animals, and sell these or products which
are produced by them. The farm is divided into areas; each user starts at level one with
two areas and three animals, and unlocks levels, species, functions and areas by farm-
ing plants, growing animals and earning money. Supplementary interfaces are employed
to declare the advancement of levels, to communicate with FarmVille 2 ‘friends’ (perso-
nae of users who may not be acquainted outside the gaming environment), and to vis-
it their friends’ farms.
The communicative experience of users is achieved by combining multiple semiotic
modes and resources, which trigger multiple sensory modalities interactively. For exam-
ple, the game employs a graphic with the shape, parts and even colors so characteristi-
cally resembling a fodder mill that it is difficult to conceive of alternative interpretations
for this image. ‘Using’ the ‘mill’ in the game ‘grinds’ raw materials (e.g., wheat, toma-
toes, etc.) to animal feed: a ‘lever’ is portrayed as spinning and a clanking metallic sound
is heard, while a yellow pile of ‘fodder’ appears moments afterwards. Figure 1 shows a
snapshot of the game interface with the mill in use. We argue that these audio-visual re-
sources directly stimulate vision and hearing, but their combination also invokes kines-
thesia (Shinke, 2009; see also Pink, 2011), since they mimic the motions and sounds of
Figure 1. Snapshot of the farmer character grinding fodder using the mill.
grinding feed in a mill. The ‘mill’ and its ‘use’ also may result in a multimodal stimulation
of the sense of touch in users who have had similar real-life experiences (‘touching’ the
‘lever,’ ‘pressing’ it to generate the desired ‘motion,’ etc.), and even smell, as the audio-
visual effects may be associated to the odours produced by grinding real plants and their
products.
Touch and smell are invoked using multiple semiotic modes at various times. The se-
miotic resource of the ‘rain’ constitutes a striking example. When the character of the
farmer plants the seeds, the game illustrates that they must be watered by using the im-
age of a drop of water, with the distinctive blue color and a visual flash that makes it ap-
pear as if it is shining, thereby mimicking the reflective property of its surface. Since wa-
ter is colorless, we consider that its representation using this color – a consequence of
large bodies of water reflecting the color of the sky – is a cultural semiotic product of (at
least) western societies, as it is consistently shown in their educational and entertain-
ment texts. This visual stimulus, which engages the vision of the user, induces them to
act so that their persona ‘waters the plants.’ This process is portrayed by a synergy of re-
sources: graphics that resemble raindrops appear to come down on the planted fields –
a snapshot from the game is presented in Figure 2 – accompanied by the acoustic effect
of the sound of falling rain. We argue that this vivid portrayal synesthetically invokes the
senses of touch and smell, allowing players to associate it with the characteristic pres-
sure and cooling the skin experiences when in contact with rainwater and the scent of
wet soil.
Taste also constitutes a considerable component of the associative sensory experi-
ence of the game. Examples that induce it include the graphics denoting various animal
and plant products. Lemons and tomatoes, cultivated and sold by the farmer charac-
ter, are represented by the familiar shapes and colors of the corresponding fruits, while
a flash makes their images shine, relating visually to the corresponding waxed products
sold in real farmers markets. Tomatoes are exemplified in Figure 3. Milk is represented
Figure 2.
Snapshot of rainfall watering
plants.
Figure 3.
Snapshot of a field of tomatoes.
Figure 4.
Graphics representing milk and
cheese.
as a product in a plastic container, similarly to those sold in supermarkets. Cheese is de-

picted with its light yellowish color and its traditional cylindrical shape, with a piece miss-
ing as if eaten. A snapshot of milk and cheese is shown in Figure 4. We consider the ap-
pearance of these products to be another cultural construct encountered at least in the
markets of developed (non-agrarian) western societies. We argue that these visual stim-
uli associatively evoke the sensory modalities of various tastes and related textures, for
example, the sweetness of milk, the saltiness and various textures of cheese, the acidi-
ty of lemon, and the sweet tanginess and simultaneously fluid and firm texture of toma-
toes.
Using relatively simple images, graphic actions and sounds, which nevertheless gen-
erate a whole spectrum of semiotic modes and resources to portray a virtual farm en-
vironment, we contend that FarmVille 2 stimulates both the ‘immediate’ senses as well
as, through associative processes, the minor ones. The audio-visual semiotic resourc-
es draw upon the education and (in most instances) personal experiences of players
(see Kress, 2011, Bezemer & Kress, 2008), causing the communication of various sen-
sory modalities, not only of vision and hearing, but of taste, touch and smell as well.
Therefore, although the hierarchy of the engagement of the senses is not challenged, we
consider that the use of FarmVille 2 stimulates the minor senses, even if associatively,
changing the sensory tradition by offering a vivid and perhaps more realistic experience.
Candy Crush Soda Saga

The primary interface of Soda Saga, possibly responsible for calling the game a saga, il-
lustrates what appears to be a winding road, with a large number of stages indexed on
it. Each stage comprises a new adventure and is played in a separate interface. The play-
er must complete rows and/or columns of at least three matching items, until the mis-
sion is complete. In Soda Saga, the items represent candies. As the user progresses to
higher stages, these tasks become harder. Completing rows, columns, squares or cross-
es exceeding three items, causes the appearance of special icons of similar color and
shape, such as striped or wrapped candies, fish-shaped items, color- and paint-bombs.
The player starts the game with five ‘lives’ and loses one with each failure to complete a
stage mission; lives are replenished at a rate of one per half-hour (real time). The user
may also communicate with game ‘friends,’ requesting the transfer of lives and/or spe-
cific game assistances, in a separate interface.
In each mission, the multisensory voyage of the user begins just from viewing the
icons portraying the candies (see Freeman, 2006). These items are depicted through var-
ious shapes, such as oval, rhombus, square, teardrop, and different colors, like orange,
yellow, blue, green, lilac, etc. Examples are shown in the snapshot in Figure 5 (see also
Figure 6). These visual stimuli synesthetically evoke various tastes, since colors relate
to different familiar tastes of fruit and other sweets; for example, the orange color of an
item may refer to the sweet and sour taste of an orange. Furthermore, graphics give the
impression that the surface of items is hard and that some have a curvature in their cent-
ers (e.g., the blue images in Figure 5), mimicking the appearance of real candy. There-
fore, the apparently hard texture of the ‘candy’ items associatively completes the gusta-
tory experience of the player. This is enhanced further with visual and sound effects in-
Figure 5.
Snapshot from a mission, depict-
ing items that represent candies.
Figure 6.
Snapshot of the donut icon.
cluding words like ‘tasty’ (also shown in Figure 5), ‘sodalicious,’ ‘divine,’ etc., implying
the enjoyment of these depicted tastes. Despite the multimodal engagement of taste in
the experience (see Kress, 2000, p. 184), we consider the above stimuli to be products of
western culture, or at least of developing and developed societies, in which the user may
encounter a spectrum of different sweets in stores.
In addition to the ‘candy’ items, some graphics, like those displaying lollipops and do-
nuts, offer game assistances (e.g., clear multiple tiles), while other, like cakes and liq-
uorice, induce further difficulty. Here, we focus on the items representing donuts and ar-
gue that their semiotic resources (colors, shape, surface movement) engage the sens-
es of touch and taste. As Figure 6 illustrates, the ‘donut’ image is portrayed with the fa-
miliar round shape, the hole in the middle and the characteristic sugar paste depicted on
its surface. When the player activates the assistance of the ‘donut’ icon, a visual effect is
evoked ‘shaking’ the surface of the icon, which generates the impression that it is a ge-
latinous structure. Thus, the shape, the colors and the action all reference multimodally
the soft, spongy texture and the sweet, oily taste of this snack.
The sense of smell is also activated indirectly, mainly in the background of the prima-
ry interface, which is framed by landscapes of soda rivers, lollipop forests and factories
producing chocolates, cakes and donuts. First, we analyse the game environment repre-
senting factories, and specifically the graphic, shown in Figure 7, which portrays a ma-
chine baking all these sweets. When the user clicks on this icon, the ‘machine’ is depicted
as vibrating and its gears seem to turn, while a sound effect characteristically reproduc-
ing the clanking of metallic moving parts, reinforces the impression that the ‘machine’ is
operating. These audio-visual stimuli possibly lead to the associative impression that as
the pastries are baking, there are familiar pleasant smells, which the player may expe-
rience synesthetically (see Pink, 2011, Marks, 2011). The user may even evoke the mo-
dality of heat, associated with a baking oven.
Figure 7. Snapshot of the ‘backing machine’.
One location in the primary interface depicts a forest of lollipops with a soda river flow-
ing amidst them. As Figure 8 illustrates, several visual stimuli simulate the former environ-
ment: graphics representing lollipops of various shapes and colors appear planted in the
ground and surrounded by green icons that depict trees and grass. The latter environment
is highlighted by the image of a long, thin and winding lilac shape, which splits the green
background of the lollipop forest. Although they cannot be reproduced in the still (Figure 8),
flashes on this icon, referencing a reflecting surface, shift along its length creating the im-
pression that it moves, much like a flowing river of lilac soda. The combination of the au-
dio-visual stimuli invokes the serene landscape of a real forest (which we identify as an-
other cultural product) and activates the sense of smell associated with the scents of re-
al vegetation or the sweets it depicts. Imaginative players may even associate the environ-
ment with both. Obviously, however, the sense of smell only indirectly becomes engaged.
Figure 8. Snapshot of the lollipops forest and the soda river.
The above analysis indicates that, in Soda Saga, the traditional hierarchy of engaging
the senses is not challenged. We find that vision holds the dominant position in the ex-
perience of the game, with hearing activated as secondary. This conclusion is fortified by
the fact that the game offers the option of silencing sound, as does FarmVille 2. Howev-
er, unlike the latter, audio-visual stimuli in Soda Saga rarely represent real items direct-
ly. Semiotic resources are implicitly linked to real objects or processes, thereby requiring
more and deeper associations to evoke the minor senses. Nevertheless, we claim that
both games enable the implication of these senses offering perhaps a more realistic ex-
perience.
Conclusions
This study has shown that the interaction of users with multimedia games (at least the
specific case-studies examined) does not modify the hierarchy of the engagement of
the senses. That is, vision maintains its dominance as the primarily stimulated sense,
followed by hearing, which may be used optionally. Taste, smell and touch are per-
ceived by association and, therefore, subordinately. Since these games are played on
computers, tablets and mobile phones, this result is expected and may be general-
ized to all gaming applications. The question that arises is how it would be possible to
change this sequence, when these media produce only audio-visual stimuli. In order
to engage the senses other than vision and hearing, multimedia environments need
to evolve further.
As discussed, the audio-visual semiotic resources of the games examined in the cur-
rent multimedia environment lead to the synesthetic activation of the minor senses,
through connections with the personal experiences and social training of their users.
Since the evocation of these senses is associative, we claim that the specific way(s) in
which they are engaged in each user is/are (a) cultural product(s) available to a commu-
nity of users in developing and/or developed economies/societies.
We detect one (trivial) difference: the stimulation of minor senses requires deeper
and/or more involved associative procedures in Candy Crush Soda Saga than in Farm-
Ville 2. This may be ascribed to the role of Web 3.0: as simulation applications evolve, mi-
nor senses, already engaged in the multimedia environment (although not yet dominant-
ly available), may be evoked with further and more realistic stimuli.
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H αφηγηματικότητα
στο πλαίσιο της διαδικτυακής
MEDIA & MULTIMEDIA
δημοσιογραφίας
από την έντυπη αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία
(Literary/Narrative Journalism)
στους σύγχρονους τρόπους πολυμεσικής
αφήγησης (multimedia storytelling)
Αναστασία Χολιβάτου Aριστοτελειο Πανεπιστημιο Θεσσαλονικησ acholiva@jour.auth.gr
Περίληψη
Τα τελευταία χρόνια, και συγκεκριμένα την εποχή που αποκαλούμε ευρέως ως εποχή του
Web 2.0, διαπιστώνουμε τη συρρίκνωση των παραδοσιακών γραμμικών δημοσιογραφικών
αφηγήσεων, και ταυτόχρονα, τη διείσδυση της αφηγηματικότητας στην ψηφιακή δημοσιο-
γραφία. Η αξιοποίηση νέων αφηγηματικών τρόπων στη διαδικτυακή δημοσιογραφία έχουν
ως αποτέλεσμα τη δημιουργία πολυμεσικών μορφών αφήγησης οι οποίες συνιστούν σύνθε-
τα οπτικο-ακουστικά κείμενα καθώς συνδυάζουν φυσικό ήχο, ηχητικά εφέ, μουσική, σταθε-
ρή και κινούμενη εικόνα, εγκιβωτισμένες αφηγήσεις, συνεντεύξεις, παραθέματα, γραφιστι-
κά, slideshows κ.ά. δημιουργώντας μια πολυτροπική και πολυδύναμη αφηγηματική επικοι-
νωνία. Τα παραπάνω πολυμεσικά εγχειρήματα δεν ανακαινίζουν μόνο την τεχνική της αφή-
γησης στη δημοσιογραφία αλλά και την ίδια την μετάδοση και παρουσίαση των πληροφοριών
προσδίδοντας έναν νέο, πιο αποτελεσματικό, ρόλο στον ρεπόρτερ-δημοσιογράφο αλλά και
στον αναγνώστη ο οποίος καθίσταται πλέον πολύ περισσότερο ενεργός απ’ ότι στην παραδο-
σιακή δημοσιογραφία αφού καλείται πια ουσιαστικά «να γίνει μέρος της διαδικασίας». Αυτό
που τελικά θα μας απασχολήσει στη δημοσίευσή μας είναι η σχέση της έντυπης αφηγηματι-
κής/λογοτεχνικής δημοσιογραφίας (narrative/literary journalism) του παρελθόντος με τους
σύγχρονους πολλαπλούς τρόπους πολυμεσικής αφήγησης (multimedia storytelling) στους
οποίους λαμβάνει χώρα πλέον στην εποχή μας η παραπάνω αφηγηματικότητα εξαιτίας της
μετάβασης από τα έντυπα μέσα στα ψηφιακά.
Λέξεις-κλειδιά αφήγηση , πολυμεσική δημοσιογραφία , αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία
Η νέα γενιά του Παγκόσμιου Ιστού Web 2.0
Τα τελευταία χρόνια, και συγκεκριμένα την εποχή που αποκαλούμε ευρέως ως εποχή
του Web 2.0 διαπιστώνουμε τη συρρίκνωση των παραδοσιακών γραμμικών δημοσιο-
γραφικών αφηγήσεων, και ταυτόχρονα, τη διείσδυση της αφηγηματικότητας στην ψη-
φιακή δημοσιογραφία. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, την εποχή του Web 2.0 η αφήγηση μιας ιστο-
ρίας (storytelling) αλλάζει μορφή: οι ιστορίες χαρακτηρίζονται από ανοιχτό τέλος (open-
ended), υπερσυνδέσεις (hyperlinks), διασταύρωση διαφορετικών μέσων (cross-media),
έντονη διαδραστικότητα (interactivity), διερευνητικό χαρακτήρα, και κυρίως απρόβλεπτη,
μη γραμμική δομή (Alexander & Levine, 2008, σελ. 40).
Αναλυτικότερα, η νέα γενιά του παγκόσμιου ιστού βασίζεται στην όλο και μεγαλύτερη
δυνατότητα των χρηστών του διαδικτύου να μοιράζονται πληροφορίες και να συνεργάζο-
νται διαδικτυακά. Πρόκειται για μια δυναμική διαδικτυακή πλατφόρμα στην οποία οι χρή-
στες μπορούν να αλληλεπιδρούν χωρίς εξειδικευμένες γνώσεις σε θέματα υπολογιστών και
δικτύων. Ο Web 2.0 απαιτεί τη διάδραση των χρηστών και τη δυνατότητα εκ μέρους τους
να δημιουργούν νέο περιεχόμενο, αλλά και να διαγράφουν ή να ανανεώνουν ήδη υπάρχον.
Η νέα γενιά του παγκόσμιου ιστού δημιουργεί πολλαπλά σημεία εισόδου τόσο για αναγνώ-
στες όσο και για τους συν-συγγραφείς (co-writers) ενώ προσφέρει παράλληλα ένα νέο πε-
ριβάλλον για αφήγηση ιστοριών. Για τους παραπάνω λόγους συχνά αποδίδονται στον Web
2.0 όροι όπως user-generated content web, read-write web, react only-users web.
Από την έντυπη στη ψηφιακή αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία
Η αφηγηματικότητα θεωρείται μια από τις πιο συνηθισμένες μεθόδους για την εφαρμο-
γή μιας τάξης ή/και μιας προοπτικής στην εμπειρία και στο βίωμα, ενώ συγχρόνως υπη-
ρετεί την ανάγκη για κατάληξη, επίλογο και επιμύθιο, την ανάγκη για μια ιστορική ερμη-
νεία των αφηγημένων γεγονότων.1 Η δημοσιογραφική αφηγηματικότητα και πιο συγκε-
κριμένα η χρήση αφηγηματικών τεχνικών στη δημοσιογραφία δανεισμένων από το χώρο
της μυθοπλασίας είναι μια τάση που την έφερε στο προσκήνιο ο τομέας της λογοτεχνικής
ή αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας (Literary / Narrative Journalism) – μαζί με όλα όσα, θε-
τικά και αρνητικά, συνεπαγόταν αυτή η υβριδική, δημιουργική σύζευξη δημοσιογραφίας
και λογοτεχνίας. Ο όρος λογοτεχνική ή αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία2 αναφέρεται σε εκεί-
νο το είδος του ρεπορτάζ που υιοθετεί την τεχνική της λεπτομερούς και εν είδει μυθιστο-
ρήματος αναπαράστασης της πραγματικότητας βασιζόμενη στο είδος του ρεαλιστικού μυ-
θιστορήματος του παρελθόντος και δανειζόμενη τις αφηγηματικές τεχνικές του στην προ-
σπάθειά του να προσεγγίσει και να καταγράψει όσο το δυνατόν πιο πιστά την πραγματι-
κότητα στις διάφορες αποχρώσεις της. Τους εκφραστές της παράδοσης της λογοτεχνικής
ή αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας τους ενδιέφερε όχι μόνο η έρευνα και η ακριβής απο-
τύπωση ενός γεγονότος αλλά και το ύφος γραφής, η αίσθηση αμεσότητας, η δημιουργία
ατμόσφαιρας και η συναισθηματική εμπλοκή του αναγνώστη στην ιστορία, στοιχεία χαρα-
κτηριστικά του τομέα της μυθοπλασίας.
Τι γίνεται όμως, όταν, η παραπάνω αφηγηματικότητα περνάει πια στην εποχή μας από
τα έντυπα μέσα στα ψηφιακά; To αποτέλεσμα είναι η παραγωγή πολλαπλών τρόπων πο-
λυμεσικής αφήγησης (multimedia storytelling) οι οποίες εξελίσσουν την προβληματική
της αφηγηματικότητας στο πλαίσιο πλέον των νέων, διαδικτυακά βασισμένων συνθηκών
παραγωγής, διανομής και πρόσληψης των δημοσιογραφικών προϊόντων δημιουργώντας
νέα, πρωτοποριακά δεδομένα για αναπροσανατολισμό και εμπλουτισμό της δημοσιογρα-
φίας στην εποχή των ψηφιακών μέσων.
Η αξιοποίηση νέων αφηγηματικών τρόπων και εργαλείων στη διαδικτυακή δημοσιο-
γραφία (online journalism) απασχολεί στις μέρες μας όλο και περισσότερο την επιστημονι-
κή και δημοσιογραφική κοινότητα ως ένα νέo μέσο προσέλκυσης του ενδιαφέροντος του
αναγνωστικού κοινού αλλά και ως ένας νέος τρόπος προσέγγισης και παρουσίασης της
δημοσιογραφικής έρευνας. Οι πολυμεσικές μορφές αφήγησης συνιστούν σύνθετα οπτι-
κο-ακουστικά κείμενα καθώς συνδυάζουν φυσικό ήχο, ηχητικά εφέ, μουσική, σταθερή
και κινούμενη εικόνα, εγκιβωτισμένες αφηγήσεις, συνεντεύξεις, παραθέματα, γραφιστι-
κά, slideshows κ.ά. δημιουργώντας μια πολυτροπική και πολυδύναμη αφηγηματική επι-
κοινωνία.3 Οι χαρακτηριστικές μορφές πολυμεσικής αφήγησης δεν ανακαινίζουν μόνο
την τεχνική της αφήγησης στη δημοσιογραφία αλλά και την ίδια την μετάδοση και παρου-
σίαση των πληροφοριών προσδίδοντας έναν νέο, πιο αποτελεσματικό, ρόλο στον ρεπόρ-
τερ-δημοσιογράφο αλλά και στον αναγνώστη ο οποίος καθίσταται πλέον πολύ περισσό-
τερο ενεργός απ’ ότι στην παραδοσιακή δημοσιογραφία αφού καλείται πια ουσιαστικά «να
γίνει μέρος της διαδικασίας» (Anzur & Silvia, 2011). Το ψηφιακό σύμπαν προσφέρει πολ-
λαπλούς τρόπους αφήγησης που παρέχουν στο δημοσιογράφο περισσότερα εργαλεία για
να προκαλέσει το ενδιαφέρον του αναγνώστη αλλά και να επικοινωνήσει μαζί του καλώ-
ντας τον τελικά να διαδραματίσει έναν καινούργιο, απαιτητικό και πολυεπίπεδο ρόλο.
Η έντυπη αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία (narrative/literary journalism)

Στην αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία του παρελθόντος ενδιέφερε τον δημοσιογράφο να πα-
ρουσιάζει πιο αποτελεσματικά στον αναγνώστη την κάθε σκηνή, μέσα από την οπτική γω-
νία ενός κάθε φορά διαφορετικού χαρακτήρα, δημιουργώντας στον αναγνώστη την αί-
σθηση ότι βρίσκεται μέσα στο μυαλό αυτού του χαρακτήρα και κάνοντάς τον να βιώνει
παράλληλα τη συναισθηματική εμπειρία της κάθε σκηνής, όπως ακριβώς τη βίωνε και ο
εκάστοτε ήρωας. Τον ενδιέφερε επίσης να εκμεταλλευτεί τις μεταπλαστικές ικανότητες
της ανθρώπινης αντίληψης και φαντασίας, ώστε να αναζητήσει μια πιο φρέσκια και μια πιο
ολοκληρωμένη εμπειρία των γεγονότων και ύστερα να αναπαραστήσει αυτήν την εμπει-
ρία σε μια προσωπικά διαμορφωμένη μυθοπλασία που να προσεγγίζει την ολότητα και
την αίσθηση του αρχικού γεγονότος. Άλλο βασικό συστατικό της αφηγηματικής δημοσιο-
γραφίας ήταν η μεταφορά εκ μέρους του ρεπόρτερ της «αίσθησης» των γεγονότων (‘the
sense of events’) (Connery, 1990, σελ. 6) στον αναγνώστη, τον οποίο ο ρεπόρτερ προσπα-
θεί να φέρει όσο το δυνατόν πιο κοντά στα γεγονότα, ώστε να αισθανθεί σαν να ήταν και ο
ίδιος εκεί και να άκουσε, να μύρισε, να ένιωσε, να είδε ό,τι και ο ίδιος ο δημοσιογράφος. Ο
Balzac, ήταν από τους πρώτους δημοσιογράφους/συγγραφείς που στο έργο του οι μελε-
τητές αναγνωρίζουν την αίσθηση «οπτικοποίησης» (‘visualization’), μια προσπάθεια, δη-
λαδή, εκ μέρους του συγγραφέα να δημιουργήσει στον αναγνώστη οπτικές εικόνες του
κόσμου (Lund, 2000, σελ. 447). Στα έργα των εκπροσώπων της τάσης της αφηγηματικής
δημοσιογραφίας κυριαρχούσε η τεχνική της υποτύπωσης σύμφωνα με την οποία «η πε-
ριγραφή […] δίνει τόπο στην υποτύπωση, όταν η έκθεση του αντικειμένου είναι τόσο ζω-
ντανή, τόσο δυναμική, ώστε προκύπτει απ’ αυτήν μέσα στο ύφος μια εικόνα, ένας πίνα-
κας» (πρτθ. στο Masuy, 1997, σελ. 43).
H υποτύπωση επικρατεί στο χώρο της αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας και αναφέρεται
γενικώς στην ύπαρξη ζωντανών και δυναμικών δημοσιογραφικών περιγραφών που συν-
δυάζουν τις οπτικές λεπτομέρειες με λεπτομέρειες που προέρχονται από άλλες αισθή-
σεις, απτικές, οσφρητικές, ακουστικές ή γευστικές: λεπτομέρειες με τις οποίες «δίνουμε
κατά κάποιον τρόπο το πρωτότυπο αντί του αντιγράφου», και χάρη στις οποίες «φανταζό-
μαστε ότι βλέπουμε αυτό που δεν είναι μπροστά στα μάτια μας» (πρτθ. στο Masuy, 1997,
σελ. 43). Στόχος της περιγραφής μέσω της υποτύπωσης είναι η ιδεώδης μίμηση του πραγ-
ματικού μέσα από τη δημιουργία εικόνων (όπως γίνεται και στην τηλεόραση, με την τη-
λεοπτική αμεσότητα που επιτυγχάνεται μέσω της εναλλαγής των εικόνων). Η υποκειμε-
νικότητα των αισθήσεων κατά τη διάρκεια άσκησης της τεχνικής της περιγραφής εκ μέ-
ρους του δημοσιογράφου πρωταγωνιστεί. Η δόμηση του περιγραφικού αποσπάσματος γί-
νεται συχνά μέσα από το παραμορφωτικό πρίσμα των αισθητηριακών αντιλήψεων, πράγ-
μα που υποδεικνύει την χαλαρή σχέση της περιγραφής με την αλήθεια και την αντικειμε-
νική παρουσίαση των γεγονότων. Σε ορισμένες περιπτώσεις, δηλαδή, η υποκειμενικότη-
τα της αισθητηριακής αντίληψης επικρατεί εις βάρος της ακριβούς και αντικειμενικής πε-
ριγραφής του αναφερόμενου (Masuy, 1997, σελ. 44-47).
Παράλληλα με τα παραπάνω, οι εκπρόσωποι του είδους της αφηγηματικής δημοσιο-
γραφίας ασκούσαν εκείνο το είδος του ρεπορτάζ το οποίο αποδιδόταν με τον όρο immer-
sion / saturation reporting, στο οποίο κυριαρχούσε η εμβύθιση του αναγνώστη στα περι-
γραφόμενα γεγονότα. Με τον όρο immersion / saturation reporting (ρεπορτάζ εμβύθισης)
αποδίδεται το είδος του ρεπορτάζ των εκπροσώπων της νέας δημοσιογραφίας (new jour-
nalism), το οποίο ήταν πολύ πιο φιλόδοξο και απαιτητικό από αυτό των προηγούμενων
δεκαετιών αφού ήταν πολύ πιο λεπτομερές και σχολαστικό και κυρίως πιο χρονοβόρο απ’
ό,τι συνηθιζόταν στις καθημερινές εφημερίδες. Οι νέοι δημοσιογράφοι έμεναν δίπλα στους
ανθρώπους για τους οποίους ενδιαφέρονταν να γράψουν για εβδομάδες, προκειμένου να
είναι παρόντες στα γεγονότα ώστε να είναι σε θέση να αποτυπώσουν τους διαλόγους, τις
χειρονομίες και τις εκφράσεις τους καθώς και τις λεπτομέρειες του περιβάλλοντος χώρου.
Η ιδέα ήταν να απεικονίσουν πλήρως ένα γεγονός αλλά, επιπλέον, να αποδώσουν αυτό το
κάτι παραπάνω που έψαχνε ο αναγνώστης να βρει στο είδος του μυθιστορήματος: την υπο-
κειμενική και συναισθηματική ζωή των χαρακτήρων (Wolfe, 1996, σελ. 68).
Η ψηφιακή αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία
Οι ηλεκτρονικές ιδιότητες του κυβερνοχώρου, με την υπερκειμενικότητα (hypertextuali-
ty), τη χρήση πολυμέσων και τη διαδραστικότητα που προσφέρει, δημιουργούν νέες δυ-
νατότητες για την άσκηση αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας και την εμβύθιση του αναγνώ-
στη στα περιγραφόμενα γεγονότα. Εάν οι τεχνικές δραματοποίησης των εκπροσώπων της
λογοτεχνικής δημοσιογραφίας οδηγούσαν κάποτε στην εμβύθιση του αναγνώστη στην
ιστορία, την εποχή της κυριαρχίας του διαδικτύου αυτές οι τεχνικές αντικαθίστανται από
τις συμμετοχικές δυνατότητες του τελευταίου. Το ψηφιακό σύμπαν, προσφέρει πολλα-
πλούς τρόπους αφήγησης η οποία οργανώνεται και αναπτύσσεται μέσα από διαφορετικά,
διαπλεκόμενα μεταξύ τους επίπεδα και υλικά που καθιστούν το ρόλο του δημοσιογράφου
πιο αποτελεσματικό. Η υιοθέτηση αφηγηματικών μεθόδων από την ψηφιακή, πολυμεσι-
κή δημοσιογραφία, μέσα από διαδικτυακά ρεπορτάζ και διαδραστικές δημοσιογραφικές
αφηγήσεις καλεί τον σημερινό δημοσιογράφο να ανταποκριθεί σε ένα νέο ρόλο ο οποί-
ος χρειάζεται ταυτόχρονα να συνδυάζει πολλές διαφορετικές δεξιότητες και απαιτεί από
τον τελευταίο να συνεργάζεται με ανθρώπους διαφορετικών ειδικοτήτων. Ο ρόλος αυτός
αποτελεί μια πρόκληση που συχνά προκαλεί αμηχανία στους δημοσιογράφους που είναι
συνηθισμένοι να εργάζονται μοναδικά αλλά και δεν έχουν εξοικειωθεί επαρκώς στα ψη-
φιακά μέσα. Στο πλαίσιο πλέον των νέων, διαδικτυακά βασισμένων συνθηκών παραγω-
γής, διανομής και πρόσληψης των δημοσιογραφικών προϊόντων η υποκειμενικότητα της
αισθητηριακής αντίληψης της αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας του παρελθόντος λαμβάνει
χώρα μέσα από μια πολυαισθητηριακή διάδραση και επικοινωνία.
Ένα άλλο συγγενές ζήτημα που παρουσιάζει ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον είναι η διερεύνηση του
πώς οι δημοσιογράφοι που ασκούν αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία στο διαδίκτυο4 αξιοποιούν
τις τεχνικές των νέων δημοσιογράφων του παρελθόντος, ώστε να αυξήσουν την αίσθηση
πιστότητας και αυθεντικότητας των ρεπορτάζ τους. Αν παλαιότερα το διακύβευμα της αυ-
θεντικότητας και της αντικειμενικότητας στο δημοσιογραφικό επάγγελμα προβλημάτιζε τους
εκφραστές της αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας αλλά και τους επικριτές της, τα πράγματα κα-
θίστανται ακόμη πιο δύσκολα σήμερα. Και αυτό, γιατί η αμεσότητα και η ταχύτητα στον χει-
ρισμό των γεγονότων από τα ηλεκτρονικά μέσα περιπλέκει ακόμη περισσότερο τη σχέση
της δημοσιογραφίας με τις παραπάνω θεμελιώδεις δημοσιογραφικές αρχές.
Στο πλαίσιο της ψηφιακής, πολυμεσικής δημοσιογραφίας, έχουμε να κάνουμε με ένα
σύνθετο και διαδραστικό αφηγηματικό μηχανισμό, που φέρνει στο προσκήνιο έναν νέο
αφηγητή (storyteller) αλλά ταυτόχρονα και ένα νέο τύπο ενεργού αναγνώστη.
Η αναζωπύρωση της αφηγηματικής φόρμας στη δημοσιογραφία
H μυθιστορηματική φόρμα στη δημοσιογραφία, σε αντίθεση με τη μέθοδο της ‘ανεστραμ-
μένης πυραμίδας’5, κάνει τους αναγνώστες να βιώνουν μια ορισμένη ανταμοιβή. Οι ανα-
γνώστες αντλούν ευχαρίστηση μέσω της ανάγνωσης, αφού μπορούν να κάνουν προβλέ-
ψεις γύρω από την ιστορία (πρτθ. στο Harvey, 1994, σελ. 46). Επίσης, η αφηγηματικότη-
τα είναι εύκολα αποδεκτή, κατανοητή και αναγνωρίσιμη από τον αναγνώστη, ο οποίος γε-
νικώς έχει συνηθίσει στην καθημερινή του ζωή –περιγράφοντας και ανακαλώντας τις δι-
κές του αναμνήσεις– να χρησιμοποιεί αφηγηματικές μεθόδους, όπως γίνεται και στον χώ-
ρο της μυθοπλασίας. Για κάποιους μελετητές, μάλιστα, όπως τον Lule για παράδειγμα, οι
ειδήσεις στον Τύπο αποτελούν πρωτίστως μια φόρμα αφήγησης ιστοριών και μάλιστα επα-
ναλαμβάνουν αρχετυπικούς μύθους της ανθρωπότητας αντλώντας από τον θησαυρό των
«παραμυθάδων» του παρελθόντος, προσπαθώντας με αυτόν τον τρόπο να αποδώσουν νό-
ημα στον κόσμο γύρω τους (Lule, 2001, σελ. 18-26). Βασική πεποίθηση του Lule είναι ότι
μόνο μέσα από την αντιμετώπιση των ειδήσεων ως μύθων και την εξιστόρηση τους ως τέ-
τοιων, θα αντιμετωπιστεί η σημερινή κρίση στη δημοσιογραφία (Lule, 2001, σελ. 186-201).
Oι μελετητές προέβλεψαν ότι η παρουσίαση των ειδήσεων με τη χρήση αφηγηματικών τε-
χνικών δανεισμένων από το χώρο του μυθιστορήματος, την οποία έφεραν στο προσκήνιο και
έκαναν δημοφιλή ο Tom Wolfe και οι συνάδελφοι του, του κινήματος της νέας δημοσιογρα-
φίας (new journalism)6, θα εξακολουθούσε στο μέλλον να υπάρχει ως μια βασική δημοσιο-
γραφική φόρμουλα. Η αντίληψη που επικρατεί γενικότερα στο χώρο της ερευνητικής κοινό-
τητας είναι ότι ο τομέας της αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας είναι σημαντικός, γιατί μπορεί να
βοηθήσει τους αναγνώστες να καταλάβουν καλύτερα τις διαφορετικές διαστάσεις των γεγο-
νότων αλλά και τον ανθρώπινο ψυχισμό. Η αφηγηματική οργάνωση και απόδοση των πλη-
ροφοριών καθιστά την είδηση ένα ‘ολικό κοινωνικό γεγονός’, ανάλογο με εκείνα που βιώνει
καθημερινά ο αναγνώστης, αλλά η πολυπλοκότητα των οποίων συχνά του διαφεύγει.
Πέρα όμως από τη σημασία της τεχνικής της αφήγησης για την απεικόνιση και κατανόηση
της κοινωνικής καθημερινότητας και της ανθρώπινης δράσης, κάτι άλλο που διαπιστώνεται σή-
μερα είναι μια πρόσφατη τάση που μοιάζει να γοητεύει τόσο το τηλεοπτικό όσο και το αναγνω-
στικό κοινό: η εμμονή στις λεγόμενες αληθινές ιστορίες, ειδήσεις από όλο τον κόσμο, κάτι που
πάντα συνέβαινε σε περιόδους μεγάλων κοινωνικών αναταραχών. Η τάση αυτή ενισχύεται από
το διαρκώς παρόν ερώτημα αν το κράτος μπορεί να υποδεχτεί στους κόλπους του τον μεγάλο
αριθμό μεταναστών που εισρέουν συνεχώς στο εσωτερικό του. H οικονομική κρίση, ο πόλεμος,
η μετανάστευση, η φτώχεια, η κατασκευή της εθνικής συνείδησης, οι φυλετικές και κοινωνικές
διακρίσεις, η σύγκρουση των πολιτισμών και των θρησκειών, η εγκληματικότητα και οι τερά-
στιες φυσικές και περιβαλλοντικές καταστροφές, αποτελούν σήμερα τα καυτά θέματα της επι-
καιρότητας που απασχολούν τους πολίτες και τους σημερινούς νέους νέους δημοσιογράφους7.
Η επιθυμία για αντικειμενική, γεγονοτική πληροφόρηση μέσα από προσωπικές ιστορίες βγαλ-
μένες από τα πρωτοσέλιδα έχει εντατικοποιηθεί λόγω των έκρυθμων και επισφαλών κοινωνι-
κών καταστάσεων του 21ου αιώνα. Εκφράζεται μέσα από την άσβεστη δίψα του κοινού για δρά-
μα, για ψυχαγωγία «βασισμένη σε αληθινά γεγονότα», όπως διαβάζουμε συνήθως στα οπισθό-
φυλλα λογοτεχνικών βιβλίων, στους τίτλους έναρξης κινηματογραφικών ταινιών αλλά και δρα-
ματοποιημένων ντοκιμαντέρ. Υπηρετείται, μάλιστα, εξίσου καλά μέσα από διαδικτυακά, διαδρα-
στικά, πολυμεσικά οπτικοακουστικά εγχειρήματα που σε μεταφέρουν απευθείας και επιτόπου
στην καρδιά της επικαιρότητας την ώρα που συμβαίνουν τα γεγονότα.
Είδη, παραδείγματα & προκλήσεις της ψηφιακής αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας
Οι διαχωριστικές γραμμές μεταξύ των ειδών είναι βέβαιο ότι έχουν αρχίσει εδώ και αρκε-
τό καιρό να κλονίζονται και νέα ερωτήματα να τίθενται. Μήπως στην αφηγηματική δημο-
σιογραφία του καιρού μας η οποία διατηρεί εξίσου ζωντανή στις μέρες μας την τέχνη της
ελκυστικής αφήγησης θα μπορούσαν να περιληφθούν διαδικτυακά, πολυμεσικά εγχειρή-
ματα που συνδυάζουν αφήγηση, εικόνα και ήχο όπως είναι τα Web-reports (διαδικτυακά
ρεπορτάζ), τα Interactive documentaries (διαδραστικά ντοκιμαντέρ) και τα Breaking News
(έκτακτες ειδήσεις) σε μια προσπάθεια να απεικονίσουν όσο πιο πιστά και πολυπρισματι-
κά την επικαιρότητα και την πραγματικότητα γύρω μας;
Άλλωστε, το πολυέξοδο και χρονοβόρο ρεπορτάζ που προϋποθέτει το είδος της έντυ-
πης αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας και το οποίο διαρκεί από ημέρες, εβδομάδες, μήνες
έως και χρόνια και καταλαμβάνει μεγάλο χώρο στο δημοσιογραφικό έντυπο, 4000 λέξεις
κατά μέσο όρο, δεν μπορεί να υποστηριχτεί από την οικονομική δυσπραγία των σύγχρο-
νων δημοσιογραφικών οργανισμών, κάτι που προφανώς είναι πολύ πιο εύκολο και οικο-
νομικό να εφαρμοστεί στον χώρο της διαδικτυακής δημοσιογραφίας.
Αναλυτικότερα, όσον αφορά την πρώτη κατηγορία, αναφέρουμε ενδεικτικά τα εξής
πολυμεσικά project: το Snowfall (2012) του John Branch για το οποίο ο δημοσιογράφος
απέσπασε το βραβείο Pulitzer το 2013 για feature δημοσιογραφία: η ιστορία σκιέρ που
σκοτώθηκαν από χιονοστιβάδα στην πολιτεία της Ουάσιγκτον η οποία οικοδομείται μέ-
σα από κείμενα, φωτογραφίες, βίντεο και διαδραστικά γραφικά και η οποία δημοσιεύ-
τηκε διαδικτυακά από τους New York Times (www.nytimes.com/projects/2012/snow-
fall/#/?part=blur-of-white). Η ιστορία του Branch περιλαμβάνει επιστημονικές και πε-
ριβαλλοντικές προεκτάσεις και συνιστά ένα υποβλητικό δημοσιογραφικό οπτικοακου-
στικό εγχείρημα που συνδυάζει «ποιότητα γραφής, πρωτοτυπία και συνοχή, μεστότη-
τα και την έντεχνη ενσωμάτωση ποικιλίας πολυμεσικών εργαλείων» (www.pulitzer.org/
citation/2013-Feature-Writing).
Το δεύτερο εξίσου σημαντικό project είναι το Firestorm (2013) του Jon Henley, ένα
πολυμεσικό ρεπορτάζ που δημοσιεύτηκε διαδικτυακά από την εφημερίδα Guardian
(www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/may/26/firestorm-bushfire-dunalley-
holmes-family) και αφηγείται με διαδραστικούς τρόπους την ιστορία μιας μεγάλης πυρ-
καγιάς που κατέστρεψε μια ολόκληρη πόλη στην Τασμανία μέσα από την εμπειρία μιας
οικογένειας. Και εδώ αξιοποιούνται διάφορα μέσα όπως ήχος, εικόνα και κείμενο, αφη-
γήσεις αυτόπτων μαρτύρων, ζωντανοί ήχοι της φύσης, γραφικά, φωτογραφίες, χάρτες,
που έχουν ως αποτέλεσμα ένα πρωτοποριακό διαδικτυακό ρεπορτάζ το οποίο μέσα από
μια βιωματική, ανθρωποκεντρική σκοπιά πραγματεύεται το επίκαιρο θέμα των κλιματι-
κών αλλαγών.
Όσον αφορά τη δεύτερη κατηγορία αναφερόμαστε σε παραδείγματα διαδραστικών
ντοκιμαντέρ που πειραματίζονται με την αφηγηματική δομή και προσφέρουν στο ανα-
γνωστικό κοινό πολλαπλές «δυνατότητες, πραγματικότητες και ερμηνείες» (Noguei-
ra 2015, σελ. 79) καθιερώνοντας μια ανοιχτή σχέση μαζί τους η οποία χαρακτηρίζεται
από υψηλό βαθμό συνεργασίας και συμμετοχής. Ένα τέτοιο χαρακτηριστικό παράδειγ-
μα διαδραστικού ντοκιμαντέρ είναι το Fort McMoney (2013) (http://fortmcmoney.com/#/
fortmcmoney) που εξετάζει περιβαλλοντικά ζητήματα που άπτονται της πετρελαιοβιομη-
χανίας. Άλλα παραδείγματα του είδους είναι το Journey to the End of Coal (Bollendorff
& Ségrétin 2008), που προσφέρει στο κοινό μέσα από υπερσυνδέσεις ένα ταξίδι στις επι-
σφαλείς συνθήκες εργασίας των κινέζικων ανθρακωρυχείων και αξιοποιεί σταθερές και
κινούμενες εικόνες, κείμενο και ήχους καθώς και το A Journal of Insomnia (Choiniere
et al. 2013), που χρησιμοποιεί τη συμμετοχική τεχνική συγκεντρώνοντας βίντεο, κείμενα
και γραφικά από τους αναγνώστες/θεατές ώστε να δημιουργήσει μια συλλογική εμπειρία
γύρω από το φαινόμενο της αϋπνίας.
Όσον αφορά την τρίτη κατηγορία αναφερόμαστε σε πολυμεσικές αφηγήσεις που έχουν
ως στόχο την άμεση κάλυψη έκτακτων γεγονότων της επικαιρότητας όπως για παράδειγ-
μα η βραβευμένη με Pulitzer πολυμεσική κάλυψη της εφημερίδας Denver Post (2013) για
το θανατηφόρο μακελειό που προκάλεσε μασκοφόρος σε κινηματογράφο του Ντένβερ,
στο Κολοράντο των ΗΠΑ, πυροβολώντας και σκοτώνοντας εν ψυχρώ τουλάχιστον 14
άτομα και τραυματίζοντας δεκάδες άλλα.
Οι τρεις παραπάνω κατηγορίες δημοσιογραφικής πολυμεσικής αφήγησης αντιστοι-
χούν τόσο στη διερευνητική κάλυψη πρόσφατων μείζονων γεγονότων (η πρώτη), όσο
και σε νέες μορφές διερευνητικού ντοκιμαντέρ που συνδυάζει τεχνικές του άμεσου κι-
νηματογράφου ‘direct cinema’ και του παρατηρησιακού κινηματογράφου ‘observational
documentary’, (η δεύτερη), καθώς και σε κάλυψη έκτακτων ειδήσεων (η τρίτη).
Κοινός παρανομαστής όλων των παραπάνω εγχειρημάτων είναι η συνεργασία στην
παραγωγή τους ατόμων διαφορετικών ειδικοτήτων (προερχόμενα τόσο από το δημοσι-
ογραφικό όσο και από το τεχνικό και δημιουργικό τμήμα της εφημερίδας), με αποτέλε-
σμα να ανακύπτει το εξής ερώτημα: πώς ακριβώς οργανώνεται αυτή η συνεργασία και
τι δυσκολίες συνεπάγεται; Παράλληλα, τα συγκεκριμένα παραδείγματα προσφέρουν μια
νέα, πολλά υποσχόμενη αναγνωστική –και όχι μόνο– εμπειρία. Στην κλασική αφηγηματι-
κή δημοσιογραφία υπερισχύει το ατομοκεντρικό μοντέλο όσον αφορά τη φωνή του αφη-
γητή ο οποίος αφηγείται τα γεγονότα μέσα από το προσωπικό, υποκειμενικό του πρίσμα,
το οποίο διαφέρει από το συλλογικό-ομαδικό εγχείρημα της ψηφιακής πολυμεσικής αφή-
γησης. Οι πολλαπλοί τρόποι αφήγησης και οι πολλές διαφορετικές φωνές που το τελευ-
ταίο περιλαμβάνει αλλάζουν ριζικά τα δεδομένα στο χώρο της σύγχρονης δημοσιογραφι-
κής εκπαίδευσης η οποία καλείται να ανταποκριθεί στο πολυεπίπεδο ρόλο που καλούνται
να διαδραματίσουν οι νέοι δημοσιογράφοι σήμερα. Τέλος, όλα τα παραπάνω πολυμεσικά
εγχειρήματα έθεσαν ποικίλα νέα ερωτήματα σχετικά με το μέλλον της διαδικτυακής δη-
μοσιογραφίας, τις προκλήσεις αλλά και τις προοπτικές της, ζήτημα που θα μας απασχολή-
σει αναλυτικότερα σε μελλοντική δημοσίευσή μας.
Κοινά δομικά χαρακτηριστικά της ψηφιακής αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας
Κοινά δομικά χαρακτηριστικά όλων των παραπάνω πολυμεσικών εγχειρημάτων είναι η
αφηγηματολογία (narratology), η διαδραστικότητα (interactivity) και η πολυτροπικότητα
(multimodality).
Μέσα από το μεθοδολογικό εργαλείο της αφηγηματολογίας και της ανάλυσης του αφη-
γηματικού λόγου κατά Genette8 (αφηγηματική φωνή, λειτουργίες που επιτελεί ο αφηγη-
τής, εστίαση/οπτική γωνία της αφήγησης, αφηγηματικός χρόνος) μπορούμε να μελετήσου-
με τους τρόπους διείσδυσης της αφηγηματικότητας στη ψηφιακή, πολυμεσική δημοσιογρα-
φία. Τα πολυμεσικά εγχειρήματα τι αφηγηματικές μεθόδους και τεχνικές αξιοποιούν; Και
επίσης, πώς οι τελευταίες διαπλέκονται, με τι αποτέλεσμα και κατά πόσον είναι λειτουργικές;
Βασικός πυλώνας της ψηφιακής πολυμεσικής δημοσιογραφίας είναι επίσης η έν-
νοια πολυτροπικότητας (multimodality). Οι εισηγητές του όρου (βλ. κυρίως Kress & Van
Leeuwen) θεωρούν την πολυτροπικότητα όχι ένα επιπλέον στοιχείο που πρέπει να επι-
συναφθεί στην ανάλυση της επικοινωνίας, αλλά ως ουσιαστική και θεμελιώδη παράμετρο
κάθε κειμένου. H πολυμεσική αφήγηση ενδείκνυται ως ο πλέον κατάλληλος χώρος για
να ερμηνευθεί και να κατανοηθεί μέσα από όρους πολυτροπικότητας, αφού η τελευταία
επισημαίνει ότι πέρα από το γλωσσικό σημειωτικό σύστημα είναι εξίσου σημαντικοί στην
εποχή μας και οι μη γλωσσικοί κώδικες επικοινωνίας. Eάν κοιτάξουμε γύρω μας, θα δι-
απιστώσουμε ότι η κυριαρχία του γραπτού λόγου αμφισβητείται όλο και περισσότερο όχι
μόνο λόγω του ειδικού βάρους της τηλεόρασης και του διαδικτύου, αλλά και λόγω της
ευρείας χρήσης της εικόνας στη διαφήμιση, στα σύμβολα κάθε είδους, στις νέες τεχνολο-
γίες της επικοινωνίας. «Κάθε κείμενο, σύμφωνα με τη θεωρία της πολυτροπικότητας εί-
ναι ένα πολλαπλό σύστημα τρόπων όπου ένας ή περισσότεροι τρόποι μπορούν να είναι οι
κυρίαρχοι αλλά ακόμη και σε κείμενα που κατ’ αρχήν φαίνεται να υπερισχύει ένας τρόπος
έναντι άλλων, μία προσεκτικότερη μελέτη τους θα μας έδειχνε ότι και άλλοι τρόποι είναι
εξίσου σημαντικοί» (Χοντολίδου http://www.netschoolbook.gr/polytropy.html).
Στην περίπτωση της πολυμεσικής δημοσιογραφίας ο λόγος αναπτύσσεται παράλλη-
λα με την εικόνα και τον ήχο αφού οπτικά, γραφολογικά και τυπογραφικά σημειωτικά μέ-
σα συνδυάζονται μεταξύ τους. Η γλώσσα δεν υπερτερεί αλλά όλα τα παραπάνω μέσα συ-
ντελούν στην πολυτροπικότητα του πολυμεσικού εγχειρήματος, η οποία, με τη σειρά της,
οδηγεί στην ιδιαίτερη πρόσληψή του από τον αναγνώστη.
Τέλος, εξίσου σημαντική είναι η ανάλυση των τύπων διαδραστικότητας που αξιοποιού-
νται από τα πολυμεσικά εγχειρήματα. Η έννοια της διαδραστικότητας (interactivity) είναι
μια πολυεπίπεδη έννοια η οποία κυριαρχεί κυρίως από τη δεκαετία του 1990 και έπειτα
στην επιστημονική κοινότητα και περιλαμβάνει πολλές διαφορετικές λειτουργίες και δυ-
νατότητες (βλ. Quiring & Schweiger, 2008. Ryan, 2014, 2015). Πώς αξιοποιούνται οι πα-
ραπάνω στο πλαίσιο των διάφορων ψηφιακών πολυμεσικών αφηγήσεων; Ποιες λειτουρ-
γίες είναι παρούσες, σε τι βαθμό και με τι συνέπειες για το συνολικό αποτέλεσμα του πο-
λυμεσικού εγχειρήματος και για την πρόσληψή του από τον αναγνώστη;
Η διερεύνηση των τριών παραπάνω χαρακτηριστικών και μεθοδολογικών / θεωρητι-
κών εννοιών κρίνεται ως η πλέον κατάλληλη για την ανάλυση και κατανόηση της ψηφια-
κής πολυμεσικής δημοσιογραφίας.
Συνοψίζοντας, τα βασικά ερωτήματα που αναδύονται στον ερευνητικό νου κατά τη με-
τάβαση από την έντυπη στην ψηφιακή αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία και τους πολλαπλούς
τρόπους πολυμεσικής αφήγησης και στα οποία καλούμαστε να απαντήσουμε πιο συγκε-
κριμένα σε προσεχή μελέτη μας μέσα από την παρουσίαση και ανάλυση συγκεκριμένων
παραδειγμάτων δημοσιογραφικών πολυμεσικών εγχειρημάτων, είναι τα εξής:
• Πώς η αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία στο διαδίκτυο σήμερα, κυρίως μέσα από τις συμ-
μετοχικές δυνατότητες του τελευταίου, αξιοποιεί τις μυθοπλαστικές τεχνικές της νέας
δημοσιογραφίας του παρελθόντος, ώστε να αυξήσει την αίσθηση αμεσότητας, πιστό-
τητας και αυθεντικότητας του πολυμεσικού εγχειρήματος;
• Από την άλλη πλευρά, πώς αξιοποιούνται, επίσης, συνθετικά από τους δημιουρ-
γούς τους τα δομικά χαρακτηριστικά γνωρίσματα και οι θεωρητικοί πυλώνες της πο-
λυμεσικής αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας του διαδικτύου, όπως η αφηγηματολογία
(narratology), η διαδραστικότητα (interactivity) και η πολυτροπικότητα (multimodality)
και με ποιες προκλήσεις και προοπτικές για τη σύγχρονη δημοσιογραφία;
• Και, τέλος, πώς επηρεάζουν την αναγνωστική εμπειρία η υπερκειμενικότητα (hyper-
textuality), η χρήση πολυμέσων και η διαδραστικότητα των πολυμεσικών ρεπορτάζ;
1. Ο White (1980) στιγματίζει τις ιστορικές αφηγήσεις του 19ου αιώνα, οι οποίες δεν αρκούνται στην απλή
καταγραφή των γεγονότων (όπως τα μεσαιωνικά κείμενα), αλλά προτάσσουν την ιδεολογική και ηθι-
κολογική αξιολογική κρίση με την επιβολή μιας αφηγηματικής ερμηνευτικής δομής.
2. Ο όροι ‘νέα δημοσιογραφία’ (new journalism), ‘λογοτεχνική δημοσιογραφία’ (literary journalism), ‘δη-
μιουργική μη-μυθοπλασία’ (creative non-fiction), ‘λογοτεχνικό ρεπορτάζ’ (literary reportage), ‘λογο-
τεχνική μη-μυθοπλασία’ (literary non-fiction), ‘αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία’ (narrative journalism),
είναι οι κυριότεροι από εκείνους που έχουν προταθεί για να χαρακτηρίσουν ένα σύνθετο και ιδιά-
ζον φαινόμενο, η ειδολογική ταυτότητα του οποίου παραμένει ρευστή και αμφισβητούμενη, παρά τις
προσπάθειες αποσαφήνισής της από μεγάλο αριθμό μελετητών. Ο όρος ‘νέα δημοσιογραφία’ (new
journalism), ειδικότερα, αναφέρεται συνήθως σε εκείνο το είδος ‘λογοτεχνικής δημοσιογραφίας’ που
εμφανίστηκε τη δεκαετία του 1960 στις ΗΠΑ. Βλέπε Χολιβάτου, 2014. «Δημοσιογραφία & λογοτεχνία:
η κληρονομιά της ‘Νέας Δημοσιογραφίας’ και το ελληνικό παράδειγμα», Διδακτορική διατριβή, Τμή-
μα Δημοσιογραφίας και Μέσων Μαζικής Επικοινωνίας, Αριστοτέλειο Πανεπιστήμιο Θεσσαλονίκης.
3. Πολυμεσικές αφηγήσεις στο διαδίκτυο συναντά κανείς σήμερα στα Granta.Com, Slate.com, Salon.
com καθώς και στoυς εξής ιστότοπους:
https://stearns.wordpress.com/2013/12/30/the-best-online-storytelling-and-journalism-of-2013/
http://www.interactivenarratives.org/
http://uncubed.com/2015/01/27/11-favorite-multimedia-storytelling-platforms/
http://www.themultimediajournalist.net/
https://global.oup.com/ushe/product/the-multimedia-journalist-9780199764525;jsessionid=9FD2
E310A4C993F6D3BEBEBB2F44F070?cc=gr&lang=en&
http://uncubed.com/2015/01/27/11-favorite-multimedia-storytelling-platforms/
http://niemanstoryboard.org/stories/the-importance-of-words-in-multimedia-storytelling/
4. Για την αφηγηματική δημοσιογραφία την εποχή του διαδικτύου, βλ. Berning, Nora «Narrative Journal-
ism in the Age of the Internet, New Ways to Create Authenticity in online Literary Reportages», στο
Newsletter της International Association for Literary Journalism Studies, 6 (2), Άνοιξη 2012, 13-24.
5. Ο όρος ‘ανεστραμμένη πυραμίδα’ (inverted pyramid) στη δημοσιογραφία αναφέρεται στη δημοσιο-
γραφική εκείνη πρακτική, κοινή στη γραφή των ειδήσεων (news stories), σύμφωνα με την οποία οι
πιο σημαντικές και ενδιαφέρουσες πληροφορίες μιας ιστορίας τοποθετούνται στην αρχή του δημο-
σιογραφικού άρθρου, έτσι ώστε οι αναγνώστες να είναι σε θέση να πάρουν άμεσα την πληροφορία
που επιθυμούν και ύστερα, εάν θελήσουν, να στραφούν στην ανάγνωση κάποιου άλλου άρθρου. Με
άλλα λόγια, η «ανεστραμμένη πυραμίδα» αποτελεί τη βασική δομή σύνταξης ειδησεογραφικών άρ-
θρων, σύμφωνα με την οποία οι πληροφορίες παρατίθενται με φθίνουσα σειρά σημασίας, από την πιο
σημαντική στην πιο ασήμαντη πληροφορία (Stoval, 1994, σελ. 106-108).
6. Βλέπε γύρω από το κίνημα της ‘νέας δημοσιογραφίας’ (new journalism): Sims, Norman (επιμ.) 1990.
Literary Journalism in the Twentieth Century, Νέα Υόρκη: Oxford University Press, Wolfe, T. και
Johnson E.W. (επιμ.) 1996. The New Journalism, Λονδίνο: Picador Βooks, Weingarten, Marc2005.
Who’s afraid of Tom Wolfe: how new journalism rewrote the world, Λονδίνο: Aurum.
7. Σήμερα, στον απόηχο της ‘νέας δημοσιογραφίας’ (new journalism) της δεκαετίας του 1960, ανιχνεύ-
ουμε παραδείγματα αφηγηματικής δημοσιογραφίας ή αλλιώς ‘Νέας νέας δημοσιογραφίας’ (new new
journalism) όπως είναι ο σύγχρονος ορισμός του ρεύματος. Οι μέθοδοι έρευνάς της τελευταίας φα-
ντάζουν ακόμη πιο εξαντλητικές και διεισδυτικές κι από αυτές των εκπροσώπων του κινήματος της
δεκαετίας του 1960. Για τη νέα νέα δημοσιογραφία βλέπε Boynton, S. Robert, 2005. The New New
Journalism, Νέα Υόρκη: Vintage Books.
7. Bλέπε Genette, 2007.
Angelotti, E. (2014). Learning from prize-winning journalism: how to cover a breaking news story.
Ανακτημένο από www.poynter.org/2014/learning-from-prize-winning-journalism-how-to-cover-a-
breaking-news-story/234291/
Bateman, A. J. (2014). Text and image, a critical introduction to the visual/verbal divide. Λονδίνο: Routledge.
Berning, N. (2011). Narrative Journalism in the Age of the Internet, New Ways to Create Authenticity in on-
line Literary Reportages. Textpraxis, 3, 1-16.
Boczkowski, P. J., & Mitchelstein, E. (2012). How Users Take Advantage of Different Forms of Interactiv-
ity on Online News Sites: Clicking, E-Mailing, and Commenting. Human Communication Research,
38, 1–22.
Boynton, S. R. (2005). The New New Journalism. Νέα Υόρκη: Vintage Books.
Branch, J. (2012). Snowfall (ντοκιμαντέρ), Η.Π.Α: The New York Times. Διαθέσιμο στο: www.nytimes.com/
projects/2012/snow-fall/#/?part=blur-of-white
Bryan, A., & Alan L. (2008). Web 2.0 Storytelling Emergence of a New Genre. Educause Review, 43(6), 40-
56.
Burn, A., & Parker D. (2003). Analysing media texts. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Γιαννακουλόπουλος, Α. (2014). Από τη Διάδραση στη Συμμετοχή: Σχολιάζοντας τους Προσδιοριστικούς Πα-
ράγοντες των Νέων Μέσων. Ζητήματα Επικοινωνίας, 18-19.
Choiniere & al 2013. A Journal of Insomnia, (ντοκιμαντέρ), Καναδάς: National Film Board of Canada.
Διαθέσιμο στο: http://insomnia.nfb.ca/#/insomnia
Cobre, K. (2013). Videojournalism, MultimediaStorytelling. Burlington: FocalPress.
Connery, B. Τh. (1990). A third way to tell the story: American Literary Journalism at the turn of the Cen-
tury. In N. Sims (Ed.), Literary Journalism in the Twentieth Century (pp. 3-20). New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press.
Dufresne, D. 2013. Fort McMoney (ντοκιμαντέρ), Toxa/Arte/NFB. Διαθέσιμο στο: http://fortmcmoney.
com/#/fortmcmoney
Firestorm, http://multiplejournalism.org/case/firestorm
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Greenfield, R. (20/12/2012). What the New York Times’s ‘Snow Fall’ Means to Online Journalism’s Fu-
ture. Aνακτημένο από www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/12/new-york-times-snow-
fall-feature/320253/
Harvey, Ch. (1994). Tom Wolfe’s Revenge. American Journalism Review, 16, 40-46.
Henley, J. 2013. Firestorm (ντοκιμαντέρ), Ηνωμένο Βασίλειο: The Guardian. Διαθέσιμο στο: https://www.
theguardian.com/world/interactive/2013/may/26/firestorm-bushfire-dunalley-holmes-family
Jewitt, C.& Kress G. (επιμ.) (2003). Multimodal Literacie. Νέα Υόρκη: Peter Lang.
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Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T. (2001). Multimodal Discourse: The Modes and Media of Contemporary Com-
munication. London: Edward Arnold.
Κress, G. (2003). Literacy in the New Media Age. London: Routledge.
Lee, L. (2008). Multimedia Journalism: The Age of New Technology and New Opportunities. Ανακτημένο
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MEDIA & MULTIMEDIA
Celle-ci n’est pas

une chanteuse
The deception of the senses
on Lynch’s film Mulholland Drive (2001)
May Kokkidou University of Western Macedonia ugenius@otenet.gr
Christina Tsigka University of Western Macedonia christina.tsigka@gmail.com
Abstract
David Lynch’s film Mulholland Drive (2001) has puzzled many viewers and film scholars con-
cerning its narrative content and structure. Lynch offers to audience an intricate experience
when he unveils the cinematic conventions and builds a surrealistic world of non-linear narra-
tives. This paper discusses the ‘felt unity’ which characterizes the cinematic experience and the
collapse of the traditional boundaries between diegetic and non-diegetic music. The analysis
focuses on the interaction of the semiotic visual and acoustic modes in the “Silencio Club” key-
scene of the film. Through the deception of the senses (seeing and hearing), the director ad-
dresses questions, such as: what we perceive is what really happens? What are the boundar-
ies between fiction and reality? The separation of the sense of hearing from the sense of seeing
gives birth to the notion that the what of representation as opposed to the how of representa-
tion creates new meanings and requires new tools for interpretation. The “Silencio club” scene
creates a new meta-diegetic context and operates as a synecdoche of Lynch’s critique for the
capitalist film industry. The analysis draws on Metz’s conceptualization for the cinematic dieg-
esis, on Winters’ suggestion for the non-diegetic fallacy, and on Yacavone’s perspective where a
cinematic work may choose to self-consciously draw attention to the processes by which it cre-
ates a world. The interpretation will focus on the signs of a cappella and technical devices (as
signifiers of plausibility); color (as signifier of antithesis between fiction and reality); and prox-
imity (as signifier of on-screen and beyond-screen relationships).
Keywords David Lynch , Mulholland Drive , deception of senses ,
trans-diegetic level , Silencio
Introduction
David Lynch can be regarded as a cinematic philosopher-artist. He is renowned as one
of the most creative cinematic auteurs of modern times. His inexhaustible cinematic
ideas, liberated from a purely narrative function, evince a complex cinematic reflexivi-
ty. They are imaginative representations which escape our attempts to determine any
possible definitive meaning (Sinnerbrink, 2005). Moreover, Lynch’s films reflexively ex-
plore cinematic world experience from the phenomenological perspective of the viewer
and self-consciously draw attention to the processes by which it creates its world (Ya-
cavone, 2008). The Lynchian filmic world is consisted of multiple non-linear narratives
which communicate polysemic and abstract meanings across different times and spac-
es. Lynch himself refuses to explain any of his own movies, preferring them to speak for
themselves.
David Lynch’s Mulholland Drive (2001) is a multi-layered, atmospheric, neo-noir mov-
ie with avant-garde aesthetics, and a complex symbolic narration. The film, rather than
following a strict narrative, makes us ponder the limits of cinematic language and its in-
terminable wrestle with meanings.
The story is from the viewpoint of Diane Selwyn (Naomi Watts), an aspiring actress
who comes to Hollywood to become a movie star, though the majority of the film has to
do with her dream persona, Betty Elms. In her fantasy, Diane/Betty comes to Hollywood
and falls in love with a woman named Camilla Rhodes (Laura Elena Harring / Melissa
George). But Camilla steals the lead role and Diane gets a minor one. Camilla has also an
affair with a Hollywood director named Adam Kesher (Justin Theroux). Diane, angry, be-
trayed, and heart-broken, having lost her dream role and her lover, hires a contract killer
to murder her former lover Camilla. The murder is executed, but Diane, chased by hallu-
cinations, kills herself.
The “Silencio Club” stunning scene

The “Silencio Club” stunning scene comes approximately two-thirds into the film (1:42:37)
after Betty and Rita have made love. We see them sleeping, becalmed and satisfied. Their
sleeping is interrupted when Rita, in the middle of the night, starts talking in a foreign
language in her sleep, repeating the words “silencio” and “no hay banda”. She wakes up
and asks Betty to take her to the club Silencio: “go with me somewhere … Right now.”
They took a taxi and arrive at an “underground” night Club-Theater that bears the name
“Silencio.”
Betty and Rita enter the half-empty cabaret-type venue, a turn-of-the-century the-
ater, where the master of ceremony (Richard Green), who seems to wait for them to ar-
rive before starting the show, announces that “there is no band”: “No hay banda! There is
no band! Il n’est pas de orchestre! This is all … a tape recording. No hay banda! And yet
we hear a band.” As he speaks, he raises his hand and a cane magically appears.
After tossing aside his cane, which makes no sound as it exits the film frame, the MC
raises his arms in the air and the sound of musical instruments is heard though without
a visible source. He manipulates the sonic world of the stage and the audience as well.
He informs the audience that the music they hear is an illusion, telling that there is no
orchestra, that everything we hear is recorded: ‘‘It’s all recorded, it’s all a tape’’. He acts
as an imaginary conductor who directs an invisible orchestra. The instruments (clarinet,
trombone, trumpet) perform rather melancholic ambient jazz melodies. The two girls
cannot identify the origin of a sound. Thus, the line between the real and the fictional be-
gins to blur.
To further confuse the audience, the MC continues to speak using all three languag-
es (“If we want to hear a clarinet… Listen”, “Un trombone a coulisse, un trombone con
sordina” e.t.c.). He calls on stage a trumpet player who appears from behind the curtains
and begins to improvise. Then, even before completing his melody, he removes the trum-
pet from his mouth and raises his arms in the air (still holding the trumpet in one hand)
while his music continues to be heard. By this, Lynch gives music a loud non-dieget-
ic presence. The MC looks at the audience, who is stunned, and repeats with a confident
tone that there is no orchestra: “It’s all a tape”. After moments of silence, he continues his
monologue with a “Listen”. Then he summons a thunderstorm, showing his power over
the audience. We see a flashing blue light and hear thunder sounds and a muffled explo-
sion which seem to be created from the force of his arms and we see the uncanny, ex-
pressionless enigmatic figure of the Blue-Haired Lady (Cori Glazer) sitting in a high booth
by the side of the stage. At that time, Betty starts shaking uncontrollably in her seat and
the two girls appear frightened. Blue smoke rises, invading the scene, and the magician
vanishes in this cloud of smoke.
After this, a presenter announces a female singer saying “La Llorona de Los Ange-
les, Rebekah Del Rio” (“The Weeping Lady of Los Angeles”). Rebekah Del Rio, the real Re-
bekah Del Rio, enters the stage and sings a cappella “Llorando”, a Spanish adaptation of
the song “Crying”, composed by Roy Orbison. She sings, or really, as it turns out, she is
lip-synching over a tape recording. Her vibrant highly expressive voice brings tears to Bet-
ty and Rita. Through close-ups shots, we are able to see her fancy make-up (her eye shad-
ow is a mixture of dark pink and yellow with black eyeliner) and the decorative fake black
tear on her cheek. Del Rio continues, somehow, the work of the MC when all of a sudden,
in the midst of the song, falls startlingly to the stage while singing, either unconscious or
dead. But the song continues to be heard. The presenter carries her off the stage but we
still hear her disembodied voice reaching an ethereal crescendo. Being absent from the
singing she performs has a dramatic function and the effect is much larger than the pre-
vious episodes with the trumpet. The two girls are aware of the illusion of Del Rio’s ‘un-
seen’ music yet they continue to cry, holding their hands tight, mesmerized and strongly
moved by the beauty of her singing. Their engagement is not a matter of pretense.
The deception of the senses of sight and hearing
in Mulholland Drive’s Silencio Club scene
The system of human senses governs our perception, cognition (understanding, misun-
derstanding), imagination, and self-understanding. For David Howes (2014), the senses
function as mediators of experience. Sensing involves a fusion of perception and signifi-
cation, of stimulus and meaning.
The Silencio scene creates crossings among visual and aural elements. It is a sen-
sory microcosmos inside Mulholland Drive –both autonomous and interdependent with
the rest of the film– that creates crossings among visual and aural elements. It might be
considered uncanny, surreal, and even grotesque, because the deception of the senses
is the central idea of the episode. The MC emphasizes again and again that what we see
it is not real. The “no hay banda” motif appeals to the idea that there is no connection or
causality between the music we hear and the musicians we see. Any assumed causali-
ty is merely an illusion (Burningham, 2010, p. 44). When we hear the sound of a muted
trombone playing, the MC says “J’aime le son du trombone en sourdine”. His message
is clear: you must not believe what we see or hear. It may sound like a trumpet, but it is
not one. She may look like a singer, but she is not one. It is only a tape. He is like say-
ing: “Be aware! Everything you experience is fiction; it is an illusion.” The mismatch that
takes place between the senses of seeing and hearing guides our interpretation about
the meaning of the scene.
The separation of the senses signifies the notion of loss and the borderlines between
life and death and may imply two other things: 1) the way we experience spaces of ur-
banized culture in our western postmodern hyper-civilized societies, and 2) the prom-
ise of disorder, chaos and mutation. This separation also evokes the indeterminate zone
between the conscious and the unconscious experience, and between fantasy and real-
ity. With respect to the first aspect, Howes (2014) notes the separation of sight from the
other senses in the sensory model of modernity and the denial of a multi-sensory under-
standing of our world. This separation reconfigures the relationship between self, time,
and space. For McMahon (2011), the main theme of Club Silencio sequence focusing is
the one of self-deception and the ways people may escape absurdity through the lies
they use to tell themselves.
When MC throws his wand into the audience, in a theatrical manner, and says in
French “Je le sens!” (“I feel it”), he makes us realize the importance of “feeling”. After the
episode with the thunder sounds, and before his disappearance in the blue smoke, he
crosses his arms over his chest like a body in a casket. This part of the scene guides us
to recall the archetypes of life and death. As it is already mentioned, the MC repeated-
ly says that “Everything is an illusion”. But this illusion is so strong that seems more re-
al that the reality itself. Del Rio makes the two girls crying even when they discover that
they hear a non-person voice. Decoding the scene with Magrittian keys, Celle-ci n’est
pas une chanteuse: she is not a singer although she appears to sing. she is not a person
though she appears to exist.
In the Silencio scene, the experience of music becomes experience of pastness, when
music operates in the intersection of the presence and absence; memory and amnesia;
intuition and explanation; the human and the technological. Trying to hold still what has
already happened, it puts the subject into temporal flux, and breaks the subject-object
symbiosis. All these result to the deception of the senses. Following Yacavone’s thinking
(2008), we may say that the scene’s (self-)reflexive aspects are largely based on the no-
tion that the acoustic practices involve not just the ear but a corporeal body that sens-
es and responds to sound, and furthermore, seeks to investigate the symbolic distance
which separates the real from the represented.
When senses dissolve in a virtual and fictitious mode, many questions emerge, such
as: Did that really happen? Does the experience given by the senses is the only source of
truth? Do we have to trust our senses even if they give us something we find hard to ex-
plain? What are the boundaries between fiction and reality, between dreaming and wak-
ing life while dreaming? Through the deception of the senses, Lynch takes us to the edge
of what we perceive as real and urges us to become less ‘innocent’ regarding everything
we experience through our senses; to go beyond it; to seek for the inner truth that lies
beyond, or within, the world. Why so? Because reality is comprised of humans’ ideas
about reality. Thus, his intention is not simply to show the illusionism of cinema, but to
make us think about what we take to be ‘real’ in real life. In this vein, the Silencio scene
raises a dialectical tension between seeing and hearing; past and future; between music
and non-music; conscious and unconscious.
Silencio Club scene: signs and signification

Understanding film works is largely a matter of recognizing and decoding their signs.
From the point of vies of semiotic methodology, the conventional elements of narrative
structure (i.g. characters, plot, setting, temporality) can be regarded as systems of signs
which are structured according to different codes. Each of these signs communicates spe-
cific messages which relate to the story-world in diverse ways (Stam et. al., 1992, p. 70).
The Silencio scene has a particular meaning in the economy of the narration. It gains
its meaning upon the projection of a hypothetical or dreamed future. An obvious in-
terpretation of the scene would be that Hollywood enterprise is deceitful. In this basis,
Lynch points to the greater illusion which encompasses and defines cinema. He achieves
this through the disintegration of the audiovisual contract. Yet, there are other cues that
help decoding the scene. This stage performance operates as text-into-a-text; the the-
atrical text into the filmic text. Thus, we need to decode this stage language within the
aesthetic sign systems of the cinematic language.
Firstly, we can examine the representational codes of time and the one of presence-
absence relation. When Del Rio’s voice is dislocated from her body –and the music be-
comes non-diegetic– we experience a confusion regarding the meaning of the situation.
Where does her voice come from? To whom does this voice belong? This hybrid state en-
courages us to consider and reflect on questions about absence and presence. When the
conception of the present is re-directed to the one of the illusion, we may contemplate
the “now” as a signifier of a time that seems not to exist. What we perceived is not a pres-
ence but a reproduction of the past. The non-corporal Del Rio’s voice connotes the emp-
tiness of subjectivity and operates as a metaphor of the fright of living in a world where
things are present at the same time that they are not. The scene, thus, becomes a way of
reflecting upon the relations between the past, the present and a dreamed or hypotheti-
cal future, in a world where the present is meaningless.
Secondly, the presenter announces Del Rio as “La Llorona de Los Angeles.” “La Lloro-
na,” “The Weeping Woman,” is an old Mexican folk tale. It represents the ghost of a wom-
an mourning for her two dead children whom she herself murdered, drowning them in
the river, in despair after being abandoned by her lover for another woman. Then, after
nights of weeping in remorse, she drowns herself. Her ghostly sobs are often heard in
the night and her appearance is held to foreshadow death (see Willet, 2009; Shaw, 2004).
The Mexican tale can be associated to Diane’s story where she, overwhelmed by anger
and eventually by despair and fear, becomes homicidal and suicidal. Similarly, the mel-
ancholic lyrics of “Crying”, which refer to an abandoned lover, communicate a sense of
loss and express existential emptiness. The point of this performance, for Burningham
(2010), is to lull the viewers “into a false sense of interpretive security.”
Thirdly, it is the paradox of language. Why does Rita talk in a foreign language in her
sleep? Why does the MC talk in three different languages (Spanish, French, and Eng-
lish), repeating the same words that Rita had previously uttered in bed? According to
McGowan (2004, p. 82): “By having the emcee speak in different languages, Lynch sug-
gests the unimportance of the signifiers themselves relative to what they cannot capture
the absence of the objet petit a”. From this Lacanian perspective, he adds further that:
“[…] the fact that she [Del Rio] sings in Spanish indicates that the words here are not the
heart of the matter: what is crucial instead is Del Rio’s voice – the voice detached from
her body as an object, the voice as an impossible object.” (McGowan, 2007, p. 214). For
Shaw (2004, p. 85), the key clue to MC’s revelation is that the false thing should not be
believed whether it is speaking in English, in Spanish or in French. Once we accept the
certainty of language, we may no longer try to explain the things. In our view, the name
“Silencio” gives rise to the idea that language cannot always help in understanding what
is really going on. The foreign languages may imply the enigmatic unknown and ques-
tion the idea “I signify therefore I am.”
A cappella singing and gestural expressions as signifier of plausibility
The musical voice is a semiotic entity built on sonorous signs and on subjectivity or ev-
ery singer. However, in the “negative” aural context of the fictional present, Del Rio’s
voice becomes de-materialized and de-sensualized and appears to be a negating voice,
like something ghostly or hypothetical. The image appears to belong in reality while
the sound belongs to memory and emotion. This implies the idea of estrangement and
brings into the fore the distance between the materiality of the voice as object (level of
the signifier) and the aesthetic experience of the voice. It also operates as resistance to a
cause-effect logic. Ironically, Rebekah del Rio is the real name of this singer.
The a cappella singing signifies three things. First, it establishes a pure acousmat-
ic frame located in the here-and-now of the story, emphasizing the materiality of the
sound. Moreover, it highlights the uniqueness of the artistic endeavor. Finally, it makes
stronger the singer’s subsequent collapse. Initially, Del Rio’s song comes as a moment
of relief: music seems to have found a body (Willet, 2009, p.116). But when the corpore-
ality of Del Rio’s figure dissolves in a broken body, which still can sing within the filmic
space, her voice becomes a fictitious entity, the incarnation of a sign. Thus, she appears
as a technological avatar. Her performance stands for a gestural irony as it moves be-
tween the ridicule of karaoke singing and the emotional expression of an on-stage mu-
sician.
Technical devices as signifier of plausibility

Postmodern fiction is a kind of meta-fiction that analyzes the constructive resources of
fiction itself (McHale, 1987). Lynch reflects on the modes of cinematic perception which
are linked to contemporary uses of technology, attempting to uncover that the illusion
of reality in cinema is achieved by tech devices. His position holds that cinematic imag-
es reproduce the reality via tech devices, but they still remain persuasive and emotional-
ly strong. The Silencio scene invites us to re-consider the status of cinematic verisimil-
itude and to be aware that cinema is a visual, acousmatic, and technological art. It lives
and develops within the technological world. Crucially, the only tech device we see in the
Silencio scene is Del Rio’s old-fashion mic. However, Del Rio’s close-miking strong voice,
alongside her soulful rendition, makes us feel that we are part of her despair.
We must see technical devices as distortions of authenticity? Does our tech-mediat-
ed life create a new absent-presence reality? The source-less sound, that is the separa-
tion of sound from its origin by means of recording technology suggests a present with
no explanatory power. Because sound is assumed to proceed from a physical source, lis-
teners automatically search for the material body that generates the sounds they hear;
this is a natural reflex that governs sonic perception, but Lynch undermines it when in
effect “there is no band.” The obfuscation of causal relationships between source, sound,
and signification engenders cognitive dissonance in audience (van Elferen (2012, p. 180).
Technical devices may create a new form of perception located between the time of the
lived experience and the time of the recording. We experience the present through its
echo. This form is highly popularized in the media world of propaganda and advertising,
and may lead to a dislocation of one’s self-consciousness.
Proximity as signifier of on-screen and beyond-screen relationships

The idea of proximity in the Silencio scene can be illustrated through the difference be-
tween the nature of a live performance and the quality of a recording one. When the non-
diegetic music enters the score it creates a new acoustic space. The recorded sound
connotes the distance between the original and the copy, between the genuine listen-
ing to music and the make-believe status of listening to a pre-existing reality. For in-
stance, when the MC announces the solo trumpet player, the volume of the trumpet
sound increases as he enters the stage. Apart from that, the notion of proximity aris-
es from the close-ups and long camera shots. Del Rio’s close-ups function as a magni-
fying glass which provides us with further “evidence” about the authenticity of her per-
formance. When the camera zooms even closer into Del Rio’s face it reveals a flawless
singer with her lips vibrating and her breaths being in accordance to the pauses between
verses. Del Rio’s song appears intentionally both on diegetic and non-diegetic level, de-
manding new interpretation.
Metz (1974, p. 10) used the term diegetic to indicate the ‘reality’ of the fictional world,
“a reality that comes only from within us, from the projections and identifications that are
mixed in with our perception of the film”. Metz defined diegesis in typically semiological
terms as “the sum of a film’s denotation: the narration itself, but also the fictional space
and time dimensions implied in and by the narrative, and consequently the characters,
the landscapes, the events, and other narrative elements, in so far as they are considered
in their denoted aspect” (p. 98). Yet, for Winters (2010), film operates according to differ-
ent rules: we construct cinematic diegesis not according to the everyday rules of our (re-
al) world but rather with reference to the conventions of film (p. 243).
The Lynchian sound design, in general, enables an overlap of diegetic and extra-di-
egetic sound and music, and reveals important inversions of cinematic convention of
musical signification. For instance, silence in a Lynch movie never automatically con-
notes absence, just as sound is not to be confused with presence (van Elferen, 2012, pp.
79-182). The Silencio scene questions the conventional notion that diegetic and extra-di-
egetic levels should be regarded as separate, and replaces it with the idea that there are
cinematic time-spaces that music, and narration as well, is somehow “in the air”. This
exemplifies Lynch’s aural-visual deception and could not be understood from the level
of the material signifier. Del Rio’s non-corporeal voice does not justify the exclusion of
music from the diegesis and might be considered as a transformation of the soundscape
implying the notion of an outside world. Clearly, the song operates according to different
laws (Winters, 2010), at a trans-diegetic level. At this level, we may have the chance to
investigate the Lacanian knot of Symbolic, Imaginary, and Real. The trans-diegetic level
defies signification and yet gives new birth to it.
By shortening the distance between diegetic and non-diegetic sound, Lynch, instead
of providing a realistic soundscape, creates a simulacrum of one, in Baudrillard terms.
This conceptualization of proximity communicates disorder and disintegration, giving a
sense of instability. Paradoxically, proximity indicates a suspension of time. It conveys
features such as irony and pretense, and serves as a mutating framework within which
the narrative’s fragments are perceived as reality with no rules.
Silencio Club scene

as a metonymy of the (Hollywood) show-business and dream-factory world
Many Lynch’s works explore the limits of cinematic signification. van Elferen (2012) ar-
ticulates that “the Lynchian uncanny unveils the repressed of traditional cinema: the un-
speakable possibility of unstable signification and reality leading to the destabilization of
truth and self” (p. 178). Mulholland Drive critiques the Hollywood film industry from in-
side by showing the potential tragic consequences of fantasy and desire within the capi-
talist film mechanism, particularly for female actresses who seek to become stars with-
in the system (Mactaggart, 2014). The Club Silencio sequence is a perfect Lynchian cin-
ematic Idea, synthesizing the aesthetics of pre-conscious experience with a self-con-
scious reflection upon cinematic illusion (Sinnerbrink, 2005), connoting the metaphysi-
cal dimension of the cinematic image.
Film worlds, according to Yacavone (2008), are complex object-experiences with both
symbolic/cognitive and affective dimensions. In Yacavone’s view, Lynch creates meta-
cinematic world-spaces. In this token, the mysterious Club Silencio scene dramatizes
and itself exemplifies the film experience within which viewers are intellectually and af-
fectively immersed. The two girls’ reaction in Del Rio’s song mirrors the time-space film’s
viewers are trapped. In this time-space, the filmmaker’s subjectivity meets the viewer’s
subjectivity in and through the film.
In a broader view, Silencio scene functions as a metonym for the Hollywood dream
world in many ways. At first, MC is a representational figure of film directors. The role he
plays is the very same to the role that cinematic directors play: to orchestrate the imag-
inary world; to hypnotize our senses. The way MC acts is also rich with gestural signifi-
cation. His gestures connote authority to the audiovisual shifts. Sinnerbrink (2005) notes
that the devilish MC unmasks what we are seeing and hearing as illusion, implying the
aesthetic illusion of cinematic performance. According to Thomas (2006, p. 92) the lines
‘‘it’s all recorded, it’s all a tape’’ should point us to an interpretation of the very ‘‘tape’’ we
are watching as yet another self-referential critique of Hollywood as a soul-murdering
dream factory.
The red color (red room and the red-curtained Club Silencio, Del Rio’s red dress and
so on) is symbolically representative of the stage world as a whole. The blue color, which
dominates the scene and stands as a motivic element in the film (i.e., the blue box, the
blue key), functions as a metaphor for Hollywood’s visual basis (blue screen), its mys-
tery (the blue-hair-lady can be said to signify the unconscious) and its ‘cold’ practices. It
also links the inner (Club) and external reality (neon lights of the cities). For Shaw (n.d.,
p. 34), we may consider the blue color with respect to the blue shimmer in electricity that
Lynch alludes to as Hollywood’s power source.
Del Rio’s fancy make-up serves as a metonym for the glamour of Hollywood. Final-
ly, Del Rio’s collapse can be said to anticipate Diane’s hallucinatory mental-emotional
breakdown and suicide. This can be interpreted as a fantasy about her own death. In this
vein, the whole scene may project the idea that in Hollywood the ‘nobody’ can become a
‘star’ but the star, also, can become another nobody.
Concluding Remarks
Mulholland Drive can be considered as a film which calls into question the dark side of
the American dream (Burningham, 2010) and creates a cinematic space where the illu-
sion is continually unmasked. Lynch intentionally blurs the dividing line between dream
and reality. In the Silencio scene, the audiovisual dissonance changes the reception of
the unfolding images. Images and sounds float in an indeterminate zone between fanta-
sy and reality (Sinnerbrink, 2005). The powerful features of hallucination in the Silencio
scene generate a new level of diegesis where the spectators find themselves enclosed
within the film’s soundscape while, at the same time, are released from the filmic bound-
aries. The music-image paradox suggests a new semiotic function of the film music, the
trans-diegetic one. This inconsistency opens the possibility for new signification.
In our opinion, the key-word of the scene is “Silence”. In the first part of the scene, the
silence of Rita’s and Betty’s sleep is broken by the word ‘‘silencio’’ which has something
to do with the language of music (Thomas, 2006, p. 91). The unified aural-visual part of
the scene gives its place to a contradictory one. Music and image begin to split from one
another. This split appears to overturn the Hollywood film conventions.
The sounds are not tied to the circumstances of an ‘I-hear-it-now.’ In this ba-
sis, sounds function as falling signs of the capacity of a present consciousness. Thus,
sound becomes an “echo of the nothing”, following the poetic expression of John Cage
(1939/1973, p. 131). The idea of silence emphasizes the surrealistic dimension of the
film, connoting the distance between people and operating as a representation of soli-
tude and alienation. It also connotes the timeless space and the spaceless time, a recur-
ring theme in Lynch’s works (Twin Peaks, Lost Highway, Blue Velvet, Inland Empire).
Cook (1998) writes that “the very fact of juxtaposing image and music has the effect
of drawing attention to the properties that they share, and in this way constructing a new
experience of each; the interpretation is in this sense emergent” (p. 73). In the Club Si-
lencio scene, the use of sound, though performs as a narration by itself, is significantly
guided and enhanced by the ambiguity inherent in the visuals. With regard to the synergy
of the semiotic systems, it can be argued that the cinematic patterns of gestures, light-
ing, colors, and sounds operate into a space which is posited between life and death, be-
ing and transcendence.
The Club Silencio scene serves as a major turning point in the film, representing a dy-
namic time-space territory where the spheres of reality and fiction inhabit one another.
Yet we may conceive these polarities not as dichotomies but instead as qualities of life
that slide into one another. Moreover, the scene signifies the unknown, permitting a host
of possible parallel discourses and raising questions about the reliability of sensorial ex-
perience and semantics. Interestingly, the final scene of the film is also at Club Silencio.
We see the blue-haired lady, now being alone in the empty theatre, whispering the clos-
ing word ‘‘Silencio”. This word is a poetic metaphor for the end of Diane’s life story, her
ultimate “Silencio” (Burningham, 2010; Sinnerbrink’s (2005). Bataille, in his essay “Inner
Experience” writes that ‘‘the word silence’’ is ‘‘the abolition of the sound which the word
is; among all words, it is the most perverse, or the most poetic: it is the token of its own
death’’ (as cited in Thomas, 2006, p. 94). For Shaw (2004), the idea of silence seems now
to involve the concept that “nothing more can be said”. In his view, Lynch pays homage
to Shakespeare, as we are reminded of Hamlet’s dying words to Horatio, “The rest is si-
lence.”
All in all, we may think of Silencio scene as a constructive set of ideas that gener-
ate new possibilities for cinematic awareness (the “how of representation”) and consid-
er how filmic strategies intersect with broader philosophical and aesthetic issues, and
symbolic audiovisual forms as well.
References
Burningham, B. R. (2010). David Lynch and the Dulcineated World. Cervantes: Bulletin of the Cervantes
Society of America, 30(2), 33-56.
Cage, J. (1939/1973). Silence. Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press.
Cook, N. (1998). Analysing Musical Multimedia. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Howes, D. (Ed.) (2014). A Cultural History of the Senses in the Modern Age, 1920-2000. London & New
York: Bloomsbury.
McGowan, T. (2004). Lost on Mulholland Drive: Navigating David Lynch’s Panegyric to Hollywood. Cin-
ema Journal, 43(2), 67-89.
McGowan, T. (2007). The Impossible David Lynch. New York: Columbia University Press.
McHale, B. (1987). Postmodernist fiction. London-New York: Methuen & Co. Ltd.
McMahon, J. (2011). City of Dreams: Bad Faith in Mulholland Drive. In W. J. Devlin & S. Biderman
(Eds.), The Philosophy of David Lynch (pp. 113-126). Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
Mactaggart, A. (2014). ‘‘Silencio’’: hearing loss in David Lynch’s Mulholland Drive. Journal of Aesthet-
ics & Culture, 6. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/jac.v6.22836.
Metz, C. (1974). Film language: a semiotics of the cinema (trans. M. Taylor). New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Shaw, A. (2004). A Multi-Layered Analysis of Mulholland Drive. Retrieved from http://www.mulholland-
drive.net/analysis/analysis01.htm.
Sinnerbrink, R. (2005). Cinematic Ideas: David Lynch’s Mulholland Drive. Film-Philosophy, 34(9). Re-
trieved from http://www.film-philosophy.com/vol9-2005/n34sinnerbrink.
Stam, R., Burgoyne, R. & Flitterman-Lewis, S. (1992). New Vocabularies in Film Semiotics. London &
New York: Routledge.
Thomas, C. (2006). ‘‘IT’S NO LONGER YOUR FILM’’: abjection and (the) Mulholland (death) Drive. An-
gelaki - Journal of the Theoretical Humanities, 11(2), 81-98.
van Elferen, I. (2012). Dream Timbre - Notes on Lynchian Sound Design. In J. Wierzbicki (Ed.), Music,
Sound and Filmmakers (pp. 175-188). New York & London: Routledge.
Yacavone, D. (2008). Towards a Theory of Film Worlds. Film-Philosophy, 12(2), 83-108.
Willet, E. K. (2009). Music as Sinthome: Joy Riding with Lacan, Lynch, and Beethoven: beyond postmod-
ernism. Doctoral dissertation, The University of Texas.
MEDIA & MULTIMEDIA
Listen so that you see!

Seeing sounds, hearing
images in Cinema
Nicos P. Terzis University of Western Macedonia nicospterzis@gmail.com
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to present the unique expressive capabilities of sound
in cinema, beyond its conventional main-stream use. Therefore, my research project
focuses on some of the ways cinematic sound with whatever it potentially can contain
sometimes claims co-equal role or even precedence over the image, decisively
illuminating ways to interpret the latter! Some of these creative ways at work, I
intend to highlight in the innovative film Citizen Kane (1941), one of the greatest films
ever made, and a precursor in certain ways of modernism in Cinema! In doing so, I
utilize Peircean semiotics, and in particular Pierce’s famous trichotomy, which Peter
Wollen (my professor at Columbia University) first incorporated into film aesthetics
emphasizing on indices.
Keywords
hearing , vision , off-screen sound , sound design
Prologue
As in life, so in Cinema, the hegemonic primacy of the image over the sound is
traditionally taken for granted. Besides, it is no coincidence that we call viewers those
watching a movie, a spectacle as we call it, after all. “Four and a half months after we
are conceived, we are already beginning to hear. Hearing is the first of our senses to be
switched on, and for the next four and a half months sound reigns as a solitary Queen
of the Senses”.1
Vision and Smell are unable to register external stimuli in the self-enclosed fluid world
of the womb, while Touch and Taste assume only a faint suspicion of the experience
that will follow with our coming out to the world! Until then, we swim in a sea, almost
exclusively flooded with cherished maternal sounds: the enduring assured wave of the
maternal breath, to a certain degree the range and tonality of her voice, the hydraulic
sounds of her intestines that embellish the metronome evocative sound of her sensitized
heart, which with birth pays exclusive attention to the baby, alas, overlooking the needs
of her mate!
However, birth dethrones Hearing giving its place to Vision, which as if she has
waited for this moment to take the lead in the service of human perception (although
shortsighted and blurred for the first six months), pushing Hearing on the sidelines,
downgrading her to the second role of complementing what we see.
Something similar happens between sound and image in Cinema, especially in the
conventional narrative films where sound basically just works as a reinforcement of
the moving image, so that Sound’s virtues can only assist in a better, more accurate,
additive, fuller perception of the Image!
My research project focuses on some of the ways cinematic sound with whatever
it potentially can contain [music, dialogue, voice-over narration, special effect sounds,
noises, scenic atmosphere, and all that arranged from now on with a 7.1 surround digital
cinema sound system!], sometimes claims co-equal role or even precedence over the
image, decisively illuminating ways to interpret the latter! Some of these creative ways
of sound at work, I intend to highlight in the innovative film Citizen Kane (1941), one of
the greatest films ever made,2 and a precursor in certain ways of modernism in Cinema!
Introduction
At the end of the first sequence (3:12) of Luis Bunuel’s film Tristana (1970), we hear and
see the person in charge of a school saying to Tristana: “Don Juan is a wonderful man”,
adding without the slightest hesitation: “There are few like him”, which is heard on the
next panoramic medium shot of Fernando Ray (in the role of Don Lope) who going down
the road in a hurry, stops suddenly and looks cunningly, twisting slyly his moustache,
at the sight of a beautiful, dapper young woman that appears in the next double shot of
the two of them.
Image 1.
Flirtatious Don Lope in Tristana
(1970).
Image 2.
The young beauty overtaking Don
Lope casually rejects his flirtatious
pass in Tristana (1970).
The young beauty overtaking Don Lope casually rejects his flirtatious pass in the vivid
and spicy flash crosstalk between them! By this skillful narrative technique of disjunction
between audio and video, Bunuel, creating here a clear antithesis between the two
senses, mocks the institutional discourse (the teacher’s in our case), and much more
the character of the old, deceptive, pseudo-libertarian upper-class Spaniard of the early
20th century (in the persona of Don Lope), that he personally despised. It reminds us also
that as in life, so in cinema we believe more what we see3 than what we hear! (Terzis,
2013, pp. 238–40).
All five senses function in the flow of time. But Sound by nature is restless, ephemeral
and intangible, and as a sensory phenomenon has a completely paradoxical relationship
to time: It exists when it disappears! When, for example, we pronounce the word
“disappearance”, the beginning of the word is lost when we articulate the end of it!
Also, when we pause viewing an audiovisual work the sound disappears giving its place
to silence, while the picture remains frozen at our disposal for simple viewing or for
contemplation! In the movie “there is no soundtrack”, as Michel Chion has impressively
formulated it (Chion, 2009, pp. 226).
In cinematic experience sounds and moving images are perceived always in a dynamic
relationship, as they diffuse mentally, affecting each other aesthetically in terms of the
overall feel of the form and thus the content and in a manner that exceeds the sum of
the components interacting amongst them. Thus, sound in films must never be analyzed
alone, an error which happens not rarely to those who specialize in the art and technique
of sound design.
World cinema has been fortunate enough to have creative directors in its arsenal
(auteurs), who often experimented in the margin of the film industry, activating the
unique expressive capabilities of sound,4 beyond its conventional main-stream use:
Eisenstein,5 Vertov,6 Hitchcock, Bunuel, Welles, Kurosawa, Kubrick, Antonioni, Bresson,
Tati, Godard, Resnais, Marker, Tarkovsky, Altman, Coppola, Lynch, are the first who
come to mind among others.
Image 3.
Orson Welles interviewed about his
radio play War of the Worlds (1938).
An early, unique example is Orson Welles, the enfant-terrible prodigy, who would
certainly have earned a notorious place in film history, had he only directed Citizen
Kane (1941). “Before Kane, nobody in Hollywood knew how to properly utilize music in
movies. Citizen Kane was the first great film that uses radio sound techniques”, wrote
filmmaker Francois Truffaut in his 1967 article: “Citizen Kane: The Fragile Giant”, bringing
to the foreground the invisible sonic virtues of that great creative film. But to better
understand the innovations in cinematic sound, brought about by that long-suffering and
highly acclaimed film (in differentiation to the prevailing conventions of the Hollywood
era), let us first look at the personal history of Welles, himself (1915-85). Starting his
professional career as a stage actor at the age of sixteen (1931), Welles assumes the
theatrical direction (1936-1938) demonstrating a special skill particularly with the
staging of Shakespeare’s classical plays. In 1938 he brings to the CBS radio station, the
Mercury Theatre Company, a group he founded along with John Houseman in 1937. It is
with them and hand in hand with Bernard Herrmann (composer and arranger at CBS),
that he experimented with the creative use of sound in radio drama plays.
Image 4.
Comic cartoon by Callan (reprinted
from Toronto Star).
An adaptation of the homonymous science-fiction book by H.G. Wells (1898) resulted

to the most famous radio production of Welles’ oeuvre, The War of the Worlds (October
30, 1938), where he used sound with great diversity and inventiveness, to create the
impression of a radio program that is interrupted several times by radio interferences
and urgent breaking news (presenting with a very realistic manner eyewitnesses,
astrophysicists from Princeton, bomber pilots and others, lending further plausibility)
announcing the fall of a meteorite at the outskirts of New York (New Jersey), along with
the terrifying invasion of a powerful army of Martians, spreading death with their radiant
weapons in their passage!
That notorious sixty-two-minute dramatic radio transmission that caused mass
hysteria to many listeners who took to the streets in panic, looking for refuge in
churches or hiding in basements, effected to Welles’ international recognition, and to
his consequent reputation of an enfant terrible. His fame soon brought him a “carte
blanche”7 in directing his first film, Citizen Kane, for the RKO film production company,
with an absolute freedom that only Chaplin had in Hollywood at that time. While in
production, Welles put to use the fruits of the three previous years of their team
sound experimentations on CBS, to such a degree, that we can righteously say that his
visualizations in this great film, impressively display and definitely bear the structure and
workings of his innovative radio techniques!
Summary of the ingenuous use of Sound in Citizen Kane

Here, I will categorize a variety of creative ways incorporated in the aesthetics of Citizen
Kane concerning Welles’ ingenious use of Sound, sometimes claiming co-equal role or
even precedence over the Image, decisively illuminating ways to interpret the latter. In
doing so, I will utilize Peircean semiotics, and in particular Pierce’s famous trichotomy,
emphasizing on indices.
1. Cinematic sound design with depth of field: In analogy with filming with extended depth
of field, Welles invented the cinematic sound design with depth of field, controlling the
intensity of the sound sources, so that the voices at the far end of the shot would
sound lower than those in the foreground. Exemplary is the scene in Colorado,
where we see Kane as a child for the first time (18:58). Thus, Welles enforced though
his innovative use of sound the illusion of a three-dimensional space to the two-
dimensional screen image of his innovative film.
2. Overlapping dialogue: The characters involved sometimes partly talk at the same time
overlapping one another, giving further naturalness and realism to the image of the
scenes.
3. For the sake of realism, the actors make mistakes while talking, as is the case in
life even for the most fluent speakers: in the documentary sequence a union leader
calls Kane, “Fatcist”, instead of “Fascist” (7:35), while somewhere else Leland says
“roumatism” instead of “rheumatism”.
4. J-Cut: Invention of a montage technique where sound precedes the image at the
transition scenes (a technique reintroduced more freely by Godard in the late ‘70’s in
Sauve qui peut (la vie), Every Man for Himself, 1979).
5. The expressive manipulation of the voices’ timbre: Suzan’s voice is warm and soft
when she first meets Kane, while it sounds like a screech when she later quarrels
with him or when she is singing high notes at the Opera! As we will see, her voice
acquires five tropes/sonic phases in the progression of the film.
6. Lightning-mix: the sound (montage) technique, wherein a phrase one character
starts at the end of a scene is completed by another or the same person at the
beginning of the next scene, which can be spaced some years away from the first
scene!8
7. In his radio dramas, Welles introduced an unusual sound technique which he later
transcribed into his films in the form of an initially unexplained sound that will be
explained later on by the filmic plot: in his radio drama Rebecca (December 9, 1938),
it is the sound of distant explosions, which the woman protagonist cannot explain
at first, but later on she discovers (as well as the audience) that it is the sound of
rocket flairs shot from a sinking ship. In Citizen Kane it is much more dramatic with
the prolonged scream of a woman (off-screen 1:43:33) when Kane slaps Suzan at
the party scene while the band plays “it can’t be love”!
8. The absence of sound as an expressive, dramatic sound technique: in the scene
where Kane literally stands up to Thatcher in his office at the Inquirer, his employees
in the adjacent room stop murmuring and listen silently and attentively to Kane
declaring what exactly he detests in Thatcher. Thatcher: “What would you have liked
to have been?” Kane: “Everything you hate…”. The atmosphere of this dramatic scene
loosens up with the final sardonic, comic comment of Kane: “If I keep losing a million
every year, I’ll have to shut this newspaper down in about…sixty years”.
9. Subtle touches of realism: the pseudo-documentary News on the March in Citizen
Kane pays homage to previous sound techniques that originated in his infamous
radio drama, War of the Worlds. Kane is presented through a fence in a jerky shot
as if it is taken by a non-professional camera, a technique analogous to the sound
technique where an eyewitness man with a portable tape recorder is striving to get
a clear recording of the sound of the Martian spaceship in the War of the Worlds.
When Kane gives an interview, the reporter prompts him to speak closer to the
microphone, which is another filmic touch succeeding in persuading us that what
we see are real people acting and not professional actors playing fictional roles!
Naturally, the workers’ union syndicalist who calls Kane “Fatsist” has carefully
rehearsed his misspoken word.
10. Sound techniques that don’t just aim at attaining greater realism, but in the creation
of a deeper more subtle meaning: (17:19) When the reporter goes to the Thatcher
Library to read through Thatcher’s autobiography in search of information on Kane,
the sound design produces a very distorted echo, which besides adding depth and
additional realism to the scene, as an index/connotation, it also reinforces as an
acoustic9 metaphor what is already implied on the screen: the Thatcher library is
actually a cold tomb, analogous to the cold and empty life led by Thatcher himself.
Similarly, the background joyful shouting of young Kane in the snow functions as
an index/contrasting connotation, an ironic comment to the bickering of his parents
inside their warm unhappy home. (19:11) The scene comes to a masterful ironic
climax when his parents are about to sign the papers, sending him away forever,
while little unsuspecting Kane shouts: the Union Forever! Long Live the Union!
(index/ironic connotation).
11. Finally, the inventive music of Bernard Herrmann who instead of following the clas-
sic Hollywood paradigm of a continuous uninterrupted presence, uses tiny passag-
es, usually five to twelve seconds long at most, to create a sonic bridge over scenes
that are apart in filmic time or bring about a different mood and climate: an exquisite
example is the use of the musical passages that bridge the six scenes of the famous
Breakfast sequence between Kane and Suzan!
Examples of creative and interactive use of sound with the image in Citizen Kane
The following twenty paradigms fall into the eleven categories of creative use of sound in
Citizen Kane, described previously:
1.
In the enigmatic, expressionist opening scene of Kane dying, the film-noir atmosphere
of the filmmaking gets a lift by the infernal music of Bernard Herrmann.10 Towards
the end of the scene we get an extreme close up of Kane’s slowly-moving lips; we
hear his last word: Rosebud, with a particularly strong reverberating resonance that
enhances the enigmatic use of the word (sonic index/connotation).
Image 5.
Kane whispering “Rosebud” be-
fore dying in the opening se-
quence of Citizen Kane (1941).
2. Lightning-mix: (23:18-24:47) Τhe closing shot of the Colorado scene, reveals the
snowy sled while we hear the train whistle (as a sonic index/connotation) signaling
Kane’s maiden voyage to Chicago, under Thatcher’s supervision. Then follows the
extreme close up to the wrapping paper that rapidly reveals Kane’s childhood sled, a
birthday present Thatcher gives to Kane in his boyhood, while we hear the prolonged
sound of the bells of a sledge running (sonic indexical metaphor) as the two of them
exchange greetings with a strict tone (23:18): “Merry Christmas”, “and a Happy New
Year”, Thatcher wishes in the next scene while dictating with a patronizing voice an
angry in tone letter to Kane, on the occasion of his upcoming twenty fifth birthday.
There follows a light-motif of rapid comic scenes vividly embellished by Bernard
Herrmann’s music, where a furious Thatcher is reading the headlines of the Inquirer
in shots completely different in location, with the last one revealing Kane, mature
now, in his office at the Inquirer, in the first decisive scene where the two men come
to an intense clash.
3. (12:31) Remarkable is the projection room scene (following the documentary on
Kane’s life), where all characters involved (journalists) are shown in silhouettes.
Αs they look pale and faceless, almost like ghosts, our attention is focused on the
sound of Rolston’s voice (the editor in chief who inspires prestige), commenting that
the documentary lacks perspective and a personal angle, since it presents the life of
the deceased tycoon Kane, without revealing who he really was! The dimly lit scene
and the roles of Rolston and Thompson (the reporter) clarify that in this archetypical
film-noir we are not offered just a prolonged exercise displaying Gothic atmosphere
and the aesthetics of expressionism, but a proof of this film’s absolute dependence
on its soundtrack, as if is a visualized radio drama!
Image 6.
The journalists in the projec-
tion room scene in Citizen Kane
(1941).
4. (34:00) During the first meeting between Kane and Carter, editor in chief of the
Inquirer (Kane’s first newspaper), we observe the use of overlapping dialogue. Let
us also be aware of the multiple recurring comical use of addressing “Mr. Carter”
repeatedly, highlighted by the following aesthetic sonic choice: the dumbfounded
Carter and the amused Kane converse as if reciting rhythmically, overlapping each
others’ voice, while Leland, Bernstein and a porter, all come and go in and out of the
frame, apologizing in chorus. This technique allows speech to degrade or intensify
any acoustic quality (tone, timbre etc.) of the written word in any script!
5. Let us notice the prolonged reverberating voice of the youngster who hawks the
Inquirer at dawn on the building sidewalk (while the indignant Mr. Carter leaves)
before it fades out. It functions as an audio signal, of a flash-back shot passing to
the window, where Kane completes the infamous “Declaration of Principles” before
dawn (38:00). This sonic technique here works as a connotative statement of change
in narrative time and atmosphere! It bridges the ellipsis between Kane’s coming for
the first time to the newspaper and the completion of that particular day, before
dawn.
6. K
ane reads his “Declaration of Principles”, which he is reserving for the front
page of the Inquirer. Seeing his face in shadow we sense that he means what he
says whenever he speaks quietly, and that he lies when he is screaming at other
subsequent scenes, when for example he is giving his electoral public speeches!
7. (40:30) With a visual dissolve between two almost identical pictures of the reporters
of the Chronicle newspaper, and an audio verbal pun (“twenty years, well…”, “six
years ago…”) Welles covers in an elegant way the passage from one narrative time
period to another.
8. At the party given for the Inquirer staff, we observe the random and stylish visual
break of the axis (between Kane and Bernstein). Furthermore, each voice has its
own sonic quality in order to sound clearly in the final mixed soundtrack. For the
sake of realism, the volume of Kane’s voice goes up when he is approaching the
camera, while the quality of his voice (Leland’s & Bernstein’s, too) sounds more
mature as an indication of time past.
Image 7.
Kane celebrating at the par-
ty given for the Inquirer staff in
Citizen Kane (1941).
9. (51:55) The famous condensed sequence between Kane and Emily composed by the
six breakfast scenes, eloquently illustrates the dissolution of their relationship, as
their lively romantic enthusiastic craving overlapping dialogues give way to hostile
rare speech exchanges and finally to silence and distanced glances with words
unspoken, when both are hidden behind the newspapers they read!
10. (1:00:36) Matching sound techniques: Suzan (Kane’s second wife) playing the piano,
finishes singing a song, while Kane’s applause next, carries us (sound bridge) to the
public welcome applause to Leland’s speech (in support of Kane’s election), and then
to the roaring voice of Kane at his grand campaign speech (following rhythmically
the calmer, more sober voice of Leland). We can observe the relationship between
the size of the background image and the magnified auditorium quality of Kane’s
voice that boosts his bigger than life personality! Everything has been exaggerated:
scale and perspective are distorted!
Image 8.
Kane at his grand campaign
speech in Citizen Kane (1941).
11. Susan’s voice is the primary element that first attracts Kane! (55:28) Both her
laughter and her singing that sounds much fuller when she first sings to him in her
room, than when she later sounds weak (she almost screams), ingloriously singing
at the Opera house! Kane likes her natural beauty and the cheap wine she offers him
(a taste of the working class, he promised to vindicate). Kane as a collector and a
modern Pygmalion will restrain her in the golden, vast bare cage of Xanadu.11
12. (1:26:42) At the rehearsal scene, three sound sources are struggling to control the
timbre and tone of Suzan’s voice: herself, the piano and her singing tutor. Kane enters
the room and as an absolute Master provides the fourth decisive, ultimate source of
control! Her singing at the opening of the scene which is clearly rendered far from
adequate, with the coming of Kane is now exactly replayed, and this time it is viewed
as satisfying! All but Kane realize that Suzan simply cannot sing Opera, but their final
silence is paradoxically perceived by Kane as consenting to his view!
13. The chaos backstage at the Opera rehearsal is expressed with a comic cacophony of
sounds: the pandemonium of the instruments and the singing, the striving teacher
(the funniest figure in the movie), and finally Suzan’s panicky voice who desperately
tries to cope in high pitch. The opera begins and Suzan’s voice ascends the space of
the theater sounding weak. It reaches the ears of the stage hands suspended high up,
who look at each other meaningfully (1:17:28), one pinching his nose in dislike (visual
index/connotation commenting on her weak, unacceptable voice)! There, we have the
second phase of her voice’s timbre.12
Image 9.
The chaos backstage at the Op-
era rehearsal is expressed with
a comic cacophony of sounds in
Citizen Kane (1941).
14. The third phase of her voice happens later with her suicide attempt. Observe the
superb (metaphoric/connotative) sound matching of a light bulb switching off
(1:35:22) and Suzan’s singing voice at the Opera, cracking, fading (manual lowering
of the frequency of the playback speed). The scene ends with her heavy, slow breath
in bed after attempting suicide.
15. The fourth phase of Suzan’s vocal timbre, sounds squeaky and at times like a screech
when Kane restricts and isolates her in his unfinished golden cage/Castle, Xanadu.
(1:38:32-41:37) The reverberation added to the voices of Kane and Suzan, while it
signifies the vastness of the empty space as a sonic metaphor (index/connotation),
connotes simultaneously the lack of communication between them and the
emptiness of their personal world!
16. The fifth and final phase of her vocal timbre belongs to the present time of the
reporter’s search (the time reporter Thompson is exploring the meaning of Kane’s
near-death word “Rosebud”). While he interviews her at the decadent club where she
sings, Suzan drags her drunken voice in reminiscence.
17. The short public colorless languid applause of the audience at the closing of Suzan’s
premiere performance at the Opera is a sound that Kane cannot control or direct.
When Kane standing bursts out in a thunderous ovation in a sustained effort to fill
the silence (index/connotation of the audience’s rejection), however strong he may
be, alone, he cannot substitute the unforced applause! (1:32:22-32)
18. When Suzan leaves Kane, he explodes breaking everything inside her room,
producing a prolonged thunderous cacophony (1:48:54). At a certain moment, Kane
stops at the sight of a glass sphere (index/connotative metaphoric symbol of his
carefree childhood) and in absolute silence he pronounces quietly the enigmatic word
“Rosebud” (the film’s MacGuffin), creating a sonic counterpoint that gives a special
dramatic overtone to this enigmatic keyword, which is also the first word heard in the
film! Finally, the parrot’s screech in the foreground with Suzan swaggering proudly
while she exits the frame, left (in the shot that precedes Kane’s manic outburst),
is a remarkable (index/metaphorical connotation) audio cue for Kane’s following
emotional eruption!
Image 10.
The parrot’s screech as a re-
markable (index/metaphori-
cal connotation) audio cue for
Kane’s following emotional
eruption!
19. Concluding this list of some of the most characteristic creative sound techniques
in this remarkable movie, I would like to dwell on the sound transformations of the
characters’ voices as they change mood or age, yielding different characteristics of
their personality in the unfolding of this complicated prismatic narrative, moving
swiftly with flashbacks back and forth in time.
20. We have already discussed Suzan’s five sonic facets of her voice. Leland in turn
sounds pleasant, sensitive and thoughtful as a young soul mate of Kane, while as an
old man he sounds rough, harsh and cynical, when isolated in the nursing home he
is recounting his past adventures with Kane, whenever his is not interrupted by his
coughing or sounds absent-minded. Bernstein’s voice brings out his lively youthful
spirit and impulsive mood (idolizing Kane); instead as an old man he sounds worried
with a controlled measured tone when interviewed by the reporter. Finally, Kane’s
vocal performance is transformed in a considerably more complicated way: the first
acoustic impression we have of him is the word Rosebud coming out of his expiring
dying lungs. In the documentary he sounds as a decisive authoritarian old man in the
midst of the narrator’s bursts whose sonorous dry voice essentially satirizes these
stereotypical newsreel films! We finally hear him youthful and playful eloquently
when he masterly ridicules chief editor Carter in his first visit to the Inquirer. When
he expresses his youthful enthusiasm while reading his “Declaration of Principles”
at dawn in the Inquirer, he sounds truthful, loving, warm, low-voiced, inward, while
later splurging, exhibitionist and authoritarian at the election campaign, where he
lies (without initially realizing it?).
Conclusion
The ingenious Orson Welles as all true free spirits (take Godard for example, to praise
the unlimited subversive boldness of the innovative flamboyant filmmakers) was a
dashing man, and above all a many-sided experimenter Magician. Although film history
has underestimated the sound of Citizen Kane in the quest to amplify its overtly stylized
in depth of field visual compositions or its prismatic point of view plot, Welles’ singular
masterpiece, is not only a superb visual film but a sonic, acoustic, vocal text that precedes the
image, a perfect film for studying the invisible yet powerful, neglected world of film sound.
Endnotes
1. See: Stretching Sound to Help the Mind See a lecture by Walter Murch, who won an Oscar for the
sound design of Apocalypse Now (1979) and was awarded Oscars for editing and sound for The
English Patient (1996). http://filmsound.org/murch/stretching.htm
2. While there is no general agreement upon the greatest film of all times, Citizen Kane appears on top
of AFI’s Best Movies list, but it was displaced from that position by Vertigo (the American psycho-
logical thriller directed by Alfred Hitchcock) in the 2012 Sight & Sound decennial critics’ poll.
3. Disjunction in its most classic cinematic version is a creative modernist montage technique where
sound denies/ refutes the image in various ways, thus dissolving the sense of realism in a film.
4. To demonstrate that sound is more expressive, Louis-Albert Serrut establishes the five expres-
sive elements of filmmaking: music, noise, speech, writing and movement image (four of which are
based on sound) and applies them to a large selection of Godard’s corpus.
5. See: Belton, John. (Ed.) Film Sound: Theory and Practice. Columbia University. 1985 for an
interesting theoretical approach exploring the use of sound in film (unlike its conventional use in
the early Hollywood talkies) by Soviet directors and theoreticians: Eisenstein, Pudovkin, Alexandrov.
6. Entuziazm (1930): Vertov’s first sound film, an audio-visual “symphony of noises” which focuses
literally on the sonic glorification of labor and especially the blue-collar workers in mines and
factories of Donbass.
7. Although he was given complete freedom to direct anything he liked, his first proposal to adapt for
the big screen Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness and a low-budget thriller, The Smiler with a Knife
was passed over by RKO. RKO studio boss George Schaefer had inserted a term into his contract,
which stated that though he had free rein on subject matter, his first film could not be “political or
controversial”.
8. Lightning-mix: a sound technique adopted worldwide and several decades later by some of the
most imaginative Greek TV comedy serials, such as Ten small Mitsi, Two Strangers.
9. Acousmatic (or acoustic) is a word of Greek origin, discovered by Jerome Peignot and theorized by
Pierre Schaeffer, which describes “sounds one hears without seeing their originating cause”.
10. S
trange combinations of instruments were used to achieve essential tonal colors. Low pitched in-
struments produced the anticipation of death in the opening scene of this dark and dramatic film
(Timm, 144).
11. Xanadu: it stems from the Coleridge poem about Kubla Khan and is mentioned in the documentary
sequence referring to the name of Kane’s estate: “In Xanadu did Kubla Khan / A stately pleasure
dome decree: … / So twice five miles of fertile ground / With walls and towers were girdled round”.
12. In order to emphasize Susan Alexander’s inadequacy to sing opera, Herrmann composed Aria from
Salammbô, a quasi-romantic scene for the operatic sequence in the film. The soprano part was
pitched too high and the orchestral accompaniment was heavily orchestrated in order to obscure
her voice and portray her as a feeble singer straining her voice to be heard (Timm, 144). Herrmann’s
music adds emotionality and drama to the mise-en-scène and to the action taking place on screen
with a score that succeeds to evoke specific feelings from the viewer.
References
Altman, R. (1994). Deep-Focus Sound: Citizen Kane and the Radio Aesthetic. Quarterly Review of Film
and Video, 15, 1–33.
Altman, R. (1992). Sound Theory, Sound Practice. New York: Routledge.
Altman, R. (Ed.). (1980). Yale French Studies no 60. Cinema/sound special issue.
Belton, J. (Ed.). (1985). Film Sound: Theory and Practice. Columbia University Press.
Bresson, R. (1997). Notes on Cinematography (Translated by Jonathan Griffin). New York: Urizen
Books.
Brophy, P. (Ed.). (1999). Cinesonic: The World of Sound in Film. Sidney: AFTRS Publications.
Branigan, E. (2010). Soundtrack in Mind. Projections: The Journal for Movies & Mind, 4(1), 41-67.
Cameron, E. W. (Ed.). (1980). Sound and the cinema: the coming of sound to American film. Pleasant-
ville, N.Y: Redgrave Publication Company.
Chion, M. (2009). Audio-Vision: Sound on Screen. Claudia Gorbman, ed. and trans. New York: Colum-
bia University Press.
Chion, M. (1998). The Voice in Cinema. New York: Columbia University Press.
Kozloff, S. (2000). Overhearing Film Dialogue. University California Press.
Murch, W. (2000). Stretching Sound to Help the Mind See. Retrived from http://filmsound.org/murch/
stretching.htm
Serrut, L.-A. (2011). Jean-Luc Godard: Cinéaste acoustician. Paris: L'Harmattan.
Terzis, N. (2013). Nouvelle Vague. Cinema plays with Itself. Narrative Form and Structure in Cine-
ma [Nouvelle Vague. Το Σινεμά παίζει με τον εαυτό του. Αφηγηματική Δομή και Φόρμα στον
κινηματογράφο]. Athens: Editions ION.
Timm, L. M. (2014). The Soul of Cinema: An Appreciation of Film Music. 3rd edition. New Jersey: Pren-
tice Hall.
Truffaut, Francois. (1994). Citizen Kane: The Fragile Giant, in The Films in My Life. Da Capo, New York,
p. 279.
Zaza, A. J. (1985). Audio Design: The Narrative Functions of Sound. Beverly Hills, California: Moss Pub-
lications.
Zettl, H. (1999). Sight Sound Motion. Applied Media Aesthetics. Belmont, California: Wadsworth.
SOCIAL SEΜIOTICS

SOCIAL SEΜIOTICS
Positioning acts
as semiotic practices
in TV debates
Nicolae-Sorin Drăgan
National University of Political Studies and Public Administration (NUPSPA)
dragan.nicolaesorin@gmail.com
Abstract
The paper examines the way in which social actors exploits different semiotic resourc-
es to position themselves discursively during final debates for presidential elections,
from the perspective of positioning theory (Davies & Harré, 1990; Harré & Moghaddam,
2010). Positioning theory activates a tridimensional semiotic model, which includes
positioning acts – semiotic configurations with a certain stability in the communica-
tional practices of the community –, storylines and the implicit illocutionary force of any
discursive exchange. In this article, the role can be regarded as the continuous aspect
of the discursive performance of a social actor, and positioning is the discreet aspect of
the discursive exchange. The paper allow understanding of dialogue in televised deba-
tes as a form of “living” communication, as opening towards the other (Ponzio, 2006;
Pleșu, 2010), and can be considered a plea for the reconfiguration the culture of dialo-
gue in the Romanian public space.
Keywords
Positioning theory , role , political semiotics , TV debates
Introduction. Discursive Positioning
We are all caught in the “semiotic web” (Rovenţa-Frumuşani, 2012, p. 32) of other
people’s discourses, “in a world of others’ words” (Bakhtin, 1984, p. 143). How can
one find one’s natural, logical way in such a world? The solution of the dialogue as a
meeting point of identities, as a primordial social practice (Lotman, 2005, pp. 218-219),
comes naturally. Having a dialogue entails a natural positioning in the intertextuality of
the discourse, understood as “semiotic web” of other discourses (Foucault, 1971/1998,
p. 13). This is exactly what Socrates seems to have done when he was looking for the
right place to have a dialogue with Phaedrus by the banks of the Ilissus, both of them
barefoot. Phaedrus seems to have found the “magic cure” that made Socrates leave
the city and “positions” himself naturally in what his interlocutor had to say (Phaidros,
230b-230e).
During this “meaning production process” (Kristeva, 1984), any social actor “build/
takes a position (identity) in relation to their interlocutors” (Beciu, 2009, p. 35). Socrates
chooses to sit (position himself), usually, inside the interlocutor’s discourse. Any
discourse signals a position towards the content of communication (what it enunciates),
as well as a (relative) position towards the participants to the discursive act. Therefore, in
communication acts, social actors communicate not just content, but also the way they
relate to that content (positioning).
Thus, positioning becomes individual practices in the discursive behaviour, which can
configure a certain communication style. For instance, while for Socrates it is important
for the “mind of the speaker know the truth of the matter about which he is going to
speak” (Phaidros, 259e), for Phaedrus “he who would be an orator has nothing to do
with true justice, but only with that which is likely to be approved by the many who
sit in judgment” (Phaidros, 260a). For Phaedrus discourse is a performance before
the audience (dramaturgical positioning), while for Socrates what is important is to be
authentic, i.e. to be naturally present within one’s own discourse (natural positioning).
Political actors often forget the fact that the audience has this sense of the natural, of the
authentic dialogue, which they seek to find in any discourse.
We will analyse the way in which social actors are placed and they act discursively
(strategic positioning) in one of the most important forms of political communication,
final debates for presidential elections.
Position, Places report, Role

The replies of political actors are not mere verbal statements, but significance
connections that are not visible at a surface of the text. In an effort to define and build
identity, any subject can take contradictory, inconsistent discursive positions (Belsey,
2002, p. 51). Michael Holquist (2002), commenting Bakhtin’s Dialogism, introduces the
concept of “law of placement” in order to explain this phenomenon, which becomes rel-
evant for understanding the identity-alterity relationship, I-Other:
“Bakhtin explicates this law with a just-so story that uses seeing as a
means for grasping what is essentially a non-visual situation. He begins
with a simple datum from experience; not an observer looking at trains,
but an observer looking at another observer. You can see things behind
my back that I cannot see, and I can see things behind your back that are
denied to your vision. We are both doing essentially the same thing, but
from different places: although we are in the same event, that event is dif-
ferent for each of us. Our places are different not only because our bodies
occupy different positions in exterior, physical space, but also because we
regard the world and each other from different centers in cognitive time/
space” (p. 20).
According to Holt (2003) “each person is in a unique place for seeing the world as the
fundamental condition for understanding” (p. 226). Basically, any individual is located in-
side a system of positions that engage his identity and claim a correlative position (place)
from the interlocutor. According to positioning theory (Davies and Harré, 1990; Harré and
Gillett, 1994; Harré and Moghaddam, 2008, 2010; Harré and Langenhove, 1998), identi-
ty and self are discursive constructions. Positioning can be reproduced in social practic-
es, bargained in various moments, discursive or ideological rules can be attached there-
to, which make them socially recognisable:
“What I have been suggesting above can be summed up by saying that in-
stitutions construct their ideological and discoursal subjects; they con-
struct them in the sense that they impose ideological and discoursal con-
straints upon them as a condition for qualifying them to act as subjects.
For instance, to become a teacher, one must master the discursive and
ideological norms which the school attaches to that subject position – one
must learn to talk like a teacher and “see things” (i.e. things such as learn-
ing and teaching) like a teacher” (Fairclough, 1995, p. 39).
We will detail this aspect in the next chapter.

From the dramaturgical perspective of communication, in discursive interactions any
social actor performs a role. For Erving Goffman (1981), the role “is no longer correlative
to the status” – as it was for Ralph Linton (1936) –, but rather “a typical response of the
individual in a particular situation” (Drăgan, 2007, p. 183).
Initially, the concept of positioning has been introduced to replace the concept of role,
considered static and less flexible in understanding the discursive behaviour of social ac-
tors (Harré and Gillet, 1994, pp. 33-36; Harré and van Langenhove, 1998, pp. 14-17). Sub-
sequently, authors stated that positioning theory must be understood in complementar-
ity with the theory of role (Harré, Moghaddam & Lee, 2008, p. 9). Additionally, in certain
situations, positioning acts can be “the birthplace of roles” (Harré, Moghaddam & Lee,
2008, p. 9).
Therefore, the role can be regarded as the continuous aspect of the discursive perfor-
mance of a social actor, and positioning is the discreet aspect of the discursive exchange.
The balance between the continuous and the discreet aspect of communication is main-
tained by the very conflictual relationship between “seeing” and “understanding” (Marcus,
2011, p. 183). We see the role more easily, we perceive its moments of discontinuity, of
inadequacy, but we understand better the conjunctural discursive position.
In 1981, Goffman introduces another concept, footing, whose significance is associ-
ated to that of position and positioning (Harré, Moghaddam & Lee, 2008, p. 9; Marinova,
2004, pp. 211-214):
“Participant’s alignment, or set, or stance, or posture, or projected self is

somehow at issue. […] A change in our footing is another way of talking
about a change in our frame for events” (Goffman, 1981, p. 128).
Footing acts, or interlocutors’ roles (Beciu, 2009, p. 43) are just an aspect of positioning.
In Goffman’s dramaturgical model, social actors are discursive characters, who perform
roles through footing mechanisms.
François Flahault introduces another concept in 1978, places report or system of plac-
es (rapport de places in French), which is close to the positioning concept significance-
wise.
“Le sujet se réalise en tant que reconnu à une place, qui ellemême se dé-
finit dans un système de places. ‘Se réalise’ et non ‘s’exprime’ puisque
est en cause l’existence même du sujet et non pas la simple question
de savoir comment il parle de lui. ‘Place’ et non ‘rôle’, car c’est l’identité
même du sujet que sa position dans un système de places soutient […]
L’essentiel est qu’étant donné la place d’où je parle, j’assigne une place
complémentaire à l’autre et lui demande, en s’y tenant, de reconnaître que
je suis bien celui qui parle de ma place” (Flahault, 1978, p. 70).
For Flahault, establishing the relationships between places in a real discursive ex-
change occurs from a predetermined system of places, from an experiential matrix of
places. The speaking subject is inevitably caught within a (discursive) system of plac-
es. This system is recognisable in communication practice. Individuals are capable of
recognising them, they have a certain discursive competence. It is on this relationship
between places that the identity of speaking subjects is built. The illocutionary value of
statements is the one that determines a certain configuration of the relationships be-
tween places in a discursive exchange. Words operate in a relational logic of the type
“qui je suis pour toi, qui tu es pour moi” (“who I am for you, who you are for me”). (Fla-
hault, 1978, p. 50).
Positioning Theory
The theory of positioning can be described using a triangular model. The positioning
triangle captures the relational aspects and the significance conditions of any dialogue
interaction. The three (de)construction conditions of the significance of the discursive
exchange determine each other; there is a dynamic relationship between them.
The first aspect refers to positions and positioning. The way that various categories of
people engage in the discursive exchanges (positioning acts), the rights and obligations
they assume in their communication acts are “positions” (Harré and Gillet, 1994, p. 34).
They are predefined, by default. The rights, responsibilities and obligations associated
to positions are set in the socio-discursive imagination of the community (within the
meaning of Patrick Charaudeau), and they follow a certain moral order established within
the society at a certain point: “Positioning Theory is the tool for exploring the relation
between what is possible and what is permitted” (Harré, Moghaddam and Lee, 2008, p.
13). However, the positions are not socially regulated, they are not institutionalised. They
are merely socially recognisable. Therefore, positioning is a semiotic configuration with
a certain stability in the communicational practices of the society.
The second aspect is about the way this positioning is activated. We introduce
ourselves to the others, we build our discursive Ego with individual narratives (storylines)
that we employ in verbal interactions.
“positioning can be understood as the discursive construction of person-

al stories that make a person’s actions intelligible and relatively deter-
minate as social acts and within which the members of the conversation
have specific locations” (Harré and Langenhove, 1991, p. 395).
It is with these stories that we make our entrance in the context, we present ourselves
to the others. The last aspect activates the concepts of “illocutionary force” and “speech
acts”. These are taken from the speech act theory (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1965), in
order to describe the social significance of a discourse, gesture or social action (Harré,
Moghaddam and Lee, 2008, p. 10). Any conversational exchange has an illocutionary
value by default, a certain social strength. Therefore, positioning acts have the capacity
to create social significance (Harré and Moghaddam, 2010, p. 71).
Positioning theory allows for the sensible space between observation and action to
be used in an adequate, intelligent way. The authors of this theory provide a method of
analysing processes that occur between socially predefined convictions and practices
and the individual way of acting in a particular situation. Basically, positioning theory
Figure 1. The Positioning ‘Triangle’ (Harré, Langenhove, 1999, p. 18; Harré, et. al., 2008, p. 12; Harré & Moghad-
dam, 2010, p. 50)
describes the functional aspects of any discursive interaction.
Research Methodology
But how does this mechanism work? Positioning entails a two-step procedure. The first
is prepositioning, an act that occurs by default when the interlocutors’ attributes are
known (or presumed). It is the moment when you guess “who you are talking to”. We
can speak of reflexive prepositioning (biographic elements, personal narratives, etc.) and
prepositioning actions of the other (statements about the interlocutor’s character, etc.).
The next step is positioning itself and performing the assumed role.
When analysing the positioning, we are looking for answers to some research
questions. Which are the narratives that each social actor brings into the context to
legitimise himself? Which is the social significance of speech acts (illocutionary force),
following the performance of individual narratives? Which rights and obligations have
appeared in the discourse and how were they assigned, refused, accepted or contested
by the speakers?
The research methodology entails a few steps:
1. Identifying prepositioning moves (reflexive prepositioning and the prepositioning
of the Other);
2. Identifying and analysing individual narratives (e.g. the Common person – “I am
one of you”; the Saviour, the Hero – “I have the solution, I am your saviour, follow
me!”; the Robin Hood syndrome – “Moral justifications for certain political acts”,
etc.);
3. Confronting positional moves with the ideological profile of the social actors.
By analysing the positioning, we can capture the dynamic relationship between the three
dimensions of the positioning of social actors during a discursive exchange (individual
narratives, social significance and position). The proper positioning, along with an
authentic performance (credible individual narratives) make the social significance of
the candidates’ discursive behaviour acquire consistency before the audience.
An interdisciplinary approach, which also includes multimodal analysis tool
(O’Halloran, 2011), allowed us to capture the dynamics of discursive exchange. In a re-
cent study (Drăgan, 2016), we have conducted such research. We are briefly presenting
the results of the research.
Results and Discussion

In the study, we took into consideration a 30-second sequence from the end of the last
debate ahead of the presidential election in Romania, of 12 November 2014, on B1 TV
channel. The protagonists were Victor Ponta, incumbent prime minister at the time and
PSD (The Social Democratic Party) president, and Klaus Iohannis, former mayor of Sibiu,
PNL (The National Liberal Party) president.
The sequence from this debate was not chosen randomly. During the final televised
debates for presidential elections in Romania in recent years, such “nodal” episodes
(sequences) that decided the winner’s fate have been frequent. We proceeded on the
assumption that such episodes concentrate the candidates’ discursive strategies, and
the manner in which protagonists manage these moments can be decisive in directing
the viewers’ preferences. We briefly analysed the prepositioning moves, the positioning
and the individual narratives that social actors assume during said sequence of the
discursive exchange.
From the analysis of the speech acts of candidate Victor Ponta, combined with the
significance of gestures provided by the multimodal analysis (for instance, the piece
of paper he shows to his interlocutor), we notice that in the first discursive sequence
(see Figure 2, Frame 1) he takes on the position of expert, with the related rights and
obligations (competent, responsible, knowledgeable, capable of coherent action) versus
a pre-positioning of the other, of the competitor Iohannis, as a dilettante, pupil or trainee
(not knowledgeable).
Selected Proceedings from the 11th International Conference of the Hellenic Semiotics Society
Figure 2. Multimodal Analysis (O’Halloran, 2011) for Media Sequence: Final statements, B1TV station, 12 Nov. 2014
215
In the following frames (from Frame 2 to Frame 5), Victor Ponta takes on the position
of Hero speaking on behalf of the “fooled” people. The Hero identifies the public enemy,
Traian Băsescu, former Romanian president, in the person of his interlocutor Klaus
Iohannis. This association of images was basically the main strategy that the candidate
of the governing party has chosen throughout the election campaign. In frame 6, Victor
Ponta makes a new positioning move and takes on the position of Hero-Saviour, who
promises a New World. He proposes a new representation to the audience. He wants
to live in a Romania without Traian Băsescu and without the other candidate, Klaus
Iohannis. What illocutionary force can such a promising act have in relation to the
illocutionary force of the speech acts subsequently employed by Iohannis?
In this study we only present frames 1-6 from the analysed sequence (see Figure 2).
The semiotic resources employed by Klaus Iohannis, the opposition candidate, were de-
tailed in a previous study (Drăgan, 2016).
As regards the second dimension of the research methodology, both political actors
build themselves discursively through narrative sequences specific to the position assu-
med in each of the considered moments. For instance, in the case of Klaus Iohannis, we
notice a narrative construction from the position of victim. He takes over the narrative
thread proposed by his opponent (Victor Ponta) and resemanticises it with a simple rea-
soning, using concrete facts. Therefore, he proposes the audience a speech act with a con-
sistent illocutionary force. Besides, the opposition candidate leaves the audience the fre-
edom to interpret the narrative: “The conclusion, dear Romanians, is yours to draw”. (Re)
telling from the perspective of the victim, but using the arguments of reality, is much mo-
re convincing than proposing the audience a story which has nothing to do with reality.
Conclusion
As mentioned earlier, the analysis of the positioning captures the dynamic relationship
between individual narratives, the social significance and position of the political actors
in a discursive exchange. Complementarily, the multimodal analysis, presented for
illustration purposes in this article, has allowed us to notice how social actors make
use of various semiotic resources to assign themselves certain positions during the
verbal interaction, which the correlative positions are, as well as the manner in which
the two candidates build their discursive Ego. In short, we deconstruct the discursive
behaviour of the social actors in key moments of the televised debate. From the
multimodal perspective, the analysis of such moments allowed us to capture on the one
hand, the dynamics of the discursive exchange, and on the other hand to observe how
political actors manage different semiotic resources in an effort to persuade the public.
Practically, the multimodal aspect of such semiotic strategies highlights how political
actors appeal to different senses of the viewers to influence the decision of a candidate’s
preferability.
During the two televised debates the candidate of the incumbent party most wanted
to seem he was a certain way, often omitting the aspect of authentic involvement in
the dialogue. The candidate of the opposition’s party looked as he was, relying on
emphasising touchy, conjunctural topics, to the detriment of others. The journalist
Cristian Tudor Popescu (2014) captured this aspect in an article published in the daily
newspaper Gândul (The Thought), on the day of the second televised debate:
“The presence of Mr. Iohannis in the show last night on RealitateaTV is

contradicted blatantly by his own image, the one he struggles to deliv-
er to voters for months: the settled, calm, serious “German”, the man of
“things well done”. […] Victor Ponta wanted to pass for a professor asking
a student loads of questions. He threw a wave of numbers and statements
over Iohannis, in some cases adding and bluffing, as the verifications of
the newspaper Gândul show. And the mimic of his face, his gestures, his
fussing, his chattering, his eye movements made him look like a fretting
apprentice. Mr. Iohannis looked like a professor, even like a master: he
spoke much less, with long breaks between the words uttered hard, ma-
gister dixit, showing an impenetrable face and a fixed gaze. On the con-
trary, the content of his utterings was that of a scoundrel student, who
is trying to get away with cheap verbal tricks. In short, Ponta was the
way we knew him, bold, superficial, cunning, boarish, Iohannis was un-
like what we knew of him – improvised, inconsistent, bombastic, the man
of things done in a rush. Victor Ponta did not manage to save his appear-
ance, Klaus Iohannis revealed, for the first time, his essence” (November
12, 2014).
As I mentioned earlier, the way in which social actors manage the “nodal” episodes of
the debate, the emotional dimension that prevails over the rational decision for this
moments, can focus the undecided or easily influenced audience’s preferences (Corbu
& Bot,an, 2011). As we have already noticed, an interdisciplinary approach – analysing
the positioning complementarily with the tool of the multimodal analysis – allows us
to capture on the one hand the dynamics of the discursive exchange in the episode we
considered, and on the other hand to disambiguate the positioning (and the interpretation
thereof) of the political actors involved in the debate.
The paper allows understanding of dialogue in televised debates as a form of “living”
communication, as opening towards the other (Ponzio, 2006; Pleșu, 2010), and can be
considered a plea for the reconfiguration the culture of dialogue in the Romanian public
space.
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The function of images
in argumentation against racism
SOCIAL SEΜIOTICS
in videos designed
by university students:
modality configurations’ effects
Katerina Fragkiadoulaki University of the Aegean fragkiadoulaki@aegean.gr

Angelique Dimitracopoulou University of the Aegean adimitr@aegean.gr
Maria Papadopoulou University of Thessaly mariapap@uth.gr
Abstract
The paper discusses university students’ multimodal digital compositions concerning
racism in the specific sociopolitical context marked by the expansion of racist violence
following the rise of far-right political parties and the financial crisis in Greece. Draw-
ing on the fields of Multimodal Social Semiotics, Argumentation and Rhetoric, this pa-
per discusses the property of high naturalistic modality of journalistic photos as a se-
miotic and rhetorical choice in the videos of two students. We focus on the way two
students orchestrated semiotic resources into argumentation as answers to the short
film Schwarzfahrer. Findings suggest that modality judgements inform the identifica-
tion and reconstruction of the argument.
Keywords
rhetorical argument , modality , video , design , journalistic photos
Introduction
The process of digitization has simplified the manipulation, appropriation, transformation
and re-circulation of existing media content (Jenkins, 2006), while economic and techno-
logical reasons have made the video recording, editing, and publishing tools accessible
to an expanded population (Willett, 2009). Recognizing the role of photographs, videos,
political cartoons and other visuals in real life arguing, a growing number of argumenta-
tion scholars are interested in the study of visual arguments (Groarke, 2017). In educa-
tional settings, The New London Group (1996) has signaled the need for an expanded ap-
proach to the concept of literacy due to changes in the social, cultural, economic, tech-
nological domains which have effects on the personal, professional and social life of citi-
zens. Nevertheless, whereas students are asked extensively to design various multimod-
al digital texts, little attention is paid to argumentation (Smith, Kiili, & Kauppinen, 2016).
This study’s interest springs from the observation that on several occasions since 2008 in
Greece, events have received wide media coverage, generating opinions and arguments
which were conveyed multimodally and were disseminated in social networking sites (Pa-
pailias, 2012). In this paper, we present the analysis of two digital multimodal argumen-
tative texts designed by university students. By investigating the role that specific types of
images play in argumentation, we aim to contribute to the understanding of argumenta-
tive practices which take place in digital communication landscapes in order to further in-
vestigate possibilities of application within the frame of formal education.
In the first part of this article, we present the theoretical framework for the analysis
of these videos drawing from Multimodal Social Semiotics as well as Argumentation and
Rhetoric. In the second part, we present the research methodology and questions. In the
third part, the argumentation analysis of two videos is presented followed by findings and
discussion.
Theoretical Framework
Multimodality, modes, modality

Multimodality approaches representation, communication, and interaction “as something
more than language” (Jewitt, 2013, p. 251). She further distinguishes three theoretical as-
sumptions underpinning multimodality: (a) language is only part of a multimodal ensem-
ble, (b) modes are socially shaped and each mode has different meaning potential or se-
miotic resources and realizes different communicative work and c) interaction between
modes is significant because people make meaning through the selection and configura-
tion of modes. Since the sign is motivated (in the context of the social semiotics approach),
“design” is brought into the center of semiotic and social attention (Kress, 2014). Multilit-
eracies pedagogy, influenced by social semiotics, views design as a dynamic conception
of representation consisting of three aspects: “Available Designs” (already existing repre-
sentational forms); the “Designing” one does by appropriating, revoicing and transform-
ing Available Designs, and “The Redesigned” (the way the world and the person are trans-
formed through the Designing) (Cope & Kalantzis, 2009). In current communicational land-
scapes, designer and rhetor are often the same person. The rhetor has the political task to
“provoke and produce the rearrangement of social relations by semiotic means” while the
designer has the semiotic task, to “transform political intent into semiotic form” (Kress,
2010, p. 121). Design “brings the interests of every member of a social group into the so-
cial-semiotic world”, through his/her own work as rhetor and designer (Kress, 2014).
In the social semiotic approach to multimodality, all semiotic modes serve the ide-
ational/representational, the interpersonal and the textual metafunction. According to
Kress and Van Leeuwen (2006), who adapted Halliday’s systemic functional grammar to
images, modality is an aspect of the interpersonal metafunction, it depends on the so-
cial group for which the representation is intended and plays a role in establishing and
maintaining social interaction. Modality judgments do not assess the truth of a “prop-
osition” but refer to the degree to which “people, places and things are represented as
though they are real”. In their system of visual modality, Kress and Van Leeuwen identi-
fy the modality markers and the coding orientations against which the modality values
of these markers are judged. They distinguish eight gradable markers: Colour satura-
tion (from full colour saturation to the absence of colour), Colour differentiation (from a
diversified range of colours to monochrome), Colour modulation (from fully modulated
colour to unmodulated colour), Contextualization (from absence of background to de-
tailed background), Representation (from abstraction to detail), Depth Representation
(from absence of depth to deep perspective), Illumination (from light and shade to full
absence), and Brightness (different degrees of brightness) and four coding orientations:
a) the scientific/technological, b) the abstract, c) the sensory and d) the naturalistic. Cer-
tain configurations of markers, in the context of certain genres, function as signs of the
reliability of images as representations of reality. Since genres are culturally distinctive
text types with shared social purposes and features, they can be associated with spe-
cific modality configurations (Ravelli & van Leeuwen, 2018, pp. 2-4). According to Trim-
bur and Press (2015, p. 26), the naturalistic coding orientation is “based on the common
sense understanding of the real, as it is evident in-mid-twentieth century photojournal-
ism, newsreels, and television reporting”. Moreover, they observe that modality refers to
rhetorical positioning because speakers, writers, “rhetors” make a selection of rhetori-
cal cues which manage certainty and authority ascribed to statements in order to posi-
tion the audience to accept the truth or the importance of what it is being said.
Visual Argumentation
Although there is no unanimity on whether visuals alone can constitute arguments,
there seems to be an agreement on the role they play in argumentation (Kjeldsen, 2015).
The field of visual and multimodal argumentation refers to the study of “the place and
the function of the visual in argumentation” in line with definitions such as the one pro-
vided by Groarke (2009, p. 230): “Visual arguments forward premises and conclusions
which are, wholly or partially expressed by (nonverbal) visual means”. Kjeldsen (2015)
notes that a central issue in the study of visual and multimodal argumentation is the
significance of the “phenomenological and material difference between language and
image”. Regarding research concerning the identification and reconstruction of prem-
ises, there is an agreement on the difficulty of translating visuals into verbal preposi-
tions “in a single Toulmin-like or syllogistic model. Rather, pictures become woven in-
to complex argumentative discourses, and their places vary across different discursive
practices” (Gronbeck, 2007). Tseronis (2013, p. 1) observes that both the advocates and
the sceptics “tend to accept a formal understanding of argument and neglect the visual
form of images” but, when adopting a procedural view, “more functions of visuals can
be recognized in between the two extremes of a merely ornamental or illustrative role
and the evidentiary one”.
Rhetorical Argumentation
Rhetorical argumentation refers to ‘‘the relationship between arguments and audiences,
hence, deals with how people are induced to believe a statement’’ (Zarefsky, 2014, p. xvi).
The domain of rhetorical argumentation is centered “on the choice of action” in the civ-
ic sphere thus ‘‘centrally includes decisions about specific actions’’ (Kock, 2013, p. 65).
A rhetorical argument “never exists in and of itself; it is never presented in a vacuum”
(Kjeldsen, 2015, p. 200). As a result, we cannot understand or evaluate it, if we detach it
from its context. Context is thus, important in determining the meaning and rhetorical
function of images. “One of the ways pictures are able to produce argumentation is their
use of the viewer’s knowledge of the situation and context that will allow the viewer to
reconstruct the argument herself”. It is important that the viewer perceives the image as
a piece of argumentation and that it is provided with enough cues in order to construct
the argument (Kjeldsen, 2012, p. 242). This is done more easily by drawing on contextu-
al knowledge or ongoing debates.
This study aimed at analyzing the function of visuals in the argumentation against
racism in the videos created by two university students in connection with the short film
Schwarzfahrer and the broader sociopolitical context in Greece. The argumentative anal-
ysis did not intend to identify whether visual resources play the role of the claim or the
ground, but how specific semiotic and rhetorical choices related to modality contribute
to the argumentation. The research questions were stated as follows:
(RQ1) Which types of images are used?
(RQ2) Which are the functions of images in the argumentation process?
Instructional context of the pilot study
The videos presented in this paper were designed in the context of a pilot research study
on Social and Political Messages on YouTube conducted at the University of the Aegean,
Department of Preschool Education and Educational Design during the spring semester
of 2013. The aim of the course was the development of multimodal persuasive texts. The
educational intervention created for the purposes of the study aimed at the micro level of
the production of video. It included a) principles of semiotic theories, b) principles of film
theory, c) principles of argumentation and (d) technical training on the online video cre-
ation and editing platform WEVIDEO®.
The final assignment consisted of designing videos of 3 minutes maximum length
as answers to the short film “Schwarzfahrer”: an Oscar awarded black and white short
film about an incident of colour related racism on a tram in Germany. An elderly lady
verbally abuses an African American passenger. Others eavesdrop, without intervening.
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wiuv5hzj5i4). Students (a) selected the target audi-
ence from the persons appearing in the film (b) included an excerpt from the film (c) sub-
mitted a reflection paper commenting their design choices. They were also encouraged
to use audiovisual resources retrieved from the internet.
Participants and data

The 25 participants were all female students enrolled in a graduate’s level course about
Learning & I.C.T. Data consisted of (a) the 25 videos and (b) the 25 brief reflection pa-
pers submitted by the students. In this paper, we present the analysis of two videos of
the aforementioned data set drawing on conclusions from a preliminary analysis of the
total of the videos (Fragkiadoulaki, Dimitracopoulou & Papadopoulou, 2017) which will
be summarized here.
Relation to findings of a preliminary study

The first finding refers to the categories of representational meaning of the most fre-
quently still images used. Quantitative and qualitative analysis of the still images used
in the 23 videos pointed to 8 categories of representational meanings (cf. figure 1). Cat-
egories c.1.1. to c.1.4. correspond to the most frequently represented meanings while
c.1.5. to c.1.8. correspond to representational meanings used more than one time. The
second finding focuses on types of still images mostly used and modality characteris-
tics. Students used mostly graphic images, sketches or stylized photos expressing low
naturalistic modality and high sensory modality manifested by absence of background,
absence of depth, color saturation, color differentiation, color saturation to represent
“racial equality-contact” (c.1.1.), “biological characteristics of humans” (c.1.2.), “comple-
mentarity” (c.1.3), “happy youth of different races” (c.1.4.), “exclusion” (c.1.6.). Only “vio-
lence” (c.1.8.) was represented by means of naturalistic images and journalistic photos.
In this paper, we aimed at investigating further the function of the type of images which
was used to a lesser degree in the total of videos and the effect of their modality proper-
ties in the argumentation. The two videos selected belong to the 2nd category of design
and they also have the use of journalistic photos in common. (https://goo.gl/l3MmU3).
ands / different c.1.2. p arts / different

c.1.1. h c.1.3. f aces / different c.1.4. c hildren/youth /
races races / compar- races different races / in
“racial equality-contact” ison “complementarity” contact
“biological characteris- “happy youth of
tics of humans” different races”
c.1.5. stop racism c.1.6. different member c.1.7. Earth/ hands c.1.8. n
onwhite/victim
/ “exclusion” “collaboration” of “violence”
Figure 1. Categories of the representational meaning of images
Method
Multilevel multimodal transcripts were created for each video which permitted to visual-
ize (a) images (with their caption) and titles as distinct frames, (b) the analysis of aspects
of the representational, interpersonal and textual meanings of the visual and the writ-
ten language in each frame (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006), (c) reconstruction of the argu-
ment following Toulmin’s argumentation model (claim, grounds, warrant) (d) system of
visual modality (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006) (e) the information from the students’ re-
flection papers. Overall, these transcripts permitted the visualization of the relation be-
tween semiotic choices, rhetorical organization, arguments and reflective writing of the
students. In this paper, adapted transcripts were used (cf. figure 2, 3) to facilitate the un-
derstanding of the analysis. The number of frame (f.) is indicated as featuring in the fig-
ures. In this analysis, by “sequence of images” we refer to a continuous series of imag-
es which is not interrupted by written text. Written text may be included as caption to the
images but not as a separate frame. In the case of these videos, each image or text frame
represents a different frame.
Argumentation analysis
Video II.1. « UN-sleep »
The first video is in English (except for its title: “ΑΠΟ-κοίμηση”) and lasts 1:10 minute.
The video opens with a scene featuring a man having a nightmare. The next scene is
about a white elderly woman saying: “we wouldn’t have allowed them all in. If you let one
in, they will all come, the whole tribe of them. They breed like rabbits over here, all mixed
up together”. Then, there is a sequence of photos depicting violent assaults and victims
of physical violence. The man wakes up. Through written text, we are asked to react.
Student A addresses the “motorcyclist – passengers […] citizens who encounter ev-
eryday racism”. She describes her argument as follows: “If racist phenomena continue,
and we stay apathetic, as if we accept this situation, these phenomena will persist and
more and more people, with our consent, will become victims of racism.” We suggest
that the title of the video “Un-sleep”, the initial scene (f.1) and the text-frame (f.2) consti-
tute the elements that guide the understanding of what follows as “sleep” and “dream”.
We propose the following interpretation, in Toulmin’s terms:
Final claim: “Stop hatred… Act” (f.21-22) and graphic image (f.21) “Give hands”.
Ground 1: People do not react when some people suffer. The argument results from
the juxtaposition of the facial expression of the passengers (f.4-7) and those of the vic-
tims (f.11-18).
Ground 2: Reality is nightmarish for some people. The second argument is the result
of the interaction of the representational meanings of the initial scene and the images
(f.8-18) and the place they occupy as the illustration of the nightmare of the man. On
the basis of the high naturalistic modality of the journalistic photos, these photos can
be interpreted as evidence for “real” crimes recorded in police files, as “real” events re-
ported by journalists. This is also enabled through the paradox of dream (f.2)- reality
(f.8-18).
Ground 3: Not reacting is like sleeping. The argument is enabled through the meta-
phor of sleep/non-intervention. The metaphor of sleep has an argumentative function as
it guides the viewer to interpret the passive attitude of citizens as sleeping. The opposi-
tional relationship of the close-ups to the faces of the passengers and the victims invites
the audience to infer the non-appropriateness of this attitude in relation to the urgency
of the situation.
Ground 3: The incidents become more serious. We suggest that the repetition of the
representational meanings argues on the size of the phenomenon: three incidents of
physical assault (f.8-10) and six victims (f.11-18). The organization of the representation-
al meanings as a progression (climax): from faces (f.11-16) to the whole body of a victim
(f.17) and from a young man (f.11) to a child (f.18) argues on the seriousness and urgen-
cy of the situation.
Ground 4: Not reacting to racism means acceptance (f.20)
Warrant: “If you do not react, these phenomena will persist and more and more peo-
ple, with our consent, will become victims of racism”.
Figure 2. Argumentation in “UN-sleep”
Video II.2. What is that you don’t understand?
The second video lasts 2:54 minutes and is in Greek. It is organized in two parts. In the
first part, the designer explains how one action causes reaction while in the second she
treats the concepts of dignity, identity, and crime. We analyze the second part which con-
tains the sequence of images conveying the argumentation, and the conclusion part. It
begins with the excerpt where the elderly woman says: “it was predicted, it would be dif-
ficult for them to adopt our customs. Why do you all come here anyway? We’ve man-
aged by ourselves; we don’t need all these rabbits of the jungle. We should at least make
them change their names before they arrive here. How else are we supposed to tell them
apart? What’s more you smell awful. But of course, that’s not a crime”. Then, she ad-
dresses the question “but what the crime is?” Afterwards, there is a sequence of imag-
es depicting people of different races hanging out happily, immigrants in front of a boat,
war and victims, and finally, a hand full of blood followed by images of politicians and
the Stock Market. The student concludes with the message “We all fit in the earth”, “Be-
cause we are all humans”.
Student B has designed a video using as a title the colloquial phrase “Τι δεν καταλα-
βαίνεις;” (What is that you don’t understand?) used when something is considered as ex-
tremely obvious to somebody but paradoxically not for his/her interlocutor. She address-
es “the elderly lady”. She notes on her choice of images “I wanted each image to high-
light specific characteristics – such as war, poverty, the difficulties the immigrants face,
well known politicians – in order to sensitize the audience. […] The images refer to what
is happening around us, the wars, the political circumstances of the time […] I started
from the opposite position intentionally in order to end up with how – I believe – humans
should treat other humans […]. I used examples of possible reasons that make people
immigrate to other countries especially those that the lady refers to (Turkish, African…)”.
The student, as her title indicates, has adopted an explanatory approach and has de-
signed the second part of her video as an answer to the question of the lady “Why do you
all come here anyway?” (f.1) but also to the question “what the crime is?” (f.2). This is
done by a sequence of images divided by their captions into 3 groups: (a) “our color?” (b)
“our need to survive?” (c) “the political games that they play behind our backs?” We sug-
gest that the student has taken into consideration what is considered as “crime” by rac-
ists, therefore, she has placed, these two claims in the beginning of her argumentation
in order to counter them. The captions could then, correspond to the following claims,
while the visuals could provide the reasons to support them.
Claim 1: Different skin color is not a crime (f.3)
Claim 2: The need to survive is not a crime (f.6)
We notice that the first images following each claim (f.4 and f.6) depict a positive ideal
example (happy young people and white woman with a black child) while the next ones
represent of people in need, namely, immigrants (f.5) and victims (f.9). Realistic journal-
istic photos are used to represent the real situation next to the ideal conveyed by stylized
photos in order to control the answer to the question before presenting the third claim.
Her arguments may be reconstructed this way:
Ground 1a: People of different color can be happy together
Ground 1b: People of different color really need us (f.5)
Ground 2a: People can help kids from Africa
Ground 2b: Wars really kill people (f.7-9)
The third caption “the political games that they play behind our backs?” is interacting
with the visual meanings of the sequence of images representing the symbol of a mur-
derer (f.10), politicians (f.11-12) and the stock Market (f.13). Those graphic images, of
low naturalistic modality are in contrast with the high naturalistic journalistic photos.
While victims are represented as real people, those responsible for the crime are not
represented as human people but as juxtaposed profiles of politicians, as superman and
as numbers. This implies that those responsible for wars, deaths, and immigration dif-
fer from real “human people”, giving, thus, additional force to the final claim of her argu-
ment “because we are all humans”.
Claim 3: Politicians are criminals (through the political games that they play behind our
backs) (f.10-13)
Ground 3: Politicians are not like other humans
Claim 4: We all fit on earth (f.15)
Ground 4: We can be happy with people of different color (f.17-18)
Ground 4b: We are all equal (f.18-20)
Figure 3. Argumentation in “What is that you don’t understand?”
Findings and discussion
In relation to the findings of our preliminary analysis which focused on the materiality of
the videos, we proceeded to the analysis of the argumentation. Following a multimodal
social semiotics and rhetorical perspective, modality is analyzed in connection with the
various dimensions of meanings in order to provide information for the verbal recon-
struction of arguments. The extensive use of rhetorical figures was incorporated in the
analysis. These theoretical frameworks are shown to account for the semiotic and rhe-
torical work of “designers” as manifestations of their “interests” when associated with
information drawn from the students’ reflection papers.
RQ1: The types of images used

Both designers, argued against racism by representing concrete causes and conse-
quences of racism. Student A represented adverse consequences of racism using jour-
nalistic photos depicting victims criticizing the passive attitude of the society. Student B
exposed possible reasons of immigration and treated racism not as an issue between
racists and their victims but as a consequence of “the political games played behind our
backs” using journalistic photos and graphic images. Both videos had “contextual mean-
ing” which corresponds to the way the meanings fit into the larger world of meaning
(Cope and Kalantzis, 2009) through images related to the socio-political circumstances
in 2013: Christine Lagarde, Obama, war in Iraq, the Stock Market, the Egyptian fisher-
man victim of racist assault, immigrants on a boat.
RQ2: The functions of images in the argumentation.

In our analysis of “Un-sleep”, we suggest that describing images as “dramatic” -func-
tioning as an appeal to “pathos”- cannot account for the variety of their meanings and
their functions in the argumentation. The sequence of images depicting victims of racism
has the rhetorical function to argue on “the severity and urgency of the situation” (Kjeld-
sen, 2013, p. 442) through the interaction of textual, interpersonal and representation-
al meanings. In addition, the rhetorical figures of opposition, repetition, and metaphor
“were not merely ornamental” and functioned argumentatively “to impose or to suggest
a choice, to increase the impression of presence, or to bring about communion with the
audience” (Perelman & Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1971, pp. 169-172). In the second video the use
of different types of images (graphic, photojournalistic), different modality features (low
and high naturalistic modality) and different representational meanings looked incoher-
ent. However, considering these choices as part of the argumentation uncovered their ar-
gumentative use. Modality judgments were critical in highlighting distinctions between
ideal (people who are happy, who help) and real (immigrants, war victims) but also be-
tween real and abstract (politics) determining, thus, the inferences intended.
Discussion of the analysis approach
It is to be noticed that the above findings concern two videos and cannot be generalized.
They constitute the interpretation of the researchers after multiple viewings and after
transcribing the videos; procedure far more time consuming than simple viewing, and
they always risk being “post hoc rationalization[s] of design decisions” (Bateman, Delin,
& Henschel 2004, p. 67).
Regarding the task of reconstruction of arguments into verbal propositions, besides
the apparent difficulty to fully interpret the interwoven meanings of various modes, we
consider it as “an important heuristic step” (Roque, 2015, p. 184) in order to shed light on
the way visuals and other semiotic resources interact in argumentation. Although other
reconstructions may also be possible, in our suggestions we took into consideration in-
formation on the semiotic, rhetorical and argumentative intentions provided by the stu-
dents in their reflection papers. Besides, the adopted rhetorical approach imposed a con-
textualized interpretation of the text dependent on the short-film, and the sociopolitical
context marked by the financial crisis and the expansion of racist incidents. Kress and
Van Leeuwen’s (2006) framework of modality has been very useful in this task, although
it needs adaptation and expansion because of recent technological developments (Rav-
elli & van Leeuwen, 2018).
This study views videos as the outcome of “choices”. When considering semiotic, rhe-
torical and argumentative choices of two students in comparison to others’, then, these
choices reflect not only the way designers choose to best address their audience, but al-
so the way the specific “interests” of citizens are brought into the social-semiotic world,
“through their own work as rhetors and designers” (Kress, 2014). Speaking about rac-
ism by means of journalistic photos constitutes a political choice. Depictions of violence
are done by photos; depictions of idealized world are done by stylized images. Modali-
ty has a social but also ideological meaning corresponding to “whose interests are the
meanings skewed to serve” (Cope & Kalantzis, 2009, p. 11). The choice in “Unsleep” to
represent only the black race, or the Egyptian fisherman (which is the only photo relat-
ed to the Golden Dawn) could be described as having an ideological meaning. However,
the first use is also related to textual meaning assuring the thematic coherence while the
latter is only speculated. Although it may be intentional, there are chances that this im-
age appeared in the Google search engine because of its popularity by the time of the re-
search. More ethnographic methods are required in order to describe which choices are
fully controlled and, thus, political or, on the contrary, “haphazard or improvised” (Bazal-
gette & Buckingham, 2012, p. 6).
Concluding, there is an interest in approaching discourse as multimodal argumenta-
tion and using the relevant concepts and tools from Multimodal Social Semiotics, Argu-
mentation and Rhetoric. This analysis aimed at understanding the way university stu-
dents orchestrated not only various semiotic resources, but also circulating discourses
into argumentation against racism. The expansion of the social media and the role of vi-
suals in argumentation practices imply that “the semiotic work of all is not without in-
terest”, and that it should be attended “with equal seriousness” (Kress, 2014). Practical-
ly, this calls for more empirical research on the productions of “ordinary people” who ar-
gue on social and political issues and not only on texts produced by professionals such
as advertisements, public service announcements and so on. In addition, “if argumenta-
tion theory is unable to aid people in navigating those roads through the deliberate, stra-
tegic, and justifiable deployment of, and response to images, it will find itself increasingly
obsolete in the lives of a digitally connected public” (Groarke, Palczewski & Godden 2016,
p. 233).
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ing.
Taste in Greek advertising
SOCIAL SEΜIOTICS
after 1945: traditional

and contemporary modes
of distinction and intimacy
Vassilis Vamvakas Aristotle University of Thessaloniki vamvakasv@jour.auth.gr
Abstract
This essay examines the significance of taste in post-war Greece through the history
of advertisements in the Greek press. The research corpus consists of 850 ads, that
appeared since 1945, which concern food and drinks. Semiology and frame anal-
ysis are used in order to find out the products which in each period/decade repre-
sented the basic desirable social and cultural qualities of taste in Greece. Taste be-
came an important field of cultural distinction and intimacy in modern Greek society
and organized a contradictory, yet complementary, semiosphere between a) health
and satisfaction, b) motherly affection and children’s autonomous pleasure, c) fam-
ily bonding and individualistic lifestyles, d) globalized experience and Greek unique-
ness e) traditionalism/purism and technological modernization.
Keywords
taste , advertising , tradition , individualization
Introduction
This paper is the first part of a larger project which aims to inves-
tigate Greek print advertisements from the theoretical and meth-
odological perspective first explored by William Leiss, Stephen
Kline, Sut Jhally and Jacqueline Botterill in Social Communication
in Advertising (2005). Therefore, it marks the beginning of an am-
bitious attempt to study from a historical perspective, the modes
of consumption in Greece during the second half of the 20th cen-
tury, by using the tools of semiotics and frame analysis.
A historical and sociological approach to advertisement pur-
ports to analyze the basic correlations between humans, prod-
ucts, social environment and their changes throughout the years
(Ocepek, Royer & Aspray, 2013). This paper focuses on taste and
the way it is represented in food and beverage print advertise-
ments published in Greek newspapers and magazines during the
period 1945-2000. At this point, it should be acknowledged that
the collection of the quite sizeable research material would not
have been possible without the precious help of the graduate and
post graduate students of Journalism and Mass Media Depart-
ment of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. The corpus used
in the following analysis comprises a total of 850 print advertise-
ments.
A first notable research finding is that, during the first post war
decades, taste lacks a clear, specific description in the advertising
of taste products (or of products that in some way relate to taste).
There is an absence of adjectives (e.g. “delicious”, “sweet”, ‘bitter’
and their connotations) or of the direct benefit derived from using
the advertised foods and drinks (e.g. satisfaction of hunger or of
thirst). The word that appears most frequently from the 1940s up
to the 1980s to qualify the various advertised products is “fresh-
ness”, an attribute which, in most cases, was framed by health
issues. “Taste”, in itself, is rarely cited in slogans and advertis-
ing messages. This changes dramatically in the 1990s, where
the word “taste” constitutes the basic element of the advertis-
ing message, often correlated to the attributes of naturalness and
purity. During the long period of the absence of the sign of taste
and its connotations (Figure 1), food and drinks were related to
Figure 1. “When it is hot, very hot, frappe, refreshes you and quenches your
thirst” (NESCAFE, 1957), “Taste and proper food” (VITAM, 1995)
different qualities that could be attributed to other senses or practices which did not be-
long exclusively to taste vocabulary (Douglas 1972, p. 61). Advertisements were more
likely to suggest the products’ social functions and characteristics, rather than offer their
“tasteful” illustration (Saunders & Howell, 1999, pp. 8-29). This quite impressive finding
has led us to the hypothesis that taste in these advertisements, apart from its biological-
ly determined sense, had mainly a social and cultural value1.
Subsequently, we proceed to examine the prevailing social and cultural qualities that
have been connected to foods and drinks in the postwar period, noting, at the same time,
the way they were redefined through these years. These qualities are the following:
1) Health
2) Mother affection and children’s desires
3) Pleasure
4) Status-Luxury
5) Habits and globalized experiences
6) Greekness
7) Tradition
8) Technological Progress
Health
One of the most established and enduring notions in the advertising discourse regard-
ing “taste” is health (Dyer, 1986, pp. 27,
28). Especially dairy products, are con-
sistently and strongly related to con-
sumers’ bodily health (O’Shaughnessy,
2004, p. 34). During the 1940s this con-
nection was mostly achieved through
the ads’ written message and the of-
fer of scientific evidence or a specialist’s
endorsement (Figure 2).
During the 1950s, the ever increas-
ing visually eloquent advertisements,
suggested happiness as the natural
consequence of health assured by con-
suming the promoted products. What
was of special interest during that de-
Figure 2. “Pasteurized milk. Doctors of the world

suggest it because…” (EVGA, 1947)
cade was the fact that the health issue was not only associated with dairy products but,
rather unexpectedly, with products like chewing-gums or beer. For example, it is im-
pressive that FIX beer’s campaign during the 1950s was highly defensive, using huge,
bold slogans to highlight the health benefits derived from consuming the product and
not the enjoyment of its taste or of the sociability of beer-drinking. A similar empha-
sis on the code of health benefits is found in advertisements of candies and chocolates,
as well, where the prevailing concern is to preclude any notion of their unhealthiness
and underline, instead, their contribution to children’s growth or to elder people’s vig-
or (Figure 3).
Figure 3: “Caramel gum COW-BOY. Guarantees healthy stom-

ach” (1951),
“Health! Happiness! Drink Health-Drink FIX beer ev-
ery day “ (1957)
From the 1960s to the 1990s, food and beverage advertisements continued to focus on
health issues, though at a visibly decreasing frequency. At the close of the 20th century,
the correlation of products to the basic nutritional value of food – which is actually the
connotation of the health issue – has become rare. The only cases where health bene-
fits continued to be of paramount importance belong to the specific category of industri-
ally processed and standardised foods and juices. Rising popular concern about the side
effects of these products, combined with the shift towards personal responsibility based
on a growing body of scientific knowledge, made advertisements much more self-con-
scious about matters regarding the safety of industrial products as compared to the past,
when the latter were widely promoted on the basis of the codes of high quality and so-
cial progress.
Figure 4. “To all the mothers of young pupils: Give your children the calories that they need. Nutrition must be richer
during the winter. Help your children to face cold and hard lessons … MILK CHOCOLATE ION” (1969), “The
truth in tomatoes does not take water. Consumers should not be deceived” (KYKNOS 1991)
Mother affection and children’s desires

Another standard feature of food and beverage advertising in the 20th century is the con-
nection with maternal affection. In this heavily gender-biased towards women as moth-
ers category of advertising, it is quite rare to see fathers and then only in a complemen-
tary role. In the same advertising strategy, the other protagonists are children, whose
nutritional needs and desires predominate. In the context of the heavily emotional bond
between mother and children, the latter enjoy an almost hagiographical representation
as the quintessence of familial well-being and as the future of humanity.
The maternal figure is often present in dairy products throughout the first postwar de-
cades. Since the 1950s, however, a tendency to emphasise children’s autonomy as con-
sumers is noticeable. Their depiction is no more restricted to nursing age and their con-
sequent full dependence on their mother, but quite often concerns the more “mature”
children age. During the 1960s, emphasis on either maternal affection or children au-
tonomy seems to define two quite different advertising strategies. In the first case, milk
continues to carry the connotations of the maternal body. Advertisements, consequent-
ly, underline the product’s origin from “mother nature”, and, in general, the essential con-
tinuity between maternal and industrial milk (Figure 5). In the second case, advertise-
ments make a direct correlation between the world of childhood and the sense of enjoy-
ment and pleasure (activities, games etc). In addition, the extensive reliance on photo-
graphic realism in that period, allowed the presence of more active and recalcitrant chil-
dren as protagonists than in the past (Figure 6).
Figure 5. “Healthy and bright kids make mother happy, EVGA Pasteurized milk” (1949), “After breast milk… milk
EVGA” (1967)
Figure 6. “A delicacy that gives you strength” (EVGA pasteurized milk, 1959), “Kids love it like their game” (CARNA-
TION milk, 1967)
The former advertising strategy is virtually abandoned after the 1970s, although it was
still prominent in television. In our research corpus there is no picture of a mother
feeding her baby after the 1970s. On the contrary, the second strategy totally prevails in
more recent decades. Children are still the privileged protagonists of food and beverage
advertisements which focus on connecting the consumption of the promoted products
more with fun and excitement than with healthy upbringing.
Pleasure
During the 1950s, the connection of taste to pleasure and happiness is set in a more
systematic way. Although a sense of humour was usually absent from food and beverage
advertisements, sometimes it appeared (Figure 7) in order to underline the fact that
these products not only fulfill certain the basic need of nutrition (health) but also the
equally natural desire for delicacy concerning enticing foods. Relevant advertisements
were mostly about alcohol drinks and candies. The FIX beer advertisement, satirically
declaring that water was good for frogs, is indicative of this humorous category of
pleasure justification – that came to complement the company’s defensive campaign of
the same period.2
Figure 7. “Let the frogs drink water. Quench your thirst with FIX BEER it is good!” (1953), “Desires can be read in the
eyes. EVGA Chocolate, Cocoa, Ice cream” (1955)
A more immediate strategy of both verbal and visual emphasis on pleasure emerg-
es after the 1950s. With photographic visuals becoming more and more powerful from
the 1960s onwards, through portraits of men, women and children, the focus on plea-
sure becomes gradually more evident. The type of products that are mainly promoted
through a strategy of personified pleasure, at least until the 1980s, were drinks and hot
beverages (tea, coffee), as well as those more closely related to youth habits (eg. gums,
ice creams, chocolates, sodas). This trend gradually diminishes as the strategy of totem-
ic lifestyle, which we will mention presently, rises to prominence (Figure 8).
Figure 8. “Satisfaction…FIX” (1957), “Carefree life… A good

whisky is essential”, (BALLANTINE'S whisky 1976),
“Endless Pleasure” (NESCAFE frappe 1984)
Status and Luxury
Since the beginning of the 20th century, along with the focus on pleasure and well-be-
ing, the advertising of taste products has also developed another widespread promotion
strategy, which involved the overshadowing of the utilitarian dimension of consumption
by its purely symbolic dimension, i.e. its significance as a sign of cultural prestige and
social distinction. In the Greek print advertisements, this phenomenon is especially visi-
ble in the category of taste products that concern the (male) world of drinks and far less
the more general category of food products (Lehrer, 1991). If we exclude dairy products,
whose value is regularly correlated with the harmony and balance of the middle class
family, the rest of the drinks advertisements are suffused with the representation of a
social and aesthetic status (Figure 9).
Figure 9. “It’s here sir!” (VOTRYS, 1956), “It’s the most expensive” (J&B Whisky, 1962), “It’s recognizable. It is 12 years
old, black, and expensive” (Johnny Walker Black Label Whisky, 1982)
During the first postwar decades, alcoholic drinks carry a powerful connotation of being
luxury items consumed by the social elite. Their relative high price made them accessi-
ble only to a social minority, the prime example being the high symbolic status of whis-
key up until the early 1980s. From the mid-1960s onwards, on the other hand, we ob-
serve a strategy of promoting the consumption of hot beverages and soft drinks as em-
blematic of a specifically modern and elevated lifestyle (Nixon, 2003, pp. 150-152). Giv-
en the proliferation of different lifestyles, taste is thus becoming a marker of social dis-
tinction (a totem), influencing both popular culture and youth subcultures.
Figure 10. “Hurrah to the youth, Hurrah to Tam-Tam!” (1966)
“Taste for your lifestyle. Best tea worldwide” (LIPTON TEA 1976)3,
“Beer Lowenbrau!” (1980)
Habits and globalized experiences

The idealization of the tasty products is often achieved in rather indirect ways. This old in-
direct strategy of reminding the inherent virtues of taste products was achieved by high-
lighting the importance of their daily consumption, thus finding the extraordinary in the
ordinary (Tresidder, 2010, p. 476). For example, the make-up of the daily breakfast diet
(combining dairy and fruit juice), the summer crave for ice-cream consumption, the au-
tumn and winter need for hot beverages. At this point, the pleasure of taste was reduced
into a habitual practice that bore a sui generis routine.
Nevertheless, this routine was often overturned or, alternatively, enriched. Since the be-
ginning of the 1950s, the growing entry of nutritional products and drinks in the advertis-
ing field has been celebrated as a welcome intrusion of flavor and senses (Stano, 2016).
Most notably, and excluding the category of staples, taste has been a vital intercultural fac-
tor since the first postwar years (Parasecoli, 2010). Whether it originated in Europe, USA
or even the USSR, and often cloaked with exotic visuals or metaphors, the exogenous en-
richment of taste has been totally accepted in the symbolic system of Greek consumption,
and continued during the whole period which was studied (Figure 11).
In addition, from the end of the 1970s and onwards, the advertising field endeavoured
to give to the advent of global brands like Coca Cola, Pepsi and 7up (Figure 12), the fes-
tive reception of a hyper-national consumerism, of a world without consumption fron-
tiers. It was a world which, given the staunchly anti-American mood of Greek society,
was looked at with intense suspicion.
Figure 11. “Japanese tea. Flavor, taste, color” (GIOTIS), “Perfect taste (in Italian)” (MISKO, 1970), “Only the Russian
vodka is the authentic Russian vodka” (MOSKOVSKAYA, 1985)
Figure 12. “Drink Ice Coca Cola, enjoy it, it is yours. Finally in
Greece. Everything goes well with Coca Cola” (1969),
“Now Greece is drinking 7UP” (1979)
Greekness
Contrary to this intercultural approach, a consistent but not always prevalent advertising
strategy underscored the indigenous identity of foods and beverages.4 From the 1950s
onwards, Greek drinks and olive oil were promoted, highlighting their Greekness as a
warrant of quality and authenticity. Whether by visual and verbal references to Greek
nutritional tradition, or by the identification of certain products as integral parts of the
distinctive Greek lifestyle – such as Greek coffee, ouzo, traditional recipes – the signs of
nationality were the basic vehicle for their promotion.
Figure 13. “Once, today and forever. The juice of the Greek vine makes life nicer” (VOTRYS, 1955) “From Greek fam-
ily life at the beach, blue sea, golden sun, golden beaches, happy youth and… beer FIX” (1955), “Bravo
this is coffee” (BRAVO, 1972)
In the 1980s the advertising campaign with the slogan (playing with an ancient Greek
motto) Where there’s a will, there’s a Greek-way (Ο επιµένων Ελληνικά), signalled
the first concerted effort to boost the consumption of national products. It did not
involve, however, so much food products. Since then, the emphasis on Greekness has
occasionally resurfaced, although without any perceivable impact. (Figure 14)5.
Figure 14. “Hallo immortal Greece with your delicious foods” (TRADITIONAL GREEK RECIPES, 1983) “The flavor that
joins all the Greeks” (BRAVO 1994)
In this context, we should not neglect to mention the few cases of Greek products that are
using national identity not in the discursive form of national idealization and superficial
demonization of xenomania, but, on the contrary, in order to underline their success into
the global world market, their exportable and international character (Figure 15).
Figure 15. “The only Greek product that has international reputation and consumption” (METAXA, 1959), The inter-
national yoghourt (FAGE VELOUTE, 1982)
Tradition – purity
One of the most frequent emphases of nutritional advertisements since 1945, has been
that on the product’s purity. Its diachronic power, however, does not mean it assumes
a unique form and mode of usage (Goddard 2015, p. 105). In the 1950s, for example, it
was clear that the quality of the product’s purity and freshness reverberated the still vi-
brant Greek agricultural society as well as the effort, on the part of historical and wide-
ly acknowledged brands, to retain a sense of continuity with their past (Figure 16). This
specific framing of ‘purity’ tended to be marginalized in subsequent years, mainly due to
growing importance of postwar technological progress.
Figure 16.
“Hymettus gold” (ATTIKI
HONEY, 1951),
“117 years of experience”
(Cacao PAVLIDIS, 1958)
Interestingly enough, the notions of purity and freshness of nutritional products came
again to the surface 1990s with an unprecedented intensity (Figure 17). It is also note-
worthy, that this comeback was accompanied by the rediscovery of tradition and the lo-
cal origin of the products. Tradition has been strongly correlated with purity and local (or
national) idealization mostly in the last 20 years, a development that can be attributed
to the effects of E.U. agricultural policies, i.e. a highly internationalized variety of dietary
choices and, at the same time, a strengthening of hitherto unprofitable or marginalized
forms of local or regional agricultural production. Initially, purity was a matter of a still
alive association with agricultural culture but also, reflected the need of the food indus-
try to prove that processing and standardization did not result in the deterioration of nu-
tritional value and taste. From the 1990s onwards, however, taste purity enters the ro-
mantic sphere of nostalgia (for the authentic past) as well as the more modernized dis-
course of a productive neo-localism.
Figure 17.
“112 years of OUZO 12.
Tradition distillate” (1992),
“The pleasure
has an origin”,
(TSANTALIS wines, 1999)
Technological Progress
The correlation of tradition and purity as an advertising strategy has never been indisput-
able in Greece. A relatively oppositional logic of promoting nutritional products, emerg-
ing in the early years of postwar period, gives special emphasis to the techoscientific su-
periority of industrially produced food products (Figure 18).
Figure 18.
By doubling the production
there is everywhere plenty
of FIX beer” (1951),
“Factory pasteurized milk
ASTY” (1952)
Some of the advertisements that
idealize technological progress
in the nutrition chain specially
underline the time-saving ben-
efits for the housewives. Exam-
ples of this strategy appear at
the end of the 1950s and contin-
ue until the 1980s, and reflect the
gradual integration of women in
the labor market (Figure 19).
What most advertisements of
industrial food products empha-
sized, however, was their associ- Figure 19. “Easy for the housewife”
ation with freshness and health. (TEDDY sardines, 1957),
In the case of the successful fast- “It’s easy for you too! You prepare it
instantly” (KORNIL ice-cream, 1963)
food chain “GOODY’S”, for exam-
ple, their first advertising cam-
paign (during the 1980s) was based on the slogan “fast yes, not junk”, aiming at reconcil-
ing their traditional tavern-accustomed customers with a new eating habit that had al-
ready been widely scorned at as “plastic’ (junk) food. Such were the accusations that their
major competitor, the McDONALD’S chain, had found extremely hard to handle, regard-
less of the insistent advertising and public relations campaigns. McDONALD’s succeeded
Figure 20. “Everything is Goody’s. Fast yes, not junk”

(80s), “This is not a Big Mac. It is the fulfilment
of a dream for thousands of businessmen all
around the world” (Mc DONALD’s, 1995)
in gaining a foothold in the Greek fast-food market only when it become sensitive to local
symbols and tastes (Frith & Mueller 2010, p. 20).
First outcomes
The social history of advertisement elaborated by William Leiss, Stephen Kline, Sut Jhal-
ly and Jacqueline Botterill suggests that the postwar advancement of symbolic advertis-
ing, assisted by the development of visual media, gradually led to three major and suc-
cessive advertising strategies: the personalization of products (1950s-1960s), the differ-
entiation of lifestyles (1970s-1980s) and the de-massification or individualization char-
acterizing the hyper-consuming societies of 1990s and 2000s. All three strategies are in-
formed by the same basic codes of social distinction and intimacy. In general terms, the
visualization of taste in Greek print advertisements has followed the same evolutionary
path, but not always in the same ideological and cultural context (Table 1).
Cultural Qualities Products Strategies Time (mainly)

Health Diary, juices Usefulness, symbolism 1940s, 1950s
Mother affection and Diary, sweets Symbolism, 1940s, 1950s

children’s desires personalization (Mother affection),
1960s (children
autonomy)
Status-luxury Alcohol drinks, soft Symbolism, lifestyle 1940s, 1950s

drinks
Technological progress Drinks, juices, diary Usefulness, symbolism 1950s, 1960s
Greekness Drinks (wine, ouzo), oil, Symbolism, 1950s, 1970s

coffee personalization
Pleasure Drinks (beer mainly), Symbolism (humor), 1960s, 1970s

sweets, pasta, hot personalization
beverages
Globalized experiences Soft drinks, hot Symbolism, lifestyle 1970s, 1980s

beverages, food in can
Tradition-authenticity Variety of foods (mainly Usefulness, symbolism 1950s, 1990s

drinks, oil)
Table 1. Greek Printed Advertising and Taste (1945-2000)

Personalization was intensive, involving mainly the mother-child couple in postwar dairy
products advertisements, but also through the investment of social prestige upon hot
beverages and drinks. The element of narcissism that was pointed out as the cultural ref-
erent of this strategy does not seem to be strong enough in the case of Greek print ad-
vertisements of food and drinks.6
The emphasis on the lifestyle of specific social groups has been also frequent in ad-
vertisements about drinks and food products that were closely related to youth. A fur-
ther qualification of this strategy that does not seem to be found in the countries studied
by William Leiss et al7 was the dimension of the national, Greek lifestyle. At times, this
tendency seems to contradict the globalized and standardized character of the promot-
ed products.
The de-massification/individualization strategy is not discernible, at least as our re-
search corpus is concerned. Perhaps its presence has become somewhat stronger dur-
ing the last 15 years. Interestingly enough, this strategy of associating food products
with self-made mise-en-scène and scenarios seems, at least in the Greek case, to be
linked to the rediscovery (or, more accurately, reinvention) of tradition and local origins.
The dietary choices proposed by Greek advertisements, as years passed by, seem to be
more dictated by the quest of past purity. Authenticity, which became a powerful desid-
eratum, was something that belonged to the past and excluded the present. We have to
underline, however, that this is not the case for other products’ advertisements, espe-
cially the current promotion of technological products which is strongly linked to the is-
sue of individualization.
It must be stressed that, in quantitative terms, advertisements relevant to taste have
had a significant decrease over time. Although more work needs to be done, based on a
much larger sample, it is clear that foods are occupying less and less advertising space,
at least in print media. Besides the comparative dimension and value of our research,
what needs to be addressed is the highly distinctive symbolic and strategic contradic-
tions found, both on a synchronic and a diachronic level, in the ways taste is visualized in
Greek print advertisements. The representations of taste, during the second half of the
20th century, form a polarized socio-cultural field, organized around the following domi-
nant oppositions: (a) health and satisfaction, (b) mother affection and children’s autono-
mous pleasure, (c) family bonding, habitual practices and individual lifestyle, (d) global-
ized experience and Greek uniqueness, and (e) traditionalism/purism and technological
modernization.
A major research question to be pursued subsequently is the extent to which these
findings could also concern other categories of products. Another crucial issue, concerns
the developments after 2000, and especially during the recent economic crisis. Advertis-
ing discourse about taste from 1945 to 2000 in Greece seems to address consumers with
double-dealing characteristics and needs. In many cases, the antagonism between strat-
egies, discourses and finally, ideological values and worldviews seems to be a case of
bittersweet or sweet-sour symbiosis and not a totally confrontational zero-sum game.
Endnotes
1. As Williams (1983, p. 104) notes: “‘Nature’ has simply become a referent of a ‘cooking’ society: it
has meaning in terms of its relationship with what has transformed it, but is not valued in itself.
Thus the ‘raw’, the natural object, becomes in this context a symbol, not of nature, but, ironically
and in alienation from its original place, of the culture that has worked it over”.
2. The products that have been viewed as appropriate of humour are soft drinks, snack foods,
computers, automobiles, beer, bowling alleys, restaurants, diaper services, overnight delivery
services, and exterminator services (Gulas, Weinberger 2006, p. 73).
3. It is interesting that in Greek print ads for food and drinks, we don‘t often find the gender inequality
that preoccupied Goffman, and that’s especially true in the promotion of alcoholic drinks.
4. The national framing of products in ads has been emphasized by Barthes (1977, p. 40).
5. There is no linkage of Greek national identity and childhood in ads concerning food as in the case of
Cypriot ads (Zantides & Kourdis, 2013).
6. The scheme of Leiss et al (2005) has been criticized for somehow arbitrary generalizations and
overestimation of the increasing persuasiveness of ads (McFall, 2004, p. 49).
7. An interesting convergence on the issue of nationalist framing we find in Dutch ads about drinking
products (Forceville, 1996, p. 122).
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SOCIAL SEΜIOTICS
The scent of Typography

in fragrance advertising
Evripides Zantides Cyprus University of Technology evripides.zantides@cut.ac.cy
Abstract
Olfaction is not only biologically essential to human life but also culturally. From the uti-
lization of scent during religious ceremonies and burial preparations in ancient Egypt to
olfactory branding nowadays, the sense of smell has been explored scientifically as a
medium for the expression of psychological and social meanings. The ability of scents
to trigger feelings and evoke memories has been central to studies of aroma. Addition-
ally, the sense of smell and its correlation with emotional interpretations seems to have
been taken into consideration during the visualization process in fragrance advertising,
and it is often the case that bottles of aroma, as products, are assigned meanings such
as sensuality, romanticism, exoticism, sophistication, dynamism, etc. The current study
aims to present the semiotic aspects of the letterforms used to linguistically visualize the
product meanings in fragrance advertising. In doing so, it will not only explore Typogra-
phy as a semiotic system of its own, but also in respect of the cultural meanings of smell,
‘sprayed’ through fragrance adverts. Semiotic analysis as a methodology is used on a
purposive sample of print advertisements to categorize thematically the prevailing ex-
emplars and their typographic rendering. The findings of this study will contribute to the
importance of Typography as a semiotic tool, in addition to interpreting product mean-
ings of fragrance advertising in the context of the global market.
Keywords
product meaning , fragrance advertising , typography , semiotics
Introduction and fragrance advertising
Many civilizations, including ancient ones such as the Egyptian have an appreciation of
aromas deeply rooted in their culture, while the sense of smell has been reason for spec-
ulation and fascination over the centuries (Philpott, Bennett & Murty, 2008). Classen and
Howes (1994) investigate the meaning and power of olfactory codes in both, western and
non-western societies and consider smell to be a powerful force, influential on physical,
psychological and social levels. As scents are associated with good or bad experienc-
es they can also evoke strong emotional responses. Additionally, odours can be ‘invest-
ed with cultural values and employed by societies as a means of, and model for, defining
and interacting with the world’ (ibid, p.3). Although perfume was originally related to re-
ligion and the worship of gods, today the purposes of perfume have expanded to habits
of cleaning, hygiene and well-being. Given its capacity to arouse sensations, perfume is
also used as a sign in order to communicate something about the personality of the us-
er (Peres Silva & Mazzili, 2014).
We argue, therefore, that under these circumstances, smell becomes a sign of com-
modity, and as such is branded and culturally constructed to evoke meanings. Through-
out the history of selling fragrances, image, text, and sound have played a vital role in in-
creasing sales through visual communication, and Typography in print advertisements
can be a study in, and of itself during this process.
The large numbers of perfume ads in all kinds of media has increased steadily, as
new fragrances are introduced periodically by beauty laboratories and fashion design-
ers. Consequently, a demanding market requires constant updating, therefore advertis-
ing becomes a central tool in the commercial strategy and promotion of such products.
One of the key elements of perfume advertising is that it relies heavily on visuals (Tuna
& Freitas, 2012). Regarding this, Irvine (1996) argues that perfume advertisers depend
on memorable visual imageries, on attractive sceneries and decors, on strikingly ele-
gant performers, and on attractive landscapes to influence the consumer and convince
him or her to buy the product. In addition, Lunyal (2014) notes that perfume advertise-
ments may suggest seduction and sex to promote their products, and that images of
international brands of perfumes such as ‘Chanel’, Gucci, ‘Nina Ricci’, and ‘Prada’, re-
veal a lot of female skin to give a sensual tone to perfume advertisements. The expres-
sions in the eyes of female models flaunt sexual desire. In fact, the ‘Guilty Gucci’ adver-
tisements that show a couple entwined leaving nothing to imagination, establish the
presence of sex in perfume advertisements. In another study, Achemlal (2014) exam-
ines the manipulation of the female body in perfume advertisements. His study reveals
that nudity and sexual scenes of women in perfume ads are used to increase the pur-
chases of fragrances and to attract a wider audience. This process however, inevitably
contributes to the reproduction of traditionally negative portrayals and representations
of women in culture, as advertisements have a major impact on society. Nevertheless,
men also fall prey to perfume advertisers whose incentive is commercial profit. As we
observe, regardless of gender, the human body becomes popular in images of fragrance
advertisements. In fact, as advertisements become more visual than textual, they can
be promoted in the global market more easily. This is in agreement with Tuna & Frei-
tas, (2012, p. 97), who also claim that ‘reliance on pictures, on the other hand, may be
the result of an internationally oriented standardized campaign’ and that ‘perfumes are
often marketed as part of an international brand’s product range, which means that pic-
tures are likely to be part of the overall advertising strategy’. While images are recog-
nised easier in a global market, they need to be ‘anchored’ with textual information to
be fully interpreted.
Therefore, in addition to images, the power of typefaces, Typography and graphic de-
sign in general, play a vital role, either for the brand’s status and name on the packaging
or for linguistic messages when incorporated in print advertisements. Under this con-
cept, the current paper will examine the visualization of verbal elements in fragrance ad-
vertising through a semiotic analysis of specific ad examples.
Verbal elements and fragrance advertising

Even though there is a precedence of visual over verbal elements, visual iconicity of-
ten extends itself to a verbal matter, as in the case of special letterings that ‘signify’ the
product by means of a metonymic relationship or even to the container of the product it-
self (Tuna & Freitas, 2012). On the other hand, Lunyal (2014) discusses how perfume ad-
vertisements have quite limited verbal text. Through a specific example she argues that
‘the non-verbal takes precedence over the verbal’ (ibid, p. 127), however combined with
verbal texts, it carries ideological meanings of cultural stereotypes. In respect of letter-
forms’ design, Goddard (1998, p. 16) refers to the ways that verbal texts appear in ad-
vertisements and notes that they can suggest specific qualities because of their writing,
which ‘is a form of image-making’ that has its own paralanguage. For example, typefac-
es that imitate handwriting are considered to be ‘more personal and individualistic than
machine-produced typefaces’. Subsequently, we argue in this paper that Typography can
be studied as a semiotic system on its own.
Print ads can be highly revealing and expressive, though they depend on one sin-
gle image, unlike TV commercials in which we have a complete audiovisual sequence of
music, voice-over, in addition to visual resources. There are many ways that verbal ele-
ments that can be analyzed in a print ad, such as the name of the fragrance, the colors,
the letterforms, the scale, the orientation or the position of the text. Most of the stud-
ies are usually preoccupied with the visual elements in a perfume advertisement. Even
though the verbal elements and typography of an advertisement can signify many differ-
ent meanings, they have mainly remained understudied.
According to Van Leeuwen (2006), typography can be used ideationally to represent ac-
tions and qualities. He provides the example of a ‘scratchy’ font that can be used to illus-
trate the idea of a headache or a soft, smooth, rounded ‘script’ font to express the idea of
‘indulgence’. He also argues that designers are increasingly interested in such illustrative
uses of typography, and in blurring the boundaries between letterforms and images. Ty-
pography can also enact interactions and express attitudes to what is being represented. A
word can be changed into a ‘warning’ or a ‘question’ through typography, and typographic
signs alone can also be used to express attitudes towards what is being represented.
Thus, in addition to being described in terms of its constituent parts, a given letter,
and typeface can also be described in terms of its characteristic features (Norgaard,
2009). The distinctive features combine in different ways so that one typeface will be de-
scribed as bold, expanded, sloping, rounded, connected, oriented towards the horizon-
tal dimension and regular, whereas the combination of distinctive features will be quite
different for another typeface. With many features, the contrast is not binary but gradu-
al, so that, at least in theory, we may, for example, have degrees of boldness and expan-
sion, but as producers of text we are often only presented with a binary choice of either
‘bold’ or ‘regular’ (Van Leeuwen, 2006, p. 148).
Typographic choices always serve a purpose and influence the way that a message is
communicated. Just like in parole, typographic actions have semiotic interpretations and
cultural meanings. Van Leeuwen also refers to designers Bellantoni and Woolman, who
believe that ‘the printed word has two levels of meaning, the ‘word image’, i.e., the idea
represented by the word itself, constructed from a string of letters, and the ‘typographic
image’ (ibid, p. 142).
Like in Classic versus Rock music, if a brand perfume name is ‘dressed-up’ with a
script formal typeface (that has its origins in seventeenth century formal writing styles)
it instantly has a different iconicity, a romantic sense where sensitivity and fragility start
to appear, compared to Script Blackletter/Lombardic fonts that look like manuscript let-
tering prior to the invention of movable type (Haley, p. 67), and allude to gothic practices.
Interestingly, we can also observe how in most packaging design for perfumes the
sense of touch also plays a vital role. For example, wood-free recycled paper is used for
‘Dsquared-wood’ for men and a glossy gold paper is used for ‘Paco-Rabanne-1 million’.
All these contribute to an inter-sensorium of meanings that the products want to sell,
through vision, smell, sound (for example, the perfume opening or the spray of it) and
touch (the material of the paper/packaging-shape of the perfume bottle).
Research questions and methodology

Peirce’s model definition of sign is triadic and consists of the representamen (S/R) which is
very similar to Saussure’s signifier (Sr), the interpretant (I) that corresponds to Saussure’s
signified (Sd) and an external reality–the object (O)–referred to by the sign itself (Crow, 2010).
If we were to apply this definition of sign to examine how cultural meanings are as-
signed to perfumes through advertising, we can argue that the objects to be represented
are the perfumes, the representamens are the advertisements and the interpretants the
consumers/viewers (Zakia & Nadin, 1987).
Based on this framework, and given that ‘This approach allows us to evaluate three
distinct relationships that constitute the sign’ (ibid, p. 8), the following research ques-
tions can be formulated
1. How do advertisements represent perfumes? (object/representamen)
2. How well do advertisements communicate? (representamen/interpretant)
3. Is the communication successful? (interpretant/object)
However, for the purposes of the current study we are investigating only the first question,
upon which we build to formulate an even more specific research sub-question, namely:
1b. What is the semiotic role/contribution of Letterforms/Typography in the repre-
sentation of perfumes in print advertisements?
To answer the question above, a set of a perfume advertiser’s metaphors (what advertis-
ers take into consideration to develop mood associations through verbal and non-ver-
bal messages) paired with a perfumer’s metaphors (conceptual metaphors listed for per-
fumes, according to the olfactory families they belong to) as defined by Velasco & Fuertes
(2006) is used. Particularly, as suggested by Hubbard (1994) in Velasco & Fuertes (2006,
p. 227), a perfume advertiser’s metaphors (ibid) are concluded to be the following six:
1. “PERFUME IS ELEGANCE/CLASS” which associates the product with wealth and
status by the use of gold and silver, crystal, rich colors, and prestigious product
names.
2. “PERFUME IS SENSUALITY/SEXUALITY” which encompasses sensuous pleasure
exhibited in various ways, through passionate facial expressions, exposed body
parts, full nudity, suggestive postures, etc.
3. “PERFUME IS POWER/STRENGTH” which includes strength or power over others,
as in business or sports.
4. “PERFUME IS ROMANTICISM/LOVE” which contains tenderness and love to a
man/woman exhibited through gentle, tender behavior and words that indicate
love and affection.
5. “PERFUME IS SOLITARY GRATIFICATION” which comprises the gratification of a
man/woman pursuing solitary pleasure such as riding a motorcycle, shopping, or
enjoying natural scenes. He/she appears alone and content.
6. “PERFUME IS FAMILY” includes expression of emotion in family security showing,
for instance, a father with child, etc.
The first four perfume advertiser’s metaphors correlate, to a great extent, with the
perfumer’s metaphors, and interestingly Velasco & Fuertes (2006, p. 227-228) suggest
the following combination of olfactory metaphors, and conceptual metaphors in fra-
grance ads to obtain the following four pairs:
1. “PERFUME IS AVANT-GARDISM/ELEGANCE”
2. “PERFUME IS SENSUALITY/SEXUALITY”
3. “PERFUME IS ACTION/POWER”
4. “PERFUME IS ROMANTICISM/LOVE”
Consequently, this pairing of metaphors seems to be appropriate as a semiotic frame-
work to answer the research question in respect of the major typographic elements/ex-
emplars in the advertisements of the current study. They are as follows:
1. “LETTERFORMS/TYPOGRAPHY IS AVANT-GARDISM/ELEGANCE”
2. “LETTERFORMS/TYPOGRAPHY IS SENSUALITY/SEXUALITY”
3. “LETTERFORMS/TYPOGRAPHY IS ACTION/POWER”
4. “LETTERFORMS/TYPOGRAPHY IS ROMANTICISM/LOVE”
Semiotic analysis as a methodology will be used on a purposive sample of four print ad-
vertisements, aligned with the four aforementioned metaphors. Specifically, the ‘smell’
of letterforms/typography is explored through four print advertisements of the perfumes
J’adore by Dior, Hot Water by Davidoff, Invictus by Paco Rabanne, and Romance by Ralph
Lauren.
The semiotic aspects of typography and graphics in print advertisements will be ex-
amined through Bertin’s (1967) seven semiotic graphic design parameters, which are
Shape/form, Size/scale, Value/tone, Texture, Color, Orientation, and Placement. It is also
important for these elements to take into consideration what Saint-Martin (1990, p. 17)
notes in the Semiotics of Visual Language: ‘[n]one of these visual variables can be con-
sidered independently as a basic unit of visual language, because at the same time that
one is present, the others are manifested.’ Looking at typography as a connotative/cul-
tural mechanism, in addition to the denotative or connotative linguistic message, as sug-
gested by Barthes (1977), is a practice that has not been found in similar studies (Zan-
tides, 2016) and seems to be a semiotic dimension that is of equal importance as verbal
and non-verbal messages.
The ‘smell’ of letterforms/typography is avant-gardism/elegance

J’adore (for women) by Dior, could be an appropriate example for examining the semi-
otic parameters of avant-garde/elegant letterforms. In this specific advertisement, there
seem to be two major layers of visual information: the actress Charlize Theron walking
as a model, and the perfume bottle at the right bottom of the advertisement, accompa-
nied by the typography popping out from its top. Almost at similar levels of hierarchy and
visual demand, we can argue that what Saint-Martin (1990) calls coloreme, i.e. the visual
entry point of the advertisement, (where the gaze is firstly focused and semiosis begins)
would be the perfume bottle, leading like an arrow to the typography and then through
the actress to the rest of the image.
This visual journey takes us over a series of iconic messages, and contributes to
the olfactory metaphor ‘perfume is avant-gardism/elegance’ in many ways. The
‘fluid’, drop-shaped, feminine, curved bottle seems to contain a golden potion, as if it
had magic powers similar to the potions in bottles used in fairy tale illustrations and
Disney movies to seduce a character. Through the linguistic message, ‘j'adore’ Dior, we
meet the aristocratic, entirely golden, very elegant and luminous presence of Charlize
Theron. Like a fairy tale princess, she walks toward us face to face, in a determined,
confident and strict gaze, demanding to be looked at. Her angelic figure glows in front of
a celestial light, suggesting a divine presence that simultaneously constructs an avant-
garde, spiritual atmosphere which could also allude to metaphysical references. The
scene takes place at The Hall of Mirrors, the central gallery of the Palace of Versailles in
Versailles, France, whose historical associations raise further the product to wealth and
an elegant status.
Dior is a leading French fashion house headquartered in Paris and founded in 1946 by
the legendary fashion designer Christian Dior. The company is known for its elegant de-
signs and avant-garde style. The Dior logo is a simple wordmark that features the brand
name with a font very similar to Nicolas Cochin Regular, designed by Georges Peignot in
1912. It is based on the copperplate engravings of French 17th century artist Nicolas Co-
chin, from which the typeface also takes its name. It is categorized as a Transitional ser-
if typeface, and is a classic typeface with good legibility that shares features of elegance
and beauty. The font also used for the linguistic message similarly has a small x-height
with long ascenders which particularly characterizes it. This district elevation of ascend-
ers can only lift the linguistic message up to a spiritual, luxurious level of ‘avant-gard-
ism’, class and glamour. Furthermore, the playful placement of these friendly and dis-
trict lowercase letters reflect a ‘joyful attitude’ as well as an aspiration of ‘adoring Dior’.
The use of white color in the Dior logo, as well as in the linguistic message, portrays a
natural feeling of purity, and the overall typography provides a very prestigious, yet so-
phisticated, elegant impression.
The ‘smell’ of letterforms/typography is sensuality/sexuality

Through the Hot Water (for men) advertisement by Davidoff, we can explore the semi-
otic dimensions of letterforms and Typography as sensuality/sexuality. Initially, we can
observe that an intensive contrast between the black and white image and the red per-
fume with the typography on top, provides us with almost two equally similar options of
reading entries. Reading from left to right, we, most probably, witness what is about to
happen: a passionate kiss in the summer heat. Two ‘wet-sweat’ naked bodies come out
of the sea in a lustful pose, leading the viewer to a red perfume bottle. The shape of this
container is long, red and rectangular, as should be for a product of masculine charac-
teristics, and points at the linguistic message which is also in red and appears intensive-
ly for a second time: ‘DAVIDOFF HOT WATER’. Interestingly, this specific image seems to
be a ‘Cinematographic: Intertextual Non-Verbal Message from a Film Source’ as defined
by Zantides (2016, p. 71), in other words is an image that alludes to a popular scene from
a film source. Specifically, we argue that the image refers to the classic black and white
cinematographic act of sensuality and passion of the famous kiss scene on the beach in
the film “From here to eternity’ (1953), directed by Fred Zinnemann. At the same time, the
dominant color of bloody red that stands out by the typographic elements and the bot-
tle, provides us with a feeling of strength and dominance along with sexual tension, de-
sire and love.
We also cannot avoid observing that in the specific example, the classic script for-
mal writing is not used in the Davidoff logo, but a different sans serif lettering has tak-
en its place. Could it be that the sensitive script formal lettering wouldn’t fit well with
the masculine attributes emphasized in the image? We think so. All lettering is in up-
per case letters, using sans serif fonts and centrally justified with the perfume. The most
emphasized word, ‘hot’, is written in Peignot. It is a constructed sans serif display type-
face, designed by A. M. Cassandre in 1937, which mixes capital and lowercase forms.
Commissioned by Charles Peignot for Deberny & Peignot, ‘this typeface has almost be-
come a symbol for France and things French’ (Peignot by Linotype, 2000). Its “multi-
case” combination of traditional lowercase and small capital characters makes it a dar-
ing letterform, whilst the alternating but balanced contrast between thin crossbars and
thick stems of sans serif shapes in red, reflect a strict and bold way of expressing ‘hot-
ness’. While occasionally classified as “decorative”, the typeface is a serious study of ty-
pographic form and legibility – as shown in this upper-case example of ‘Hot Water’ Dav-
idoff, it succeeds in sensually communicating the notion of passion for the specific per-
fume.
The ‘smell’ of letterforms/typography is action/power

In the third advertisement, we are examining how letterforms/typography is action/pow-
er. A good example by which to discuss these semiotic parameters would be the Paco
Rabanne advertisement of the Invictus perfume for men. With the majority of the non-
verbal and verbal elements placed in the middle, the only object that seems to stand
alone from the overall composition is the trophy that Nick Youngquest, an Australian
model and former professional rugby league footballer, holds with great satisfaction.
Just like Zeus, the king of the gods above mountains in stormy skies, his strength, vic-
tory and masculinity is doubly profound. Once, by the lifting up of his trophy in absolute
triumph, and second by the placing of another cup in the shape of Invictus’ perfume bot-
tle in front of his genitals. Interestingly, the bottle is positioned to stand vertically among
two female figures that seem to allude to representations of Nike, a goddess who per-
sonified victory in ancient Greek mythology. For Paco Rabanne, there is not only an al-
chemical quality at play but an aphrodisiac one: ‘Invictus was born out of a desire to
speak about sports in an innovative manner, by sublimating the social fantasy it repre-
sents, and a quasi-god rugby man is chosen to personify this idea.’ (Wagner, 2013). In
respect of the typographic elements, both brand names are manipulated to look three-
dimensional and to stand out from the picture. In fact, they attempt to be stronger than
flat based typography as to exert more power. As part of a new website, Paco Rabanne
introduced a new logo and identity designed by London-based Zak Group. For the group,
The old logo is, literally, really old, having been the same since the label
started in 1966, rocking a geometric sans serif way […] The logo was fine
but mostly looking like a default typesetting lacking any sense of crafts-
manship or daringness. The new logo opts for a minimal evolution, keep-
ing the overall silhouette of the old logo but exaggerating the thicks and
thins as curves meet stems that instantly give the wordmark more per-
sonality and a more richly sculpted aesthetic. The resulting shapes are like
a cross of Futura and Antique Olive.’ (Armin, 2016)
These attributes are quite organic, smooth and heavy, however in the specific advertise-
ment the logo appears in a three-dimensional version using a silver grey color, proba-
bly to create tension in the composition and to match the muscular characteristics of the
athlete’s body with the martial values inherent in sports.
What is fascinating about the typography in this advertisement is the capital
letterforms used for the word Invictus. Using Trajan fonts, it couldn’t better reflect the
iconicity of the linguistic meaning. Trajan is an old-style serif typeface designed by Carol
Twombly in 1989. The design is based on the letterforms of capitalis monumentalis,
an ancient Roman form of writing, also used for the inscription at the base of Trajan’s
Column from which the typeface takes its name. Just like in the inscription, Trajan is an
upper-case typeface only. As such, it reflects dynamism and strength, and there couldn’t
have been a better choice than to ‘dress’ the linguistic meaning of the word ‘invictus’,
which means “unconquerable” or “undefeated” in Latin. Trajan is also very popular in film
posters, television shows and book covers, especially wherever narratives of heroes,
winning actions and power are involved. It is also used in a lot of university logos and
political parties to indicate status. It is indeed a typeface that can be used for action,
power and victory/triumph.
The ‘smell’ of letterforms/typography is romanticism/love
For the final exemplar, we are looking at the semiotic parameters of letterforms/typog-
raphy as romanticism/love, through an advertisement of ‘Romance’ (for men and wom-
en) by Ralph Lauren. A young couple expressing very affectionate gestures is placed
centrally in the advertisement with their bodies mingled in ways signifying tenderness,
care and love. As emotions are linked to facial expressions, we can see a calm, content
but also latent smile of, most probably, joy portrayed on the woman’s face, while this is
less evident on the limited exposure of the man’s face. The two participants in this nos-
talgic greyscale image are lightened from above, and consequently white color domi-
nates the overall aesthetics of the image. The scene becomes a romantic moment that
is, at the same time, celestial, pure and innocent. The fetal positions in which both bod-
ies are found allude us to notions of protection, love and safety, while the female par-
ticipant seems to act as a mother too, protecting her lover as a child (a kind of primitive
gesture, an imagined return to the safety of the womb). Through these iconic messages,
we encounter a romantic moment of pure love and protection, probably taking place by
the sea–as we observe water reflections behind the fence–without any sexual implica-
tions whatsoever. While leaning against, and worshiping each other, two perfume prod-
ucts in different shapes for gender differentiation, namely, a vertical, rectangular-shaped
one for men and a horizontal one for women, are placed at the bottom of the advertise-
ment as a conclusion for this romantic moment.
With very limited and district typography, only the brand names ‘Ralph Lauren’ and
‘Romance’, alongside ‘for men’ and ‘for women’ in white color are present as linguistic
messages in the advertisement. Probably this form of writing is a customized version
inspired from standard Bodoni typefaces. In fact, the original serif letterforms were
first designed by Giambattista Bodoni (1740–1813) in the late eighteenth century and
frequently revived since. Classified as Serif Neoclassical/Didone, the typeface’s features
deal with logotypes for high-end fashion labels, fashion magazine spreads, magazine
covers and posters, due to its pleasant aesthetics when set in bigger sizes. With a
fascinating sharpness of contrast between thick and thin strokes, it is also known as an
‘easily recognizable Romantic typeface’ (Christensen, n.d.) which seems constructive in
this specific use. As upper-case characters are used for emphasis and stress importance
(Haley, 2012, p.332), the additional tracking (letter-spacing) in the words contribute to
this need as well, also offering an additional differentiation to the verbal message. It
is also interesting to note that linguistically, the brand name Romance coincides with
the metaphoric values defined by the fragrance and the aforementioned theoretical
framework used in this paper.
Conclusions
The visualization of linguistic messages in print advertisements, and generally in all vi-
sual communication, is a semiotic process and parameter of equal importance as the
linguistic meaning of the verbal text itself. Letterforms are symbolic images that corre-
spond to sound, and apart from being considered verbal, they simultaneously carry sim-
ilar semiotic attributes with non-verbal elements.
Although images are usually dominant in the advertisements of perfumes, we
can observe that the semiotic nature and power of Typography contributes to the
construction of cultural metaphors just as verbal (linguistically) or non-verbal messages
do. The choice and arrangement of letterforms in the advertisements seem to be socially
and culturally aligned with the fragrance metaphors used in perfume advertising. In the
present study, the ways that brands and words are visualized relate to avant-gardism/
elegance, sensuality/sexuality, action/power or romanticism/love. Additionally, we notice
that the Typography used in the brands and the linguistic messages reflect the contextual
and cultural codes of the advertisements through the use of Shape/form, Size/scale,
Value/tone, Texture, Color, Orientation, and Placement of the letterforms.
Interestingly, the current study can provide a platform for further empirical research
where viewers/participants are invited to investigate how well these advertisements
communicate, and whether they perceive the semiotic aspects of letterforms and
Typography, in respect of the fragrance metaphors suggested.
For color versions and references of the print advertisements used, please contact the au-
thor.
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Mailing ‘Cypriotness’:
SOCIAL SEΜIOTICS
the sensorial aspect

of official culture
through stamps
Sonia Andreou Cyprus University of Technology andreousonia@hotmail.com
Evripides Zantides Cyprus University of Technology evripides.zantides@cut.ac.cy
Abstract
This study proposes a closer look on the ways in which an object representing the
state’s official culture, such as a postage stamp, can be studied as a carrier of mean-
ingful messages. Stamps are providers of a national sense of belonging, as they are
simultaneously government documents and representatives of the country and in this
manner they contribute to the shaping of collective identity, through the repetition of
their imagery. The current study explores the connoted messages that such an item
transfers from the state to its citizens and how the particular stamp designing pro-
gram is being perceived by them. We based our findings, on quantitative content anal-
ysis data, as well as data gathered through a survey research and focus group discus-
sions to extract semiotic conclusions. Moreover, we have chosen to analyze specif-
ic stamp imagery, where the senses are being connoted, through visual representa-
tions that are mainly iconic. By combining qualitative and quantitative methods of re-
search we aim to broaden the ways in which stamps are being studied, proving that
visual communication through cultural artefacts, such as stamps, brims with signifi-
cant information.
Keywords
postage stamps , Republic of Cyprus , official culture , visual communication
Introduction
Postage stamps as official documents and even more so as objects of visual commu-
nication, occupy a significant part in the formation of a country’s image, especially con-
cerning newly founded states (Raento and Brunn, 2005), such as the Republic of Cyprus
which gained its independence in 1960. In this sense, official documents serve as mir-
rors uncovering significant aspects of the societies in question, their decision-making
centres and their citizens. By studying everyday objects of visual communication (such
as stamps) we note patterns and significant changes that occur in societies. As Edensor
(2002) suggested, national identity and official culture is substantially interlinked with
‘everyday’ objects and practices which become a commodity and the state uses in order
to be defined, through repetition. Following this rationale and after conducting extensive
literature review we reached to the conclusion that the field of postage stamp research
displayed a significant gap, namely the lack of studies addressing the perception of citi-
zens in regards to the imagery representing them through their official culture and most
specifically stamp imagery (Andreou, 2015).
The present paper, as part of a larger study, aims to discuss the ways in which
Cypriots view their own official culture in respect to postage stamp imagery and how
these everyday objects aim to contribute in the construction of official culture repertoire
(Andreou, 2017; Andreou, Stylianou and Zantides, 2017; Andreou and Zantides, 2017).
These findings are certainly going to help us in better comprehending the process of
establishing an aspect of official culture among the citizens, as well as the dynamic
relationship between the citizen and the official culture through visual communication. It
should be noted that the present paper will focus on stamps, results and data that belong
in the aforementioned larger study, but concentrate on the sensorial interest that stamp
imagery might convey, both for the authorities as well as the participating citizens. More
specifically this paper aims to answer the following questions:
1. Which senses are being employed by the Republic of Cyprus in order to promote
its official culture, through stamp imagery?
2. Which senses do the citizens of the Republic of Cyprus associate with their official
culture, as presented through stamp imagery?
Construction of identities through everyday practices and visual communication

Anderson (1991) explained the idea of society construction using the term ‘Imagined
Community’ in relation to the process of creating a sense of belonging to its members
and presenting the image of a solid nation. This notion was firstly associated with ba-
nal nationalism and was later transformed into the characterisation of a group of peo-
ple sharing interests, or beliefs. Anderson stated that, ‘these communities have finite if
elastic boundaries beyond which lay other nations (1991, p.224).
The need for a certain official repertoire creates what we call official culture (Lewis,
1992). Official culture can be defined as the form of culture that has been socially accepted
and most importantly, politically legitimized. The notion of official culture is often associ-
ated with conservative ideals or even with ideas that were subversive once, but have been
eventually ‘sterilized’ and integrated in the public discourse (Debord, 1957). It requires a
strategic process by the political system and government bureaucracy representing and
producing official culture (Debord, 1957). When objects become a commodity in the citi-
zen’s eye (like stamps have become), they manage to relay ideas through repetition, while
simultaneously drawing little attention to the objects themselves (Edensor, 2002).
Most importantly for this paper, we can note in the case of a number of countries,
a tendency in associating their official culture, or national branding with common and
humble objects or ideas, using not only the sense of sight. For example, a country’s im-
age can be effectively represented through the sense of hearing as Jordan (2011) stat-
ed, in his study on how both Ukraine and Estonia tend to promote what is unique about
their country’s sound in international music festivals, such as the Eurovision song con-
test. On the other hand, countries such as Costa Rica and Moldova rely on the sense of
taste and their national cuisine in order to promote their uniqueness (Florek and Cone-
jo, 2007). In fact, according to the authors Costa Rica decided to use the tagline ‘Costa
Rica: No artificial ingredients’ as part of its national logo. In this sense, the country’s rich
ecosystem is being promoted, while simultaneously reflecting its culture and particular-
ly the local cuisine’s taste. Rice and its products additionally, remain a strong national
symbol of Asian countries and their culture, especially China, Singapore and Hong Kong
(Chi, 2014). Even in the case of the Republic of Cyprus the official culture, promotes im-
agery tied with smell and taste through stamps in order for a sense of ‘Cypriotness’ to
be expressed. More specifically Figures 1a, 1b and 1c belong in a series of stamps issued
in 1974, depicting Cyprus’ frequently exported agricultural products.
Figure 1a. Figure 1b. Figure 1c.

Title: “Grapefruit”, Title: “Oranges”, Title: “Lemons”,
Date of issue: 28 March 1974, Date of issue: 28 March 1974, Date of issue: 28 March 1974,
Creator: A. Tassos Creator: A. Tassos Creator: A. Tassos
Official culture, therefore, gets transmitted through stamps following the same ra-
tionale in which national anthem, flag, national currency and national branding do (Raen-
to and Brunn, 2005; Dobson, 2005). While authors have been focused on the role of
stamps as political instruments and the ‘hidden’ messages these objects carry, they con-
centrated on the ‘source’ of stamp production, which is the political leadership of each
state, as well as their intentions. The citizens of the state and their own views on stamp
design, in relation to official culture representation have not been considered, as empiri-
cal or any other form of research concerning the particular topic was not found. The au-
dience (citizens in our case) and the way in which they perceive these ideas play the most
crucial role in the entire system of producing visual communication, yet they do not seem
to have been studied at all regarding stamp design (Andreou, 2017). It would be certain-
ly erroneous to assume that the communication of messages is linear and that the mes-
sages a sender attempts to transfer, are comprehended and accepted by the receiver as
Hall (1980) asserted.
Methodology, instrumentation and procedures

An exploratory sequential design (mixed methods) was selected for the present study, as
well as for the larger study it belongs to (Andreou, 2017), in order to locate stamps with
sensorial interest and also study both the official culture they represent and the citizens’
perspective. The methodological tools used for this purpose were the following: quanti-
tative content analysis, survey research and focus groups. This methodological triangu-
lation and data triangulation can be described as an attempt to map out, or even explain
in more depth the richness and complexity of human societies, while studying them from
more than one standpoint (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2000).
Quantitative content analysis was employed in order to categorize in themes a rather
large corpus, detect and discuss thematic categories, as well as individual stamps that
presented sensorial interest. A sample of 998 postage stamps (out of the collected cor-
pus of 1,121) has been studied as the researchers did not consider stamp designs that
reproduced earlier postage stamp depictions, for the coding to be valid. The entire cor-
pus was studied without sampling taking place. The reason for this decision lies in the
framework the researchers wanted to investigate that is, all the postage stamps issued
by the Republic of Cyprus, since its independence till present day (1960-2014). The cor-
pus was evaluated by three coders separately. The measure of value agreement between
the first and second coder was equal to 0,990 (p<0,001), between the first and third coder
was equal to 0,997 (p<0,001) and finally, between the second and third coder was equal
to 0,987 (p<0,001). This represents an almost perfect agreement for the stamps’ catego-
ries between these three coders.
The findings of content analysis which was the initial method of analysis for this study
are presented below (Table 1). The mode of stamp classification has been used in order
to create a final classification for each stamp among the 21 categories. This process en-
abled us to create groups within our corpus and locate more efficiently the categories
which were larger and therefore more important for the construction of official culture
(Andreou & Zantides, 2017). For the presented paper we will be discussing in more depth
larger thematic categories that additionally present sensorial interest, such as the one
entitled ‘Flora and fauna’.
Based on the findings of this content analysis, a survey research was designed in or-
der to gather the perceptions of Cypriot citizens regarding themes / topics reflected on
Table 1. Νumbers and percentages for all stamp categories (1960-2013)
stamps. This survey included a sample of 384 adult Cypriot participants. The population
of adult Cypriot citizens, residing in the Republic of Cyprus was approximately 672,000
according to the 2013 demographic report (Statistical Service, 2013). The researchers
decided to take a sample of 384 participants with a 95% confidence level and a 5% mar-
gin of error. The sample was random, so any member of the population had an equal op-
portunity to appear in the sample, while it had been organized in clusters in an attempt
to gain answers from all of the areas in the country systematically. The clusters we cre-
ated, represented the five districts controlled by the Republic of Cyprus: Nicosia, Limas-
sol, Larnaca, Paphos and Famagusta. Our survey was administrated via door-to-door
printed questionnaires and it allowed us to test which of the thematic categories creat-
ed with the aid of content analysis, were the most popular among Cypriot citizens for the
representation of their official culture, while simultaneously noting thematic categories
that presented sensorial interest. It should be noted that the participants were allowed to
choose only one thematic category from the total of 21 categories used for content anal-
ysis (including the option ‘Other’) (Table 2).
The categories with less than 5 observations were combined and a new category was
created. The chi square test indicated that the categories shown on Table 2 present sig-
Table 2. Νumbers and percentages for thematic categories selected by citizens
nificantly different percentages (X 13
2
=232,510, p<0,001). The results gathered through this
survey indicated that the citizens have selected thematic categories that in order to be
experienced or even described as part of official culture, need to use more senses oth-
er than sight. For example, the category which the citizens consider as the most suita-
ble for their country’s representation is ‘Folklore/Traditional culture’. The analysis of the
aforementioned survey research indicated certain points that could afford a more de-
tailed interpretation, such as topics concerned with stamp imagery and senses. For this
reason, we proceeded to design and implement the third and final step of the research
design, that is focus groups.
In order to utilize this step, the researchers selected a sample of 20 participants that
have already participated in the preceding survey and volunteered to further aid our
work. The sample included both genders and people of different age and level of educa-
tion. The researchers designed a protocol based on a number of modified questions of
the survey research, that showed potentials for qualitative analysis, while we included
postage stamp imagery at the end of each session in order to fuel the conversation. The
questions posed to our participants centred around the sense of ‘Cypriotness’, the way
in which they comprehend that notion, the topics and themes that they would choose for
Cyprus’ stamps, and the reasons behind their selections. Finally, they discussed imagery
that appears on Cyprus’ existing stamp designs, the experiences they relate with those
images, as well as if and how they identify a sense of ‘Cypriotness’ through them. Pho-
to elicitation as a methodological tool is based on the notion of inserting images or pho-
tographs in an interview. It is considered that participants will respond in a different way
when presented with imagery, in comparison to a traditional interview, as verbal and vis-
ual information are affecting them in different ways (Harper, 2002). The selected image-
ry for this study derived from the most popular thematic groups that the participants in-
dicated during the previous stage of the research (Flora and fauna, Traditional / Folklore
culture).
By combining these three methodological tools the researchers managed to draw
important observations regarding the official culture of Cyprus in relation to the senses,
both as they appear on stamps issued by the country itself, as well as the way they are
being expressed by the citizens. Finally, this work incorporated some semiotic elements
that enabled us to study the design of Cyprus’ stamps in order to link these findings with
the socio-political intentions behind them. The researchers considered parameters such
as colour and shape (Danesi, 2004), point of view and frame (Jewitt & Oyama, 2001), as
well as some verbal elements (Ades & Steedman, 1982) when each of these variables
applied. In the following section we will be discussing our main findings, in relation to the
socio - political background of the country.
The sensorium of official culture through stamp design in the Republic of Cyprus
The first methodological tool we employed, content analysis, indicated that the official
culture of Cyprus has mainly relied on two thematic pillars for its self-representation
through stamp imagery: archaeological findings and Greek Orthodox Christianity. In this
sense the archaeological findings on the postage stamps of the Republic of Cyprus ac-
centuated the long history of the island, while simultaneously the choice of portraying
Greek Orthodox imagery on stamps gave a sense of ‘ownership’ and sovereignty of the
state, to the Greek Cypriot side. Changes in the political scene however, have triggered
alterations in the official culture representation through stamp imagery. According to
our research (Andreou & Zantides, 2017; Andreou, 2017) these changes were caused af-
ter the induction of the country in the European Union, and following the recommence-
ment of the discussions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriot sides for the unification
of the island in 2003. Categories charged with weaker ideological connotations rose in
numbers. Such an example would be the thematic category ‘Flora and fauna’ which be-
came a favoured topic on stamps rising from 12,2% to 16,6% of the entire corpus, espe-
cially after 2004 (Andreou & Zantides, 2017). This strategy in the construction of a coun-
try’s image has been noted in other cases, such as Canada (Barney & Heine, 2015), Leb-
anon (Lamb, 1944), and even Cyprus itself, in the past (Evripidou, 2009). It is based on
the employment of a universal and mild repertoire which avoids strong ideological mes-
sages and prefers to use endemic flora and fauna as a statement of unique locality, un-
related to anything manmade.
Figure 2a. Figure 2b. Figure 2c.

Title: “Rosa Damascena”, Title: “Origanum Dobium”, Title: “Jasminum Grandiflorum”,
Date of issue: 23 March 2011, Date of issue: 2 May 2013, Date of issue: 2 May 2012,
Creator: E. Eliadou Creator: P. Apostolou Creator: E. Eliadou
The particular thematic category containing endemic species of flora and fauna has been
deliberately accentuated in terms of design. The position of the objects pictured is always
central, they are quite large in size and the absence of a frame brings them almost at close-
up in many cases (Figures 2a, 2c, 3a and 3c). These characteristics make the images ap-
pear ‘open’ and closer to the viewer, accessible and familiar (Jewitt & Oyama, 2004). Addi-
tionally, the colours used for the flora and fauna species on stamps were being intensified,
many times to the point of seeming digitally enhanced, in order to perhaps make them ap-
pear more vivid, bright and joyful (Figures 3a and 3b). This is significant in the process of
meaning construction as Danesi (2004) asserted, since colouring being a semiotic system
of its own, carries not only sensory but emotional meanings. The attention that has been
given to the colouration of this category comes in contrast with stamps belonging in other
smaller categories, such as the one depicting aspects of traditional culture (Figures 5a, 5b,
5c and 5d). The typography used on these stamps can also indicate important points sug-
gesting the hope of reconciliation of the two communities. In fact, typography has the abili-
ty to function as a means for emphasis (Ades & Steedman, 1982), something that undoubt-
edly happens in the case of these postage stamps. We can note how for the first time on
Cyprus’ stamps and while the Greek word for Cyprus remained hierarchically first, is now
followed by the Turkish equivalent, leaving the word in English, last.
Figures 3a and 3b. Figure 3c.

Titles: “Sea anemone” and “Sea fan coral” Title: “Opuntia Ficus - Barbarica”,
Date of issue: 5 June 2013, Date of issue: 15 June 2006,
Creator: S. Malekou Creator: K. Panayi
Figures 4a and 4b.

Titles: “Eleonora’s falcon”
Date of issue: 25 September 2003,
Creator: G. Theophylaktou
We can note additional design decisions taken in order to make the particular themat-
ic category more noticeable. For the first time in the corpus of Cyprus’ stamps a design
which is not rectangle or square shaped, had been issued (Figures 4a and 4b). In order
to depict an endemic species of falcons, a triangular stamp design was produced, giv-
ing the image a dynamic tension that did not exist in previous stamp designs. Let us not
forget that triangles are regarded as rather ideal and dynamic forms in Western cultures
(Danesi, 2004).
Furthermore, the introduction of more than one sense in the design of Cyprus’ stamps
has to be the most important differentiation in the state’s postage stamp strategy. A set
of stamps in particular combined the senses of sight and smell, for the first time (Fig-
ures 2a, 2b and 2c). In fact, the Republic of Cyprus has issued in 2011, 2012 and 2013
three different sets of aromatic stamps representing endemic species of flora and evok-
ing the actual smell of the plants and flowers represented, upon rubbing these stamps.
It is obvious therefore, that the relevant authorities attempted to enhance the presence
of this type of imagery in its official repertoire through stamps, in various and even cre-
ative ways.
It would be of interest to pay attention to how the citizens of Cyprus view this impor-
tant (for the government) thematic category, through the results we gathered with the
aid of both survey and focus groups. The citizens who took part in our survey seem to al-
so consider this category at least moderately important as it ranked third, out of the 21
suggested thematic categories. The discussion within focus groups revealed that the cit-
izens actually grasp the idea of a nation’s representation through flora and fauna and be-
lieve it to be a plausible solution. According to them, images such as these tend to ‘seem
familiar’ or even ‘mild and good-natured’, while serving in ‘highlighting what is unique
in a country without being too severe’, as 25-year-old Georgia, explained. Interesting-
ly enough, the particular category was highly associated with the senses of smell and
hearing, throughout the discussion, something that was noted in all four groups of par-
ticipants. In fact, the participants were more positively inclined to the idea of discussing
their own experiences, especially these associated with living in the countryside. Dur-
ing the discussion of this category the majority of the participants (17) expressed them-
selves with fondness and nostalgia recalling mostly pleasant memories, thus fuelling the
conversation. 28-year-old Stelios would be a suitable example to mention of the way the
majority of participants viewed this thematic category, as he asserted: ‘This is Cyprus,
you know… You cannot comprehend, or even imagine a country correctly, if you do not
visit the countryside. Every place has its own sounds and smells. I mean the nature. […]
Smell and taste define a place’.
The most representative thematic category according to the survey participants how-
ever, was the one depicting aspects of folklore (Table 2). This finding came in contrast
with the content analysis of the same corpus of stamps where the particular themat-
ic category ranked ninth, containing a rather small amount of stamps in comparison to
other categories (Table 1). Additionally, the particular category is not only small in the
actual corpus but it also seems to be of secondary importance as both older and recent
stamp designs depicting traditional culture, lack the obvious and deliberate attempts at
creativity we presented before (Figures 5a, 5b, 5c and 5d).
Figure 5a. Figure 5b.

Title:“Folk Dance”, Title: “Viniculture”,
Date of issue: 12 April 2006, Date of issue: 10 November 2010,
Creator: G. Theophylaktou Creator: M. Ephstathiadou
Figure 5c. Figure 5d.

Title: “Violin, lute, flute”, Title: “Beekeeping in Cyprus”,
Date of issue: 6 May 1985, Date of issue: 16 October 1989,
Creator: A. Koutas Creator: S. Yiasemides
On the other hand, both the survey’s and focus groups’ participants strongly favoured
the particular thematic category, since they considered it the most suitable for Cyprus’
representation through stamps and the one that delivers a sense of ‘Cypriotness’ more
effectively to the viewer. The participants were asked to suggest specific images they
would place under the umbrella of their chosen topic in order for the researchers to bet-
ter comprehend their point of view. Their selection included several aspects of folklore,
most of them relying on senses other than sight: traditional forms of dance, customs re-
lated to various celebrations and festivals (Figures 5a and 5b), music (Figure 5c), nation-
al cuisine (Plates 5b and 5d). Most importantly all of the citizens participating in our fo-
cus group discussions agreed that a thematic category representing folk aspects of Cy-
prus’ culture would be suitable for its stamps. Throughout the discussion we had the op-
portunity to ask the participants why their positive opinion regarding this category was
so strong, especially if we consider official culture’s lack of favouring this category. All of
the participants agreed that this aspect showcases a more ‘fun and light side of Cyprus’,
one that can be enjoyed or even understood both by tourists and locals. Some of the par-
ticipants claimed that tradition is an inherent feature that distinguishes each country, but
on the other hand it is an aspect that can be appreciated and understood even by non-lo-
cals, at least to some extent. As 48-year-old Yiannis explained: ‘We should not look down
at our tradition at all. It is a form of expression… […] Something that we understand and
something we can relate to. Everyday life, that is’.
The majority of the participants shared the view of connecting to topics related with
tradition, since according to them, it is not to be admired and regarded from a distance,
but something that is experienced in their everyday lives. The examples that the partici-
pants gave us reflected aspects of convention and ordinariness and included a combina-
tion of other senses, apart from sight. The participants described various tastes from lo-
cal, traditional cuisine, as well as the sounds of traditional instruments, songs, festivals
and events, both older and contemporary, which according to them show a side of Cy-
prus, that is not only tied to its heritage, but at the same time remains contemporary and
embedded in today’s society. As Morrison (2003) argued, traditional culture serves as a
symbolic identity not imposed by the hierarchy, within a community. It is getting trans-
mitted from one generation to another, rejuvenating itself in the process and adapting to
its environment. The idea that Cypriot folklore should be preserved and ‘mutated’ in or-
der to become a part of contemporary Cyprus has been an emergent narrative in the pub-
lic discourse of the country. Events such as the current financial crisis that the island is
going through, has certainly made people ‘look inside’ for forms of expression and rein-
vent them to fit their everyday and contemporary needs.
Conclusion
The mixed methods strategy followed for this research gave us the ability to study the
topic of official culture representation through stamp imagery, taking into consideration
the broader notion of senses. Furthermore, this methodological approach allowed us to
place objects representing official culture such as stamp imagery, in direct conversation
with the citizens of the state they represent and draw important conclusions. In relation
to the research questions posed at the beginning of this study, we note a dichotomy in
the ways in which the citizens and the existing official culture, express their need for an
inclusive repertoire through the country’s stamp designs. It is evident that the official cul-
ture of Cyprus has recently adopted a mild repertoire with themes deriving from nature.
In order to do so the authorities decided on enhancing the ‘experience’ by relying not on-
ly on sight, but also on other senses, such as smell. On the other hand, we were able to
study the perceptions of Cypriot citizens in relation to official culture representation and
senses. As it was revealed, they prefer and feel a strong connection to their own local
culture, highlighting the importance of its preservation. These perceptions were further
accentuated by the participants, when they chose to mention their own experiences not
only based on sight, but on other senses such as smell, taste and hearing. This study in-
dicated how both the government’s strategy and the citizens connect their official culture
with various senses apart from sight, even if we are discussing postage stamp image-
ry. This case study proved to us how official culture may be an elusive notion, but never-
theless can be transferred within an imagined community whose members do not sim-
ply reproduce it, but actively interact with it. Furthermore, while the perceptions of gov-
ernment and citizens in relation to their country’s representation might defer, it can be
safely concluded that they both rely on senses in order to describe and define their offi-
cial culture.
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gl/sx99y4
SOCIAL SEΜIOTICS
Visual and Verbal color:

chaos or cognitive and
cultural fugue?
Mony Almalech New Bulgarian University m.almalech@nbu.bg
Abstract
Fugue and chaos are used in their contemporary meaning. Elements of fugue, albe-
it a small number of universals, will be demonstrated in the area of visual and verbal
colors. Chaos dominates the internet, fashion and everyday life. The visual and verbal
colors are differentiated and their communicative potential is indicated alongside the
diachronic changes. The prototypes of colors are the interface between visual and ver-
bal colors.
Keywords
prototype , color , recurring , cultural unit
Goal
I will try to show that visual and verbal colors could be a language, a system of signs,
‘that people use to express thoughts and feelings to each other’1. Provided that colors
cannot be a natural communicative sign system, I would like to demonstrate that the ba-
sic colors (white, black, red, green, blue and yellow) have meanings for human notions,
emotions and feelings, e.g. purity, immaculateness, love, hate, luck, health, hope, eter-
nity, etc. (this is not the Hupka et al. [1997] verbal synesthesia between concepts of color
and emotions). The reason for such an approach is the link between colors, color proto-
types and meanings in the rituals of different cultures. Studies of the rituals of different
peoples provide grounds to think about a small number of universal values motivated by
the strategy of the ritual and the prototypes.
Another very difficult question is: “Are there common meanings between visual and
verbal colors?” My aim is to demonstrate that the availability of a small core of mutual
associative meanings of colors is based on the culturization of the prototypes, for details
see Almalech 2011a. The core meanings are fugue, at the same time there are local/in-
dividual meanings presenting semiotic chaos.
Terms used
The terms fugue and chaos will be used in their contemporary meaning. Fugue: In mu-
sic – a compositional procedure characterized by the systematic imitation of a principal
theme (called the subject) in simultaneous sounds. A fugue is based on the polyphonic
treatment (through extensive melodic imitation) of a recurring subject or theme.2 A con-
trapuntal composition, in which a short melody or phrase (the subject) is introduced by
one part and successively taken up by others, and developed by interweaving the parts.3
Chaos: Complete disorder and confusion.4 Chaos may refer to Lawlessness, a lack of
laws or law enforcement; Anarchy, lawlessness or a stateless society.5
Ergo, Fugue is something systematic and well structured, with recognizable elements
and relationships among them. Chaos is an unsystematic and unstructured object.
Also, we should distinguish between visual and verbal color. The basic idea is that despite
the many contributions hitherto there has been no clear differentiation in the semiotic status
of the visual and the verbal color. Eco (1985/1996) points out the problematics:
We are dealing with verbal language in so far as it conveys notions about

visual experiences, and we must, then, understand how verbal language
makes the non-verbal experience recognizable, speakable and effable.
(p. 159) When one utters a color term one is not directly pointing to a
state of the world (process of reference), but, on the contrary, one is con-
necting or correlating that term with a cultural unit or concept. The utter-
ance of the term is determined, obviously, by a given sensation, but the
transformation of the sensory stimuli into a percept is in some way deter-
mined by the semiotic relationship between the linguistic expression and
the meaning or content culturally correlated to it. (p. 160)
In addition, we need a simple definition of language. Merriam-Webster Dictionary gives

such a simple definition: ‘The system of words or signs that people use to express
thoughts and feelings to each other’.6
Visual color is what we have access to by our visual perception.
Verbal color is when we use natural language to designate color in natural language.
I include four types of words for color reference: Basic Color Terms, BCT (red, green,
white, black, etc.); Prototype Terms, PT (e.g. light, darkness, sun, fire, blood, sky, sea,
all plants), Rival Terms, RT (e.g. cherry, duckling, ruby, linen, etc.), and Terms for the
Basic Features of the Prototypes, TBFP (clean, pure, immaculate for light; hot and warm
for fire/blood; fresh for plants, etc.). As color meaning, BCT are independent, all others
are context-dependent. This approach corresponds to the opinion that color is not only
expressed in BCT (Sutrop, 2011). My linguo-semiotic approach includes knowledge of
the paradigm of Berlin and Kay (1969), the World Color Survey7, led by Kay; critics of
Berlin and Kay; Norm of free word-associations to BCT for different languages, Prototype
Theory, and Theory of translation.
Verbal colors are subjected to linear ordering or the syntax of natural language. Visual
colors are perceived simultaneously or tactically.
The parameters of the environment and human anatomy and psychology dictate the
formation of color categories in the human minds via the so-called most typical exam-
ples or prototypes for color. This is the Prototype Theory presented by Rosch (1972;
1973), Lakoff (1978) and Wierzbicka (1990). The prototypes are: light or milk or snow
for White; darkness or coals for Black; blood and/or fire/flame for Red; sea and/or sky
for Blue; the midday sun for Yellow; all plants for Green. Prototypes are the same for all
races and peoples, regardless of the political and economic system, social structure, re-
gardless of the degree of technological development. This is one level of Fugue because
it is a universal phenomenon based on human anatomy and environmental conditions.
This is a cognitive fugue and a universal phenomenon.
Each human being possesses a biological antenna (acoustic apparatus) to broadcast
verbal tokens and a biological antenna (auditory perception) for receiving audio signals.
For visual signs, each human has a biological antenna only for receving visual signs
(perception and sensation) but no biological antenna to broadcast (speech apparatus)
any visual color characters. A human’s speech apparatus is the technology for coloring
objects, but it is not a natural/biological apparatus. Ergo, colors cannot be a primary,
general semiotic system for communication between people. Such a system can only be
the natural language.
To understand the written language, temporal sequence or order in which
words appear in a sentence is very important […] In visual images, the po-
sition, size, and composition of the contents of the image play a significant
role in the meaning making. (Liu, 2013, p. 1260)
Usually scholars concentrate on the verbal color terms, in particular on Basic Color
Terms. Until now, visual colors have remained relatively independent and unbound to
the verbal colors’ area. One positive exception is the Ph.D. dissertation of Darrodi (2012).
Her main method is the scale rating of Osgood (1960) that is relevant to visual and ver-
bal colors, but Darrodi uses neither the Theory of prototypes nor the free word-associa-
tions (Kent & Rosanoff, 1910).
The meanings I found in the Kent and Rosanoff test are called innate response or bi-
ological associations in the psychology survey based on Osgood’s (1960) semantic dif-
ferential technique. Osgood points out the synesthesia as a factor: ‘visualverbal synes-
thetic relationships characteristic of our own language/culture community are shared by
peoples who speak different languages and enjoy different cultures’ (p. 146). The mean-
ings of ‘anger’ and ‘danger’ are associated with red both in the Norm of word associa-
tions and in Osgood’s method survey. There is one serious difference: in the test of Kent
and Rosanoff, the respondents themselves indicate the meaning of ‘anger’, whereas with
the method of Osgood, the scholars predetermine the meaning of colors, e.g. ‘danger’ as
the meaning of red, which has to be evaluated on a scale (good – bad; anger – calm, etc.).
Darrodi involves the scale rating analysis with saturation and brightness, an element
of B & K method that is strongly criticized (Saunders, 1995; Saunders & van Brakel,
1988): ‘This explanation leaves further problems – why should characteristics of color
such as saturation and brightness be universally reacted to in terms of goodness or bad-
ness, strength or weakness.’ (p. 61). Darrodi points to some weakness of Osgood’s se-
mantic differential in cross-cultural and cross-linguistic areas:
Although the methods of scale rating that Osgood uses do not work
equally well in all cultures, and the translation of concepts often involves
almost insuperable problems, yet every systematic study of this phenom-
ena in other cultures has found remarkably similar factors of evaluation,
potency, and activity (p. 61).
Cross-cultural and the cross-linguistic deviations could appear with the free word-asso-
ciations test regarding all languages, all over the world, but the biggest differences are
the strong correlations between BCT and PT; the reevaluation of linguistic consciousness
and subconsciousness in free associative responses.
The most positive result with the studies, based on Osgood’s technique, is the clear
articulation of the existence of ‘associations or verbal synesthesia between concepts of
color and emotions’ (Hupka et al., 1997, p. 156).
Diachronic changes are Fugue, but not Chaos. Just as diachronic changes are the
mien of permanent semiosis for natural languages, changes in the language of color
during the centuries are something we can expect to happen.
Although color (visual or verbal) cannot be the main communication system, there
are facts from folk and religious cultures showing the ritual meanings of colors (Al-
malech, 1996).
Current humanitarian knowledge integrates colors in multimodal texts/messag-
es, even in an attempt to formulate a Visual communication grammar. Kress & van
Leeuwen (2002) deal with visual color by analyzing color speech and visual rhetoric, but
not color language. They achieve results within the adopted methodology of systemic
linguistics. According to the authors, color is metafunctional in the terms of Halliday
with ideational, interpersonal, and textual functions. In some cases, color fulfills these
three metafunctions simultaneously (p. 346), but color does not always satisfy all three
of these functions (p. 350).
Other authors who comment on the positions of Kress & van Leeuwen note:
The three metafunctions put forth by Kress and van Leeuwen (1996) are
not direct relationships between semiotic resources and meaning. The
concepts such as power, interaction, detachment and involvement and so
on are not meanings hidden in the images, rather, they are meaning po-
tentials, that is, they are the possible meanings which will be activated
by the producers and viewers of images. (Jewitt & Oyama, 2001, p. 136)
Kress and van Leeuwen (2002) distinguish between two ways to produce the meaning of
colors. The first is psychological – by associations that come from the culture and the past,
but also from present day advertising and brands. An essential element is the context in
which an association operates. The second way is to accept the visual qualities of color
– hue, saturation, purity, modulation, differentiation – as semantic distinguishing features.
They are placed within the ideational, interpersonal and textual functions.
The physical and psychological features of visual colors are used to explain how and
what the meanings of colors could be. Big problems and a high degree of complexity
characterize this system, despite its scholarly severity.
In my opinion, treating colors as cultural units by Eco (1985/1996) gives more free-
dom and chances to reflect on the constantly elusive non-color meanings of colors (vi-
sual or verbal). Color as a cultural unit should include the meanings of colors in folk
and religious rituals. The cultural unit should take into account verbal and visual colors,
color and non-color meanings (lexical and contextual), the whole information on the
semantics of a token – synchronic and diachronic, the cultural and the social aspects –
all of them are “culturally correlated”. We should not be ashamed to use the symbolism
of colors, as described in anthropology, e.g. Turner (1966).
The color language as fugue and chaos
The prototype is an object which is most typical for a class of objects, and the objects,
are the same for humankind. Human notions and feelings could be encoded because of
this universal cognitive Fugue – in the rituals consumed visually and verbally. Chaos is on
the internet, fashion, and everyday life where the basic principle is the opposite – ‘be dif-
ferent’, ‘be unique’. Thus, Pantone Inc. is a corporation known for its Pantone Matching
System (PMS) and color chart. Every year Pantone introduces a “color of the year”, a very
influential proposition in the fashion industry, e.g. marcala (Pantone 18-1438) is the col-
or of 2015, Rose Quartz and Serenity are the colors of 2016, etc. Key rituals, such as mar-
riage, have been repeated for centuries without change, and this is another level of Fugue.
In the traditional wedding, there are four colors. Every color has its meaning. Red –
apotropaic; White – purity, clean; Green – life; Gold – 1. Utilitarian value of wealth; 2. Gold
permit to the afterlife.
In my research on traditional wedding customs, I used data from many reliable schol-
ars. It appears that a Red bridal veil was a universal sign for marriage. It was the sign
for the bride in Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece, an Ottoman bride in the 19-20 centuries,
Christian brides in Slavic ethnic territories, as well as for Armenian, Jewish, and Druse
brides. (Almalech, 1996).
Considering the golden object in the ritual, Marazov postulates, ‘In archaic cultures,
high syncretism between the utilitarian and symbolic function of things […] remains.
Each item combines both senses, both purposes […] thereby enhancing their semiotic
status considerably. The golden objects turned into the gold permits to the afterlife […]’
(Marazov, 1994, p. 12).
The red bridal veil is one of the striking examples for universality. Young couples marry
in modern reconstructions of the traditional bridal attire in Bulgaria, Turkey, and other coun-
tries8. Brides in China, India and Nepal still hold their red dresses and red veils, especially in
rural areas9, although currently in the monotheistic countries, as well as in China, Nepal and
India, white is the norm for bridal wear. Red dress, red veil and red shoes are replaced with
white. There are even some mixes between traditional and current marital norms.
Diachronic changes are another level of Fugue and not Chaos. In current monotheistic
states, as well as in China, Nepal, and India, a white “uniform” is the norm for bridal at-
tire. The red dress, red veil, and red shoes are substituted by white ones. There are even
some mixtures between the traditional and current marriage norms.
There is no wedding without greenery. The modern white version keeps this element.
Gold has also been preserved as part of the norm with gold rings. Thus, only red has
been eliminated from the ancient norm.
It is a quite popular understanding that a white dress and a white veil have the mean-
ing of ‘moral and physical purity’, ‘virginity’. These meanings exist in both the traditional
and the modern norm. When did the new association norm start? There are two women
noted to have made the white wedding gown popular – Anne of Brittany and Queen Vic-
toria. The case with Anne of Brittany is the product of mythology. We find the view that
she wears a white dress and white veil to express her protest and disagreement with the
marriage settlement with a French king, who made her and her district subject to the
French crown. At that time, the mourning color for the king’s family was white.
Queen Victoria wore an elegant, wholly white gown at her wedding in

1840, after which the tendency to wear a white dress and a wedding veil
began to catch on. The white was worn because people believed it to be
wealth, virginity and purity.10
This change is diachronic. This does not mean, however, that contemporary fashion is
deprived of meaning. In fact, white has the same meaning, which operates under the
‘white mourning’ ancient times and in different cultures – it means purity. Thus, we have
a diachronic change, which does not mean that there is no color language.
Quite an interesting phenomenon is documented in the Bible. The norm for the clothes
of priests was postulated by Moses (13th century B.C.) for the Tabernacle. The clothes of
priests constitute a color Tetranom – blue [tekhèleth], purple [argamàn], scarlet [tolàat
šanì], and fine linen [šeš]. It is a verbal specification with loan words, not by accident, for
something which should be visual. The color tetranom was retained in the First Temple
but Solomon replaced linen-[šeš] with linen-[butz] in the 10th century B.C. In the 6th century
B.C., the prophet Ezekiel postulated that priests should wear monocolored clothes in the
Second Temple, and the single color is of linen named by another term – [pištìm]. Thus,
the whole tetranom was withdrawn from use. This is evidence of a diachronic change.
The terminology of the priest’s garments has a special status because before the sto-
ry of Moses in the biblical text two other terms for linen clothes appear in the biblical text
– [badìm] and [ketònet]. The diachronic changes in terminology are a marker for the cul-
tural and contextual circumstances that dictate these changes.
My definition of color language is as thus. We have a color language when by visual or
verbal color we express/refer to human concepts and emotions, e.g. purity, anger, love,
life, eternity, etc. These I call the non-color meanings of colors.
The biggest difficulty is to prove the realistic parameters of the language of colors –
with their elements of fugue and chaos.
I am not interested in the regular referential scope of BCTs in one or another language
– it is a well-known fact, proven in many texts and experiments that there is inter-lingual
asymmetry on this point, even in a single language, ‘depending on dialect’, idiolect or
personal color vision and naming. I am focused on a much more difficult area – to prove
that colors have communicative power to refer to non-color meanings, just as it is with
traffic lights – go, stop, attention in the spirit of parts of speech, being imperative, narra-
tive, etc. I would go as far as to claim that we can even lie with colors.
Usually, specialists answer in the negative to the question “Is there a universal color
language?”
There has never been a single language of color. Color codes with a re-
stricted semantic reach have always proliferated, and sometimes contra-
dicted each other. But there are also broader, longer lasting, and more
widely distributed trends, such as the reign of ‘puritan black’ or the ascen-
dance of blue (van Leeuwen, 2011, p. 97).
I agree with this conclusion, but if we take into account that diachronic changes are
the stronghold of permanent semiosis in which some meanings remain unchanged, e.g.
‘pure’ for white, the conclusion of van Leeuwen appears in a different light.
Others call “color language” something that does not meet the true idea of language
(a sign system), but which has to be included into the territory of semiotics and
structuralism in the spirit of Saussure. They remain in the territory of examination for
BCT, including all developments of Berlin and Kay’s theory on naming and the categori-
zation of color, and do not pay attention to the opinion of Sutrop (2011) that BCTs are a
small part how each language names the colors. Thus, we can evaluate the papers at the
conference of the Color Group UK in the section “Color langauge” – that remains entire-
ly in the routine mainstream of natural language, color categorization, naming, transla-
tion, natural language synchrony and diachrony, see PICS 201611.
A real semiotic challenge is the translation between visual and verbal color language,
which was undertaken by Kurdis (2016).
Traffic lights are a popular example of a universal visual language, which means that
colors have communicative potential. We can translate every color to human notions.
In traditional folk marriage, a red bridal veil is a universal custom in Ancient Rome, An-
cient Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Ukraine in the XIX century, and Ottoman Turkey.
There have been some changes in the language of colors in rituals, e.g. the
replacement of the four-color code of the traditional wedding with a tricolor (white,
green and gold) one in modern wedding ritual. As in any language there is synchro-
ny and diachrony, in the language of colors in rituals there is synchrony and diachro-
ny. Meanwhile, even today, in China and India the traditional and universal four-color
wedding code persists. Diachronic changes do not cover the synchronic understanding
for relativity, so these changes remain in the territory of universalism.
The opposition universality – relativity is fundamental to structuralism, semiotics, and
linguistics. A positive feature of universalism is that it typically finds common structures
and elements in different phenomena. A negative one is the neglect of various, often
important, differences. A positive feature of relativism is that it accounts for, and reck-
ons with, various local elements, relationships, and structures, while its negative feature
is that it ignores reasonable common elements. For example, the claim that there are no
common features between Indo-European languages because each language is unique
is an unreasonable denial of the evidence for their common genealogy. Both approaches
are vindicated in the approach to BCT. Berlin and Kay (1969) present an opinion for BCT’s
evolution/appearance in languages. The World Color Survey on BCT is a project of Paul
Kay and associates who have been carrying it out since 1975.
In my writings, the term Universality differs from the evolutionary interpretation in the
paradigm of Berlin and Kay. I seek to prove that there are non-color meanings of visual
and verbal colors in folk and religious rituals, e.g. purity, cleanliness, immaculateness
for white; love, hate for red; life, calm for green, etc. In the humanitarian tradition, this
kind of meanings is known as symbolism. Ndembu ritual colors are an excellent exam-
ple in this respect. I claim, unlike Van Leeuwen, that there is a color language, with a
small core of universal meanings, but it can be observed only in rituals.
Diachronic changes are inevitable phenomena, just as they are for natural languages.
We must add the idea of Umberto Eco that we should treat color as a ‘cultural unit’ (Eco,
1985/1996; Almalech, 2017).
In the case of the bridal veil and dress, their white color has an anthropological and
cultural explanation. The life of queens is detached from nature to which it is necessary
to associate the apotropaic function of red. The development of technologies at the end
of the 19th century and the resettlement of many villagers in towns led to the illusion that
people do not depend on nature. It is therefore not necessary for red to protect the bride
from evil natural forces.
Universality (prototypes in the visual, verbal and cultural space)

The prototypes are the same for all humankind, in all ages, regardless of religion, level of
technology and social set-up. The prototypes are the visual colors of blood, fire, sky, sea, etc.
The Test for Free word associations of Kent and Rosanoff (1910) is a well-known method. The
Bulgarian Norm of Free word associations for BCT (Almalech, 2001; 2011a) proves that in the
core of the Norm the most frequent and steady associations are the tokens for prototypes.
The results of the Bulgarian Norm show that the highest statistical frequency in the
norm belongs to the terms of the prototypes and mostly for their specific qualities – Al-
malech, 2001; 2011b). If we recall the main folklore and ritual meanings of colors (Al-
malech, 1996), we shall see that there is a small core of shared meanings. This core rep-
resents the universal non-color meanings of colors. I made an experiment – I tested stu-
dents from different countries (Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Estonia, Finland, Italy and Ka-
zakhstan) using English as the common language. It did it twice – during the intensive
Erasmus program Semiotic Theories and Practices in Cyprus Technology (2014) and at the
Early Fall School of Semiotics (2015). Despite the fact that the students did not use their
mother tongue, the responses to the English BCT showed the same result – the words for
Prototypes had the highest frequency.
The responses are considered (linguistic and non-linguistic, unconscious and
conscious) knowledge of the universal, prototype-based meanings of colors. The fact
there are universal responses is well-known. Rosenzweig (1961, pp. 359-360) marks
the universal character of word-associations in the frame of the Kent and Rosanoff
list across French, English, Italian and German Norms of Free Word Associations. The
shared knowledge of universal non-color meanings of BCT represents a common code
– the language of colors.
The paradigm of responses can mirror personal subconscious knowledge based on in-
dividual experience plus socially formed meanings. That is why the list of word-associa-
tions represents both the universal meanings and the non-universal meanings of colors.
Thus, it is possible to claim that color language, where it exists, is the semantiza-
tion and culturization of the prototypes. There is a basic lexical meaning of colors – pure,
clean, immaculate for White (light, snow, milk); hot, warm for Red (fire, blood); fresh for
Green (all plants); expanse, vastness, infinitude for Blue (sky, sea) etc. This point is the
Fugue in color language, and the universal feature. These basic lexical meanings are
tainted by derived meanings, depending on the strategy of the ritual.
The basic Fugue allows the appearance of the different individual, relative features,
which are a kind of ordered features, e.g. the ritual culture of the Ndembu tribe from Af-
rica is concentrated around different categories of blood and red clay but not fire (Turn-
er, 1966, pp. 59-60).
The situation in Bulgarian folk rituals and customs is different – fire and blood are
equally represented (Almalech, 1996).
The chaos is also represented in the language of colors.
An important peculiarity is that individual derivative meanings are much more and
are more common than the basic ones. Individual meanings are distant from the main
lexical meanings, especially in poetry and novels. Chaotic meanings, which result from
the writer’s fantasy, taste, etc., are possible in poetry and novels.
It is important to make a definitive difference between the everyday and the ritual use
of colors. In everyday life, fashion, the internet, and advertising, there is no color lan-
guage, i.e. there is chaos.
Conclusions
It is easy to observe chaotic color meanings. It is much more difficult to prove/trace uni-
versal visual-verbal color-emotion associations and human notions encoded in colors.
Prototypes are linguistic, cognitive and cultural interfaces between the fugue of visual and
verbal colors’ where it exists. Anthropological surveys make it clear that the visual colors
have non-color meanings (i.e. the symbolism of colors). Verbal colors also have non-col-
or meanings proved by the results of Kent and Rosanoff test (1910), and the core of the
Norm is motivated by the prototypes. Color symbolism and the associative color mean-
ings can be treated as a natural sign. This conclusion corresponds to the opinion of Yelle
(2012) for the motivation of the signs in different folklore and religious systems and prac-
tices. Thus, in the unscientific, religious understanding of sound and colors, the sounds of
natural language and the colors are motivated/natural signs. This is an anti-structuralist
understanding, but motivated/natural signs are fact in folklore and religious practices all
over the world. The color fugue is cognitively based on the universality of the prototypes.
It is doubtful that all five senses (Levi-Strauss, 1969) are involved in color language.
Apart from sight and hearing, various cultural phenomena are involved actively in
the synesthetic fugue color language surrounded by a world of chaotic uses of color.
Universal prototypes, however, are at the heart of color culturization, and they form the
elements of fugue at the associative core meanings of colors.
Endnotes
1. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/language, accessed 03.10.2016.
2. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://kenli.nbu.bg:3277/levels/collegiate/search/
articles?query=fugue 27.09.2016.
3. Retrieved from Oxford Dictionary https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/fugue accessed
25.09.2016
4. Retrieved from Oxford Dictionary https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/chaos 23.09.2016
5. Retrieved from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaos accessed 21.09.2016.
6. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/language, accessed 03.10.2016
7. World Color Survey. Retrieved from www1.icsi.berkeley.edu/wcs/ accessed 2015
8. See Bulgaria https://zikata.wordpress.com/2011/06/03/the-royal-wedding%E2%80%A6-or-a-
traditional-bulgarian-wedding/; https://www.burgasinfo.com/news/view/5/72364 ; Turkey https://
www.pinterest.com/pin/370421138081091346/?lp=true
9. See India https://www.pinterest.com/pin/180495897545995160/?lp=true; China https://www.
pinterest.com/pin/171277592053253144/?lp=true; Nepal, https://www.google.com/search?q=red
+bridal+veil+in+Nepal&client=firefox-b&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwilpJ6Pgf7a
AhVryKYKHRg1ANQQ_AUICigB&biw=1360&bih=603#imgrc=YXDOepQra7FRkM:
10. Retrieved from www.vaaltriangleinfo.co.za/wedding_guide/wedding Accessed 2015
11. Retrieved from https://www.dropbox.com/s/j41mrjtq3ut2r4o/PICS2016_Programme_Sep.pdf?dl=0
accessed 2016
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EDUCATION & SEMIOTICS

Πολυ-αισθητηριακή και
πολυτροπική διάδραση
στο Θέατρο
για Ανήλικους Θεατές
Ιωάννα Μενδρινού Π.Τ.Δ.Ε. Ε.Κ.Π.Α imendrinou@sch.gr
Abstract
Το Θέατρο για Ανήλικους Θεατές, ως πολιτιστική κατασκευή ή επιτέλεση με εγνωσμένη
μορφο/παιδευτική και αισθητικο/καλλιτεχνική υπόσταση, αλλά και ως δευτερογενής με-
ταγλώσσα σημείωσης της πραγματικότητας, βρίσκεται ήδη από το τελευταίο τέταρτο του
20ου αιώνα σε μία συνεχή διαδικασία εξέλιξης - μελέτης, πειραματισμού και ανανέωσης
με σύγχρονες παιδαγωγικές και καλλιτεχνικές τάσεις μετασχηματισμού των διαδικασιών
πρόσληψης. Πρόκειται για μία δυναμική μετατόπιση από μονόδρομες, λογο-κεντρικές και
οπτικο-κεντρικές πρακτικές προσέλκυσης ενός παθητικού και ομοιογενούς κοινού ανήλι-
κων θεατών, σε πολυ-αισθητηριακές και πολυτροπικές μορφές διάδρασης σκηνής-πλα-
τείας. Η θεατρική παράσταση ανάγεται κατ’ αυτό τον τρόπο σε μία μοναδική αισθητηρια-
κή και ξεχωριστά (για κάθε έναν από τους θεατρικούς αποδέκτες) εποικοδομητική εμπει-
ρία στο πλαίσιο της οποίας το παιδί-θεατής αντιμετωπίζεται ως δρων -έλλογο και ενσώ-
ματο- υποκείμενο. Αντικείμενο της εισήγησης συνιστά η ανάδειξη των ποικίλων αισθη-
τηριακών συμμετοχικών προ(σ)κλήσεων στο Θέατρο για Ανήλικους Θεατές οι οποίες εγ-
γράφονται σε θεατρικά κείμενα του τελευταίου τετάρτου του 20ου αιώνα και έως σήμε-
ρα, αποκαλύπτοντας την παιδαγωγική και καλλιτεχνική άποψη των ενήλικων δημιουργών
τους για το παιδί ή το νέο θεατή, όπως και γι’ αυτό καθ’ αυτό το ιδιαίτερο θεατρικό είδος.
Θέατρο για Ανήλικους Θεατές , πολυ-αισθητηριακή διάδραση , πολυτροπικότητα
Το Θέατρο για Ανήλικους Θεατές, αντίστοιχα όπως και άλλες κατηγορίες θεάτρου, συ-
νιστά ένα κατεξοχήν επικοινωνιακό (Eco, 1977, σελ. 110), πληροφοριακά πολυφωνικό
(Barthes, 1967, σελ. 262), πολυδιάστατο, πολυτροπικό (Eco, 1975, σελ. 34. Χοντολίδου,
1999, σελ. 115-117) και (πολυ)σημειωτικό σύστημα καλλιτεχνικής έκφρασης, σημείωσης
όψεων της υποκειμενικής και αντικειμενικής πραγματικότητας (Pavis, 1975, σελ. 241-243),
αλλά και μέσο προβολής και διάδοσης μηνυμάτων, πολιτισμικών αξιών και εννοιών σε ευ-
ρύτερα κοινωνικά σύνολα (Γραμματάς, 21999, σελ. 159).
Από την άλλη πλευρά και εξαιτίας του ιδιαίτερου κοινού στο οποίο απευθύνεται, απο-
τελεί μία ξεχωριστή μορφή θεάτρου «με αυτόνομα χαρακτηριστικά, υφολογικές και εννοι-
ολογικές ιδιαιτερότητες […] τόσο ως προς τις δραματουργικές προϋποθέσεις, όσο τις σκηνι-
κές συνισταμένες, όσο και τις προσληπτικές συνθήκες της» (Γραμματάς, 1992, σελ. 42). Χα-
ρακτηρίζεται δηλαδή «από αισθητικές και παιδαγωγικές αρετές που αντιστοιχούν στις ανά-
γκες και στα ζητούμενα του κόσμου των ανηλίκων θεατών» (Γραμματάς, 42004, σελ. 355).
Θέτει κατ’ αυτό τον τρόπο ως προτεραιότητα όλων των εμπλεκομένων στην παραγωγική
διαδικασία, την αποδοτικότητα της λειτουργίας των μηχανισμών προβολής και πρόσλη-
ψης του θεάματος ήδη από τη φάση της συγγραφής του δραματικού κειμένου (Γραμματάς,
2010, σελ. 15-23) αξιώνοντας εκτός από καλλιτεχνικό ταλέντο και παιδαγωγική επάρκεια,
άποψη και ευρηματικότητα στη διαχείριση και αξιοποίηση θεατρικών πρακτικών και πα-
ραστατικών κωδίκων, σημείων και μέσων.
Αντιλαμβανόμενοι πως η αντιμετώπιση της παιδικής ηλικίας, όπως και αυτή καθ’ αυ-
τή η εμπειρία “του να είσαι παιδί”, δε συνιστούν σταθερά και καθολικά σημεία αναφοράς,
αντιθέτως μεταβάλλονται όπως και οι κοινωνίες στο χρόνο, μπορούμε να αντιληφθούμε
τους λόγους για τους οποίους τόσο η δραματουργία, όσο και η θεατρική πρακτική δια-
μορφώνονται αναφορικά με τα κυρίαρχα πρότυπα, αλλά και τα διατιθέμενα υλικά και τε-
χνικά μέσα κάθε εποχής.
Η εξέταση κατ’ αυτό τον τρόπο, των αισθητηριακών μορφών και δομών εκδήλωσης
και προσέλκυσης του κοινού, που είτε εγγράφονται ως ενδοκειμενική πρόθεση στις σκη-
νικές οδηγίες και τη σύνταξη δραματικών κειμένων ή σε παρακειμενικές πηγές (θεατρικά
προγράμματα, κριτική θεάτρου, κ.λπ.), είτε επιστρατεύονται ως επικοινωνιακοί παραστα-
τικοί κώδικες και σημεία, σε έργα που καταξιώθηκαν σε ελληνικές επαγγελματικές θεα-
τρικές σκηνές στο τελευταίο τέταρτο του 20ου κι έως σήμερα, αποκτά ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέ-
ρον για την κατανόηση της σχέσης αλληλεπίδρασης θεάτρου-πραγματικότητας και ειδι-
κότερα των σύγχρονων απαιτήσεων ή προκλήσεων που τίθενται σε μία εποχή
– ρηξικέλευθων κοινωνικοπολιτικών και πολιτισμικών μετασχηματισμών,
– ραγδαίων επιστημονικών και τεχνολογικών εξελίξεων,
– υποχώρησης των συλλογικών προς κυριαρχία ατομικιστικών αναζητήσεων και αιτη-
μάτων αυτοπραγμάτωσης (Κονδύλης, 2007),
– απελευθέρωσης του σώματος (Μακρυνιώτη, 2004. Πουρκός, 2008) και
– αποθέωσης των αρχών της βιωματικότητας.
Επανεξέτασης συνεπώς, του θεάτρου που παράγεται για να απευθυνθεί στα ανήλικα
μέλη μίας πραγματικότητας στην οποία η ανατροπή παγιωμένων σχημάτων, ιεραρχιών
και συνηθειών του παρελθόντος συνεργούν στη διαμόρφωση μίας νέας αισθητηριακής
συνθήκης επιφέροντας ανακατατάξεις στη βάση κάθε επικοινωνιακού συστήματος, μετα-
βάλλοντας τους κώδικες και τα μέσα κοινωνικής αλληλεπίδρασης και απαιτώντας από το
σύγχρονο υποκείμενο την καλλιέργεια νέων δεξιοτήτων (όπως του πολυγραμματισμού).
Λαμβάνοντας υπόψη ότι το θέατρο συνιστά μία κατεξοχήν τέχνη εικονοποίησης του λό-
γου, αποπειράται μία εισαγωγική παρουσίαση των ποικίλων τρόπων με τους οποίους σύγ-
χρονα δεδομένα της σημειωτικής προσέγγισης (οπτικά, ακουστικά, απτικά, οσφρητικά,
γευστικά σημεία) ανανεώνουν το εξεταζόμενο είδος σε επίπεδο παραγωγής και πρόσλη-
ψης καταδεικνύοντας τα εκσυγχρονιστικά βήματα που έχουν συντελεστεί προς την κατεύ-
θυνση ενός πολυ-αισθητηριακού, πολυτροπικού και διαδραστικού θεάτρου το οποίο να
ανταποκρίνεται στις προσδοκίες και τις αναπτυξιακές ανάγκες των σύγχρονων ανήλικων,
αλλά και στις ανάγκες που ο πολιτισμός δημιουργεί στο παιδί (Bruner, 1986, σελ. 121-133).
Το «παιδικό» θέατρο μίας συμβατικής αντίληψης

Το Θέατρο για ανήλικους θεατές, συνιστά μία πρόσφατη σχετικά θεατρική κατηγορία, οι
συνθήκες και οι λόγοι εμφάνισής της μόλις στα τέλη του 19ου αιώνα (Μακρυνιώτη, 2003,
σελ. 11, 23-44. Qvortrup, 2003, σελ. 49-66), όπως και η μελέτη της πορείας της στο χρόνο
(Deldime, 1996, σελ. 23-26. Γραμματάς, 21999, σελ. 29-31. Δημάκη-Ζώρα, 2015, σελ. 373-
385), συνηγορούν στην αντιμετώπισή της ως μία πολιτιστική κατασκευή των ενηλίκων
(Μενδρινού, 2015, σελ. 388-389. 2016, σελ. 31-32, 479-566).
Το ελληνικό «παιδικό» θέατρο, προσκολλημένο τουλάχιστον έως τις αρχές της δεκα-
ετίας του ’70 σε παρωχημένες, νοησιαρχικές και μονόδρομες παιδαγωγικές αρχές και
πρότυπα, διακρίνεται από διδακτική διάθεση, λογοκεντρικές (ακουστικές) και συμβατι-
κές (οπτικο-κεντρικές) πρακτικές που αποβλέπουν κυρίως στην ηθική διαπαιδαγώγηση
και στην ανώδυνη ψυχαγωγία του ανήλικου κοινού. Ο υπερτονισμός της ωφελιμιστικής
με αντίστοιχη υποτίμηση της αισθητικο/καλλιτεχνικής αξίας του (Πούχνερ, 1988, σελ. 94-
105. Γραμματάς, 1997, σελ. 120-124, 21999, σελ. 24-35), όσο και ο ερασιτεχνικός χαρα-
κτήρας του (αυτοδίδακτοι συγγραφείς, ανήλικοι ή ερασιτέχνες ηθοποιοί, απουσία εξει-
δικευμένων θεατρικών συντελεστών) (Μενδρινού, 2016, σελ. 85-99), επηρέασε με ανα-
σταλτικό τρόπο την εξέλιξή του.
Ειδικότερα, οι θεατρικές παραστάσεις παρουσιάζονται σε θεατρικούς χώρους όπου η
οριοθέτηση σκηνής-πλατείας είναι σαφής, υπαγορεύοντας την παθητική συμμετοχή του
κοινού και αποκλείοντας κάθε είδους ενεργητική και απτική συμμετοχή του κοινού. Ο
υπερβολικός, στομφώδης, επεξηγηματικός ή απλοϊκός και παιδιάστικος λόγος, περιορι-
σμένης αμεσότητας, ζωντάνιας, χιούμορ και φαντασίας (Γραμματάς, 21999, σελ. 178), η
συμπληρωματική και όχι οργανική συμμετοχή της μουσικής, του τραγουδιού ή του χο-
ρού (χρησιμοποιούνται ως προσελκυστικά κυρίως μέσα ή ψυχαγωγικές ατραξιόν), η σχη-
ματοποίηση, η στατικότητα και κατά περίπτωση η εκζήτηση ή η προχειρότητα και ο ερα-
σιτεχνισμός στην επιμέλεια της κίνησης, της ενδυμασίας, των σκηνικών ή του φωτισμού,
συνιστούν προφανώς και τους λόγους που επέτειναν τουλάχιστον έως και τις αρχές της
δεκαετίας του ’70, τη νοηματοδότησή του ως ένα θέατρο «παιδιάστικο», επομένως απλο-
ϊκό, εύκολο, εύπεπτο, ανώδυνο (Γραμματάς, ό.π.: 15-24) και τελικά, ήσσονος καλλιτεχνι-
κής αξίας.
Το θέατρο των πολυτροπικών και πολυ-αισθητηριακών προ(σ)κλήσεων

Η εικόνα αυτή ανατρέπεται το 1972 και το Θέατρο για παιδιά και νέους διέρχεται ουσιαστι-
κά σε νέα τροχιά υπό την επίδραση σύγχρονων προοδευτικών καλλιτεχνικών και παιδα-
γωγικών τάσεων (Μενδρινού, 2016, σελ. 99-108. Καγγελάρη, 2005). Σε περιφερειακούς,
εναλλακτικούς ή ειδικά διαμορφωμένους χώρους που ευνοούν την αμεσότητα της επι-
κοινωνίας και τη διάδραση ηθοποιών-θεατών, με πρωτοποριακά θεατρικά έργα καταξι-
ωμένων ξένων συγγραφέων και στη συνέχεια, με τη συνδρομή ελλήνων επαγγελματιών
στο χώρο των γραμμάτων, του θεάτρου, της μουσικής, των εικαστικών ή του χορού, τίθε-
νται οι βάσεις διαμόρφωσης μίας νέας θεατρο/παιδαγωγικής συνθήκης στην οποία λαμ-
βάνονται σοβαρά υπόψη γνωρίσματα και εγγενείς ανάγκες της παιδικής ηλικίας (Κακού-
ρη, 21998, σελ. 6-9. Piaget, 1962, 1979. Vigotsky, 2000, σελ. 157-174).
Εισερχόμενοι από τη δεκαετία του ’90 στην περίοδο της ύστερης νεωτερικότητας, το
είδος περνά οριστικά από την ανυποληψία στην εδραίωση (Τζαμαργιάς, 2010, σελ. 445-
480). Απελευθερώνεται, εκσυγχρονίζεται και ανοίγεται στην πολυσημία των οικουμενι-
κών θεωρήσεων. Η διεύρυνση ή η ρευστότητα των ορίων της έννοιας «παιδικότητα», θέ-
τει τις βάσεις προσέγγισής του ως «Θέατρο για ανήλικους θεατές» (Γραμματάς, 2010) με
σαφείς προεκτάσεις προς την κατεύθυνση ενός διηλικιακού θεάτρου και στη συνέχεια
ενός θεάτρου που οδηγείται σε επιμέρους (εξειδικευμένες) μορφές εκδήλωσης (βρεφικό
ή εφηβικό, για παιδιά που νοσηλεύονται, θέατρο στο σχολείο, κ.λπ.) (Ζώρα, 2015, 381-
383. Μενδρινού, 2015, σελ. 409-410).
Τα στοιχεία της πολυτροπικότητας και διαδραστικότητας στις σύγχρονες θεατρικές πα-
ραστάσεις γίνονται συνώνυμο ποιότητας και εμπορικότητας, ενώ η έμφαση που αποδίδε-
ται στην παροχή αισθητηριακών και συναισθητικών εμπειριών, προωθεί την υιοθέτηση
μίας νέας, ολιστικής αντίληψης του ατόμου και δη των ανήλικων, ως έλλογων ενσώματων
υποκειμένων (Μενδρινού, 2014, σελ. 53-64). Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, τα ακουστικά και οπτικά
σημεία εμπλουτίζονται και σημασιοδοτούνται ποικιλοτρόπως προσφέροντας στους θεατές
ελκυστικές και ισχυρές μνημονικές εμπειρίες, ενώ η αξιοποίηση και άλλων, νέων σημεί-
ων, απτικών κυρίως ή οσφρητικών και γευστικών, επιβεβαιώνει την πρόθεση δημιουρ-
γίας ενός θεάτρου ενεργοποίησης όλων των αισθήσεων και δι’ αυτών του σώματος, του
συναισθήματος, του λόγου και της κριτικο/στοχαστικής αντίληψης των σύγχρονων ανή-
λικων.
Ακουστικά σημεία
Ξεκινώντας από τα ακουστικά σημεία, ο λόγος επενδύεται με πλήθος γλωσσικών και πα-
ραγλωσσικών σημείων πολυδιάστατης και παραστατικής απόδοσης ενός χαρακτήρα, μί-
ας κατάστασης, ή ενός νοήματος. Ο πλούτος των εκφραστικών και επικοινωνιακών μέ-
σων εκφοράς του θεατρικού λόγου διευκολύνει την κατανόηση και μετάδοση των μηνυ-
μάτων προς τους θεατές, ελκύοντας και διατηρώντας αμείωτο το ενδιαφέρον τους. Στην
εξέλιξη αυτή, προφανή ρόλο παίζει η συνδρομή έμπειρων συγγραφέων και η αντικατά-
σταση των ερασιτεχνών από επαγγελματίες ηθοποιούς η φωνή των οποίων ως σημαίνον
μπορεί να δημιουργήσει πλέον με το κατάλληλο κατά περίπτωση ύφος, τονισμό, ποιότητα,
έκταση, ρυθμό, διαφορετικά σημαινόμενα (Τσατσούλης, 1999, σελ. 32).
Ο λόγος αποκτά αμεσότητα, προφορικότητα, αληθοφάνεια και παραστατικότητα, χιού-
μορ και ευρηματικότητα. Ενδεικτικά, επισημαίνονται
– γλωσσικά παιχνίδια και ευφάνταστοι νεολογισμοί (δεσμοφύλακας-φυλακόδεσμος- δε-
σμοφυλακισμένος, σκοροφαγωμένο και ποντικομασημένο, αχυρότερο [αντί του χειρό-
τερο]. Στο Το Όνειρο του Σκιάχτρου, Ε. Τριβιζά. Θίασος ’81, 1985/ Τριβιζάς, 72008),
– ιδιόλεκτοι («Τανιάου, τ’ όνομιάου σου, μιλιάω, περπατνιάω» Στο Παπουτσωμένος Γάτος,
B. Way. Παιδική Σκηνή Ξ. Καλογεροπούλου-Γ. Φέρτη, 1974/ ανέκδοτο) και
– γλωσσικά ιδιώματα (της Ανάποδης χώρας: Ετεριάχ. [Χαίρετε] Οινέξ; [Ξένοι;] Σασαείγ
[Γεια σας], της Ποντικοχώρας: ποντικοσούρτα ποντικοφέρτα!, ποντικοεξουσία, ποντικο-
λαουτζίκος, ή των Ρομπότ: θα ρομποτολιποθυμήσω, ρομποτοκαντάδα. Στο Εγώ Ρομπότ
εσύ; Υ. Μεταξάκη. Θίασος της Αθήνας, 1983/ ανέκδοτο),
– λεκτικοί συνδυασμοί και σύνθετα (ψαρονόμισμα, ψαρονοοτροπία, ψαροήθη, ψαροέθι-
μα, καβουρο-αστακο-ασπρόνησο, γαριδιάση, τσιπουρίαση. Στο Μέσα στο νερό δασκάλα
του Γ. Ξανθούλη. Θέατρο Έρευνας Δ. Ποταμίτη, 1983/ Ξανθούλης, 1993),
– χρήση παρηχήσεων (του –φ: σαπουνόφουσκες, ελαφρόπετρες, φελλούς, ελαφρυντι-
κά. Του –β: βαριά, βαρίδια, βαρύτονους, βαρυχειμωνιά, βαριούς ταφτάδες. Στο Τριβιζάς,
7
2008, σελ. 23, 81),
– επιφωνημάτων (Χιχιχι: Οχ οχ οχ: και πάλι Οχ!. Στο Ξανθούλης, 1993. Μπου χου χου! Ααα-
αααααα!. (ήχοι ηλεκτρικής κουζίνας) Ζζζζζζζ και Βζζζζζζζζζζζζ, Φςςςςςς φςςςςςςςς. Τζιζ κε-
ραυνοβολήθηκα! Αχχχχ κάηκα! Ωχ ωχ ωχ και άλλα έξη ωχ. (Εγώ Ρομπότ εσύ; ό.π.),
– άκλιτων ηχοποίητων ή ρυθμικά επαναλαμβανόμενων ηχοποίητων λέξεων που προσδί-
δουν ρυθμό και ζωντάνια στην αφήγηση (Με λένε Στίκη–στίκη–στάμπουρα-ράμπουρα-
ερεπερεπισκι-πικιπικιπένιπους–ντομιντομιντό-μινους και μπαμ μπαμ, σλαμ σλαμ, πλιαχ,
σκουίκ, τζουφ, τζουμ, σμπρουφ, παφ, σβουντ,. Στο Ο Κεραμιδοτρέχαλος, Α. Ζέη. Θέατρο
Στοά-Παιδική Σκηνή, 1981 / Ζέη, 1993. «το τρισάθλιο καράβι […] βυθίστηκε μετά από τρία
δυνατά χαστούκια που έφαγε μετά από τρία δυνατά κύματα. Να έτσι … Πατ-πατ-πατ» (Ξαν-
θούλης, 1993, σελ. 15, 54). η «κελαηδιστή» γλώσσα των πουλιών: Τραλαλόμ, τριλιλίμ, τρα-
λαλάμ! /Τριλιλιτού! Τριλιλιλιτού!/ Τρι-λαλά! Τρι-λαλό!/ Τσίου! Στο Τριβιζάς, 72008, σελ. 23).
Πρόκειται για στοιχεία που δίνουν νέα πνοή στους ψευδαισθητικούς δραματικούς κό-
σμους των έργων διεγείροντας τα ακουστικά αισθητήρια των θεατών. Πιστοποιούν επι-
προσθέτως, τη μετατόπιση από τη σοβαροφάνεια του παρελθόντος, σε μία άλλη, πιο ευ-
φρόσυνη αντιμετώπιση του θεάτρου και κατ’ επέκταση της ζωής.
Οι θεατρικές παραστάσεις επενδύονται με ηχητικά εφέ που ενισχύουν τη θεατρικότη-
τα των έργων συνεισφέροντας στη βιωματική/αισθητηριακή πρόσληψη της δράσης. Στις
σκηνικές οδηγίες του Ο Εγωιστής Κάβουρας (Θέατρο “Έρευνας” Δ. Ποταμίτη, 1991/ανέκ-
δοτο) προτείνεται επί παραδείγματι, την εμφάνιση της Πετρελαιοκηλίδας να συνοδεύουν
αστραπές, βροντές, αέρας, θύελλα, βροχή, καταιγίδα, αναγκάζοντάς την σε οπισθοχώρη-
ση, ή για τη δημιουργία κλίματος αναμονής και αγωνίας τη χρήση συγκεκριμένων ήχων
προαναγγελίας της εμφάνισης των δρώντων (π.χ. ήχος τύμπανου που σημαίνει ότι το Γκρί-
ζο Σύννεφο πλησιάζει). Στην πρωτότυπη σκηνοθετική “ανάγνωση” του Οδυσσεβάχ της Ξ.
Καλογεροπούλου από τον Δ. Καρατζά (Θέατρο Πόρτα, 2011/ Καλογεροπούλου, 42009) τα
ηχητικά εφέ παράγονται με χρηστικά αντικείμενα από τους ηθοποιούς προσφέροντας μία
εναλλακτική θεατρική εμπειρία στους θεατές.
Η μουσική και το τραγούδι επιμελημένα από επαγγελματίες μουσικούς συνθέτες, απο-
κτούν οργανική και πολυ-λειτουργική αξία. Στο πλαίσιο μίας ειδικότερης κατηγοριοποίη-
σης, η πρό(σ)κληση για τραγούδι (Μενδρινού, 2016, σελ. 435-464) των ενήλικων δημιουρ-
γών προς τους ανήλικους θεατές μπορεί να έχει (εκτός από διδακτική) πρόθεση:
– ψυχαγωγική (Στις Όρνιθες του Αριστοφάνη: «Γαρ-γαρ-γαρ και γλι-γλι-γλι …/ Καρδερίνα
στην αυλή […] Στο λαιμό και στη μασχάλη / θα τη γαργαλίσει πάλι – γαρ-γαρ-γαρ και γλι-
γλι-γλι – κι απ’ την γλύκα την πολύ / γελάει και ξεκαρδίζεται / για πάντα ξεκουμπίζεται» /
Καλατζόπουλος, 2008, σελ. 69. Στο Το Μεγάλο ταξίδι του Τουρτούρι ο εθνικός ύμνος της
Παταραγονίας αποδίδεται από τη φλιταρισμένη με φταρνιζόσκονη χορωδία του Αυτο-
κράτορα Φταρνιστού Αψου Αψού του Πουντιασμένου: «Αψού, αψού, αψί! / Φταρνίσμα-
τα από δω / φταρνίσματα από κει! / Αψί, αψί, αψού! Φταρνίσματα παντού! / Ααα-ψού!»
(ΔΗ.ΠΕ.ΘΕ. Καλαμάτας, 1990/ Τριβιζάς, 1995, σελ. 122),
– επικοινωνιακή /διαδραστική («Και πίο-πίο, πίο-πιο … / και ποιο παιδάκι θα ’ρθει γρήγο-
ρα εδώ /Και ποιο παιδάκι θα φορέσει καπελάκι / για να κάνει εδώ μαζί μας το πουλάκι;».
Στο Καλατζόπουλος, ό.π., σελ. 37),
– λειτουργική (Στο Ζήτω οι Μικροί του D. Wood (Θέατρο Έρευνας Δ. Ποταμίτη, 1973/
ανέκδοτο) οι ηθοποιοί εμφανίζονται με ακορντεόν και κιθάρα επί σκηνής συνεισφέρο-
ντας στην κριτικο-στοχαστική ενεργοποίηση του κοινού. Στη δραματουργία του Γ. Ξαν-
θούλη πλήθος τραγουδιών συμβάλλουν τόσο στην παραστατική και πολυτροπική δια-
βίβαση μηνυμάτων, όσο και στη δημιουργία ευφρόσυνου κλίματος (Ξανθούλης, 1978,
1993, 1994) ή
– πολυ-λειτουργική, όπως το τραγούδι «Χελωνόσουπα» στο Η Αλίκη στη χώρα των θαυ-
μάτων του Δ. Σεϊτάνη (Θέατρο Νέων, 1999/ανέκδοτο):
«Να ’χα μια αχνιστή και μυρωδάτη σούπα! / Σούπα, ωραία σούπα! /
Απ’ τη σουπιέρα τη ζεστή, να γέμιζα μια Κούπα! / Κούπα, μεγάλη Κούπα! /
[…] Μα πρόσεξε να μην καείς, τρεις φύσα, μία ρούφα! /
Ρούφα, φύσα ρούφα! […] Θυμήσου αυτό που σούπα!».
Ξεχωριστό ενδιαφέρον παρουσιάζει επίσης, η εμφάνιση και καταξίωση δύο νέων επιμέ-
ρους ειδών τα οποία επικεντρώνονται στην παροχή οπτικο/ακουστικών εμπειριών μυώ-
ντας τους ανήλικους στον υπέροχο κόσμο της μουσικής:
– του μιούζικαλ ή μουσικού θεάτρου (Όπερα, η μουσική του ουρανού του Ν. Καμτσή (Αε-
ρόπλοιο, 1991), Σιωπή, ο βασιλιάς ακούει των Ν. Κυπουργού-Θ. Μοσχόπουλου (Μέγα-
ρο Μουσικής Αθηνών, 1993. Bios, Εταιρεία Μουσικού Θεάτρου “Οι Όπερες των Ζητιά-
νων”, 2010), Το Αγόρι που μιλούσε με τα πουλιά του Γ. Φρατζεσκάκη με τραγούδια του
Σ. Κουγιουμτζή (Κιβωτός, 2007), Στα μονοπάτια των τραγουδιών (Θέατρο του Παπου-
τσιού Πάνω στο δέντρο, 2007), Η Μαίρη Πόππινς ταξιδεύει με τους Beatles της Μ. Τόλη
(Ιλίσια Ντενίση, 2008) και
– της όπερας για ανήλικους θεατές (μεταγραφές λιμπρέτων: Η Ωραία Κοιμωμένη της Ε.
Μάρρα. Εθνικό Θέατρο, 1995. Ο Κουρέας της Σεβίλλης της Κ. Ρουγγέρη. ΔΗ.ΠΕ.ΘΕ.
Ρούμελης, 1999. πρωτότυπα έργα: Οι Δραπέτες της σκακιέρας του Ε. Τριβιζά. Θέατρο
«Ήβη», Εθνική Λυρική Σκηνή & Αττική Πολιτιστική Εταιρεία, 1999. Ο Φρίξος και η Έλ-
λη του Τ. Μουδατσάκι. Θίασος Vivi, 2000. διασκευές: Ο Τσάρος Σαλτάν, 2008 και Η νυ-
χτερίδα, 2009 της Κ. Ρουγγέρη. Εθνική Λυρική Σκηνή).
Οπτικά σημεία
Εντυπωσιακή ανανέωση παρατηρείται σε ότι αφορά και στα οπτικά σημεία που σχετίζο-
νται τόσο με το σώμα, την εμφάνιση και τις ενέργειες του ηθοποιού (κινησιακοί και χειρο-
νομιακοί κώδικες, προσεγγιστικά και μιμικά σημεία, μάσκα, μακιγιάζ, κόμμωση), όσο και
με εκείνα του σκηνικού και θεατρικού χώρου, τα σκηνικά αντικείμενα και το φωτισμό. Η
εξέλιξη των μέσων και η διεύρυνση των τρόπων παραγωγής ξεχωριστών αισθητικών και
αισθητηριακών/οπτικών ερεθισμάτων, οφείλεται σαφέστατα σε ένα πλήθος νέων δεδο-
μένων μεταξύ των οποίων η τεχνική και τεχνολογική ανάπτυξη, οι καλλιτεχνικές αναζη-
τήσεις των νέων επαγγελματιών του χώρου και οι προσδοκίες του σύγχρονου ανήλικου
θεατή. Ειδικότερα, όσον αφορά:
– στην κίνηση των ηθοποιών, η πιο ενδιαφέρουσα εξέλιξη είναι η εμφάνιση μίας νέας θε-
ατρικής γλώσσας, μη λεκτικής, αλλά σωματικής και συνεπώς δι-υποκειμενικής, δια-
χρονικής και διαπολιτισμικής. Στο Ο Μικρός Πρίγκιπας του Μ. Κουγιουμτζή (Θέατρο Τέ-
χνης Κ. Κουν, 1994/ Ντε Σαιν Εξυπερύ, 1996), ο ενσώματος λόγος (κινητικοί αυτοσχε-
διασμοί) και η σωματοποιημένη απόδοση αντικειμένων και καταστάσεων, έχουν τον
πρώτο λόγο. Χωρίς οποιασδήποτε μορφή εκζήτησης, θεαματικά τρυκ, εντυπωσιακά
σκηνικά, κοστούμια και οπτικοακουστικά εφέ, η παράσταση κινείται σε δρόμους αφη-
γηματικής λιτότητας και χαρακτηρίζεται από χορευτική/κινησιολογική ευρηματικότη-
τα, ονειρική ατμόσφαιρα και λυρισμό. (Βαρβέρης, 2003, σελ. 41-42). Πρόκειται για μία
εμπνευσμένη παράσταση, σημείο αναφοράς τόσο για το Θέατρο Τέχνης (με σαφή επί-
δραση στις παραγωγές της Παιδικής του Σκηνής έως σήμερα: Αλαντίν, 2009. Άντερ-
σεν- Μια ζωή σαν παραμύθι, 2013), όσο και για το ελληνικό Θέατρο για ανήλικους θε-
ατές γενικότερα. Αναλόγως, στη σκηνική σύνθεση Πιάνω παπούτσι πάνω στο πιάνο της
ομάδας Patari Project (Θέατρο Πόρτα, 2016), η σωματική έκφραση, η φαντασία, το
χιούμορ, η μουσική και η ευρηματική αξιοποίηση του σκηνικού χώρου (πατάρι-πιάνο),
έχουν τον πρώτο λόγο προσφέροντας μία σαφώς ιδεολογικού και υψηλού αισθητικού
και καλλιτεχνικού επιπέδου, παράσταση. Στο Χάρτινη Πόλη D. Wood, η μη λεκτική επι-
κοινωνία αποκτά οργανική αξία. Η αφωνία της Σαλαμάνδρας επιβάλει την α-λεκτική,
με χειρονομίες, εκφράσεις και παντομίμα επικοινωνία αξιώνοντας την αποκωδικοποί-
ηση του λόγου της από το κοινό (Νέο Θέατρο Θεσσαλονίκης, 2000/ ανέκδοτο). Στο Ρο-
βινσώνας και Κρούσος των Ντίνο ντι Ιντρόνα και Τζάκομο Ραβίκιο (Πόρτα, 2007/ανέκ-
δοτο) τέλος, μιμική και παντομίμα επιστρατεύονται προκειμένου να συνεννοηθούν δύο
αλλόγλωσσοι στρατιώτες.
– στο εικαστικό μέρος της παράστασης, αξιοποιούνται νέα υλικά, τεχνικές, μεγέθη και
φόρμες για τη δημιουργία ευφαντάστων, ευρηματικών, με περισσότερο ή λιγότερο
έντονες χρωματικές επιλογές και ρεαλιστική ή σουρεαλιστική αισθητική, σκηνικών
χώρων, αντικειμένων και ειδικών κατασκευών ή ενδυματολογικών στοιχείων. Ενδει-
κτική περίπτωση συνιστούν:
α. η έμφαση στο μέγεθος των σκηνικών κατασκευών και αντικειμένων, οι έντονοι
χρωματικοί συνδυασμοί και σχεδιασμός που εντυπωσιάζει, όπως εντοπίζονται στις
σκηνικές οδηγίες του Ο Εγωιστής Κάβουρας (ό.π.). Τα σκηνικά αντικείμενα όπως
«ομολογούν» οι ίδιοι οι ηθοποιοί είναι «… τόσο μεγάλα. Τα ’χουμε φτιάξει όχι όπως
τα βλέπουν οι άνθρωποι, αλλά όπως τα βλέπουν τα θαλασσινά». Ο μεγάλος μανδύ-
ας της Πετρελαιοκηλίδας «καλύπτει όλη τη σκηνή, ενώ το κεφάλι της είναι ένα εφι-
αλτικό μαύρο καρτούν. Τα χέρια της τεράστια». Η γιγάντια θαλασσινή Ανεμώνη «έχει
σπιράλ πλοκάμια που κινούνται, φωσφορίζοντα μάτια και ένα μόνιμα πεινασμένο τε-
ράστιο στόμα που τρώει τα πάντα».
β. οι εντυπωσιακές μάσκες και οι κατασκευές στην Οδύσσεια του Ν. Καμτσή (Αερό-
πλοιο, 1994/ανέκδοτο).
– στη διαμόρφωση και διαχείριση του σκηνικού και θεατρικού χώρου, διαπιστώνονται
ποικίλες εξελίξεις και πρωτοποριακές προτάσεις και εκδοχές, όπως:
α. δημιουργική αξιοποίηση χρηστικών αντικειμένων για τη διαμόρφωση του δραμα-
τικού/σκηνικού χώρου. Στο Ο Κύκλος με την κιμωλία του Γ. Καλατζόπουλου (Παι-
δική Αυλαία, 1989/ ανέκδοτο), ένα σαλόνι σύγχρονου διαμερίσματος μετατρέπεται
κατά την εκτύλιξη της υπόθεσης που αναπτύσσεται ως ένα θεατρικό παιχνίδι του
παππού με τα εγγόνια του, σε παλάτι, βουνό, γεφύρι, χωριατόσπιτο, πλατεία, δικα-
στήριο, κ.λπ.
β. επέκταση του σκηνικού χώρου και διακόσμου στην πλατεία (κατάργηση του τέ-
ταρτου τοίχου) με σκοπό την ενίσχυση της αμφίδρομης επικοινωνίας και διάδρα-
σης σκηνής-πλατείας (Παιδικό Στέκι Εθνικού Θεάτρου). Η δράση εκτυλίσσεται κατ’
αυτό τον τρόπο, όχι μόνο επί σκηνής, αλλά και στη θεατρική αίθουσα ανάμεσα στο
κοινό, προσφέροντάς του μία αληθινά πολυ-αισθητηριακή και βιωματική ή συναι-
σθητική εμπειρία (Το νησί των θησαυρών του R. L. Stevenson, σε σκηνοθεσία –δι-
ασκευή. Θ. Μοσχόπουλου. Μέγαρο Μουσικής Αθηνών, 2013).
– εναλλακτική/συμβολική χρήση υλικών ή αντικειμένων ως όχημα εικονοποίησης του
δραματικού κόσμου. Στο Παραμύθι από χαρτί του Κ. Καπελώνη («Θ όπως Θέατρο»,
Θέατρο Καπνοκοπτήριο, 2002/ ανέκδοτο) «οι ηθοποιοί περιβάλλονται από καθήμενους
έγχρωμους όγκους χαρτιού […], τους οποίους αιφνίδια όσο και μαγευτικά ανασηκώνουν
από το δάπεδο με τα χέρια ή με μικρές τροχαλίες και τους μεταμορφώνουν επί σκηνής σε
ενδύματα, αντικείμενα, σε τοπία, σε μάσκες, σε τρυκ.» (Βαρβέρης, 2003, σελ. 535).
Απτικά σημεία
Τα απτικά σημεία «υπονοούν μία ενεργητικότερη συμμετοχή του θεατή στο δρώμενο» και
την κατάλυση των ορίων μεταξύ σκηνής και πλατείας. Απτικά θα μπορούσαν ωστόσο να
χαρακτηριστούν κι εκείνα τα σημεία τα οποία προκύπτουν από την κινησιολογία των ηθο-
ποιών ή από σκηνικές καταστάσεις και παρά την απουσία ουσιαστικής επαφής θεατών
-ηθοποιών ή θεατών-αντικειμένων, οι πρώτοι προσλαμβάνουν συναισθητικά την «απει-
λή» μιας τέτοιας επαφής. (Τσατσούλης, 1999, σελ. 30-32).
Στο Παπουτσωμένος Γάτος (ό.π.) η μεθοδευμένη σε ειδικό προπαρασκευαστικό στάδιο
συμμετοχή των θεατών περιλαμβάνει την ανταπόκρισή τους σε ειδικά σήματα των ηθο-
ποιών (με κρουστά όργανα και φωνητικές παροτρύνσεις) και τον μετασχηματισμό τους
από παθητικούς δέκτες των σκηνικών διαδραματιζόμενων σε μία συλλογική, επικουρι-
κή δρώσα δύναμη με ενεργητική συμβολή στην κατατρόπωση των αντιπάλων. Για το λό-
γο αυτό, κάποιες σκηνές εκτυλίσσονται στο χώρο της πλατείας: οι στρατιώτες χάνονται
φοβισμένοι μέσα στο δάσος που έχει σχηματιστεί από τα χέρια των παιδιών που επιπλέον
παράγουν φωνές και θορύβους άγριων θηρίων, γίνονται ζουζούνια που τους τσιμπούν,
αέρας που τους παρασέρνει, κ.ά. Στο Λουρί του Σωκράτη του Δ. Ποταμίτη (Θέατρο Έρευ-
νας, Δ. Ποταμίτη, 1990/ Ποταμίτης, χ.χ.: 79) οι ανήλικοι θεατές προσκαλούνται στη σκηνή
για να ποτίσουν ένα δεντράκι, στο Εγωιστής Κάβουρας (ό.π.) για να φυλακίσουν το Γκρίζο
Σύννεφο σε ένα κονσερβοκούτι και να προκαλέσουν μία τεχνητή καταιγίδα (με παλαμάκια,
χτυπήματα ποδιών στο πάτωμα, κ.λπ.) που θα απομακρύνει δια παντός την Πετρελαιοκη-
λίδα από την ακτή. Στο Ο Κύκλος με την Κιμωλία (ό.π.) παροτρύνονται να καθυστερήσουν
τον Ενωμοτάρχη που καταδιώκει τη Γρούσα κλείνοντάς του το δρόμο με φωνές, γαργα-
λήματα, κ.λπ. και στο Χάρτινη Πόλη (ό.π.) να προστατεύσουν την πόλη αλλά και εαυτούς,
από την επιδρομή των Πυγολαμπίδων με διάφορα μέσα (αντικείμενα με λάμψη από ασή-
μι, πρόκληση τεχνητής βροχής με ηχοποίητες λέξεις και σωματικούς θορύβους, κ.λπ.).
Οσφρητικά και γευστικά σημεία

Οσφρητικές και γευστικές προκλήσεις με στόχο την ένταξη του κοινού σε κάποιο συγκε-
κριμένο παραστασιακό-ψευδαισθητικό περιβάλλον ή τη δημιουργία μίας περισσότερο συμ-
μετοχικής αίσθησης στο δρώμενο (Τσατσούλης, 1999, σελ. 28-30) εντοπίζονται στις πλέ-
ον σύγχρονες ή ειδικού ενδιαφέροντος παραστάσεις (όπως στο Teatro Ciego/Θέατρο Τυ-
φλών Αργεντινής1). Παρ’ όλ’ αυτά, η αξιοποίησή τους στο ελληνικό Θέατρο για ανήλικους
θεατές είναι περιορισμένη ή υποτυπώδης, αφού επιστρατεύονται όχι τόσο για τη δημι-
ουργία άμεσα βιωματικών, όσο συναισθητικών συνθηκών κυρίως σε παραστάσεις με θέ-
μα τη διατροφή ή τη μαγειρική (Η Πεντανόστιμη της Λ. Διβάνη, 2007 και Το Διαστημότρενο
του κυρίου Ιγνάτιου Ροδόλφου Ντε Λος Χούπα Γκλούπα του Η. Μαμαλάκη, 2011. Θέατρο
Τρένο στο Ρουφ. Οι Σωματοφύλακες της κατσαρόλας της Λ. Τερκεσίδου. Θέατρο της Ημέ-
ρας, 2007). Ενδεικτικά αναφέρεται το Μήλα Ζάχαρη Κανέλα της Ε. Σαντοριναίου (Θέατρο
Φούρνος, 2009) στο οποίο οι προσχολικής ηλικίας θεατές εκτός από ενεργητική συμμε-
τοχή στην εξέλιξη της δράσης (μάζεμα κερασιών και μήλων, τάισμα χηνών, μάζεμα μή-
λων, κλπ.), έχουν την ευκαιρία να δοκιμάσουν στο τέλος της θεατρικής παράστασης τη
μηλόπιτα της γιαγιάς.
Πολυτροπικότητα στο Θέατρο για ανήλικους θεατές

Η πολυτροπικότητα στο σύγχρονο Θέατρο για ανήλικους θεατές εκδηλώνεται ως σύζευ-
ξη ή συνύπαρξη διαφορετικών παραστατικών τεχνικών και μέσων στην ίδια παράσταση.
Πρόκειται για μικτά θεάματα στα οποία ο ηθοποιός συνυπάρχει και συνομιλεί με κούκλες
ή σκιές, η εξέλιξη της δράσης, ο σκηνικός διάκοσμος, η εναλλαγή του δραματικού χωρο-
χρόνου, η κατανόηση και πρόσληψη των μηνυμάτων, η προσέλκυση του ενδιαφέροντος
των θεατών, κ.λπ., εξυπηρετούνται και ενισχύονται με τη συνδρομή τεχνολογικών, ψηφι-
ακών μέσων ή άλλων μορφών καλλιτεχνικής έκφρασης.
Στο Αθάνατο νερό των Α. Σωτρίνη και Μ. Κυριάκη. (Θέατρο της Ημέρας, 1997/ Σω-
τρίνη & Κυριάκη, 1997) τρία ξεχωριστά αναπαραστατικά συστήματα με διαφορετικούς
επικοινωνιακούς κώδικες, αισθητική και σημασιοδοτική αξία, η αφήγηση, το θέατρο
και το θέατρο κούκλας, εναλλάσσονται ή συνδιαλέγονται μεταξύ τους αίροντας τη θε-
ατρική σύμβαση, αποκαλύπτοντας τους μηχανισμούς της θεατρικής λειτουργίας, επι-
τρέποντας την πολυτροπική ανάγνωση των νοημάτων του έργου. Στη Φάρμα των ζώων
(Αστροναύτες/ ανέκδοτο) κούκλες, ηθοποιοί και τεχνολογικά μέσα (μικρόφωνο, κάμε-
ρα, προβολή βίντεο σε τηλεόραση) δημιουργούν ένα σύγχρονο, οικείο και άκρως εν-
διαφέρον για το έμπειρο και τεχνολογικά ενήμερο ανήλικο παιδί, θεατρικό σύμπαν. Στο
Πέτα, Λούδα της Ι. Μπόικο (Θέατρο Χώρα, 2009/ ανέκδοτο) μία παράσταση για μικρές
ηλικιακές ομάδες παιδιών από μία ηθοποιό, κούκλες και σκιές, επιστρατεύεται επιπλέ-
ον μία εναλλακτική πρακτική εφήμερης εικαστικής έκφρασης. Η “ζωγραφική με άμμο”
(sand art) ενσωματώνεται στην παράσταση δημιουργώντας στο ανήλικο κοινό ισχυρές
μνημονικές εμπειρίες και γνώσεις για τον κύκλο ζωής της πεταλούδας. Στις παραστά-
σεις Θησέας και Μινώταυρος … σαν παραμύθι (2004), Αργοναύτες (2009) ή Ερωτόκρι-
τος (2014) της Παιδικής Σκηνής Η. Καρελλά επιζητείται καταρχήν η αρμονική συνύπαρ-
ξη θεάτρου και θεάτρου σκιών. σύζευξη η οποία υποστηρίζεται ενίοτε από ζωντανή ορ-
χήστρα, χρήση μασκών, video προβολές, κ.λπ. Από την άλλη πλευρά, Ο Μεγαλέξανδρος
και ο καταραμένος Δράκος, του Δ. Αβδελιώδη (ΔΗ.ΠΕ.ΘΕ. Β. Αιγαίου & ΔΗ.ΠΕ.ΘΕ Πά-
τρας, Θέατρο Βεάκη, 2007/ ανέκδοτο) εμπνέεται από το ύφος, τη δομή, την κινησιολο-
γική φόρμα, το φως και το δισδιάστατο της φιγούρας του ελληνικού θεάτρου σκιών κα-
ταθέτοντας μία νέα, επίσης μικτή και για το λόγο αυτό πολυτροπική, θεατρική πρότα-
ση. Στο Μπαούλο με τα παραμύθια του Ν. Καμτσή (Αερόπλοιο, 2008/ ανέκδοτο) με θέ-
μα μνήμες από την μικρασιατική γη και τον ξεριζωμό, η συγκινησιακή φόρτιση απογει-
ώνεται με την προβολή σε βίντεο παλαιών φωτογραφιών που οι ανήλικοι ήρωες βρί-
σκουν σε ένα παλιό μπαούλο (Μενδρινού, 2010, σελ. 269-330). Τέλος, οι multimedia δι-
αδραστικές παραστάσεις Γιαπωνέζικοι κήποι (2004), Χορεύοντας με τα χρώματα (2006)
και Ιταλικοί κήποι (2007) από το Θέατρο Νέων του Δ. Σεϊτάνη, αποτελούν μία πραγμα-
τικά καινοφανή πρόταση για τα ελληνικά δεδομένα. Η χρήση τεχνολογικών μέσων (ει-
δικού τάπητα με αισθητήρες, φωτεινές και ηχητικές ενδείξεις), εμπλέκει σωματικά και
αισθησιο/κινητικά τα παιδιά στη θεατρική περιπέτεια μετατρέποντάς τους από παθητι-
κούς αποδέκτες σε συνδημιουργούς της παράστασης.
Συμπέρασμα
Επιβεβαιώνονται πιστεύουμε με προφανή τρόπο, οι αλλαγές και μετατοπίσεις που συντε-
λούνται τόσο στο πεδίο της υποκειμενικής και βιωμένης πραγματικότητας και συνεπώς
στην αντιμετώπιση της παιδικής ηλικίας, όσο και στο χώρου του θεάτρου για ανήλικους
θεατές από τα μέσα της δεκαετίας του ’70 και έως σήμερα. Αναδεικνύεται κατ’ αυτό τον
τρόπο για άλλη μία φορά η αμφίδρομη σχέση αλληλεπίδρασης του θεάτρου με το «αντι-
κειμενικό» γίγνεσθαι και κυρίως η καταλυτική επίδραση που ασκεί η επιστημονική και τε-
χνολογική πρόοδος στη διαμόρφωση ενός νέου αξιακού, επικοινωνιακού και πραξιακού
status, ενός σύγχρονου πολυ-σημειακού και πολυτροπικού, πολυ-αισθητηριακού και πο-
λυ-μεσικού πολιτισμικού κώδικα ή μίας νέας τελικά αισθητηριακής συνθήκης σύμφυτης
με τα δεδομένα και τις ιδιαιτερότητες της ύστερης νεωτερικότητας.
Στο πλαίσιο αυτό:
– αμφισβητείται και ανατρέπεται η ηγεμονία παραδοσιακών μονόδρομων παθητικών,
νοησιαρχικών, οπτικο- και ακουστικοκεντρικών (λογοκεντρικών) μορφών διαμεσο-
λάβησης και επικοινωνίας στο Θέατρο για ανήλικους θεατές,
– προβάλλεται η αξία των αμφίδρομων, ενεργητικών, διαδραστικών, βιωματικών- (πο-
λυ)αισθητηριακών, συναισθητικών και πολυτροπικών μέσων θεατρικής σημείωσης
και πρόσληψης, ως κομβικοί παράμετροι εκπλήρωσης της διττής αισθητικο/καλλιτε-
χνικής και μορφο/παιδευτικής αποστολής του είδους και τελικά,
– ο ορισμός του θεάτρου επαναδιατυπώνεται αναφορικά με το ρόλο του σύγχρονου ανή-
λικου θεατή ο οποίος προσέρχεται στο θεατρικό χώρο όχι μόνο για να «παρακολουθή-
σει» αλλά και να συμμετάσχει πολυτροπικά «στην ειδικά γι’ αυτόν απευθυνόμενη θεα-
τρική παράσταση» (Γραμματάς, 21999, σελ. 20. Μενδρινού, 2016, σελ. 25-26).
Παρ’ όλ’ αυτά θα πρέπει να επισημανθεί ότι διαμεσολαβητής και διαμορφωτής των σύγ-
χρονων τάσεων στο ελληνικό Θέατρο για ανήλικους θεατές έως τα τέλη τουλάχιστον του
20ου αιώνα, είναι κυρίως η ξένη δραματουργία και παραστατική πρακτική, ενώ μόλις πρό-
σφατα εντοπίζονται τα πρώτα δείγματα ελληνικών πολυτροπικών, πολυμεσικών και πο-
λυ-αισθητηριακών παραστατικών κειμένων. Κομίζονται από μία νέα γενιά καλλιτεχνών
εξοικειωμένων με την τεχνολογία και τις σύγχρονες μορφές επικοινωνίας και έκφρασης,
με γνώσεις, ικανότητες, επάρκεια, ταλέντο και την ετοιμότητα που απαιτείται για την αξιο-
ποίηση με δημιουργικό και συγχρόνως εποικοδομητικό τρόπο των διατιθέμενων μέσων
της εποχή τους. Η πορεία τους στο χώρο, αντίστοιχα όπως και η αξία των σύγχρονων αι-
σθητηριακών συνθηκών και διαδραστικών πρακτικών στην εξέλιξη του είδους, θα απο-
τιμηθεί στο μέλλον.
Στην παράσταση Mi Amiga La Oscuridad που εκτυλίσσεται σε απόλυτο σκοτάδι, ενεργοποιούνται όλες
οι αισθήσεις πλην της όρασης, προσφέροντας στους θεατές, βλέποντες και μη, μία ανεπανάληπτη πο-
λύ-αισθητηριακή εμπειρία (μυρωδιά σοκολάτας, αγγίγματα, σταγόνες νερού, ανεμιστήρας που δημι-
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κά Εʹ Ευρωπαϊκού Συνεδρίου Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών: «Συνέχειες, ασυνέχειες, ρήξεις στον ελληνι-
κό κόσμο (1204-2014)» (Θεσ/κη 2-5 Οκτ. 2014), τ. Δʹ (σελ. 387-416). Αθήνα: Ευρωπαϊκή Εταιρεία
Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών (Ε.Ε.Ν.Σ).
Μενδρινού, Ι. (2016). Το ελληνικό Θέατρο για Ανήλικους Θεατές στο τελευταίο τέταρτο του 20ου αιώνα. Δι-
δακτορική Διατριβή. Π.Τ.Δ.Ε. Ε.Κ.Π.Α
Pavis P. (1975). Problèmes d’une sémiologie du théâtre. Semiotica. 15(3): 241-263
Piaget, J. (1962). Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood. New York: Norton.
Piaget, J. (1979). Ψυχολογία και Παιδαγωγική (επιμ. Τ. Ανθούλια, μετ. Απ. Βερβερίδης). Αθήνα: Νέα
Σύνορα Α. Λιβάνης.
Πουρκός, Α. Μ. (επιμ.) (2008). Ενσώματος Νους, Πλαισιοθετημένη γνώση και Εκπαίδευση: Προσεγγίζο-
ντας την ποιητική και τον Πολιτισμό του Σκεπτόμενου σώματος. Διεπιστημονικές προσεγγίσεις. Αθή-
να: Gutenberg
Πούχνερ, Β. (1988). Το Παιδικό Θέατρο στην Ελλάδα. Διαδρομές 10, 94-105.
Qvortrup J. (2003). Παιδική ηλικία και κοινωνικές μακροδομές. Στο Δ. Μακρυνιώτη (επιμ.), Κόσμοι
της Παιδικής ηλικίας, Τοπικά δ’, Εταιρεία Μελέτης των Επιστημών του Ανθρώπου (σελ. 49-66).
Αθήνα: Νήσος,
Vygotsky, L.S. (2000). Νους στην κοινωνία. Η ανάπτυξη των ανώτερων Ψυχολογικών Διαδικασιών (επιμ.
Σ. Βοσνιάδου, μετ. Α. Μπίμπου & Σ. Βοσνιάδου). Αθήνα: Gutenberg.
Τζαμαργιάς, Τ. (2010). Κοινωνιολογικές προσεγγίσεις στο θέατρο για ανήλικους θεατές. Από την ανυ-
ποληψία στην εδραίωση. Στο Θ. Γραμματάς (επιμ), Στη χώρα του Τοτώρα. Θέατρο για ανήλικους θε-
ατές (σελ. 445-480). Αθήνα: Πατάκης.
Χοντολίδου, Ε. (1999). Για μία Εισαγωγή στην έννοια της πολυτροπικότητας. Γλωσσικός Υπολογιστής 1,
115-117
Πηγές
Διβάνη, Λ. (2007). Θεατρικά. Η Ωραία Θυμωμένη-Πεντανόστιμη-Οικογενειακό Δίκαιο. Αθήνα: Κατανιώτης
Ζέη, Α. (1993). Θέατρο για Παιδιά. Αθήνα: Κέδρος
Καλατζόπουλος, Γ. (2008). Αριστοφάνης Όρνιθες Ειρήνη Βάτραχοι. Αθήνα: Καστανιώτης.
Καλογεροπούλου, Ξ. (42009). Οδυσσεβάχ. Αθήνα: Κέδρος
Ντε Σαιντ Εξυπερύ, Α. (1996). Ο Μικρός Πρίγκιπας (θ. διασκ. Μ. Κουγιουμτζής). Αθήνα: Καστανιώτης
Ξανθούλης, Γ. (1978). Ο Μάγος με χρώματα. Αθήνα: Κάκτος
Ξανθούλης, Γ. (1993). Μέσα στο νερό δασκάλα. Αθήνα: Καστανιώτης.
Ξανθούλης, Γ. (1994). Τύμπανο, τρομπέτα και κόκκινα κουφέτα. Αθήνα: Καστανιώτης
Ποταμίτης, Δ. (χ.χ.). Το λουρί του Σωκράτη. Αθήνα: Ντουντούμης
Σωτρίνη, Α. & Κυριάκη, Μ. (1997). Το Αθάνατο νερό. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα
Τριβιζάς, Ε. (72008). Το όνειρο του Σκιάχτρου. Θέατρο με τη μισή αυλαία. Αθήνα: Βιβλιοπωλείον της Εστί-
ας (αʹ έκδ. 1984).
Τριβιζάς, Ε. (1995). Το μεγάλο ταξίδι του Τουρτούρι. Αθήνα: Καστανιώτης
Ο ψηφιακός κόσμος
και οι νέες τεχνολογίες

στην υπηρεσία
της πολυ-αισθητηριακής
σημείωσης στο σύγχρονο θέατρο
για κοινό ανηλίκων θεατών
Αλεξία Παπακώστα Εθνικo και Καποδιστριακo Πανεπιστhμιο Αθηνων alexpap19@yahoo.gr
Περίληψη
Οι δυνατότητες που παρέχει η σύγχρονη τεχνολογία στην ανάπτυξη νέων κωδίκων επικοινω-
νίας αλλά και η μεγάλη εξοικείωση των ανηλίκων με τα προϊόντα της δεν άφησαν αδιάφορο
το χώρο του θεάτρου για κοινό ανηλίκων θεατών. Η διερεύνηση της ενσωμάτωσης, της λει-
τουργίας και της αλληλεπίδρασης των νέων επικοινωνιακών κωδίκων στο συγκεκριμένο εί-
δος θεάτρου αποτελεί ένα ανεξερεύνητο και γεμάτο προκλήσεις πεδίο έρευνας για την εγχώ-
ρια επιστημονική κοινότητα. Στη συγκεκριμένη εργασία γίνεται προσπάθεια με τη χρήση πα-
ραδειγμάτων από παραστάσεις του είδους, να προσεγγιστεί η αξιοποίηση της σύγχρονης τε-
χνολογίας στην κατασκευή του σύνθετου παραστασιακού μηνύματος καθώς και η συμβολή
της στην πολύπλοκη θεατρική επικοινωνία του ανήλικου θεατή με το σκηνικό θέαμα. Συγκε-
κριμένα εστιάζουμε το ερευνητικό μας ενδιαφέρον, στους τρόπους εμπλοκής του κοινού με
το σκηνικό συμβάν, αναλύοντας τις παρεμβάσεις της τεχνολογίας σε στοιχεία του δραματικού
λόγου, χρόνου και χώρου, τη συνάρτησή της με κινησιολογικές-χωροταξικές ανάγκες ενώ
επισημαίνουμε και την αισθητική, παιδαγωγική και ψυχολογική διάσταση της χρήσης της. Όλα
τα παραπάνω βασίζονται στη συλλογή στοιχείων αυτοψίας και των δεδομένων της επιτόπι-
ας έρευνας (fieldwork). Επικουρικό ρόλο κατέχουν και άλλες πηγές πληροφοριών σχετικά με
την παράσταση, όπως συνεντεύξεις με συντελεστές έντυπο υλικό και ηλεκτρονικό υλικό κ.ά.
Keywords
Τεχνολογία , κώδικες , ανήλικος θεατής , επικοινωνία
Εισαγωγή
Το θέατρο για κοινό ανηλίκων θεατών εδώ και αρκετά χρόνια, αφομοιώνοντας τα νέα δε-
δομένα εξωθεί σε αναζήτηση και προβληματισμό τους καλλιτέχνες του χώρου, σε ένα
παιχνίδι πειραματισμού, στη χρήση νέων συνδυασμών νοηματοδοτικών κωδίκων και αι-
σθητικών λύσεων, σε διάφορα είδη συγγραφής, σύνθεσης ή και επινόησης (Papakosta,
2014. Γραμματάς, 2010). Οδεύει προς την πολυσυλλεκτικότητα, καθώς αποτελεί ένα πε-
δίο γόνιμης επικοινωνίας και σύνθεσης στοιχείων που προέρχονται τόσο από τις άλλες
μορφές έντεχνης δημιουργίας –όπως ο χορός, η μουσική, η λογοτεχνία– όσο και από δι-
αφορετικά μέσα σύγχρονης έκφρασης όπως ο κινηματογράφος, η τηλεόραση, η video art
και γενικότερα η ψηφιακή τεχνολογία. Το είδος αυτό θεάτρου στο κατώφλι του 21ου αιώ-
να εντάσσεται στις τέχνες αναζήτησης νέων προτάσεων ως προς την έκφραση και την πα-
ρέμβαση, παρουσιάζοντας σημαντικά επιτεύγματα τόσο στον τομέα της σκηνικής γλώσ-
σας όσο και στον τομέα της ερμηνείας1. Οι σύγχρονες τάσεις χαρακτηρίζονται από έντονο
συγκρητισμό και την εργαλειοποίηση των παραδεδομένων και νεωτερικών τεχνικών για
την επίτευξη συγκεκριμένων καλλιτεχνικών στόχων. Επιπλέον, διαπιστώνεται πως το θε-
ατρικό αυτό είδος καθίσταται oλοένα και περισσότερο ελκυστικό για επώνυμους καλλι-
τέχνες –υπεύθυνους φωτισμού, σκηνογράφους, ενδυματολόγους, μουσικούς, χορογρά-
φους, υπεύθυνους παραγωγής video ή διαδραστικών τεχνολογιών– καταξιωμένους στον
χώρο του θεάματος των ενηλίκων ή σε άλλα καλλιτεχνικά είδη, όπως τον κινηματογρά-
φο (Παπακώστα, 2008).
Από την άλλη πλευρά είναι πλέον δεδομένο ότι οι τέχνες του κινηματογράφου, των κι-
νουμένων σχεδίων, του video, της ψηφιακής εικονικής πραγματικότητας και των σύγχρο-
νων τεχνικών προβολής οπτικών σημάτων συνθέτουν μια ευρέως διαδεδομένη πραγμα-
τικότητα, με την οποία έρχονται σε συχνή επαφή τα παιδιά μέσω του τύπου, της τηλεό-
ρασης, του κινηματογράφου, του διαδικτύου και ειδικών εφαρμογών (PlayStation, X-box
360, διαδραστικές multimedia εγκαταστάσεις κλπ.). Στο σύγχρονο θέατρο για κοινό ανή-
λικων θεατών όλο και συχνότερα βλέπει κανείς να χρησιμοποιούνται στο πλαίσιο της πα-
ράστασης οι παραπάνω νέες μορφές μέσων και τεχνικών. Ο λόγος χρήσης τους ποικίλει:
άλλοτε έχει κανείς την εντύπωση πως οι συντελεστές του σκηνικού θεάματος επιχειρούν
έτσι να προσεγγίσουν με καταλληλότερο και περισσότερο σύγχρονο τρόπο τον κόσμο των
μικρών θεατών, άλλοτε επιδιώκουν να μετατρέψουν το παραστασιακό γεγονός σε απλό
δίαυλο μεταφοράς του περιρρέοντος πολιτισμού κι άλλοτε ο στόχος είναι ο εντυπωσια-
σμός, χωρίς να έχει ληφθεί ιδιαίτερη μέριμνα για την ποιότητα του αποτελέσματος όσον
αφορά στην καλλιτεχνική και στην παιδαγωγική του υπόσταση. Υπάρχουν βέβαια και οι
περιπτώσεις της λειτουργικής ένταξης των νέων συστημάτων σημασίας στο σκηνικό θέ-
αμα ώστε να υπηρετούν τη λογική και την αισθητική της παράστασης και να κατασκευά-
ζουν σε συνεργασία και σε αλληλεπίδραση με τα υπόλοιπα συστήματα σημασίας την άπο-
ψη που την στηρίζει.
Παραλλήλως, τα ενδιαφέροντα, η εικόνα που το ανήλικο κοινό έχει για τον κόσμο
και τον εαυτό του επηρεάζονται σε μεγάλο βαθμό από την παρουσία και την εισβολή νέ-
ων μορφών εικονικής πραγματικότητας2. Η γενιά που όχι άδικα αποκαλείται «surprise
proof», είναι μια γενιά που νομίζει ότι τα ξέρει όλα και τίποτα δεν τη ξαφνιάζει (Πατσαλί-
δης, 2014). Ο ανήλικος, εξοικειωμένος ήδη με την τεχνολογία και την βιομηχανία του θε-
άματος, έμπειρος ταξιδιώτης του κυβερνοχώρου, φανατικός οπαδός της διαμεσολαβη-
μένης επικοινωνίας, εθισμένος σε αφηγήσεις καταιγιστικές, οικειοποιημένος τον ακαρι-
αίο χρόνο των βίντεο κλιπ και των διαφημίσεων αλλά στερημένος από τα παραμύθια της
γιαγιάς και το σωματικό παιχνίδι σε αγρούς και αλάνες, είναι ένας πολύ πιο διψασμένος
και ταυτόχρονα απαιτητικός θεατής. Στα παραπάνω πλαίσια κρίνονται αναγκαίες «εμπει-
ρίες που ξυπνούν την πολυαισθητηριακή γνώση και προάγουν την ευαισθησία στο εκφρα-
στικό νόημα και τη σύμφραση» (Chapman, 1993). Μάλιστα σύμφωνα με αρκετά πρόσφα-
τες έρευνες διαπιστώνεται πως το ανήλικο κοινό μπορεί από τη μία να αντιληφθεί ευκο-
λότερα από το ενήλικο τα διακριτά στοιχεία σύνθετων αισθητικών δεδομένων και από την
άλλη να αφομοιώσει ταχύτερα ένα σύνθετο μήνυμα3. Επιπλέον, η επαφή των ανηλίκων
με σύνθετες μορφές θεαμάτων προωθεί τους πολυαισθητηριακούς τους συνειρμούς και
εντείνει την αισθητική τους αντίληψη. Τους δίνει την ευκαιρία να συσχετίσουν διαφορετι-
κής προέλευσης ερεθίσματα και να τροποποιήσουν (δομήσουν και αναδομήσουν) το μνη-
μονικό τους υλικό. Ταυτόχρονα, αναπτύσσονται, συνδέονται ή εξισορροπούνται οι εξειδι-
κευμένοι τύποι νοημοσύνης τους (Gardner, 1999).
Με δεδομένο ότι οι υποψήφιοι θεατές δεν είναι απλοί «γραμμικοί στοχαστές», διαχειρίζο-
νται άνετα την πολυαισθητηριακή πληροφόρηση και έχουν νέο τεχνολογικό εγγραμματισμό
το πανοραμικό τοπίο των media διεισδύει με πολλούς τρόπους και ανοίγει ποικίλους αισθη-
τικούς δρόμους στο σύγχρονο θέατρο για κοινό ανηλίκων θεατών. Η ψηφιακή επεξεργασία
των ήχων, των εικόνων, του κειμένου και του βίντεο μετασχηματίζουν ριζικά τις συνθήκες
έκφρασης και δημιουργίας. Μέσα που παλαιότερα θα συσχετίζονταν μόνο με τον κινηματο-
γράφο αξιοποιούνται πλέον πολυδύναμα στη θεατρική σκηνή. Οι νέες τεχνολογίες περιλαμ-
βάνουν νέα είδη φωτεινών πηγών και προβολικών μηχανημάτων (ψηφιακή εικόνα) που δί-
νουν περισσότερες δυνατότητες και ευκαιρίες υλοποίησης μιας έμπνευσης ή ενός οράματος
(Γραμματάς, 2015).Επιβάλλεται όμως να συνδέονται λειτουργικά με το θέαμα και να υπηρε-
τούν τη σκηνοθετική «άποψη» με ακρίβεια και συνέπεια. Στις νεώτερες παραγωγές για κοι-
νό ανήλικων θεατών συναντά κανείς μια ποικιλία εφαρμογών των νέων τεχνολογιών.
Η ένταξη της Τεχνολογίας

στo σύνθετο σημειωτικό πλέγμα της θεατρικής παράστασης
Αναντίρρητα μια θεατρική παράσταση είναι συνδυασμός παιχνιδιού, επικοινωνίας και
ανταλλαγής ενεργειών (Balme, 2012), αλλά και χώρος συγκέντρωσης στοιχείων και εν-
νοιών άρρηκτα και δυναμικά δεμένων (υποκριτής, θεατής, σκηνικός χώρος, υποκριτική,
κοινό, σκηνογραφία κλπ.). Η θεατρική γλώσσα δε μπορεί να διαιρεθεί όπως οι φυσικές
γλώσσες σε μία σειρά ενοτήτων ή φωνημάτων. Στην περίπτωση του θεάτρου το ενδιαφέ-
ρον δεν εξαντλείται σε μια γραμμική παρουσίαση της σχέσης σημαίνοντος-σημαινόμενου4.
Τον κίνδυνο αυτό τον έχει επισημάνει και ο T. Kowzan: «Αυτή η αναζήτηση ενός σημειολο-
γικού μοντέλου αντιγραμμένου απ’ τη γλώσσα, οδήγησε σε υπερβολικό κατακερματισμό της
ροής της παράστασης, ορίζοντας την ελάχιστη μονάδα μόνο χρονικά, ως κομμάτι του οποί-
ου η διάρκεια είναι ίση με το σημείο που διαρκεί λιγότερο» (Kowzan, 1975), ενώ παρόμοια
άποψη εκφράζει και ο Helbo (1975).
Το πλήθος και η ποικιλία των σημειωτικών συστημάτων που εμπλέκονται στην πα-
ραγωγή νοήματος5, καθώς και η πολυλειτουργικότητα (Elam, 2001) και η κινητικότητα
(Honzl, 2010) των επιμέρους σημείων ακυρώνει εκ των προτέρων την ανεύρεση ομοιο-
γενών ενοτήτων στη διάρθρωση των θεατρικών κωδίκων. «Άλλωστε τα όρια μεταξύ των
συνόλων σημείων αποδεικνύονται δυσδιάκριτα στο παραστασιακό γεγονός. Για παράδειγμα
το έμψυχο στοιχείο, μπορεί να σημασιοδοτεί ένα αδρανές υλικό και ένα αντικείμενο μπο-
ρεί να υποκαθιστά και να σημασιοδοτεί μια ανθρώπινη παρουσία» (Pavis, 1996). Έτσι, οι
ερευνητές αναζητούν περισσότερο συνθέσεις (ενότητες ετερογενών σημείων κι όχι λί-
στες ομογενών σημείων) γιατί αυτό που προηγείται στο θέατρο είναι η σφαιρική αντίλη-
ψη των σκηνικών δρώμενων6. Οι νέες τεχνολογίες διαθέτοντας έναν πλούτο εκφραστι-
κών τρόπων και δυνατοτήτων σημασιοδότησης μετασχηματίζουν τα δίκτυα της θεατρι-
κής επικοινωνίας επεμβαίνοντας δυναμικά στο σκηνικό εγχείρημα και εμπλουτίζοντας
τις μεγάλες ενότητες των ετερογενών σημείων( υποκριτική, εικαστικό πλαίσιο κ.ά.). Μέ-
σα σε αυτά τα πλαίσια, με τη χρήση παραδειγμάτων, θα προσπαθήσουμε να εξετάσουμε
την επέμβασή των νέων τεχνολογικών εφαρμογών και εργαλείων στην ιεραρχία και την
αλληλεπίδραση των σημειωτικών συστημάτων που μετέχουν στη θεατρική επικοινωνία.
Multimedia διαδραστική τεχνολογία: Ο ανήλικος θεατής συνδημιουργός

του σύνθετου παραστασιακού μηνύματος
Ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον για τον ερευνητή παρουσιάζουν παραστάσεις στις οποίες ο ανήλικος
θεατής επεμβαίνει δημιουργικά και όχι διεκπεραιωτικά ή μηχανιστικά στο σύνθετο σημει-
ωτικό σύμπαν της παράστασης. Η αξιοποίηση των Ψηφιακών Τεχνολογιών άλλοτε με βι-
ωματικό και άλλοτε με αποστασιοποιητικό τρόπο βοηθάει τους μικρούς θεατές να παρέμ-
βουν λειτουργικά στην ιστορία και ταυτόχρονα να διατυπώσουν και να αξιοποιήσουν τη
δική τους γνώμη και άποψη για θέματα που προκύπτουν από την «διαμεσική» αυτή ανα-
παράστασή της. Οι συμμετέχοντες, έχουν πρόσβαση σε ένα ευρύ φάσμα νοηματοδοτήσε-
ων και συνδηλωτικών δυνατοτήτων και οι επιλογές τους είναι αυτές που διαρθρώνουν
το σημειωτικό και επικοινωνιακό πλέγμα. Έτσι, αλληλεπιδρούν δημιουργικά με κάτι που
ενώ εξελίσσεται, ταυτόχρονα κατασκευάζεται.
Τέτοια περίπτωση συμμετοχικού θεάτρου-με τη χρήση νέων τεχνολογιών- αποτελούν
οι παραστάσεις του «Θεάτρου Νέων», «Γιαπωνέζικοι Κήποι»7 και «Χορεύοντας με τα χρώ-
ματα»8 οι οποίες παίζονται για πολλά χρόνια κι αποτελούν συνθέσεις κίνησης, παιχνιδιού
Εικόνα 1. Χορεύοντας με τα χρώματα (2011)
Εικόνα 2. Γιαπωνέζικοι κήποι (2011)
εικόνας και ήχου που προϋποθέτουν μια αυθόρμητη, ελεύθερη και διασκεδαστική συμ-
μετοχή του ανήλικου κοινού9.
Εμπνευστής και καθοδηγητής του ο Δ. Σεϊτάνης ο οποίος τόλμησε να «εισάγει» το συ-
γκεκριμένο είδος από την Ιταλία, όπου ανθεί εδώ και χρόνια, και να το προσαρμόσει στις
εγχώριες απαιτήσεις10. Οι κινούμενες εικόνες που ανοίγουν πάνω στο ειδικά διαμορφωμέ-
νο δάπεδο δημιουργούν μια interactive (διαδραστική) επαφή με τους θεατές επιτρέποντας
στον καθένα τους να ανακαλύψει το δικό του τρόπο προσέγγισης σε διαφορετικές εξερευ-
Εικόνα 3. Γιαπωνέζικοι Κήποι (2010)
νήσεις και διασκεδαστικά παιχνίδια. Η θεατρική αφήγηση, με την καθοδήγηση πάντοτε των
δύο ηθοποιών – εμψυχωτών, αλλά και με τη χρήση μιας διαδραστικής επιδαπέδιας οθόνης
πολυμέσων, δίνει στους ανήλικους θεατές τη μοναδική ευκαιρία να βιώσουν μια θεατρική
εμπειρία με πραγματικά συμμετοχικό χαρακτήρα, συμμετέχοντας στη διαδικασία παραγω-
γής του θεατρικού μηνύματος, διασκεδάζοντας, αναπτύσσοντας τη φαντασία τους και εκ-
φράζοντας τις προσωπικές δημιουργικές δυνάμεις τους (Δημάκη-Ζώρα, 2015).
Η παράσταση παίζεται πάνω σε ένα λευκό χαλί, στο οποίο προβάλλονται κινούμενες
(animated) εικόνες από ψηλά κι ένα σύστημα από αισθητήρες, αντιδρά σε ερεθίσματα,
συγχρονίζοντας εικόνες και ήχους μέσα από δυο εξαιρετικά εξειδικευμένα προγράμμα-
τα που τρέχουν σε δυο ηλεκτρονικούς υπολογιστές. Πάνω στο χαλί δημιουργούνται ει-
κονικά τοπία που επιτρέπουν την ανάπτυξη παιχνιδιών και δράσεων για άτομα ή για ομά-
δες. Όταν εισέρχεται κάποιος σ’ αυτό το σκηνικό χώρο μπορεί να δημιουργεί συνθέσεις
μουσικής, να ενεργοποιεί εικόνες κι άλλες πολύπλοκες δράσεις μέσα από κινήσεις που
ασκούν πίεση στους 32 αισθητήρες. Οι δραστηριότητες έχουν σχεδιαστεί με τέτοιο τρόπο
ώστε να δώσουν θεατρική αξία στην αυθόρμητη κίνηση και δράση αλλά και να αποκαλύ-
ψουν, μέσα από τα παιχνίδια που αναπτύσσονται, δεξιότητες και ευαισθησίες αυτών που
δρουν επάνω στο χαλί11.
Το Θέατρο Νέων συνεχίζει μια σειρά πειραματικών προσεγγίσεων της χρήσης νέων
τεχνολογιών σε συνδυασμό με παραδοσιακές τεχνικές προβολής. Η προσπάθεια αυτή έχει
ξεκινήσει πριν είκοσι περίπου χρόνια με τις εμβληματικές για το είδος τους παραστάσεις
«Η Αλίκη στη χώρα των θαυμάτων12» (1998) και «Αν μιλούσαν τα ζώα13» (1999) στις οποί-
ες χρησιμοποιήθηκε με πρωτοποριακό τρόπο μια πληθώρα πολυμέσων.
Εικόνα 4. Αν μιλούσαν τα ζώα (1999)
Η Νεράιδα Πραλίνα και το Μαγικό Φουντούκι14, είναι μια άλλη διαδραστική παράσταση για
παιδιά με τη χρήση των Ψηφιακών Τεχνολογιών κατά την οποία οι ανήλικοι θεατές επεμ-
βαίνουν δημιουργικά στους θεατρικούς κώδικες. Στηρίζεται στη διασκευή της ομώνυμης
αλληγορικής ιστορίας15.
Εικόνα 5. Η Νεράιδα Πραλίνα και το Μαγικό Φουντούκι
Η είσοδος των παιδιών στο χώρο του θεάτρου συνοδεύεται από την παραλαβή της σο-
κολατένια τους ταυτότητας, στην οποία αναγράφεται ποιοι είναι και σε ποια ομάδα ανή-
κουν (π.χ. σοκολατένια τριαντάφυλλα, σοκολατένια καγκουρό, σοκολατένια βατραχάκια
κ.ά.), σε ποιο μέρος της χώρας κατοικούν, τι είδους μουσική τους αρέσει. Έτσι εξασφαλί-
ζεται η συμμετοχή τους στα διαδραστικά παιχνίδια και ταυτόχρονα η είσοδό τους στη χώ-
ρα του φανταστικού. Το σκηνικό περιλαμβάνει βίντεο, ψηφιακές φωτογραφίες, χάρτες,
animation, και καρτέλες παιχνιδιών που προβάλλονται σε μεγάλη οθόνη. Σε κάθε τόπο
όπου πηγαίνει η Πραλίνα για να βρει τον φίλο της, παρουσιάζονται διαφορετικά video μέ-
σα από μεικτές τεχνικές animation, green box και γυρίσματος σε φυσικό χώρο. Οι ηθο-
ποιοί στους ρόλους της Πραλίνας και του Αόρατου Μουσικού συνομιλούν με φανταστικά
και πραγματικά πρόσωπα που παρουσιάζονται στα δημιουργικά βίντεο. Οι ψηφιακοί χάρ-
τες και η ψηφιακή απεικόνιση των ρόλων των παιδιών στην οθόνη βοηθούν σε όλη τη δι-
άρκεια της παράστασης τη βιωματική συμμετοχή του κοινού και οδηγούν σταδιακά στην
αποτελεσματική διάδραση των ηθοποιών μαζί του. Τα παιδιά παρακολουθούν στον χάρ-
τη και μέσα από την ιστορία σε ποιο τόπο ανήκουν, και απαντάνε μέσα από τον ομαδικό
τους ρόλο στις ερωτήσεις των ηθοποιών. Επιπλέον, τα ζωντανά παιχνίδια των ηθοποι-
ών εμψυχωτών με τους ανήλικους θεατές –τα οποία προωθούν παράλληλα και την πλο-
κή της ιστορίας– συνδυάζονται με τα προβαλλόμενα διαδραστικά βίντεο. Στον τελευταίο
σταθμό της Πραλίνας συνεχίζεται το διαδραστικό εκπαιδευτικό πρόγραμμα, σύμφωνα με
το οποίο οι αποδέκτες του σκηνικού μηνύματος γίνονται συνδημιουργοί παίρνοντας συ-
νέντευξη από τα πρόσωπα της ιστορίας και στη συνέχεια επιλέγοντας ποια τραγούδια και
δράσεις θέλουν να χορέψουν ή να παίξουν16.
Η αξιοποίηση των Νέων Τεχνολογιών

στους δευτερογενείς κώδικες της παράστασης
Το εικαστικό και του ηχητικό πλαίσιο του σκηνικού θεάματος διαδραματίζει καθοριστικό
και πρωτεύοντα ρόλο στην επίτευξη της επικοινωνίας θεατή –παράστασης στο είδος θε-
άτρου που εξετάζουμε. Στο θέατρο για ανήλικους θεατές οι δευτερεύοντες κώδικες της
παράστασης λειτουργούν εμφατικά, εναλλάξ ή ταυτόχρονα, αυτόνομα ή συνδυαστικά, δη-
μιουργώντας κατ’ αυτόν τον τρόπο έναν σημειωτικό πλεονασμό (Deldime, 1996). Πολύ
συχνά αναδεικνύονται σε πρωτογενείς κώδικες και επεκτείνουν τη σημειολογική τους
λειτουργία αλληλεπιδρώντας με τις νέες πολυμεσικές εφαρμογές και τα ψηφιακά μέσα.
Στη σύγχρονη παραγωγή του θεάτρου που απευθύνεται σε ανήλικο κοινό η χρήση της Τε-
χνολογίας μπορεί να επηρεάσει ποικιλότροπα τις κειμενικές, κινησιολογικές-χωροταξικές,
αισθητικές, παιδαγωγικές και ψυχολογικές λειτουργίες του εικαστικού και του ηχητικού
πλαισίου της παράστασης. Το σκηνικό, τα σκηνικά αντικείμενα, οι σκηνικοί μηχανισμοί, τα
ενδύματα και τα προσωπεία αποτελούν την «όψη» της παράστασης και συνιστούν ένα δυ-
ναμικό υποσύνολο των συστατικών στοιχείων του θεάματος που μπορεί να αλληλεπιδρά-
σει δημιουργικά με την ψηφιακή πραγματικότητα. Η σημειολογική τους λειτουργία μπορεί
να ενισχυθεί, να μετασχηματισθεί ακόμα και να υπονομευθεί με τη χρήση των σύγχρονων
τεχνολογικών μέσων. Από την άλλη πλευρά, εξαιρετικό ενδιαφέρον παρουσιάζει η επέμβα-
ση των νέων τεχνολογιών στη σύνθεση και στην παραγωγή νέων ήχων. Η ενίσχυση, η αυ-
ξομείωση της έντασης καθώς και η μετακίνηση του ήχου σε διαφορετικά ηχεία, δίνουν νέες
δυνατότητες και ευελιξία στη σκηνοθετική πρόταση. Συγκεκριμένα η ηχητική ενίσχυση μπο-
ρεί να κάνει ρεαλιστικότερη μια αφήγηση, να ζωντανέψει περιγραφές, να υποστηρίξει δια-
θέσεις (χαρακτήρων αλλά και καλλιτεχνικών συντελεστών). Δραματοποιεί το λόγο κάνοντάς
τον πιο οικείο στον ανήλικο θεατή ενώ καταφέρνει να του υποδείξει πού πρέπει να εστιάσει
το ενδιαφέρον του όσον αφορά στα σκηνικά δρώμενα. Η επεξεργασία στην κυματομορφή
των ήχων17 αλλά και η σύνθεση μουσικής, ανθρώπινης φωνής και ηχητικών εφέ (Πανόπου-
λος, 2010) δημιουργούν εντυπωσιακά και ανοίκεια αποτελέσματα προσφέροντας στον ανήλι-
κο θεατή την πρόσβαση όχι μόνο σε ένα ευρύ φάσμα νοηματοδοτήσεων αλλά και σε μια νέα
μουσική πραγματικότητα και μουσική παιδεία. Επίσης, οι σημειολογικές λειτουργίες του φω-
τισμού (χωροχρονικές μεταβάσεις, επιλεκτική ορατότητα, δημιουργία ατμόσφαιρας, μορφο-
ποίηση του χώρου, εστίαση προσοχής, δημιουργία και εξαφάνιση χώρων κ.ά.) αποκτούν άλ-
λη δυναμική και παίρνουν άλλες διαστάσεις με τη χρήση της σύγχρονης τεχνολογίας.
Στα πιο κάτω παραδείγματα –άλλοτε μεμονωμένα κι άλλοτε συνδυαστικά– συναντάμε
τέτοιου είδους εφαρμογές και προτάσεις.
Η παράσταση «Ανάποδη κλωστή»18 βασισμένη σε μια Performance Installation αποτε-
λεί ένα θέαμα με πολυαισθητηρική δυναμική, ένα συνδυασμό εντυπωσιακών εικόνων στο
χώρο με χρήση πρωτότυπων υλικών, ευφάνταστων κατασκευών, θεάτρου σκιών, παντο-
μίμας και σύγχρονων τεχνολογιών.
Μέσα από συγκεκριμένους αισθητικούς δρόμους, υπηρετεί ταυτόχρονα κοινωνικούς
και παιδαγωγικούς στόχους. Με ερευνητική και πειραματική διάθεση, η ομάδα στήνει ένα
σκηνικό θέαμα βασισμένο κυρίως, στους ήχους και στην εικόνα. Υποστηρίζοντας την κα-
θιέρωση της εικόνας ως «αυτόνομης, ισοδύναμης και κυρίαρχης σκηνικής γλώσσας» και
έχοντας την πεποίθηση πως «όσο μεγαλύτερη είναι η διαύγεια του οπτικού πεδίου που
προσφέρει η σκηνή στον ανήλικο θεατή τόσο πιο ελεύθερα μπορεί να αναπνέει η ευαισθη-
σία του και η φαντασία του»19, η πολυπολιτισμική αυτή θεατρική ομάδα καταφέρνει να συν-
δυάσει παραδοσιακές τεχνικές δανεισμένες από το θέατρο σκιών, τις μαριονέττες, το θέ-
ατρο των αντικειμένων, το χάρτινο θέατρο κ.ά., καθώς και τελείως σύγχρονες τεχνικές
όπως η ένταξη στην παράσταση της αίσθησης της οσμής20.Η θεατρική αφήγηση μετουσι-
ώνεται σε ένα πολυαισθητηριακό γεγονός το οποίο εμπεριέχει πληθώρα αναγνώσεων και
ερμηνειών. Ο σωματικός λόγος εύστοχα δομημένος πάνω στη μαγεία των συναισθημά-
των και των αισθήσεων, πλαισιωμένος με έναν πλούτο κωδίκων και σημασιών στοχεύει
στο προσωπικό ταξίδι τού κάθε θεατή μέσα από τις αντηχήσεις που του προκαλεί το σύν-
θετο και συνάμα ονειρικών διαστάσεων σκηνικό θέαμα. Η συμμετοχή ατόμων με κινητι-
κές δυσκολίες21 στα σκηνικά δρώμενα προσδίδει κοινωνικές και ανθρωπιστικές προεκτά-
σεις στο καλλιτεχνικό θέαμα.
Εικόνα 6.
Ανάποδη κλωστή
(2009)
Εικόνα 7.
(2009)
Εικόνα 8.
(2009)
Συμβολή των νέων τεχνολογιών στην εικαστική πλαισίωση παρατηρούμε και στην πα-
ράσταση «Η γοργόνα και το θαλασσάκι»22, όπου μια απλή προβολή κάποιας εικόνας υπο-
καθιστά ή τροποποιεί ένα σκηνικό δημιουργώντας ένα φόντο στη σκηνή.
Εικόνα 9. Η Γοργόνα και το θαλασσάκι (2003)
Εικόνα 10. Η γοργόνα και το θαλασσάκι (2003)
Στην παράσταση «Ομήρου Ιλιάδα -Τρωικός Πόλεμος»23 υπάρχει επίσης στο πίσω μέρος
της σκηνής, οθόνη προβολής. Η προβολή σχετίζεται άμεσα με το φωτισμό που υπάρχει στο
υπόλοιπο φόντο το οποίο είναι σκεπασμένο με αναρριχώμενα φυτά. Για παράδειγμα, όταν
στην οθόνη προβάλλεται το δάσος, το περικείμενο σκηνικό φωτίζεται με πράσινο φως.
Στην παράσταση «Ομήρου Οδύσσεια – το παραμύθι των παραμυθιών»24, με τον συνδυ-
ασμό κατάλληλου φωτισμού στην σκεπασμένη με πανιά σκηνή,την ταυτόχρονη προβο-
λή θαλασσινού τοπίου σε οθόνη στο φόντο της σκηνής καθώς και τους ανάλογους ήχους
δημιουργείται στο θεατή η αίσθηση του βάθους και η ψευδαίσθηση ότι ολόκληρη η σκη-
νή είναι η θάλασσα όπου ταξιδεύει ο Οδυσσέας με τους συντρόφους του.
Εικόνα 11. Ομήρου Ιλιάδα -Τρωικός Πόλεμος
Εικόνα 12. Ομήρου Οδύσσεια-το παραμύθι των παραμυθιών (2010)
Η ψηφιακή τεχνολογία στην υπηρεσία της Υποκριτικής
Μέσα στο σύνθετο πολυσημειακό σύστημα επικοινωνίας του θεατρικού συμβάντος, ο ηθο-
ποιός αποτελεί άλλοτε πομπό, άλλοτε δέκτη κι άλλοτε δίαυλο μηνυμάτων. Στο ρευστό σύ-
μπαν μιας παράστασης που απευθύνεται σε κοινό ανηλίκων, χειρίζεται πολλούς και διαφο-
ρετικούς κώδικες και προσαρμόζει σε κάθε περίσταση τη λειτουργία τους. Φορτίζει τα ση-
μαίνοντα με πολλαπλά σημαινόμενα και ταυτόχρονα και εναλλακτικά συγκεκριμενοποιεί τα
σημαινόμενα σε διαφορετικά σημαίνοντα. Επιλέγει, αξιοποιεί, συνδυάζει και ρυθμίζει έναν
πλούτο εκφραστικών μέσων με στόχο το σκηνικό μήνυμα να γίνει όσο το δυνατόν πιο ζω-
ντανό, πιο έντονο, πιο δυναμικό, πιο διαυγές και πιο αληθινό. Σε αυτή την πολυεπίπεδη σκη-
νική του δράση η χρήση της τεχνολογίας μπορεί να δώσει άλλες διαστάσεις και δυνατότητες.
Δυναμικά αλλά και λειτουργικά μπορεί να παρεμβαίνει η Τεχνολογία στο σύνολο ετε-
ρογενών σημείων (Πούχνερ, 2010) που εκπορεύονται από τη σκηνή στην πλατεία και
αποτελούν την υποκριτική του ηθοποιού. Τα κινησιολογικά (χειρονομικά, προσεγγιστικά,
μιμικά) τα φωνητικά (τόνος, τονισμός, ένταση, ύφος, χρωματισμός κ.ά.) τα παραγλωσσικά
κ.λπ. σημεία (Fischer-Lichte, 1992), που συνιστούν την παρουσία και τη δράση του ηθο-
ποιού στη σκηνή –αυτόνομα ή συνδυαστικά– μπορούν να προσαρμοστούν, να διαμορ-
φωθούν, να ενισχυθούν ή να μετασχηματιστούν με την συνέργεια των νέων τεχνολογι-
ών. Κάποιες επίσης φορές είναι δυνατόν τα σύγχρονα ψηφιακά μέσα να υποκαταστήσουν
ακόμα και τη ζωντανή παρουσία του ηθοποιού.
Στην παράσταση «Έλα – Έλα»25 η οποία απευθύνεται σε παιδιά προσχολικής ηλικίας, πα-
ρατηρείται στενή συνεργασία του ηχητικού κώδικα καθώς και της σωματικής έκφρασης
με τις νέες τεχνολογίες, προσανατολισμένη στην εστίαση προσοχής. Ο συνδυασμός αυτός
ευνοεί και διευκολύνει την επικοινωνία σκηνής- πλατείας. Συγκεκριμένα, το φεγγάρι είναι
Εικόνα 13.
Έλα – Έλα
(2010)
στην ουσία μια προβολή η οποία μετατοπίζεται στον χώρο, συνοδευόμενη από τον αντίστοι-
χο ήχο. Στη σαραντάλεπτη παράσταση αυτή με θέμα το φεγγάρι26 η μόνη λέξη που ακούγε-
ται είναι το «Έλα» και χρησιμοποιείται για να δηλώσει διάφορες καταστάσεις: προτροπή, δι-
αταγή, έκπληξη, ενόχληση κ.ά. Ο απρόσμενος επισκέπτης δημιουργεί αναστάτωση στη Μία
και γίνεται η αφορμή για τη δημιουργία μιας παράξενης σχέσης. Η σχέση αυτή οπτικοποιείται
μέσα από το λόγο του σώματος της ηθοποιού27 και τις συνεχόμενες μετακινήσεις του φεγ-
γαριού επισκέπτη28. Τα νήπια και τα προνήπια συμμετέχουν έντονα στο θέαμα καθώς προ-
σπαθούν να ενημερώσουν την Μία για τη θέση, τη στάση, τη διάθεση του φεγγαριού. Εν-
θουσιάζονται με τις ξαφνικές μετακινήσεις του και τους ήχους που τις συνοδεύουν και δεί-
χνουν να μοιράζονται τα συναισθήματα της ηθοποιού.
Η πρωτοκαθεδρία της ψηφιακής κινούμενης εικόνας

Η θεατρική παράσταση ως πάμμουσο29 καλλιτεχνικό γεγονός ενορχηστρώνει και ορ-
γανώνει όλες τις θεατρικές γλώσσες και όλους τους σημασιοδοτικούς τρόπους. Σε κά-
ποιες νεωτερικές προτάσεις παρατηρούμε την πρωτοκαθεδρία ενός τεχνολογικού μέσου-
όπως η προβολή video- και την ανάδειξή του σε κεντρικό σύστημα παραγωγής σημεί-
ων. Η προβολή video μπορεί να συνδηλώσει δραματικές καταστάσεις ή και να καταδηλώ-
σει νέες, «εμπλουτίζοντας» τους υπόλοιπους σκηνικούς κώδικες. Μπορεί να λειτουργή-
σει ενός σκηνικά απόντος χώρου ή χρόνου, αλλά και ως αρωγός στον τρόπο διάρθρωσης
και ανάγνωσης οποιουδήποτε άλλου θεατρικού σημείου. Υπάρχει περίπτωση να φορτίσει
ή αποφορτίσει συναισθηματικά τη δράση, να σχολιάσει τα δρώντα πρόσωπα, να εντείνει ή
αποδυναμώνει την ένταση της σκηνής. Όταν το απαιτήσει η σκηνοθετική στόχευση μπορεί
να προκαλέσει την εναλλαγή των πεδίων ανάπτυξης της σκηνικής δράσης, να γίνει δηλα-
δή βασικός παράγοντας της χωροχρονικής ροής της παράστασης. Διαθέτει επίσης τη δύ-
ναμη να παρασύρει τον ανήλικο θεατή σε φανταστικούς κόσμους αποσπώντας τον από το
εδώ και το τώρα της πραγματικής του παρουσίας και επιβεβαιώνοντας την αναγωγή του
ψευδαισθητικού σε βιωματικό.
Στην παράσταση «Ο μεγαλύτερος θησαυρός του κόσμου»30, η λειτουργία του video εί-
ναι καθοριστική στο σκηνικό εγχείρημα σε βαθμό που –σύμφωνα με τη σκηνοθέτη– η πα-
ράσταση δεν μπορεί να πραγματοποιηθεί χωρίς τη συμβολή των Ν. Τεχνολογιών. Στα πλαί-
σια αυτής της παράστασης, το video επιτελεί λειτουργίες όπως η δήλωση της μετάβασης σε
χώρο και χρόνο, η αντικατάσταση ρόλων και η εκπροσώπηση του εσωτερικού κόσμου των
χαρακτήρων31. Για παράδειγμα τη στιγμή που φθάνουν οι πρωταγωνιστές στη σπηλιά του
μεγάλου θησαυρού, προβάλλεται στην οθόνη η σπηλιά και στη συνέχεια γίνεται ζουμ στην
είσοδο, μαυρίζει η οθόνη και ο θεατής έχει την αίσθηση ότι τα παιδιά μπαίνουν στη σπηλιά.
Επίσης ο Ίγκο ο φύλακας του θησαυρού εκπροσωπείται στην οθόνη από ένα αφηρημένο
σχέδιο με σκούρα χρώματα, το οποίο εύκολα ταυτίζουν οι μικροί θεατές με τον συγκεκρι-
μένο ήρωα. Πολλές φορές στην ίδια παράσταση ένας ρόλος έμψυχου ή άψυχου έχει διπλή
υπόσταση, αυτή που εκπροσωπείται από τη σκηνική του παρουσία κι αυτή που εμφανίζεται
στην οθόνη (π.χ. ο κόκορας ή το δέντρο). Ο σημειωτικός αυτός πλεονασμός βοηθάει στην
πρόσληψη και στην ανταπόκριση του ανήλικου θεατή και εμπλουτίζει αισθητικά το θέαμα.
Στη δραματοποιημένη σκηνική απόδοση του μυθιστορήματος της Άλκης Ζέη «Ο Με-
γάλος Περίπατος του Πέτρου»32 η τεχνολογία παρεμβαίνει δυναμικά υπηρετώντας το σκη-
νικό εγχείρημα σε προσανατολισμούς καλλιτεχνικούς αλλά και παιδαγωγικούς. Η χρήση
του video συνδέεται λειτουργικά με το θέαμα, προσανατολισμένη ξεκάθαρα στη στόχευση
του σκηνοθετικού εγχειρήματος. Μετουσιώνει –σύμφωνα με τον σκηνοθέτη- με τον κα-
λύτερο τρόπο την έννοια του «περίπατου» όσον αφορά στον χρόνο τον τόπο, τις καταστά-
σεις, τα πρόσωπα, τις ιδέες και τα συναισθήματα, τον φανταστικό και τον πραγματικό κό-
σμο. Συμπυκνώνει και αναδεικνύει πολλά στοιχεία μέσα από γνώριμους στο ανήλικο κοι-
νό δρόμους. Σύμφωνα πάλι με τη μαρτυρία του σκηνοθέτη33, η λειτουργία του video απο-
δεικνύεται καταλυτική και στην προσπάθεια «ανώδυνης» προσέγγισης στο θέμα του ξαφ-
νικού θανάτου. Συγκεκριμένα, στη στιγμή του θανάτου της Δροσούλας –ενώ οι διαδηλω-
τές μένουν ακίνητοι και εκείνη εξαφανίζεται από τη σκηνή– η απουσία της δηλώνεται με
το άσπρο της πανωφόρι ριγμένο στο δάπεδο και η παρουσία της με την ταυτόχρονη προ-
βολή κοντινού πλάνου του προσώπου της. Τη συγκίνηση επιτείνει το ηχοτοπίο της σκηνής
με το «Τραγούδι της Δροσούλας». Το αισιόδοξο μήνυμα του τραγουδιού («Μια καινούρ-
για Ζωή, μια καινούργια Αρχή…») συμπλέει αρμονικά με την εικόνα της Δροσούλας στο
video, αυτή που δεν μπορεί να τη φθείρει ο θάνατος, που επιβιώνει στη μνήμη των αγα-
πημένων προσώπων και ταυτόχρονα καταγράφεται έντονα στη μνήμη του κοινού.
Η χρήση του video κάποιες φορές μπορεί να εμπλέξει και τον ανήλικο θεατή στα σκη-
νικά δρώμενα και να τον εισάγει σε ρόλο. Σκηνοθετικό εύρημα προσανατολισμένο στην
ενεργή συμμετοχή αλλά και στη δημιουργική παρέμβαση του θεατή στο παραστασιακό
μήνυμα αποτελεί η επιλογή να παίρνουν οι ηθοποιοί συνεντεύξεις από τους ανήλικους
θεατές στην παράσταση «Η φάρμα των ζώων»34. Οι συνεντεύξεις, σε ατμόσφαιρα «προ-
εκλογικής περιόδου» προβάλλονται άμεσα στην οθόνη μιας τηλεοράσεως. Με το τέχνα-
σμα αυτό, εμπλουτίζεται ο παραστασιακός Λόγος με τη διαμεσολάβηση της ψηφιακής ει-
κόνας και ο θεατής, γίνεται ο ίδιος δρων πρόσωπο της σκηνής που προωθεί τη δράση.
Η επέμβαση των Ν. Τεχνολογιών

στις μεταβάσεις ανάμεσα στα σημειωτικά συστήματα της παράστασης
Κατά την εξέλιξη του ρευστού και εφήμερου σκηνικού θεάματος, τα σημειωτικά συστήματα
εναλλάσσονται δυναμικά προκειμένου να ενισχυθεί το παραστασιακό μήνυμα και η επικοι-
νωνία σκηνής–πλατείας. Πρόκληση για την σκηνοθετική ευρηματικότητα αποτελεί η επίτευ-
ξη ευελιξίας και ταχύτητας όσον αφορά στην αλλαγή/αμοιβαία αντικατάσταση των σημειωτι-
κών συστημάτων κατά την εξέλιξη του σκηνικού συμβάντος. Σε αυτό ακριβώς το σημείο πα-
ρεμβαίνει κάποιες φορές με καταλυτικό για το αποτέλεσμα τρόπο, η χρήση της Τεχνολογίας.
Στην παράσταση «Το παιδί και το κουδουνάκι»35, έχουμε τον συγχρονισμό προβολής
και ζωντανής δράσης. Το παιδί κρεμάει το κουδουνάκι του –κατασκευή που έχει στο χέ-
Εικόνα 14. Αργοναυτική Εκστρατεία (2012)
ρι του– στο δέντρο, (προβολή) και ξαφνικά φαίνεται στην οθόνη το δέντρο με κρεμασμέ-
νο του κουδουνάκι. Αυτό γίνεται, γιατί ο χειριστής video αλλάζει τη στιγμή ακριβώς εκεί-
νη, την εικόνα που προβάλλεται. Παρόμοια περίπτωση έχουμε και στην παράσταση της
«Αργοναυτικής Εκστρατείας»36, όπου ο Εύφημος αφήνει ελεύθερο το περιστέρι –μια κα-
τασκευή περιστεριού που κινεί τα φτερά του–, ακριβώς κάτω από την εικόνα του video,
όπου προβάλλονται οι Συμπληγάδες και αυτομάτως αλλάζει η προβολή και βλέπουμε το
περιστέρι να περνάει τις Συμπληγάδες. Η κατασκευή που είχε στα χέρια του ο ηθοποιός,
αντικαθίσταται από την προβαλλόμενη εικόνα του περιστεριού, χωρίς καν να αντιληφθεί
ο θεατής την αλλαγή του κώδικα σημείωσης (σκηνογραφικός - video).
Στην παράσταση «Το τραγούδι της γης»37 η σκηνική εικόνα δημιουργείται από την σύν-
θεση της κινησιολογίας των ηθοποιών και την ταυτόχρονη προβολή της γης.
Εικόνα 15.
Το τραγούδι της γης
(2010)
Εικόνα 16. Το μαύρο ψαράκι (2011)
Από το ζωντανό σκηνικό του βυθού το μαύρο ψαράκι μετακινείται αστραπιαία στην οθό-
νη προβολής στην παράσταση «Μαύρο Ψαράκι»38 όπου η εξέλιξη της πλοκής καθώς και ο
ομώνυμος πρωταγωνιστής μετατοπίζονται συνεχώς από τη σκηνή στην οθόνη.
Επίλογος
Ταυτοχρόνως αφετηρία και στόχος της θεατρικής επιστήμης σήμερα μπορεί να είναι, με-
ταξύ άλλων, η απεικόνιση της σύγχρονης πραγματικότητας που διέπει σε διεθνή και εθνι-
κή κλίμακα τη θεατρική παραγωγή για ανήλικο κοινό. Ένα καθοριστικό ζήτημα που ανα-
δεικνύει αυτή η απεικόνιση είναι αναμφισβήτητα η διείσδυση του ψηφιακού κόσμου και
των Ν. Τεχνολογιών στα σύγχρονα σκηνικά θεάματα με αποδέκτες ανήλικους θεατές. Για
να επιτευχθεί η προσέγγιση αυτού του νέου και προκλητικού πεδίου έρευνας ο ερευνη-
τής οφείλει να περιγράψει τη χρήση και τη λειτουργία των αντίστοιχων σημειωτικών συ-
στημάτων σε σχέση πάντα με την καλλιτεχνική στόχευση και την παιδαγωγική σκοπιμότη-
τα ενός θεάματος που απευθύνεται σε ανήλικο κοινό. Όσες δυνατότητες και να προσφέρει
η ποικιλία μέσων που διαθέτει σήμερα η τεχνολογία οι επιλογές πρέπει να είναι συγκεκρι-
μένες, και να μην αφήνουν καμιά αμφιβολία για το «σήμα» που στέλνουν.«Η οπτική πολυ-
συλλεκτικότητα» (Τσατσούλης, 2007) και η πολυαισθητηριακή σημείωση στο συγκεκρι-
μένο είδος θεάτρου, αν δεν είναι πλήρως εναρμονισμένη με τη σκηνοθετική στόχευση και
τη γενικότερη αισθητική της παράστασης μπορεί να αποβεί μοιραία για την προσήλωσή
του ανήλικου θεατή στον πυρήνα της δράσης του σκηνικού θεάματος. Χρειάζεται ιδιαίτε-
ρη φροντίδα για να εναρμονιστούν όλες οι πηγές έκφρασης στην κοινή στόχευση του θε-
ατρικού εγχειρήματος και να λειτουργήσουν ενισχυτικά και επαυξητικά στην επιτυχία του
επικοινωνιακού σχήματος. Ο ερευνητής οφείλει επίσης να εξετάσει τους αντίστοιχους κώ-
δικες αυτόνομα –αναλύοντας τα επιμέρους τους χαρακτηριστικά– αλλά και ως λειτουρ-
γικό μέρος της σύνθετης θεατρικής επικοινωνίας που λαμβάνει χώρα στον πολυφωνικό
και πολύμορφο κόσμο της θεατρικής παράστασης. Η αξιολόγηση δε της συμβολής τους
στη δημιουργία της συνολικής εντύπωσης καθώς και του τρόπου που υπηρετούν το ενι-
αίο βίωμα που εισπράττει ο θεατής, αποτελεί ένα δύσκολο αλλά απαραίτητο στοιχείο της
επιστημονικής διερεύνησης. Ο σεβασμός προς τον αποδέκτη του σκηνικού μηνύματος ως
βασική προϋπόθεση αλλά και ως κριτήριο ποιότητας είναι θέματα που οφείλουν να απα-
σχολούν και να προβληματίζουν τον ερευνητή. Παράλληλα οφείλει να ανιχνεύσει με επι-
μέλεια και σχολαστικότητα το προφιλ του σύγχρονου ανήλικου θεατή μέσα από την ιδιαι-
τερότητα της συγκρότησης του ψυχικού μηχανισμού και της κοινωνικής συνείδησής του
στη συγκεκριμένη φάση της εξέλιξης της προσωπικότητάς του, αλλά και κάτω από την
επιρροή ενός αριθμού διαφοροποιητικών παραγόντων.
Τέλος, μέσα από τις πτυχές της σύγχρονης εικόνας του θεάτρου για κοινό ανήλικων
θεατών επιβάλλεται να εξεταστούν οι αναρίθμητες παραλλαγές θεωρήσεων και προτάσε-
ων που εμπλέκουν δημιουργικά και λειτουργικά τις νέες τεχνολογίες με το σκηνικό θέ-
αμα και προσεγγίζουν πολυαισθητηριακά τον νεαρό αποδέκτη του σκηνικού θεάματος.
Θα ήταν άστοχο, λαμβάνοντας ιδίως υπόψη την έκρηξη στον τομέα της επικοινωνίας που
συντελείται διεθνώς κατά τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες, να θεωρήσουμε πως τα συγκεκριμέ-
να εγχειρήματα στη χώρα μας είναι φαινόμενα απομονωμένα και απολύτως ιδιαίτερα. Στα
πλαίσια της εξέλιξής του, εντούτοις, το είδος αυτό θεάτρου, διαμορφώνεται και καθοδη-
γείται –όπως κάθε ζωντανή πρωτοπορία– από μεμονωμένες προσπάθειες που αποκτούν
καθοδηγητικό χαρακτήρα και που επηρεάζουν υποδειγματικά εκτεταμένα δείγματα της
δημιουργίας στα πλαίσια του εγχώριου θεάτρου για ανήλικο κοινό.
1. Ο J. C. Lallias επισημαίνει χαρακτηριστικά για το θέατρο που απευθύνεται σε παιδικό και νεανικό κοι-
νό: «[…] Όλοι συμμερίζονται την πεποίθηση ότι έχουν μέσα σε αυτό το χώρο ένα εκπληκτικό πεδίο που
προσφέρεται για περιπέτειες. Αντιμέτωπη με την πολυμορφία του χαρακτήρα των παιδιών, η θεατρική
τέχνη θα έπρεπε να επιζητά με περισσότερη ελευθερία νέες πηγές και μια γενικότερη ανανέωση.[…] εί-
ναι επίσης μια καλλιτεχνική ιστορία που μπορούμε να διαβάσουμε ως «ανοιχτό βιβλίο» μέσω της γενι-
κότερης δημιουργίας για τη νεολαία. Αποτελεί προεξοχή του θεάτρου και αντανακλά συχνά, μ’ ελάχιστη
διαφορά, την αισθητική και τη σχέση με το κοινό που επιζητούν οι καλλιτέχνες της εποχής» βλ. Lallias,
J. C. 2003, Un théâtre des enfances partagées, Théâtre Aujourd’hui, 9, σελ. 4.
2. «Στην εποχή της παγκοσμιοποίησης, του μοντερνισμού και της πολυπολιτισμικότητας τα άτομα (πολύ
περισσότερο τα παιδιά και οι νέοι) δε μπορούν να παραμείνουν εγκλωβισμένα σε παραδοσιακές μορ-
φές και τρόπους έκφρασης, όσο κι αν αυτά είναι καταξιωμένα μέσα στο χρόνο. Η έννοια του «κλα-
σικού» αδυνατεί πια να αποτελέσει θέσφατο για τις νέες γενιές της πληροφορικής και της τεχνολογί-
ας, που γαλουχούνται σε ένα περιβάλλον απόρριψης και μετασχηματισμών, υπέρβασης των στερεο-
τύπων του παρελθόντος και αναζήτησης νέων κριτηρίων αξιολόγησης». Θ. Γραμματάς, «Τεχνικές και
κώδικες του θεάτρου σε διασκευές έργων για ανήλικους θεατές» στο: Θ. Γραμματάς (επιμ.) Διασκευ-
ές έργων του Σαίξπηρ για παιδιά και νέους Θέατρο-Λογοτεχνία, επιμ. Θ. Γραμματάς, ΙΜΠ, Αθήνα, 2006,
197-213.
3. Βλ. Nardini, M., Bedford, R. & Mareschal, D. (2010), Fusion of visual cues is not mandatory in chil-
dren. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America – PNAS
107.39(2010) 17041-17046, εδώ: 17044: «Οι εξάχρονοι δεν αντιμετώπισαν προβλήματα στα αντικρου-
όμενα ερεθίσματα στα αισθητήρια όργανα, τα οποία έχει παρατηρηθεί ότι συγχέουν οι ενήλικες. Αντιθέ-
τως, έκριναν με βάση τα στοιχεία από τα οποία αυτά αποτελούνταν. H ένωση των στοιχείων συνεπάγε-
ται αδυναμία διάκρισης των αισθητηριακών συγκρούσεων. […] Οι εξάχρονοι, σε αντίθεση με τους ενή-
λικες, επέδειξαν αυξημένη ταχύτητα ανταπόκρισης των κρίσεών τους. Επομένως, ενώ οι ενήλικες υπε-
ρέχουν στην ακρίβεια, τα παιδιά υπερέχουν στην ταχύτητα».
4. Ο R. Barthes (1972, σελ. 261) έχει χαρακτηρίσει το σύστημα του θεάτρου πολυφωνικό σε σύγκριση
με το γλωσσικό το οποίο είναι γραμμικό. Barthes, R. (1972). Mythologies: Roland Barthes. New York:
Hill and Wang.
5. «Η χρήση ετερογενών σημείων από διαφορετικά σημειωτικά συστήματα του πολιτισμού συσχετίζει το
θέατρο κατευθείαν με τη συγκεκριμένη κοινωνική πραγματικότητα που το περιβάλλει. Η πολυφωνία του
θεατρικού κώδικα μεταφράζει την πολυφωνία των σημειωτικών συστημάτων του πολιτισμού» (Β. Πού-
χνερ: 2010, 26)
6. «Η παράσταση συντίθεται από πολλαπλά μηνύματα όπου πολλοί και διάφοροι δίαυλοι ή πολλοί και διά-
φοροι τρόποι επικοινωνιακής αξιοποίησης ενός διαύλου χρησιμοποιούνται ταυτόχρονα σε μια αισθητι-
κή ή προσληπτική σύνθεση. Ο θεατής καλείται να ερμηνεύσει αυτό το σύμπλεγμα μηνυμάτων ως ολο-
κληρωμένο κείμενο, σύμφωνα με τους θεατρικούς, δραματικούς και πολιτισμικούς κώδικες» (Elam, Κ.
(2001), ό.π., σελ. 60-61)
7. Σεϊτάνης, Δ. (Σκηνοθεσία). Σεϊτάνης, Δ., Ροϊλού, Γ. (Κείμενο). Καρακώστα, Ε. (Χορογραφία). Στρούλια,
Ε. (Σκηνογραφική επιμέλεια, κουστούμια), Von Gunten, M. (Διάδραση, προγραμματισμός). Mersi, Ε.,
Venturini, D. (Γραφικά). Πεγκούσης, Θ. (Χειριστής προγράμματος). (2011). Γιαπωνέζικοι κήποι. Αθή-
να: Ακαδήμεια.
8. Σεϊτάνης, Δ. Β. (Σκηνοθέτης). Κραβαριώτης. Χ. (Μουσική). (2013).Χορεύοντας με τα χρώματα. Αθήνα:
Θέατρο Νέων.
9. Ο Δ. Σεϊτάνης σημειώνει χαρακτηριστικά: «Το καινούριο στοιχείο για μας, ίσως και το ρίσκο αυτής της
παράστασης, ήταν το πώς θα μπορέσουμε να κάνουμε το κοινό μας να δεχτεί την αισθητική της τε-
χνολογίας, η οποία στην ουσία είναι μια άλλη τέχνη. Όσο πιο βαθιά μπαίνεις στα μονοπάτια της, τόσο
περισσότερο την αφήνεις να σε καθοδηγήσει.Ταυτόχρονα όμως, πρέπει να τη χρησιμοποιήσεις σω-
στά κι ο τρόπος με τον οποίο το κάνουν οι «Γιαπωνέζικοι Κήποι» είναι εξαιρετικά ενδιαφέρων και ση-
μαντικός» (Popular Science, 79, Μάρτιος 2005).
10. Οι πρώτες διαδραστικές-συμμετοχικές θεατρικές παραστάσεις του Θεάτρου Νέων δημιουργήθηκαν
σε συνεργασία με το TPO (Τeatro di Piazza o d’ Οccasione). Σύμφωνα με τον ίδιο το νέο στοιχείο που
πρόσθεσε στην σκηνική πρόταση του TPO ήταν η λειτουργική ένταξη ηθοποιού-αφηγητή και ηθο-
ποιού εμψυχωτή στο θέαμα.Μάλιστα το παράδειγμά του ακολούθησε και η ιταλική ομάδα στα πλαί-
σια γόνιμης αλληλεπίδρασης και ανταλλαγών.
11. Βλ. http://www.theatroneon.com/
12. Μια εμβληματική παράσταση που όπως επισημαίνει ο Γ.Δ. Σαρηγιάννης (εφημ. ΤΑ ΝΕΑ 18/1/1999)
παρ’ ότι υπήρξε εξαιρετικά σύνθετη –φωτισμοί, θέατρο σκιών, μουσικές, προβολές, βίντεο, κινού-
μενα σχέδια, τραγούδι, χορός– παρέμεινε απλή και καθόλου φορτωμένη, αξιοποιώντας δημιουργικά
και ευφάνταστα τις Νέες Τεχνολογίες. Σεϊτάνης Δ. (σκηνοθέτης). Κυπουργός Ν. (μουσική). Αναγνω-
στόπουλος Ν. (κινηματογραφική σκηνοθεσία). Γεωργιάδης Δ. (κινούμενα σχέδια). (1998-99) «Αλίκη
στη χώρα των θαυμάτων». Αθήνα: Δημοτικό Θέατρο Καλλιθέας.
13. Με τη συγκεκριμένη παράσταση στην οποία χρησιμοποιείται βιντεοκάμερα πάνω στη σκηνή ενώ
προβάλλονται στιγμιότυπα από το κοινό της πλατείας ως μέρος του θεάματος, ο θίασος του Δ. Σεϊτά-
νη συμμετείχε στο Ευρωπαϊκό Πρόγραμμα «ΠΑΙΔΙ -ΘΕΑΤΡΟ -ΝΕΕΣ ΤΕΧΝΟΛΟΓΙΕΣ» όπου και ήρθε
σε επαφή με τον θίασο Τ.Ρ.Ο. με τον οποίο ξεκίνησε μια δημιουργική συνεργασία.
14. Η διαδραστική παράσταση στήθηκε από την Κλειώ Φανουράκη σε μορφή θεατροπαιδαγωγικού προ-
γράμματος, παρουσιάστηκε το 2012 στο θέατρο Badminton (Backstage), και το 2013-2014 στο θέα-
τρο Μικρό Παλλάς. Παράλληλα, η παράσταση μαζί με το εκπαιδευτικό πρόγραμμα παρουσιάστηκε σε
σχολεία της Κρήτης και της Αττικής.
15. Κλειώ Φανουράκη: Η Νεράιδα Πραλίνα και το Μαγικό Φουντούκι, Amusic Freeater Books, Αθήνα
2011.
16. Οι πληροφορίες για την παράσταση είναι από το βιβλίο της δημιουργού της (Κλειώ Φανουράκη, Το
θέατρο στην εκπαίδευση με τη χρήση των Ψηφιακών Τεχνολογιών, Στοιχεία διδακτικής μεθοδολογί-
ας, εκδόσεις Παπαζήση, Αθήνα 2016).
17. «Ο συνθέτης ή επιμελητής των ήχων αναλαμβάνει να δημιουργήσει ένα ηχοποιητικό περιβάλλον
όπου πραγματικοί, φυσικοί ήχοι ή νέοι, μηχανικά παραγόμενοι ήχοι (ΜΙDI, Musical Instrument Digital
Interface-Ψηφιακή Διασύνδεση Μουσικών Οργάνων) μπορούν να υποστούν επεξεργασία στην κυμα-
τομορφή τους». Πανόπουλος, B. (2010). ό.π., σελ. 438.
18. Χανιωτάκη, Μ. (Σύνθεση, σκηνοθεσία, σκηνογραφία). Παπαϊωάννου, Τ. (Σκηνικός χώρος). Βενετό-
πουλος, Μ. (Βίντεο). Παλαιορούτας, Τ. (Φωτισμός).Γ.Bantoek Αποστολάκης και Μ. Τσάγγαρης (Μου-
σική). (2009). Ανάποδη κλωστή. Αθήνα: Ομάδα CMD.
19. Βλ. http://www.mariachaniotaki.gr/page.asp?cid=2&lang=&subid=11
20. Πρβ. Τσατσούλης, Δ. (1997). Σημειολογικές Προσεγγίσεις του Θεατρικού Φαινομένου. Θεωρία και Κρι-
τική Ανάλυση της Σύγχρονης Θεατρικής Πρακτικής. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα, σελ. 28.
21. Στην παράσταση «Ανάποδη κλωστή – το παραμύθι» συμμετείχαν μέλη της Θεατρικής Ομάδας της Ελ-
ληνικής Εταιρίας Προστασίας Σπαστικών.
22. Φρατζεσκάκης Γ. (Σκηνοθεσία).Χαραλάμπους Κ. (Σκηνοθεσία-Σύνθεση προβολών).(2003).Η γοργό-
να και το θαλασσάκι Αθήνα: Θέατρο Ιλίσια-Ντενίση.
23. Ρουγγέρη Κ. (Σκηνοθέτης), Θανάσουλα Χρ. (Φωτισμός) Μακρίδης Γ. (Μουσική Διασκευή) (2009)
Ομήρου Ιλιάδα - Τρωικός Πόλεμος Αθήνα: «ΘΕΑΤΡΟΝ», Κέντρο Πολιτισμού «Ελληνικός Κόσμος».
24. Ρουγγέρη Κ. (Σκηνοθεσία, κείμενο). Κουλουμπή Χ. (Σκηνικά, κοστούμια). Θανάσουλα Χ. (Φωτισμός).
(2008) «Ομήρου Οδύσσεια-το παραμύθι των παραμυθιών» Αθήνα: Ίδρυμα Μείζονος Ελληνισμού.
25. Κ αλογεροπούλου, Ξ., Κλουκίνα, Μ. (Σκηνοθέτης). Παυλόπουλος Λ. (Φωτισμός). (2010). Έλα έλα.
Αθήνα: Θέατρο Μικρή Πόρτα.
26. Για το θέμα της παράστασης η Ξ. Καλογεροπούλου αναφέρει: «η βασική του ιδέα είναι ότι όλοι διαρ-
κώς κάτι θέλουμε, κάτι ψάχνουμε. Αυτό το άπιαστο, το άγνωστο, που δεν ξέρουμε τι είναι, συχνά το ταυ-
τίζουμε με το φεγγάρι «Τι θέλεις να σου χαρίσω, το φεγγάρι;». Για τα παιδιά πάλι το φεγγάρι είναι πάντα
κάτι γοητευτικό που πολύ θα ήθελαν να αγγίξουν. Αυτό είναι το βασικό ερέθισμα. Από ’κει και πέρα, η
ιστορία μας είναι η ιστορία μιας σχέσης. Είναι σχεδόν μια ερωτική ιστορία […]» Σελλά, Όλ. (2010, 2 Ιου-
λίου). Έλα, έλα να σου χαρίσω το φεγγάρι, Καθημερινή, σελ. 5.
27. Λέει χαρακτηριστικά η Ξ. Καλογεροπούλου σε συνέντευξή της στη Ν. Χατζηαντωνίου: «Στη σκηνή εί-
μαι μόνο εγώ με παρτενέρ ένα φεγγάρι! Είναι όπως όταν παίζουμε με κείμενο αλλά χωρίς κείμενο. Η κά-
θε στιγμή του έργου εμπεριέχει μια φράση που είναι μέσα μου, αλλά δεν λέγεται». Χατζηαντωνίου, Ν.
(2010, 4 Φεβρουαρίου), Ξ. Καλογεροπούλου, Το Ποντίκι.
28. Γ ια να επιτευχθεί αυτό επιστρατεύτηκε δημιουργός βίντεο και συγκεκριμένα η Νάνσυ Μηνιαδάκη που
ζει και δουλεύει στο Βερολίνο.
29. Στο σημείο αυτό δανείζομαι το επίθετο από μία εύστοχη διατύπωση του Θ. Γραμματά (2014), η οποία
μέσω του προθέματος «παν» κατορθώνει να συνδηλώσει τον ολικό χαρακτήρα του σκηνικού γεγο-
νότος, πράγμα που δεν θα ίσχυε, π.χ., αν γινόταν λόγος για «πολύμουσο» καλλιτέχνημα.
30. Παπαμάρκου, Α. (Σκηνοθεσία). Ψέλτουρας Λ. (animation). (2012). Ο Μεγαλύτερος θησαυρός του Κό-
σμου. Αθήνα: Ίδρυμα Μείζονος Ελληνισμού.
31. Από συνέντευξη της Ά. Παπαμάρκου στη γράφουσα (14/05/2013).
32. Τ ζαμαργιάς Τ. (Σκηνοθέτης), Μπριμπιλής Σ. (Φωτισμός), Δήμας Χ. (video). (2011). Ο μεγάλος περίπα-
τος του Πέτρου. Αθήνα: Εθνικό Θέατρο.
33. Α πό συνέντευξη του Τ. Τζαμαργιά στη γράφουσα (3/7/2013).
34. Θεατρική ομάδα Αστροναύτες. (Σκηνοθέτης). (2010). Μια φάρμα για τα ζώα. Αθήνα:Παιδική σκηνή θέ-
ατρο Φούρνος.
35. Τζίμα, Α. Σ. (Σκηνοθέτης). (2012). Το παιδί και το κουδουνάκι. Αθήνα: Μορφές Έκφρασης.
36. Ρουγγέρη, Κ. (Σκηνοθέτης), Δελαπόρτας, Α. (Μουσική). (2012). Αργοναυτική Εκστρατεία. Αθήνα: «ΘΕ-
ΑΤΡΟΝ», Κέντρο Πολιτισμού «Ελληνικός Κόσμος».
37. Παπαμάρκου, Α. (Σκηνοθέτης). Σταματίου, Α. (Μουσική). (2010). Το τραγούδι της γης. Αθήνα: Λώτι-
νος Ήλιος.
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κλας). Γκόρτζος, Γ. (Επεξεργασία video). (2011). ό.π.
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Greek students’ ability

to retrieve information from
EFL multimodal texts
Polyxeni Manoli Hellenic Open University pegyma@hotmail.com
Abstract
The study aimed to explore Greek-speaking, elementary students’ familiarity with multi-
modal texts in English as a Foreign Language (EFL), which, besides language, consist of
visual information, such as images, diagrams or other typographic features. In particular,
it probed into students’ ability to retrieve information from multimodal texts before and af-
ter a teaching intervention. Another aim of the study was to investigate the maintenance
of comprehension gains after treatment withdrawal. The study, quasi experimental in de-
sign, involved an experimental group that received the teaching intervention and a control
group that received no such training but participated in the pretest, posttest and follow-up
measurements. The sample of the study consisted of 99, 11 to 12 year old, Greek-speak-
ing EFL learners. The tool used to elicit the data was an informal reading comprehension
test, which was constructed by the researcher and included a multimodal text. The results
of the study showed that the performance of the experimental group was significantly im-
proved in the posttest and follow-up measurements when compared to the performance
of the control group. The above findings indicated that Greek elementary students are not
used to working on multimodal texts in EFL, which require attention to all the available
modes of conveying information in order to construct text meaning. The pedagogical impli-
cations of this study are further discussed and the need for further research is pointed out.
Keywords
Semiotic modes , Multimodality , EFL Reading Comprehension , Reading Strategies
Introduction
The advent of the digital era, the multiplicity of communication channels and the cultur-
al and linguistic pluralism of contemporary societies have all led to reconsider the limits
of literacy, which involved teaching and learning to read and write in printed forms, and
create new kinds of literacies, Multiliteracies, which allow for a multimodal way of de-
riving meaning (Kress, Jewitt, Ogborn, & Tsatsarelis, 2001; New London Group, 2000).
The term multimodal involves a mixture of the various semiotic modes of communica-
tion in which the linguistic mode of meaning is associated with the visual (such as imag-
es, screen formats), the gestural (body language), the spatial (environmental and archi-
tectural spaces), or the audio mode (music sound effects) that individuals can combine
to derive meaning, though one mode may prevail over the rest (Baldry & Thibault, 2006;
New London Group, 2000). The process of meaning-making (designing) includes draw-
ing on the available resources for meaning (the available designs), while the result of De-
signing is a new meaning (the Redesigned), which meaning-makers arrive at themselves
(New London Group, 2000).
Reading in any language is a cognitively demanding task requiring the combination
of many comprehension processes; reading in a second language (L2) can place even
greater difficulties allowing for dual language involvement, language deficiencies, and in-
appropriate strategy use (Grabe, 2009; Koda, 2005). Comprehension emerges, when the
reader uses a variety of reading strategies, extracts information from the text and com-
bines it with prior knowledge (Grabe, 2009; Koda, 2005). Reading strategies are seen as
deliberate and conscious actions characterized by intentions and selected goals, which
can be explicitly taught (Grabe, 2009; Koda, 2005; Psaltou-Joycey, 2010).
As a result of the technological development, the inauguration of the digital era, and
the globalization, people, especially youths, are exposed to a variety of multimodal texts
-both print and digital- such as comics, websites, video games, advertisements, and
graphic novels that mainly involve a complex interplay of linguistic, visual, audio, ges-
tural, and spatial elements (Kress et al., 2001; Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2006; Unsworth,
2001). Thus, meaning-making in written texts is an increasingly multimodal process
(Cope & Kalantzis, 2000). Therefore, educators should reconsider their instructional ap-
proaches and draw on the multiliteracies pedagogy to familiarize students with the vari-
ous semiotic modes to construct meaning during text interaction and meet the commu-
nicational demands of the era.
Based on literature review, it is highlighted that multimodality can boost literacy
learning, especially among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners, who may face
extra difficulties in L2 reading, such as L2 linguistic deficiencies or first language (L1) in-
volvement (Koda, 2005; Macaro & Erler, 2008), since it goes beyond language and pro-
motes alternative ways to read and interpret texts (Ajayi, 2009). However, researchers
held that little attention has been paid to multimodality in L2 contexts (Dominguez &
Maiz, 2010; Kress, 2000; Royce, 2007). While there are some studies that investigated
the aspect of multimodality in terms of EFL text (e.g., Bezerra, 2011; Royce, 2002), EFL
textbook analysis (e.g., Astorga, 1999; Chen, 2012; Song, 2005), teachers’ views (e.g.,
Karchmer, 2001; Meskill & Mossop, 2000; Petrie, 2003), and students’ interpretations
(e.g., Ajayi, 2009; Early & Marshall, 2008; Walsh, 2003), there is a dearth of research on
experimental studies involving explicit reading strategy instruction in multimodal texts.
The concept of reading strategies has so far been associated only with texts in which lan-
guage is the only mode (available design) to derive information (e.g., Aghaie & Zhang,
2012; Dabarera, Renandya, & Zhang, 2014; Macaro & Erler, 2008; Zhang, 2008) with the
exception of Manoli and Papadopoulou’s study (2013) that focused on teaching students
how to use reading strategies in EFL multimodal texts indicating improvement in their
reading performance.
In this context, the main aim of the study was to explore Greek students’ ability to find
information from EFL multimodal texts before and after a teaching intervention as well
as a few months after intervention withdrawal. It was expected that:
• Greek primary students would not be familiar with deriving information from EFL
multimodal texts
• their performance would be improved after the teaching intervention
• their comprehension gains would be maintained after intervention withdrawal.
Method
Research design
The study, quasi-experimental in design, consisted of experimental and control groups,
a teaching intervention conducted only in the experimental group, and three measure-
ments, a pretest, an immediate and delayed posttest measurement carried out in the ex-
perimental and control groups. To examine the immediate and delayed effects of strategy
instruction on students’ reading performance, quantitative data were collected through
a researcher-constructed test administered to both groups before and after the teaching
intervention as well as three months after the intervention withdrawal.
Participants
99 Greek students, 46 boys and 53 girls (aged approximately 11-12 years old), who came
from four different schools in a provincial town of central Greece, Trikala, participat-
ed in the study. The students were attending the 6th grade of the state primary school
– each school consisted of two classes– and were learning EFL (their language proficien-
cy was A2 level according to the levels of the Common European Framework of Refer-
ence (Council of Europe, 2001).
Teaching intervention
The teaching intervention conducted only in the experimental group and lasted four teach-
ing hours (approximately 40 minutes each hour) one teaching hour per week. It focused on
promoting the use of reading strategies in multimodal texts, such as getting the gist (skim-
ming) and locating specific information (scanning), and teaching students how to draw on
both linguistic and visual modes to find information and answer comprehension questions.
Namely, during the instructional sessions, the students were explicitly taught how to draw
on diagrams, tables, maps, visual typography and words to identify patterns of meaning.
Four multimodal texts were given to the students during the teaching intervention. More
specifically, the first text included two tables, the second text consisted of linguistic infor-
mation, pictures and a diagram, the third text was a two-page extract from the comic As-
terix the Legionary, and the fourth text was a floor map of the Victoria and Albert museum
in London. Each text consisted of reading tasks, which were mainly multiple-choice, true/
false and short answer-questions. Whenever students answered an item, they were asked
to justify their choice providing evidence from the texts to avoid instances of guessing.
Data collection instrument

A researcher-designed reading comprehension test, which included a multimodal text
and comprehension questions, was used as a pretest, posttest, and follow-up measure
to explore the immediate and delayed effects of the strategy instruction on students’
possible reading behavior change and improvement. The text consisted of a floor map
of the British museum in England and some notes following the map, and was accom-
panied by three reading comprehension tasks that were designed to assess students’
ability to combine information from both linguistic and visual modes. Namely, the stu-
dents had to combine information from the notes with the corresponding number on the
map, while also paying attention to the colors of the various departments of the muse-
um (since each department was depicted by a different color on the map and in the notes)
and then match all these pieces of information to answer the comprehension questions
correctly. In addition, students had to apply the reading strategies of skimming and scan-
ning in order to answer the questions efficiently. A combination of multiple- choice and
short answer questions was used to check different aspects of multimodality indicating
a preference for items that permit objective scoring (Hughes, 2003).
It should be mentioned that this test was part of a broader reading comprehension test
that was constructed to promote reading strategy use and aspects of multimodality. The
broader reading comprehension test consisted of one multimodal text –described above–
and two linguistic texts that were used to probe into the use of the following reading strat-
egies: activation of prior knowledge, development of graphic organizers, prediction, skim-
ming, scanning, and contextual guessing and were part of a research project on the con-
tribution of strategy instruction to Greek EFL students’ reading performance.
Data analysis
In order to explore if EFL students’ ability to derive information from multimodal texts
had been affected by the teaching intervention, the quantitative data collected from the
pretest, immediate and delayed posttests were analyzed using the Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0. In particular, the results of the study were based
on the analyses of Repeated Measures of ANOVA, Further Univariate Analysis of Vari-
ance, and paired T-Test.
Results
To further explore the immediate and delayed effects of the teaching intervention on
students’ performance, a series of Repeated Measures of ANOVAs were conducted us-
ing the group (experimental-control) as the between subjects independent variable and
the scores of the multimodal texts (ReadAP1, ReadAP2, ReadAP3) in the three different
measurements as the dependent variables. The results of Repeated Measures of ANOVA
indicated that the main effects of time, F (2, 194) = 73.82, p < .001, η² = .43, and group, F
(1, 97) = 25.74, p < .001, η² = .21 were statistically significant, as well as the interaction
between time and group factors, F (2, 194) = 27.07, p < .001, η² = .22. Further Univari-
ate Analysis of Variance with group as the independent variable has shown that the dif-
ference between the two groups was statistically significant only after the intervention in
favor of the experimental group, F (1, 98) = .02, p > .05, η² = .00 (ReadAP1-pretest mea-
surement), F (1, 98) = 66.83, p < .001, η² = .41 (ReadAP2-posttest measurement), and,
F (1, 98) = 20.07, p < .001, η² = .17 (ReadAP3-follow-up measurement). Concurrently,
the application of paired T-Test demonstrated that difference in comprehension scores
in the experimental group was statistically significant between the pretest and the post-
test measurement, t(49) = -12.28, p < .001], between the pretest and the follow-up mea-
surement, t(49) = -10.29, p < .001, and between the posttest and the follow-up measure-
ment, t(49) = 2.22, p < .05]. The means and standard deviations of the performance of
both groups in the test (ReadAP1, ReadAP2, ReadAP3) in the three measurements of the
study are depicted in Table 1.
Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of the Performance of the Experimental and Control Groups in the Reading
Test in the three Different Measurements
Pretest Posttest Follow-up

Group ReadAP1 ReadAP2 ReadAP3
Experimental Mean 7.21 18.19 16.87
(n=50) SD 6.31 4.44 5.52
Control Mean 7.03 8.82 11.07
(n=49) SD 6.46 6.75 7.26
Discussion
The findings of the study indicated that Greek primary students were not used to working
on multimodal texts in EFL, as their reading performance was significantly improved af-
ter the teaching intervention. In essence, the teaching intervention was effective enough
to make a statistically significant difference between the pre-test and immediate post-
test scores, which was, in fact, maintained in the delayed posttest measurement, verify-
ing the initial research hypotheses. The results of this study were concurrent with Manoli
and Papadopoulou’s study (2013) that have also indicated improvement in students’ abil-
ity to get information from multimodal texts and their overall reading performance after
a teaching intervention focusing on aspects of multimodality and reading strategy use.
In this way, it was found that teaching EFL students how to take advantage of the differ-
ent modes (available designs) of a written text improved their ability to derive informa-
tion from multimodal texts using reading strategies.
Overall, there should be a shift of interest from literacy in its traditional term to the de-
velopment of multiliteracies to help students meet the communicational demands of the
era (Kress et al., 2001). As contemporary texts are designed in a highly multimodal way
and the process of constructing meaning (designing) increasingly draws on a variety of
semiotic sources (the available designs), the old basics of education, which mostly em-
phasized literacy, needs to be supplemented by multiliteracies, which allow for a mul-
timodal way of deriving meaning (Kress et al., 2001; New London Group, 2000). These
suggestions are highly important for EFL students when trying to comprehend written
texts, since they are frequently faced with linguistic difficulties (Koda, 2005; Macaro & Er-
ler, 2008). Depending on other available modes of communication in a text besides the
linguistic and using various reading strategies can help students derive meaning from
texts, retrieve the desired information, answer comprehension questions efficiently and
enhance EFL learning (Ajayi 2009; Early & Marshall, 2008).
Since most of the research on strategy training in a L2 mostly includes linguistic texts
(e.g., Aghaie & Zhang, 2012; Dabarera et al., 2014; Macaro & Erler, 2008; Zhang, 2008),
this study breaks new ground in this field by exploring reading strategy use in multimod-
al texts in which the linguistic mode is intertwined with the visual one to help students
construct meaning. After all, researchers supported that little attention has been paid
to multimodality in L2 contexts, simultaneously, stressing the need to extend students’
communicative competence beyond the traditional, linguistic view and emphasize multi-
modal communicative competence (Dominguez & Maiz, 2010; Kress, 2000; Royce, 2007).
Of course, more research is needed to provide further evidence.
Conclusion
According to the results of the study, the performance of the experimental group was
significantly improved in the posttest measurement, while the comprehension gains
were maintained in the follow-up measurement when compared to the performance of
the control group. The above findings are very important for the literacy pedagogy, as
they are indicative that instructing students to use reading strategies and take advan-
tage of all the available semiotic modes of contemporary texts, which are highly mul-
timodal, can help EFL students construct text meaning (Kress et al. 2001; Kress & Van
Leeuwen, 2006; Unsworth, 2001). In this context, teaching in a strategically and multi-
modally aware manner helps students comprehend text content and further develop lit-
eracy (Walsh, 2003). Therefore, the semantic field of reading should be expanded in or-
der to promote an active, flexible, strategic as well as multimodal way of approaching
EFL reading materials.
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Against proliferation
and complexity:
the role of history teaching
in current and future
multi-sensory obsession
Anthony Smyrnaios University of Thessaly smirnaios@uth.gr
Abstract
This paper will discuss the contemporary obsession of continually enhancing the hu-
man sensory systems and its prospects, and it will try to provide a kind of possible
remedy through history teaching. This obsession is generally embedded into the frame
of transhumanism, a theurgist desire for transforming and augmenting the very hu-
man nature, and our current sensorium as well, so that we could see and feel better
through the glass darkly of the present reality. In history teaching multisensory dig-
ital technologies are also used as educational tools so that students supposedly ac-
quire a deeper as well as joyful awareness of the past. However, such ludic aware-
ness has acquired a deep consumerist character, which lastly entails only «the Great
Thrill of Lived Reality» (Baudrillard). The adoption of a transhumanist investigating
spirit towards nature, humans, forms, and events deceives its very agents by search-
ing for an authentic experience, when what it remains is only the proliferation of con-
sumerist signs. History, and especially history teaching, are called therefore to under-
score the wisdom of limits, the restricted character of every human enterprise, which
the past abundantly offers.
Keywords
sensory systems , proliferation , transhumanism , history teaching
The investigating mentality: Transhumanism in sensorium
“The true mystery of the world is the visible, not the invisible”, notes Oscar Wilde in The
Picture of Dorian Gray at the end of the 19th century (Wilde, 2007). Stressing on the
mysterious nature of the visible, contemporary scientists, artists, psychologists, peda-
gogues, and managers, try hard to exercise their creativity and imagination on a really
advantageous field. By excavating, analyzing, synthesizing and, at last, transforming hu-
man vision, they attempt to go beyond the limits of any conventionality.
It is well known that since the ancient times and, moreover, since modernity western
thought has privileged sight above all other senses, establishing the hegemony of vision
on a hierarchy of the senses. However, in postmodernity such ocularcentric “bias” are in-
creasingly conceived as outmoded and even useless. The enigmatic nature of the visible,
blended, however, inextricably with the invisible, has triggered an orchestrated investi-
gation to extend, to escalate, to intensify, to heighten, to deepen, to multiply, and to ac-
celerate not only the five traditional senses but even ourselves, our own body, soul and
brain. The five senses should not only be multiplied, but also be understated: they have
already accomplished their mission in the world and should be left behind. The world has
now another mission, the duty of artificial ultra-intelligence and technological singulari-
ty, submitted to the imperatives of a futurist ideology in the extraordinary formula of dys-
topia and extropy. Normality, being supposedly synonymous to boredom, has now be-
come a wretched banality.
All senses seem, therefore, to be as greedy mouths, which are lustful for a terrifying,
insatiable appetite. Thus, they should be overthrown by the challenging, innovative and
shifting sensorium of the new sensory modalities and the digitally based multi-sensorial
semiosis, which are included into the new synesthetic regimes. This investigating men-
tality tries not only to destroy the hierarchy of the senses, but also to dismantle the ordi-
nary state of things in favor of a futurist, chimerical multi-field of incessant transforma-
tion of everything. Every aspect of the world should be subjected to the law of a never-
ending bloating of things, desires, passions and possessions. It seems that we are really
condemned to breathe in the air of multi-, and furthermore, a multi- saturated by an ex-
treme rapidity in that technological realm of speed, which Paul Virilio baptized as “drom-
osphere” (Virilio, 2007).
Not surprisingly, this precisely describes the very arena of transhumanism, an inter-
national, intellectual and interdisciplinary movement that aims to transform the ordinary
human capacities and achieve mastery not only over nature and common human beings
but over the future itself (Bostrom, 2005). In any way, there is not a fixed nature any-
more, but only a transitional being which continuously attempts to overcome its limited
existence. By insisting that human species is transitional, transhumanist theorists and
practitioners lead the narcissist obsession of continually converting them into something
different than the already existing one, to a realm of hyperreality, which is conceived as
more real than the old one.
Indeed, this climate of ever-complicated futurology is the condition in which we live
since even the rise of modernity. Yet, in the twentieth and twentieth-first century, mes-
merized mainly by the Theory of Probabilities and Chaos Theory, transhumanist endeav-
ors eventually impose their fascinating power on current societies as the new normal-
ization, the new destiny. The reason for such an extreme evolution is the overpowering
and really panic impulse for theurgy, which overwhelmed scientists following the real or
alleged dethronement of God and traditional, monotheistic religions in general. Now, we
have the new “prosthetic god” who coordinates this impulse to continuously remake our-
selves.
However, this dystopia is not based on choice. The ostensible ideology of multisen-
sory coercion for expansionism is imposed as inescapable on every human creature and
ought to be internalized and put in practice by everyone, especially by the aforemen-
tioned instructors in transhumanist augmentation, in order to be productive and effec-
tive. This internalization makes expansionism almost unchallenged and protected by
criticism. The existing consumerist and continuously accelerating system is supposedly
the best that could be hoped for and we are indebted to make it work better by subject-
ing ourselves to its legitimated trajectory. It has become the new orthodoxy, the new be-
lief system. Nowadays, the ramifications of that standpoint are, certainly, all too obvious,
yet not logically connected to the roots of such attitude: nuclear bombs and smart weap-
ons, and, certainly, the unsurmountable ecological crisis, are the most obvious among
them.
Notwithstanding, these phantasmagoric transformations of the field of the sensory
systems seem not to change, decisively and deeply, the old oculacentrism. The founda-
tion is the same visual determinism through the medium of the new and extremely com-
plicated technologies of panopticon, the Bentham’s prison. Therefore, vision can be ac-
complished better and fuller by a new ultra-visual culture, which, while secretly dom-
inates people, perverts them by asking their own conscious participation in the “new
brave world” of technological, compulsory enthusiasm. It is about a new “visual imag-
ery”, through the contemporary “industrialization of vision”, which entails an extra-hu-
man vision, “giving sight to a machine without a gaze, sight without seeing, and giving
speech to an image without humans” (Virilio, 199; Virilio & Lotringer, 2005).
What is undoubtable in this process is the extreme risk on freedom. Thus, the alleged
innocent positioning on transhumanism is the new postmodern myth, and seems to pass
over the fact that by transforming human capacities, and sensory spheres as well, the
existing power relations are not deleted but are also transformed. Some decades ago
Hans Blumenberg (1993) had already suggested that “the connection between vision and
freedom is being dissociated. Due to the dominance of the prefabricated and of techno-
logically pre-cast situations and aspects, the modern extension of sensory spheres has
not become a source of freedom”. It is now well-known that new control mechanisms are
more direct, concealed, disguised, invisible, and certainly tremendously powerful in con-
trast to the old ones. Therefore, the creation of a panoptic society, where the boundar-
ies between the permissible and the prohibited, and between the public and the private
too, are intentionally confused, seems to be our present and future destiny. Using sur-
veillance technologies and constructing a massive data storage, government and adver-
tising agencies, at least, make virtually transparent our digital self: “[T]oday every single
digital trace can be identified, stored, and aggregated to constitute a composite sketch of
what we like, whom we love, what we read, how we vote, and where we protest”. We are
“exposed”, we live in “an expository society”, as Bernard Harcourt calls it (2015). We are
completely under “a new virtual transparence that is dramatically reconfiguring relations
of power throughout society…, producing a dramatically new circulation of power in so-
ciety” (Harcourt, 2015).
The innovative and almost surprising feature of this panoptic control is, however, that
we crave such exposure and yearn for the demolition of our privacy. The natural, human
need of communication has been extremely augmented and transformed by these glob-
al webs, based on an exclusively hedonistic imperative of “likes”, “follow” and “share” in
the new realm of publicity and avowing, which is deeply saturated by jouissance and de-
sire.
The conformism of proliferation in history and history teaching

As indeed any other human science, history simply follows and conforms to the univer-
sal impulse to accelerate and enlarge everything, being merely an instrument of assuring
the global rally to a curious kind of technological “eternity”. It seems to be predestined
to justify and rationalize the irrational instinct of an always technological proliferation. It
is bound to support all the scientific endeavors to enhance life, body and mind, society,
and the world itself, offering in fact a constantly wiggish interpretation of historical pro-
cess from simplicity, alleged ignorance and naiveness of history’s agents as well as his-
torians of the past to the multi-intelligence, sophistication, and multi-experience of the
present and future, which is easily coined as “progress”. The underestimation of the past
attempts and the aggrandizement of the present ones seems to be the underlining trend
of our historical thought, either confessedly or not.
It was at the dawn of the twentieth century, when historiography begun to continual-
ly experiment with new forms, concepts, challenges and ventures, extending its regime
with the aim to be attached to the furious march of technological sciences and be legit-
imated by them. Certainly, this aim is expertly concealed behind an uninterrupted de-
mand for understanding, a real fetishism of understanding, as I have called it, which is
also supposed to validate history mainly in the eyes of the prevailing natural, formal and
applied sciences. Jacques Le Goff (1988) mirrors this process by insisting that “through
the continual enlargement of its territory, history is still becoming coextensive with man”.
Consequently, a man, who is incessantly coerced to proliferate himself and his world,
has the urgent need of a historiography which plainly supports his enterprise, recording
by all the more sophisticated tools his victorious course.
Furthermore, it is history teaching itself which also bows to the aforementioned “co-
extension”. It makes excessive use of multisensory digital technologies and multi-me-
dial educational tools by which students will be supposedly led to a deeper and wider
awareness of the past acquiring a better pleasure of it as well. For, according to current-
ly undisputable pedagogical dogmas, knowledge and comprehension is nothing if it is
not connected with instant and continuing pleasure and enthusiasm. Only a student who
seeks stimulation and excitement through knowledge fits well to contemporary society.
However, it is precisely in this point that knowledge and comprehension meets to the
contemporary consumerist spirit. For such bourgeoning and ludic historical awareness
has a deep consumerist character, that is, a self-referential enjoyment of presentism.
History does not teach anything anymore, but simply enjoys its students with consum-
erist experiences, e.g., in thematic historical parks, and prepares human beings for a
boundless, absolutely technological, transhumanist future. The obsession with the more
and more historical understanding has something Rankean in its attitude. “The all the
more voracious demand for reality, for ’truth’, for ‘objectivity’”, which is characteristic of
the consumer society, in historiographical fields lastly entails to the multisensory delight
of the very moment, “the Great Thrill of Lived Reality”, which Baudrillard (1998) had pen-
etratingly attributed to “the dizzy sense of a total presence at the event”. This points to the
fact that the irrational motive of adopting the unlimited investigating mentality towards
nature, humans, forms, and events is subjected to a theurgist as well as a consumerist
impulse, which really affects even historiography and history teaching. For technological
theurgy and consumerism seem to be the two sides of the same coin.
The undermining of transhumanist determinism through history teaching

Admittedly, one can persuasively teach the history of human societies as a long chain
of successful events and achievements. Thus, historiography seems not to validate the
weakness of man, but instead his ever-growing endeavor to conquer the highest peaks
of human possibilities in almost all areas of his impact. That endeavor man almost al-
ways attributes to civilization and its improvement.
Yet, it was Walter Benjamin (Zohn, 1969) who noted that “there is no document of civ-
ilization, which is at the same time a document of barbarism”. Hannah Arendt (1962) al-
so suggested that “Progress and Doom are two sides of the same medal; […] both are ar-
ticles of superstition, not of faith”. The history of fruitful and progressive attainments is
always followed by a curious demon of catastrophes, which paves the same way of that
triumphant process. On the eve of the most destructive in the global history World War
II, the British philosopher and historian R.C. Collingwood (1939) wrote in his autobiogra-
phy: “Not only would any failure to control human affairs result in more and more wide-
spread destruction as natural science added triumph to triumph, but the consequences
would tend more and more to the destruction of whatever was good and reasonable in
the civilized world; for the evil would always begin using the engines of destruction before
the good, the fool always before the wise man”.
Following the radical thought of the above scholars, among many others, this great
connection between the scientific/technological proliferation and its extremely damaging
force in all human affairs is something that students could be taught, particularly through
history. It is well known that almost nobody informs his teaching by this connection in
our schools, and even ecology usually stands only for a moral equivalent to an always le-
gitimized technological proliferation. Thus, the study of history, saturated by the views of
those philosophers who attempt to go against the grain, should uncover this fountain of
alleged technological innocence by illuminating the wisdom of human limits, which are
really threatened by contemporary absolute technization of the world. Despite the con-
temporary loss of human-scale actions and aspirations, the past itself abundantly offers
not only the reassuring of human capacities, possibilities and attainments, but also the
long experience of the restricted character of every human enterprise.
Admittedly, such a currently unconventional goal is rather difficult to be achieved in
societies that exclusively favor the inspiring stories of success. Yet, we might change this
direction by, for instance, exemplifying historical events and personalities, which not on-
ly conquered but failed to accomplish their specified mission in the past or present coin-
cidences. A long, global history of human failures in parallel with, and in contrast to, vic-
torious achievements, would teach children of the intrinsic value of modesty and hum-
bleness in humanity itself. These stories of vulnerability and defenselessness would pre-
pare them for their own, and very possible, failures in life, and be well-disposed for as-
sessing the failures of others as well. Studying at first mythological cases as the Hercu-
les’ poisoned shirt, Achilles’ heel and Samson’s hair, students would be familiarized with
the intrinsic susceptibility of human beings, even if they were heroes or semi-gods, aim-
ing eventually to search for equivalent characters in subsequent historical periods who
were dealing with anxieties and uncertainties brought about by their opponents or his-
torical circumstances in general. Moreover, in the ancient Greek world of Sophocles it
was Nemesis who punished the hubris of arrogant and frivolous humans. Such a retri-
bution could wisely be taught to students, who especially belong to the upper classes,
in order to restrict their usually oceanic appetites for conquering the world through their
voracious dreams.
Notwithstanding, it is decisively important to highlight that children should also be ac-
customed to assign a plausible, credible and familiar meaning to these temporal disap-
pointments, a meaning that will distance themselves from mindless optimism and de-
structive despair alike, creating instead a sensitive and viable equilibrium between them.
A focus on personal or collective disasters of past and present, if it is scheduled and man-
aged with pedagogical sensitiveness and historical profoundness, far away from senti-
mentality as well, would entail to a deep investigation of the exclusively human tragedy
in the world. These failed or cataclysmic cases, however, should not be conceived as pac-
es towards the recapture of success in an always positively progressive, entrepreneurial
thinking, but as a means of reconsidering the limits of nature and human beings.
Thus, considering the realities of negative consequences of a historical process full
of potential pitfalls, students are particularly introduced into the realm of fear, not as the
strategically composed nowadays domain of phobia, but as a conscious respect and sen-
sible responsibility for life, nature and humanity. For one distinguishing feature of our
postmodern society is the overwhelming fear-phobia, as I could name it. Although fear
is “a fundamental and universal emotion that has been adaptive in ensuring our surviv-
al as a species” (Milosevic & McCabe, 2015), now seems to prevail an orchestrated pro-
paganda which is exclusively oriented to the rejection and repression of fear, and auto-
matically identifies fear only with passivity, defensiveness, inadequacy, shame, depres-
sion, cowardice, and, at last, with psychological phobia. Therefore, this propaganda in-
volves the pathologicalization of fear, particularly in an era and in a society of dopamine,
which brainwashes its members by always making risk based decisions, or undertaking
extreme sport activities.
Besides, fear, the consciousness of moderation and precautions, and the awareness
of the deep human tragedy of living in the world, might be considered, and also taught,
as “senses”, which are located beyond the old five ones. Such humanist, and not transhu-
manist, proliferation of senses may be considered as a great achievement pacing as well
the footprints of Aristotle’s definition of tragedy. Therefore, instead of a multi-sensory,
ludic teaching of successful outcomes of an always triumphed human agency, teachers
and students, undertaking a study of human arrogance, could in contrast experiment
with unsuccessful schedules which entailed to severe human or natural costs.
Conclusion
World is indisputably complex, but capitalizing complexity in order to seize upon human-
ity is the modern/postmodern neurotic response and device of a man who has lost his in-
tegrity during the excessive scattering of his powers and possibilities. History and histo-
ry teaching could thus put a halt, at least, to the extreme linearity of expansionism, the
still wiggish perceptions of historical process and goals, trying to circumvent sequential
innovativeness. These human sciences could, at last, teach sobriety, humility and sim-
plicity, values actually and symbolically ignored to the extreme at our own extreme risk
societies.
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Multiple representations
in textbooks: Evoking senses
during the learning process
of mathematics
Charalampos Lemonidis University of Western Macedonia xlemon@uowm.gr

Athanasios Stavrou University of Western Macedonia ethanstavrou@gmail.com
Lazaros Papoutzis Aristotle University of Thessaloniki sfinas3@gmail.com
Abstract
This research relates to a socio-semiotic analysis of a primary school textbook, and in
particular to that of Grade 3 Mathematics Textbook. The research question focuses on
the investigation of the Logic of Multiple Representations (Goldin & Kaput, 1996) in the
encoded information of images and language texts in the school textbook. Semiotics is
a powerful analysis tool for textbook research considering that education transforms
the social symbolic universe, re-organises and re-encodes it as a lesson (Paschalid-
is, 1996). Based on the above semiotic view, using the structural semantics of A. Gre-
imas (1966), as it was applied by A. Lagopoulos & K. Boklund-Lagopoulou (1992) and
Α. Christodoulou (2003, 2007, 2012), we analysed images and texts in the group expe-
riential activities of students’ mathematics textbook in order to investigate which senses
are stimulated during the teaching process. The results were confirmed through practi-
cal application on students of the 5th Primary School of Florina, according to which, chil-
dren actively participate and understand –based on the sense of touch – the new knowl-
edge, which is absorbed through the mental process of representations.
Introduction
The objective of this research is to examine the novel material presented in the school
textbook titled Mathematics of Nature and Life, because, for the first time, the writers
of the textbook have gone beyond just mathematical knowledge and information, and
have selected ‘signs’ and ‘symbols’, linguistic and visual signifiers, which also trigger
other senses, in addition to the prevalent sense of vision, during the educational pro-
cess.
The cognitive field related to the research on experiential learning and the use of mul-
tiple representations in education epistemologically supports the research questions we
pose with regard to the grade 3 mathematics textbook. Thus, the objective of this study
is the research question itself, i.e. which senses are triggered and in which diverse man-
ner are they highlighted in the school textbook? Subsequently, through participant ob-
servation in the classroom at the 5th Primary School of Florina, the results of the semi-
otic analysis are anchored to those of the practical application.
According to the authors of the school textbook forming the subject of this study, the
main axis of the mathematics text book rests on the basic and pedagogical principle that
children learn better when they are given incentives and when their interest in learning is
raised through active and experiential participation (grade 3 mathematics, Mathematics
of Nature and Life, Teacher’s Book, Grade 3, 2008, p. 6).
The above participatory learning process is examined within the framework of this
study, in an attempt to determine how cognitive visual stimuli intervene between the
senses in order to acquire new mathematical knowledge. Initially, once the isotopies/
codes in the visual elements under study have been recorded and, similarly, once the
isotopies/codes have been identified in the titles, subtitles (legends) and supplementa-
ry texts included in the six experiential exercises that are based on the logic of multiple
representations, the structures and expressions of the isotopies/codes are presented
on the syntagmatic axis, while at the same time, with the use of visual literacy and mul-
timodality, a description is provided of how the depicted parts form a whole filled with
meanings.
The role of the image in school textbooks

Before we move on to the multimodal reading of didactic images and how the senses are
incorporated, we will present the role of images in school textbooks. Thus, the image in
the school textbook has clear and distinguished roles, while as a means of teaching, it
attempts to draw the attention of pupils, enrich the cognitive information and create a
cheerful psychological atmosphere in the classroom. In this way, the visual stimuli that
are produced attempt to trigger the cognitive, mental and emotional functions of the pu-
pils (Matsangouras and Chelmis, 2003, p. 90).
The image as a teaching tool has multiple roles in the teaching process as it leads to
the recording of distinguishing parameters, such as the conditions of use of the images,
the type and form of depiction (e.g. realism), pupils’ particular learning abilities, the con-
nection between the images and the text, as well as the degree of visual literacy of pu-
pils so that they may decode the images and read the symbolic codes (Matsangouras and
Chelmis, 2003, p. 91).
According to Kapsalis & Charalampous (2007, pp. 167, 168), the images in school
textbooks have the following functions:
(a) Decorative: the aesthetic aspect and attractiveness of the book.
(b) Narrative: the representation of the content of the text.
(c) Illustrative: making the content of the text specific.
(d) Taxonomic: the classification of texts, e.g. taxonomic tables.
(e) Analytical: the realistic or conventional representation of the individual elements of a
whole.
(f) Explanatory: the explanation of the signs of the text.
(g) Mnemonic: organisation through formalisation or the simplification of data in the text,
e.g. concept maps.
(h) Symbolic: the highlighting of social roles and relationships.
Furthermore, images in school textbooks are divided into original or authentic and artifi-
cial or pseudo-images (Tokatlidou, 1986, p. 43; Asonitis, 2001, pp. 39-42). Original imag-
es have a different communicative use within their original frame and before they are in-
tegrated into the school textbook. Artificial images are created by the illustrators and the
group of authors of the textbook, and when they are removed from their original frame,
they lose their use.
The conventions that coexist in a depiction are multiple, and their decoding is ren-
dered complex. The same conventions acquire a different meaning in each image. In cer-
tain instances, the knowledge of additional codes is a necessary requirement. This multi-
tude of conventions is what led Giannikopoulou (2001, p. 272) to make the following par-
aphrase: “the much-used expression should change to ‘a picture is worth a thousand in-
terpretations’”.
According to Christodoulou (2008), the analysis of images has been approached ei-
ther in terms of the image itself (structural analysis), or in terms of its understanding
by the viewer (and any reactions on the emotional, cognitive and normative level), or in
terms of the production of meaning. Although several semiologists – with philosophical
backgrounds – focused on illustrative representation, most semiologists were mainly in-
terested in the image’s individual systems of meaning.
Multiple Representations – Experiential and Embodied Learning
The pupils actively construct mathematical knowledge through interpretation and the ef-
fort to solve mathematical problems. Thus, during the teaching of mathematics, children
create their own representations, i.e. they build the transition bridges between internal
and external representations. The concept of multiple representations includes represen-
tational forms and interconnections between representations.
According to bibliography, multiple representations in the teaching of mathematics
strongly contribute to the understanding of concepts, enhance the ability to solve math-
ematical problems and advance the cognitive process through common data and infor-
mation sources (Lesh et al., 1987, pp. 34, 35). In addition, research results point to the
use of various types of materials in order for pupils to construct a concept. The concep-
tual understanding of mathematics is achieved when children are capable of determining
and representing the same concept in multiple representational ways, thus understand-
ing the positive and negative aspects of the representations, and selecting the most suit-
able ways.
Framed Image 1. Experiential exercise Writers, practicians, painters and mathematicians, (p.54).
These representations can be highlighted in different ways (visually, symbolically), while

the different presentations of a concept require different teaching methods on the part
of the teachers and different levels of understanding on the part of the pupils (Lemonid-
is, 2003a, p.104). The most recent official detailed curricula in Greece promote the link-
ing of mathematical concepts with each other, as well as with other subjects. With re-
spect to the subject of mathematics, it is pointed out that it must give children the abil-
ity to always handle and discover concepts in relation to other objects so as to create a
broad conceptual basis that makes knowledge richer and more multifaceted (Lemonid-
is, 2005, p. 169).
At the same time, the experiential approach to mathematics is a decisive element
during the pedagogical process for strengthening these skills in children. These skills will
activate children and create the conditions that are necessary for mathematical think-
ing. The empirical-experiential aspect of pedagogy is defined by the pragmatic view of J.
Dewey (1938), who pointed out that learning by doing promotes knowledge and cognitive
development. Experiential learning plays an important role, while the empirical experi-
ence develops the learning process (learning by doing). In this way, active participation
is achieved, creativity is released and critical thinking is enhanced, as is the conscious-
ness of pupils.
Experiential learning takes place when pupils develop skills in order to draw a cor-
relation between new experiences and previous knowledge, when they believe that the
subject being taught attracts their interest and when they build their own learning bridg-
es through experimentation and choice (Matsangouras, 2003, p. 25).
Methodology
The research follows the Saussurean linguistic tradition, as it was developed in semiot-
ics by Greimas (1966) and applied in Greek literature by A. Lagopoulos & K. Boklund -
Lagopoulou (1992) and by A. Christodoulou (2003), (2007) and (2012). At the same time,
as we are dealing with visual material, elements of multimodality (Kress & van Leeuw-
en, 1996) are used in the analysis, such as textual metafunction, information value, sa-
lience and framing.
In the analysis of the research material, we use the Register of Visual Analysis, as
it was initially applied by A. Christodoulou (2003, 2007). Nonetheless, one change was
deemed useful in order to achieve a more accurate analysis of the images and this con-
cerned the integration of verbal texts as titles, subtitles, inter-image texts or supplemen-
tary texts. According to Kress and van Leeuwen (1996), the framing of compositions of
images affects the degree of distinction or connection between the elements, thus con-
tributing to their presentation as disconnected or connected, i.e. as ‘belonging together’.
The Register of Visual Analysis of the images in the school textbook is formed as follows:
Chapter Images Analysis-Data

Description of images at the level of picto-
grams.
S/N of image.
Style of image.
Field to which the images refer.
Content of the image.
Image themes.
Image with legend.
Table 1. Formation of the Register of Visual Analysis
Photograph 1.
Practical Application
at the 5th Primary
School of Florina.
The practical application took place in the grade 3 classroom at the 5th Primary School
of Florina on 3 June 2016, at the end of the school year, by which time the pupils had al-
ready been taught the research material. The class consisted of 11 boys and 11 girls, and
their teacher was also present. The participant observation lasted 3 academic hours and
there was also a boy in the class who suffered from cerebral palsy.
Research material
Using the semiotic methodological tool, we will attempt to perform a research analysis
of the following pages from the grade 3 mathematics textbook titled Mathematics of Na-
ture and Life: From Unit 3: Numbers up to 3,000 – The four operations – Constructions,
right angles, Chapter 20: Revision lesson1 (p. 54). From Unit 4: Introduction to simple
fractions, Chapter 23: Fractional units2 (p. 60). From Unit 6: Introduction to decimal num-
bers, Chapter 37: Addition and subtraction with decimal numbers3 (p. 92). From Unit 7:
Numbers up to 7.000 – Measuring mass – Puzzles, tiling, mosaics, symmetry, Chapter
40: Numbers up to 7.0004 (p. 99). From Unit 9: Numbers up to 10,000, Chapter 57: Frac-
tions and decimals5 (p. 136). The criteria for selection were the experiential exercises that
rest on the logic of multiple representations.
The student textbook was published in 2008 by the Greek Publishing Organisation of
Educational Books (OEDB) in 135,000 copies (3rd edition). Charalampos Lemonidis, Eft-
erpi Theodorou, Konstantinos Nikolantonakis, Ioannis Panagakos, Adamantia Spanaka,
Evgenios Avgerinos were the authors of the book (Ioannis Thoidis participated in writing
the first part (1/3)). The reviewers/assessors were: Evgenios Avgerinos, Varvara Geor-
giadou-Kampouridou and Petros Chaviaris, and the illustrator was Konstantinos Aro-
nis. Alexandros Nikolaidis was responsible for language editing, while Georgios Typas
was responsible for the subject/lesson during the writing process, as well as for the
subproject. Opy Zouni was responsible for the book cover. The textbook6 consists of 141
pages organised into 9 units and 3 terms.
The positions and proposals followed in the aforementioned educational material are
based on the principles and philosophy of the Cross-Curricular Uniform Framework for
Curricula (DEPPS) and Detailed Curricula (APS) for Mathematics drawn up by the Peda-
gogical Institute (Ministerial Decision No Υ.Α.2 1072α/Γ2, Ministerial Decision No Υ.Α.2
1072β/Γ2); furthermore, they are based on the results of research conducted by the De-
partment of Primary Education in the Florina School of Education (C. Lemonidis, 1992,
1998, 2003) (C. Lemonidis, 1992, 1998, 2003) and on the experimental application of the
new didactic approach at the 1st Experimental School of Florina (Grade 3 Mathematics,
Mathematics of Nature and Life, Teacher’s Book, Grade 3, 2008, p. 5).
It should be noted that on page 4 of the pupils’ textbook, the authors of the book de-
cided on the icons/key symbols placed in the top left corner of each activity. These sym-
bols are presented in the form of sketches and depict Pythagoras thinking, as a sym-
bol of thought. This symbol appears in mental calculation activities. The bee is used as
a symbol of hard work and appears in application and comprehension activities. The
tracker dog is used as a symbol of discovery and appears in activities that introduce new
knowledge to pupils. The elephant, as a symbol of memory, appears in revision activities
and the group of pupils, as a symbol of team spirit, appears in the cooperative group ac-
tivities.
Research process
Images and Codes

In Chapter 23 of the school textbook, which is titled “Fractional Units” (p. 60), there is in-
itially a framed image (1) that includes a triptych image (1a) with realistic photographs
and two framed images (1b & 1c) with an inter-image text. There is a title/legend for all
the images, namely Writers, practicians, painters and mathematicians, which makes ref-
erence to the “occupational” code. In the overall framed Image 1, in the top left corner
the indicator of the tracker dog is depicted, as the symbol of discovery that is presented
in the activities that introduce pupils to new knowledge, and in the top right-hand corner
is the indicator of the group of pupils, the symbol of team spirit for activities that can be
carried out in cooperation with others.
Image (1a) is a triptych (consisting of three photographs that have a shared mean-
ing). The first photograph presents a tomato in the process of being cut in half. The re-
sulting codes are the “object” code and the “mathematical – numerical” code. The sec-
ond photograph portrays two equal halves of the tomato, with the relevant “object” code
and “mathematical – numerical” code. The third photograph shows four pieces of toma-
to with the corresponding codes, namely the “object” code and the “mathematical – nu-
merical” code. In the shared subtitle “Practicians cut in the following way”, the codes re-
ferred to are those of “occupation” and “manner”. While the supplementary sentence, “I
Framed Image 2. Experiential exercise Writers, practicians, painters and mathematicians (p.60).
divide each into two equal parts”, refers to the “manner” code and the “mathematical –
numerical” code.
In framed Image (1b) there are three sketches, the resulting code being the “occupa-
tional” code. The images include the titles/legends of Writers, Painters and Mathema-
ticians, which refer to and explain each sketch, with the corresponding “occupational”
code. While the supplementary text “I cut the tomato into four equal pieces and take one”
highlights the codes of “manner”, “object” and the “mathematical – numerical” code.
Framed Image (1c) repeats the same pattern with the three sketches and the “occupa-
tional” code. The titles/legends of Writers, Painters and Mathematicians are included as
inter-image texts and they refer to and explain each sketch with the corresponding “oc-
cupational” code. In the supplementary text “I cut a rectangular pizza into twelve equal
pieces and take one”, the corresponding codes are those of “manner”, the “mathematical
– geometric” code, the “object” code and the mathematical – numerical” code.
Framed Image 1 (1a, 1b & 1c) is arranged – in its entirety – on a vertical axis, and has
the structure of the real – ideal (Kress & van Leeuwen 1996). The new didactic informa-
tion is provided from top to bottom and informs young pupils that a simple everyday act,
such as the cutting of a tomato, is related to mathematical operations. The didactic pro-
Chapter 23
Analysis-Data
Images
Description A framed Image 1 is presented, which consists of another three images. The
of images at first is a triptych with realistic photographs and the other two are framed imag-
the level of es with sketches and inter-image texts.
pictograms. In the triptych Image 1a, the first photograph shows a tomato held in one hand,
and a knife in the other hand trying to cut it in half. The second photograph
shows two equal halves of the tomato, while the third photograph four pieces
of tomato, equal in size.
In framed Image 1b there are three sketches that show a writer, a painter and a
mathematician. There is also an inter-image text.
Framed Image 1c repeats the same pattern with the sketches.
S/N of image. 1 = 1a, 1b & 1c
Style of 1 Realistic photographs
image. 2 Framed image with sketches.
3 Framed image with sketches.
Field to which Image 1, to no field.
the images Image 2, to no field.
refer. Image 3, to no field.
Content of the Image 1a, in the first photograph, a tomato in process of being cut in half. In the
image. second, two equal pieces of tomato. In the third, four equal pieces of tomato.
Image 1b: a writer, a painter and a mathematician are presented in a frame.
The same pattern is repeated in Image 1c.
Image Image 1a: “object”, “mathematical – geometric”, “mathematical – numerical”.
themes. Image 1b, “occupational”, “mathematical – fractional”, “mathematical – numer-
ical”, “mathematical – geometric”.
Image 1c, “occupational”, “mathematical – fractional”, “mathematical – numer-
ical”, “mathematical – geometric”.
Image with All images have the shared title of “Writers, practicians, painters and mathema-
legend. ticians”, referring to the “occupational” code.
Image 1a has a title/legend stating that “Practicians cut in the following way”,
referring to the codes of “occupation” and “manner”. There is also a supplemen-
tary sentence stating “I divide each into two equal parts”, referring to the “man-
ner” code and the “mathematical – numerical” code.
Framed Image 1b has subtitles for each sketch, namely Writers, Painters and
Mathematicians, referring to the “occupational” code. The first sketch also in-
cludes a supplementary text which reads “I cut the tomato into four equal piec-
es and take one”, and refers to the codes of “manner”, “object” and the “mathe-
matical – numerical” code.
Framed Image 1c once again includes the corresponding subtitles, namely Writ-
ers, Painters and Mathematicians, referring to the “occupational” code. The first
sketch also includes a supplementary text which reads “I cut a rectangular pizza
into twelve equal pieces and take one”, referring to the codes of “manner”, “object”,
the mathematical – numerical” code and the “mathematical – geometric” code.
Table 2. Register of visual analysis
cess is achieved through multiple representations of mathematical concepts, which pu-
pils are called on to apply.
Image 1a is a realistic photograph which, according to Tokatlidou (1985), has an origi-
nal form. It has a narrative function (Kapsalis & Charalampous, 2007) and represents the
meaning and content of the verbal text. Images 1b and 1c are artificial images (Tokat-
lidou, 1986), as they constitute sketches that were designed by illustrators and the group
of authors involved in the creation of this school textbook. All three sketches have an il-
lustrative function, representing the meaning and content of the verbal text (Kapsalis &
Charalampous, 2007).
The dominant codes of images 1a, 1b and 1c include the “mathematical – fractional”
code, the “occupational” code and the “manner” code, and as a textual metafunction, they
depict and represent, in a declaratory manner, to the children the connection between a
mathematical concept (of fractional units) and various professions (practicians, writers,
painters, mathematicians). At the connotative level, the manner of representation func-
tionally refers to the sense of touch. To paraphrase ‘learning by doing’, this particular
image involves ‘learning by touching’, since the acquisition of mathematical knowledge
takes place with the dominant sense being that of touch.
As a whole, framed Image 1 has the same dominant semiotic codes, which render a
visual text multimodal and uniform, and which interact with pupils by representing and
giving meaning to fractions. Thus, through the three interrelated systems, namely infor-
mation value, salience and framing (Kress & van Leeuwen 1996), children develop math-
ematical knowledge of fractional units, while the skills of interpreting the mathematical
concepts of fractions are represented through the dominant sense of touch.
Results
Education – as teaching and learning of social symbolic means and practices – is current-
ly perceived as a unique social symbolic means and can be analysed as a complex semi-
otic activity, during which it is reorganised and re-encoded as a subject/lesson and as an
object of teaching and learning.
This process takes place on the basis of ideological and social choices, distinctions
and prioritisations; however it includes rules, methods, discipline and goals. Thus we
have a semiotic analysis of the entirety of symbolic ritualistic, linguistic and extralinguis-
tic components of educational communication, with a view to achieving an overall anal-
ysis and understanding of the educational process (Paschalidis, 1996, p. 20).
By following this research model in all 5 experiential Multiple Representation exercis-
es in the mathematics textbook titled Mathematics of Nature and Life, one confirms the
basic pedagogical and didactic principle – which was applied by the authors of the book –
that children learn better when they are given incentives and when their interest in learn-
ing is raised through active and experiential participation in the educational process.
Experiential multiple representation exercises rely on the same pattern of semiot-
ic recognition of dominant codes, i.e. the codes of “occupation”, “manner”, “object”, the
“mathematical – numerical” code and the “mathematical – geometric” code.
Combined, these codes function based on the dominant sense of touch, resulting not
only in the action and activation of pupils, but also in the action that causes thinking.
The “occupation” code occurred at a rate of 29.16%, the “manner” code occurred at
a rate of 20.83%, while the “object” code, the “mathematical – numerical” code and the
“mathematical – geometric” code occurred at a rate of 16.67% each.
The below table presents the percentages of occurrence of the dominant codes:
Occupation 29.16%
Manner 20.83%
Object 16.67%
Mathematical – Numerical 16.67%
Mathematical – Geometric 16.67%
Table 3. Percentage presentation of dominant codes
In this way, cognitive processes are strengthened with the use of the body, According to
Embodied Learning (Thelen et al, 2001), not only is the mind connected to the body, but
the body affects the mind.
Space is perceived as part of our cognitive system and the information received by
the mind from space is continuous and uninterrupted. This is the information that is pro-
cessed by the mind, since its basic function includes the direction of operations and the
cognitive mechanisms of perception and memory. It is at this point that the human body
intervenes. In other words, knowledge is not just an activity of the mind, but of the body
as well. Thus, learning becomes experiential, involving the senses, perception, action
and reaction.
At the same time, these representations generate new mathematical knowledge,
whereby – with the dominant sense being that of touch – the didactic path from the spe-
cific to the abstract is created. Moreover, based on Piaget’s (1928) pedagogical principle
that a pupil learns by doing, these exercises ensure that pupils are not passive recipients,
but understand – through the sense of touch – the new knowledge, which in turn is ab-
sorbed through the internal processes of representations
During the participant observation in the grade 3 classroom of the 5th Primary School
of Florina, the children played the roles proposed in the book and took turns playing each
of these roles.
The pupils cut tomatoes, acted as cashiers, turned their peers into units, tens, hun-
dreds and thousands through the creation of a human abacus.
Furthermore, it was discovered that through interaction and through experiential and
embodied cognitive activity children appeared to have a better understanding of mathe-
matical concepts. When asked which senses they recognise through the learning game,
all the children replied in unison that they recognise touch as the dominant sense.
In this particular experimental application, it was observed that – apart from the
sense of vision, which guides the activities and helps us to successfully and accurately
complete every action – it was the sense of touch that contributed to the development of
the children’s comprehension and perception skills.
Thus, abstract mathematical concepts and problems became more specific, since the
mathematical cognitive function was simplified for the children through the interaction
of multiple representations. The participation of children also helped them to better ex-
press the mathematical subject, and through the direct and experiential process of learn-
ing, the children were able to maintain the new knowledge in their memory for a long-
er period of time. During the experimental application there was direct feedback and the
children developed a team spirit, since the entire class had become a team that helped
one another.
In conclusion, if the aim of mathematical education is to help pupils gain clarity in
terms of distinguishing between mathematical concepts through the use of multiple rep-
resentations, then it would be useful to hold a discussion on the theories of representa-
tion and mathematical learning, which would clarify which senses contribute to the cog-
nitive process and, indeed, the use of these senses in the textbook exercises.
Photograph 2. Photograph 3.
Experiential Exercise: Experiential Exercise:
Practicians Human Abacus
Photograph 5.
Recording of results
Photograph 4. by a pupil on the board
Experiential Exercise: following the comple-
Cashiers tion of the experiential
exercises
Endnotes
1. http://ebooks.edu.gr/modules/ebook/show.php/DSDIM-C102/703/4643,21008/
6. Apart from the pupils’ textbook, which is the material being studied, the mathematics teaching
package also consists of four issues (issues a, b, c and d) with workbooks, the teacher’s book and
educational software (CD ROM) for Grade 3 and 4 mathematics in primary school.
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MATERIALITY & SPACE

MATERIALITY & SPACE
Proprioception in society:
The macro-spatial scale
Alexandros Ph. Lagopoulos Aristotle University of Thessaloniki phaidon@arch.auth.gr
Abstract
The human senses send biological ‘information’ to the brain, but humans also have the
ability of semiosis, which takes place in the mind. While the origins of semiosis are bi-
ological, what seems to be an object of debate is the origin of the content of semiosis.
One camp of semioticians identifies mind and brain and attempts to establish a biolog-
ical basis for the semiotic systems. This perspective started with Claude Lévi-Strauss
and continued with Yuri Lotman’s ‘semiosphere,’ Jean Petitot’s geno-physics and Per
Åge Brandt’s neuro-physiological foundations for semiosis. The opposite view is that
the mind is not identical to the brain, but is a social construct.
In order to through some light on this controversy, I use as an example the propriocep-
tive system. The structure of the body defines six directions: front vs rear, up vs down,
and right vs left. According to the physiological/biological explanations, the proprio-
ceptive senses directly define the corresponding concepts. Recourse to anthropolog-
ical and archaeological data shows that the conceptions attached to these senses, as
well as that of equilibrium, diverge in different cultures in the context of the material
conditions of their existence.
Keywords
Proprioception , equilibrium , spatial directions , cosmic concepts
The physiology of senses
It is true that humans are biological organisms and their bodily senses and actions send
stimuli to the brain. The exceptional human ability of semiosis also has its seat in the
brain and undoubtedly has a biological origin. However, while the processing of sense
stimuli takes place in the brain, the content (not the fact) of semiosis is to be found in the
mind, not the brain. Thus, the question that emerges concerns the origin of this content,
ie, of the semiotic structures: do they have a biological or a social origin? For a semiot-
ics of the senses, this is the crucial question: if the content of our perceptions is deter-
mined by our biological senses, it should be universal in nature, in other words all human
beings would perceive the world in essentially the same way. In order to address this is-
sue, I shall use a corpus of ideological systems drawn from the larger sphere of precap-
italist societies1 or the societies before modernity, which refer to both ancient and con-
temporary societies and are studied by archaeology, anthropology, and partly by histo-
ry; the material I use comes from this kind of sources. Due to spatial limitations, the ex-
amples discussed will be brief and detached from their contexts. However, almost all of
them are based on a significant number of sources and they are not selected randomly,
but because I consider each of them as representative of a general situation.
The proprioceptive system may be considered as composed of two peripheral sys-
tems, the kinesthetic and the vestibular. The first regulates posture and motor control,
determining our sense of bodily position in space and the relative position and movement
of the limbs. The vestibular system controls the muscles of the eyes and those that make
us stand. Signals from the proprioceptive system are integrated in the brain with those
from the visual and skeletal systems to define the senses of equilibrium and orientation
in space; equilibrioception is a physiological sense, ie, the sense of balance. Thus, pro-
prioception and equilibrioception should be added to the five classical senses of Aristot-
le, and indeed the list does not end there (see also Macpherson, 2011, pp. 124-125).
I shall analyze the cultural expression of a set of spatial concepts related to propriocep-
tion, namely the senses of bodily position and orientation in space, the relative position of
the limbs, and equilibrium. Front vs rear is related to bodily position, and the same is the
case with head vs feet, which leads to the more abstract up vs down. Right vs left is relat-
ed to the position of the limbs, more specifically the hands or the two sides of the body. All
these senses lead to the sense of orientation and all presuppose a point of reference which,
from a static point of view, is a central immobile point, corresponding to the sense of equi-
librium. As we shall see, the above pairs, together with orientation and equilibrium, are
transformed into cultural concepts.
The biological explanations of semiosis
Claude Lévi-Strauss believes in the existence of an innate logical matrix, a coding sys-
tem, installed in the unconscious mind, which he identifies with the symbolic function
that determines the structural laws of semiotic systems. According to Lévi-Strauss, this
matrix and its structural laws are universal and founded on dualism, whence he draws
the conclusion that they derive from the structure of the human brain. Reality is reor-
ganized in the mind, and the starting point of this reorganization are the human senses,
sending messages that are integrated by the brain.
Lévi-Strauss argues that there is a continuous regression from the ‘I’ of an individual
or a culture to the ‘us-matrix’ of humanity, from ‘us’ to biology/nature and finally to the
integration of life within its physico-chemical origins, and the social sciences should fo-
cus on the dissolution of the concept of individual identity. Thus, the human mind is of the
same essence with nature (Lévi-Strauss, 1955, pp. 58, 469-470, 1958, pp. 40-41, 224-
225, 1962, pp. 326-328, 347 and 1967, pp. 520; see also Leach, 1970, pp. 25-26, 92-93).
The fundamental principle of Thomas A. Sebeok’s ‘ecumenical semiotics’ (or later
‘global semiotics’) is that semiosis is coextensive with life. In this manner, semiotics was
extended from culture to the biological realm, and cultural semiotics, or ‘anthroposem-
iotics’ according to Sebeok, became just one branch of semiotics. The other branch is
‘biosemiotics,’ the ambition of which is to study biological processes of any kind and on
any level of living organisms (Anderson et al., 1984; Sebeok, 1997). Given that chrono-
logically the biological has priority over the cultural, there is an implicit assumption that
the biological extends to the cultural, that is, that cultural theory is explained through a
general theory anchored in biology.
Yuri Lotman holds a view comparable to that of Lévi-Strauss. Lotman states that
there is a right-left asymmetry of the brain and a dialogue between the two hemispheres.
For him, the right-left pair defines not only the bilateral asymmetry of the human brain,
but also the mechanism of thought, and ‘is one of the basic structural principles of the
internal organization of meaning-making constructions’ (see, for example, Lotman and
Uspenskij, 2013: thesis 3.0). This mirror symmetry, ‘enantiomorphism,’ combines struc-
tural similarity and structural difference, and is the foundation of meaning and dialogue.
‘Rightism’ and ‘leftism’ traverse all levels of the semiosphere. Lotman argues that this
right-left pair rules pairs of opposition (which are ‘an invariant and stable backbone
structure’ – Lotman and Uspenskij, 2013, theses 3.2, 3.3; see also 3.1.1), such as male
vs female and living vs dead, and finds examples of it in literature in the double, parallel
topicality, the magic function of the mirror, and the pattern of texts within texts (see on
the above Lotman, 2005, pp. 219-225 and 1990, pp. 3, 36, 124, 133; see also Mandelker,
1994, pp. 385, 388-390, 393).
Cognitive semiotics also looks for the roots of semiosis in the cognitive processes
of the brain and attempts to explain the foundation of cultural systems on the basis of
neuroscience, seeking for universals. Two authors representative of this approach are
Jean Petitot and Per-Åge Brandt. Petitot considers that there are two levels of semio-
sis. The foundational level is the level of physical reality, natural semiotics, and compris-
es universal topological syntactico-semantic infrastructures. From this level derives the
deep cognitive level of macro-symbolic dynamic structures. It is the level of the physics
of meaning and here there is compatibility between syntactic logico-combinatory struc-
tures and semantic topologico-dynamic perceptual structures (Petitot, 1990).
For Brandt also there is a deep level of meaning (corresponding to Petitot’s founda-
tional level) ‘grounded in the cognitive neurobiology, the neuro-physiological process-
es, of the human mind.’ On this level a neuro-phenomenological process takes place,
through which sensory matter is transformed into organized percepts (apparently of a
universal nature). Their manifestation, specification, and stabilization pass through a du-
al filter of contextual determination: a more general (‘shallow’) level of cultural contextu-
alization and a more narrow (‘surface’) level of individual and inter-individual contextu-
alization. There is, thus, first cognition in consciousness and then a transformation into
signs This for Brandt leads beyond a semiotics studying discourse to a naturalization of
semiotics, transforming semiotics into a ‘natural science of meaning and culture’ (Brandt
n.d., pp. 5-6, 9-11).
The cultural nature of the concepts corresponding to proprioception
The cultural classification systems

The ideological systems of a precapitalist society may be metalinguistically organized in
the form of a classification system, which includes the main elements composing the so-
ciety’s practical and intellectual life. This system, then, gathers the most important se-
mantic codes used by a society and their main concepts. One common structure of clas-
sification systems is the dualistic form a vs b (Middleton, 1973, p. 369), ie, they consist
of a (long) set of opposed pairs; these pairs are isomorphic, since all their first terms are
considered as homologous2 to each other, as also are all second terms. Classification
systems are structured by the internal structure of each of their codes and the structured
relationships between their codes.
Most of the concepts derived from proprioception are among the oppositional pairs
of such dualistic classifications. What is not apparent in these is the concept of a central
immobile point of equilibrium– as we shall see, a concept of major importance.
The body
Proprioception implies physiological processes, which offer the foundation for concepts
related to them. It is not only, however, the proprioceptive qualities that are semantized;
the same holds for the body as a whole.
Merleau-Ponty’s views are closer to the cultural than to the physiological explana-
tion of the concepts corresponding to proprioception. According to Merleau-Ponty, kin-
esthetic movements are not mechanical, but anticipate the final situation through inten-
tion, ie, the proprioceptive meaning attached to them is not primarily due to physiology.
The body, for Merleau-Ponty, while subject to tactile, kinesthetic, and labyrinthine da-
ta, does not have a given orientation, but acquires the feeling of orientation from experi-
ence. The body as a whole brings us in contact with a certain environment – actually, is
a whole with it. The body, the objects surrounding it, and their concrete relations accord-
ing to high-low, right-left, near-far seem to be an irreducible multiplicity when space is
approached physically (espace spatialisé),but in the subject’s experience, space becomes
homogenized (espace spatialisant) – Merleau-Ponty, 1945, pp. 96-97, 110, 123-124, 281-
282, 288.
However, in precapitalist cultures, the idea of the body has a much larger role to play.3
Decisive for the épistémè of these societies is the cosmogony myth, which always ends
with a cosmological diagram. This cosmological code is frequently inseparable from an
anthropomorphic code.
Thus, Plato in his Timaeus establishes the universe as a macro-man and man as a mi-
crocosm, giving the body a cosmic dimension. In ancient Indian mythology, the Rigveda
describes the origin of the universe from a cosmic man, Purusha: the celestial vault was
created from his skull, the earth from his legs, the atmosphere from his navel, and the
cardinal points from his ears. The traditional Indian settlement had a grid form; both it
and individual architectural plans were built man. d. alas, establishing a sacred area pro-
tected from external profane powers. The site of a building or a settlement had its dei-
ty, Vāstu-Purusha, the cosmic man, who covers with his body the whole of the plan; his
arms and legs coincide with the diagonals of the plan, and his navel with the central part,
that of Brahma (Figure 1). Thus, in this built Vāstu-Purusha man. d. ala, the body, the uni-
Figure 1. The Indian Vāstu-Purusha man.d. ala,representing the body, the city, and the universe as a whole.
verse, and the architectural and urban plans are fused into an integral whole (Acharya,
1928, pp. 36-38; Müller, 1961, pp. 119-122; Rykwert, 1976, pp. 163-165).
In traditional Tunisian cosmogony, the universe emanated from the uterus of an an-
thropomorphic being. It included a tree or serpent corresponding to the earth, which was
then dismembered in a cosmic sacrifice. This cosmic sacrifice is reflected in the mythical
dismemberment of a human body, the primordial smith. The body is conceived as lying
on the ground, and its segmentation is projected on the distribution of the water of the
irrigation system, as we can see from the example of the oasis of Nefta (Figure 2).
Figure 2. The anthropomorphic symbolism of the oasis of Nefta, Tunisia (based on Pâques, 1964, p. 54, fig. 6).
We see that the relation of the body to its environment far exceeds what Merleau-Ponty
believes. The experience of space does not refer primarily to the direct surrounding en-
vironment, but to the cosmic environment, and body and universe are fused into an indi-
visible whole. Individual concepts concerning the body cannot be detached from the col-
lective cosmogonic myth of each culture.
The immobile center of equilibrium

A universal concept in precapitalist societies is the center of the universe (and the earth).
This center is in a state of perfect equilibrium; through it passes the cosmic axis (see be-
low). For the Fali of Kangu in North Cameroon, according to Jean-Paul Lebeuf (1961,
pp. 367-370), the cosmos originated from the collision of two eggs unequal in size, one
male and the other female (each egg also connoting a copulating couple), which rotated
initially in opposite directions (clockwise/counter-clockwise). The collision occurred in
the center of space and after it two unequal square earths emerged from the eggs, col-
lided and merged into one.
In ancient Greece, every house had its hearth (hestia) in about the middle of the house
and every hearth was identified with the cosmic center. If the family hearth was the center
of the house, the center par excellence was the center of the polis in the agora. The cosmic
center also characterizes greater spatial scales: for Anaximander, Greece as a whole is the
cosmic center (Figure 3).
Figure 3. The cosmic centrality of Greece, according to Anaximander.
The concept of the cosmic center is fundamental also in Chinese thought. It is the seat
of a magical and religious organization, as well as of political power. It is the essential
attribute of the emperor: he lives in this pure region, where space possesses its whole-
ness. As in Greece, this center is manifested on different spatial scales, from the build-
ing to the country itself, which is the ‘Empire of the Center.’ According to one conception
of geographical space, it is constituted by five homothetic squares. Space at its limits, in
the fourth zone, is unstable and the tribes living there are imperfect and share the na-
ture of beasts. This complex was considered as generated from the cosmic center, hold-
ing the squares in their relative position.
While universal in precapitalist societies, the concept of the center of the world be-
comes gradually weaker, until it disappears in modernity. Even the great empires of the
past had such a limited mastery of the geography of the earth that they could locate
themselves in its center, but this is manifestly not the case in modern societies. Simul-
taneously, the heliocentric system removed earth from its cosmic centrality. There could
no longer be a common center for society, the earth, and the universe. Thus, the precon-
ditions for a collective concept of equilibrium were totally lost.
Equilibrium was not related only to the cosmic center. In ancient Greece, together
with the traditional conception of equilibrium, we find a different framework due to Py-
thagorean philosophy. According to the latter, numbers are the source of all existence.
Proportion, the relation between numbers, presides over all things and over the universe
as a whole. It is because of this universal harmony that the universe was called by these
philosophers ‘cosmos,’ which means something ordered, harmoniously arranged, dec-
orated. The number 10 was considered the perfect number (tetraktys) and the first ten
numbers composed the Table of Opposites (Systoichia); a dualist pair of concepts corre-
sponded to each of them. Τhe proportions of the four first integers (which if added to-
gether equal 10) regulated thebasic intervals of the musical scale, which were consid-
ered to govern the heavens (Pollitt, 1974, pp. 15-18, 167; Raven, 1951, pp. 147-148).
From the Pythagorean philosophical concept of world order was derived the concept
of symmetria. Symmetria indicated the commensurability, ie, proportional relation,
between the various parts of a whole, and between the parts and the whole; one case
of which is what we today call a work of art. Symmetria was linked to the definition of
a basic unit of measurement, ie, a module. This concept became the nucleus of a set
of concepts referring to artifacts such as isorropia, equilibrium; meson, probably the
ideal equilibrium, harmonia, harmony (Pollitt, 1974, pp. 14-23, 26, 88, 126, 162, 167-169,
182, 187). Thus, a new conception of equilibrium emerged, which this time depended on
proportion.
Symmetria and equilibrium presided over the totality of Greek material culture from
the end of the sixth century BC, including architecture (the architectural orders of the
temples), sculpture, and painting. And not only, because symmetria and the above
codes expressing it represent the deep structure of the dominant form of ancient Greek
thought. This structure was the product of the emergence of philosophical thought, it-
self the product of a new form of logic, rationalism. In fact, rationalism was made pos-
sible by a new form of economy, monetary economy, which appeared at the end of the
seventh century BC. This form lies behind the transformation of the relations between
things from qualitative to quantitative, ie, incorporated their use value within their ex-
change value; the latter had to be founded on a basic monetary unit, a module. Thus, the
whole domain of exchangeable things becomes commensurable and is unified in a tight
whole (Vernant, vol. I, 1974, pp. 176 -179 and vol. ΙΙ, 1974, pp. 37-39, 104-107, 117-123).
This crucial sociological explanation is corroborated by Aristotle. According to him,
the reciprocity between social groups is based on the exchange of products and this lat-
ter presupposes the reciprocity of the products, which in turn is achieved when they are
‘equated’, ie, when quantitative proportions between them are established. Money is, for
Aristotle, the common measure of all products, and everything must be measured, ‘for
such a standard makes all things symmetra, commensurable’ (Aristotle, Nicomachean
Ethics: V.v10-16). Aristotle realizes the close relationship of symmetria with the structure
of the economy and then ideologically projects symmetria on society. In fact, the same
key concept dominates the whole of the ideological sphere of Greek society.
On the basis of the above data, we may conclude that the traditional concept of equi-
librium accompanying the cosmic center acquired a new ideological companion in the
form of proportion because of the advent of a monetary economy. Previously, equilib-
rium was due to the center; now, as the semiotic model of urban space shows, it has
its own mathematical laws, which integrate the center. There are two ways to inter-
pret these data: either there is a physical concept of equilibrium, which in sixth-century
Greece was for some reason invested with a new meaning, or a new concept of equilib-
rium was born. I incline towards the second hypothesis, because the relation of the new
concept to the emergence of new material social forces is in line with the relation of the
traditional concept to societies with relatively limited material and ideological horizons.
Up vs down
From the cosmic center passes a cosmic axis that unites cosmic regions, allowing
privileged persons, such as the emperor or the king, to communicate with the gods.
Already here cosmology surpasses the dualist concept deriving from the proprioceptive
senses, because in their simplest form these regions are generally more than two. In
Jainism, for example, the universe is a giant, the upper part of whose body is the sky, the
middle part bears the earth, and the lower one is inhabited by demons.
This kind of division of the universe is close to our direct experience of it, but it can al-
so be much more abstract. In ancient Mesopotamia, there was a conception of the uni-
verse with three general regions. The universe was conceived as composed of a flat
earth, on both sides of which were arranged symmetrically the hemispherical vaults of
the sky and the inferior region. However, the sky comprises many superimposed vaults.
The Brahmanic universe is composed vertically of three regions: the sky, which is the
divine region; the low region, dwelling of the demons; and between the two, the atmo-
sphere and the earth. The celestial region includes seven (later five) levels and the low
eight superimposed circular levels followed in depth by eight, or eighteen (later up to
thirty), circles of the abyss.
It is clear that any physiological explanation of the up vs down pair is weak, since we
frequently deal from the very start with the more complex and unified structure up vs
down vs below. The pair appears even weaker when this complex structure becomes
more elaborated, taking the form uppermost vs various intermediate upper levels vs up
vs earth/down vs below vs various intermediate lower levels vs lowest.
Front vs rear
In Ethiopia, before the foundation of Gondar in the first half of the seventeenth century,
there were no permanent towns. There were ephemeral military camps of lesser digni-
taries, which strictly replicated the most prominent camp, that of the king. The Ser’ata
Mangest, The Order of the Kingdom, a document of the Amhara ethnic group which is con-
sidered as the first Ethiopian constitution, gives a minute account of the organization of the
royal camp.4 It is circular and has as its central element the royal palace. The foundation
of its organization is, together with this center, the opposition left (positive) vs right (neg-
ative), according to which the camp is divided into two halves. The royal camp is an image
of the universe and thus the opposition left vs right acquires a cosmic dimension; left re-
lates symbolically to west, right to east. The two halves are attached to the main axis of the
camp, the front part of which is notional and follows the visual axis of the king oriented to
the west, and the rear part of which is materialized on the ground by a wide road located
behind the king. It is complemented by a secondary opposition between the king, center of
centers and in front, opposed to behind (the queen). The superimposition of this pair on the
left vs right pair delivers a quadripartite model, related to the cardinal points.
These examples are characteristic of the status of the pair front vs rear. It does not
seem to be very important and seems to be activated in function of the pair right vslef-
tand the cardinal points.
Right vs left and the cardinal points

A reasonable hypothesis following from the idea of the physiological origin of the con-
cepts referring to the body would be that, since the pair right vs left belongs to one and the
same horizontal plane with front vs rear, they should complement each other to compose
a total directional structure on this plane. But this is not in general the case. There is such
a structure, but it is constituted by the cardinal points, as essential parts of the cosmolog-
ical systems. The conception of the cardinal directions or points is widely considered as
universal; actually, they are of prime importance, but only in precapitalist societies.
The Chinese five homothetic squares end with the square earth and were considered
as oriented to the cardinal directions, balanced in their center. In Iran, there were two im-
ages of the universe, one consisting of seven concentric circles, the other also circular
and related to the cardinal points.
However, all models of the universe are not related to the cardinal points, and those
which are not seem to have a more archaic origin. We may assume that models relat-
ed to the cardinal points presuppose the practice of agriculture. In fact, the conception of
the universe in precapitalist societies is not an immediate given, but implies interpreta-
tion, something which would not be independent from practical social needs. With agri-
culture, the cycle of the seasons became of prime importance and thus the observation
of the regular movement of the sun, entailing the cardinal points.
The right vs left pair is regularly correlated with the (cosmic) cardinal points andI would
suggest that the cardinal points generally have a more prominent position than this pair.
From a physiological viewpoint, right vs left is considered as asymmetrical, because priori-
ty is given to the right hand. More than a century ago, Robert Hertz argued against religious
explanations that this priority is due to anatomy. Instead, he proposes cautiously that this
‘slight’ asymmetry is ‘merely the occasion’ for a (superior) right vs (inferior) left differentia-
tion, the cause of which is to be found in already formed cultural representations. Hertz al-
so points out the role of social constraints, such as education, and even raises the possi-
bility (for which he considers that the bibliographical evidence is weak) that this asymme-
try has social roots (Hertz, 1973, pp. 10, 13, 20-22, and n. 87 and 88, p. 27).
It is not easy to anchor in or even relate to the physiology of the body the plethora of
positive cultural values that come to be assigned to the right (see also Needham, 1973,
p. 121). I have no doubt that the pre-eminence of the right is statistically sound. On the
other hand, we have already encountered a culture, the Ethiopians, in which the left is
the positive member of the pair. The same holds for the Etruscans and the (ancient) Zuni
Pueblo Indians, and the left hand of certain spiritual leaders of the Meru of Kenya is con-
sidered to possess ritual power (Needham, 1973, pp. 109, 119-121).
We see that the physiological superiority of the right hand is not necessarily reflected
in the cultural domain. Something similar holds for the opposition left vs right as a whole.
If it was naturally given, we would expect it to be more or less equally present in all cul-
tures, but its role differs widely among cultures. In the introduction of the Ser’ataMangest
we read: ‘This is a book of the Kings and of the Lords (judges), ie, of many things includ-
ing history, tradition, and the list of the hierarchy.’ Ser’ata Mangest is mainly a protocol of
ceremonies of the state and the church and of the administration of justice. It played an
important role in the political life of the royal court and justice, and was an important fac-
tor of adult life and male identity in Amhara society. All these crucial aspects of Amhara
life were permeated by the dualistic structure of the Amhara classification system, ruled
by the opposition left vs right, which I discussed above.
In ancient Greece, the importance of the right vs left pair was much more limited. As
we saw, it was inherited from ancient beliefs and had an impact on classical philosophy.
It was used as an intellectual tool, but never for the organization of actual life.
My final example comes from South Indian society. It was divided from 1000 to 1900
AD into two halves according to two overarching and ritually opposed categories, sub-
sumed under the opposition of right vs left. The economically and politically higher ‘right’
category, providing ritual services, included a block of castes dominated by rural land-
lords, while the lower ‘left’ was that of the urban artisans. This very ancient right-left op-
position began to recede in the middle of the nineteenth century because of British rule;
it survived up to the beginning of the twentieth century, and then ceased being a collec-
tive object of thought, although it left certain subtle traces in cultural customs. The rea-
son for this change was that the division between the land-based rights of the cultiva-
tors and the money economy became blurred when the cultivators were given legal title
to the land and land could be converted into capital (Beck, 1973, pp. 391-395, 403).
Conclusion
The preceding analysis questions the biological explanation of an assumed direct impact
of proprioceptive physiology and the attached cognitive processes on the formation of
the corresponding cultural concepts. It poses a series of questions to the biological ap-
proaches to proprioception:
(a) Biological approaches treat the pairs of directions as equivalent in importance, but
the data above demand a different explanation, since we observed that the pair front
vs rear seems to be of secondary importance. This semiotic observation poses a
problem for a biological interpretation of the concepts attached to the proprioceptive
senses, because it seems to indicate that any such attempt would also have to ad-
dress the factor of a possible hierarchy between these senses, permanent or fluctuat-
ing – and in the latter case, what could be the cause of the fluctuation that would not
contradict the biological approach?
(b) In parallel with the above, a biological approach would imply that each pair is of equal
importance in all cultures. This is far from true. We observed the same fluctuation in
importance with the concept of equilibrium, while in both cases the physiological data
remained stable. These examples show that the biological proprioceptive background
is not imposed on the cultural use of these concepts, but the opposite is true: cultur-
al meanings appropriate the proprioceptive senses for their expression.
(c) We would expect that the two pairs corresponding to the horizontal plane, front vs
rear and right vs left, would be combined to compose a unified directional structure.
However, this kind of structure is constituted by the cardinal points and the right vs
left pair seems to be subordinated to them. The physiology of the body is activated by
cosmological ideas, not the other way around.
(d) The biological explanation of the up vs down pair is unsatisfactory, because we sys-
tematically find the more complex structure up vs down vs below, in which the last
term is not an a posteriori addition, but inseparable from the other two; also, as we
saw, there are further elaborations of this triad.
These observations lead us away from biological explanations and towards the cultur-
al factor. This step is still not enough, because society is wider than culture. The biologi-
cal approaches are subject to the same fallacy: they are not sociologically informed. First,
they attempt to offer atomistic explanations to collective phenomena, their point of refer-
ence being the individual ‘organism’ as opposed to the social subject. Second, they oper-
ate with two reference concepts, biology and culture, and just as semiotics does, they omit
the crucial third, ie, material social dynamics. The latter includes the productive forces with
technology, the technical and social division of labor, the constitution of social groups and
classes, institutions, and demography. On this basis, we arrive at a quite different conclu-
sion: that the mind does not coincide with the brain, that the mind is shaped by a collective
culture and is a social, not a biological construct. In the last instance, both biology and se-
miotics should look for the explanation of semiosis at the deeper level of material society.
To conclude, the proprioceptive concepts do not emanate from the physiology of an in-
dividual ‘organism’, but from the collective processes of a society. They do not possess a
primarily ‘physical’ meaning, onto which a cultural meaning would be added a posteriori.
The classification systems display the collective signification of these concepts. There is
no basis for thinking that in everyday life there is a simpler, direct – and universal – under-
standing of them. Since signification does not emanate from the individual but from soci-
ety, there can be no individual concepts independent from the collective semiotic system.
The analysis above challenges radically the idea of the biological origin and universal
nature of the proprioceptive concepts and by extension any comparable approach, such
as cognitive semiotics. Even if it were possible to identify any universal significations,
their interest would be limited to an audience of cognitivists, since they would have on-
ly a remote and marginal interest for a semiotician or an anthropologist (cf. Middleton,
1973, p. 369). Both would wonder: ‘So what?’
Endnotes
1. For the definition of precapitalist societies and the function of ideology within social formations, see Marx
1965; Medvedev and Bakhtin 1978 [1928]: 7-15, 18; Althusser and Balibar, 1968, pp. 120-125; Williams,
1977, pp. 3-4, 83-89, 130-134; Godelier, 1978, pp. 157-162, 164, 167, 170-173, 179-180, 185-186.
2. This homology is usually purely structural, but it can also imply some common quality (as, for ex-
ample, with yin and yang) – Needham, 1973, pp. xxvii-xxix).
3. When the data presented below are not followed by bibliographical references, the reader can find a
more detailed discussion in Lagopoulos, 1995.
4. The data on Ethiopia are taken from Lagopoulos and Stylianoudi (2004).
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Διαισθητηριακή
MATERIALITY & SPACE
χαρτογράφηση:
Μεθοδολογία περιγραφής
της σημειωτικής σχέσης
υποκειμένου-πόλης
Αθηνά Σταματοπούλου Εθνικo και Καποδιστριακ0 Πανεπιστημιο Αθηνων

athinastamatopoulou@gmail.com
Περίληψη
Το άρθρο διαπραγματεύεται προβληματισμούς σχετικούς με τον ρόλο της σημειωτικής
δυναμικής της διαισθητηριακής σχέσης υποκειμένου-πόλης σε διαδικασίες περιγραφής.
Αν η πόλη είναι αντικείμενο που συγκροτείται αμοιβαία με το υποκείμενο, τότε πώς μπο-
ρεί να περιγραφεί η μεταξύ τους σχέση ως προς τη διαισθητηριακή υπόστασή της; Το άρ-
θρο παρουσιάζει την υπό εξέλιξη ανάπτυξη μιας μεθοδολογίας περιγραφής της σχέσης
αυτής. Η ανάπτυξη της μεθοδολογίας επιχειρείται μέσα από πειράματα περπατήματος.
Κατά τα πειράματα, καταγράφεται –μέσα από σημειώσεις, φωτογραφίες, ηχογραφήσεις –
η σχέση που το υποκείμενο αναπτύσσει με την πόλη καθώς περπατά. Στη συνέχεια, οι
συλλεγμένες εντυπώσεις οργανώνονται σε πίνακες. Κάθε πίνακας αποτελεί μια περιγρα-
φή της διαισθητηριακής αντίληψης ως προς τη σχέση της μετακίνησης του υποκειμένου
και του χρόνου (οριζόντιος άξονας) με το σώμα του (κάθετος άξονας). Στόχος του εγχει-
ρήματος είναι η πειραματική συνεισφορά σε τεχνικές χαρτογράφησης, ικανές να αναδει-
κνύουν την πολυαισθητηριακή υπόσταση της πόλης και την πολλαπλότητα των σημασιο-
δοτήσεών της σε κλίμακα διυποκειμενικότητας.
σημειωτική διαισθητηριακότητα , μεθοδολογία περιγραφής , διυποκειμενικότητα
Εισαγωγή
Η πόλη είναι ένα ανοιχτό χρονο-χωρικό σύστημα που γεννιέται και μεταβάλλεται από σχέ-
σεις. Εστιάζουμε στις σχέσεις μέσα από την οπτική του υποκειμένου. Κάθε σχέση είναι μια
διαδικασία ιστορικά και γεωγραφικά εντοπισμένη και, ως εκ τούτου, πολιτισμικά, κοινω-
νικά και ιδεολογικά πλαισιωμένη. Κατά τη διαδικασία αυτή δημιουργούνται αναπαραστά-
σεις της πόλης βασισμένες σε παραστάσεις και στις συνέπειές (effects) τους στο υποκεί-
μενο. Προβάλλοντας τις σχέσεις αυτές στο σχήμα της τριαδικής συγκρότησης του σημεί-
ου του C.S. Peirce, ισχυριζόμαστε ότι είναι σημασιοδοτικές. Aν εστιάσουμε στη βιωματική
πτυχή τους και τις σκεφτούμε ως εμπρόθετες πράξεις αλληλεπίδρασης με παραστάσεις,
τότε μπορούμε να τις αντιμετωπίσουμε ως ενεργητικές πράξεις πλαισιωμένης επιλογής,
επιθυμίας και απόφασης του τι θα αντιληφθούμε και τι θα αισθανθούμε.
Προβληματοθεσία
Προσεγγίζοντας τις σχέσεις και τις σημασιοδοτήσεις ως συντελούμενες, αφενός, σε συ-
γκεκριμένο συγκείμενο και, αφετέρου, σε κοινωνικό πεδίο, δίνουμε έμφαση στην πολ-
λαπλότητά τους, όπως αυτή προκαλείται από την πολλαπλότητα των δρώντων υποκει-
μένων. Κεντρικός προβληματισμός αποτελεί το πως μπορεί να περιγραφεί η αισθητηρια-
κή αντίληψη, ή ευρύτερα το βίωμα, και σε επίπεδο υποκειμένου, αλλά κυρίως σε επίπε-
δο τόσο της πολλαπλότητάς τους όσο και των συνεργειών τους: σε επίπεδο διυποκειμε-
νικότητας.
Ο προβληματισμός αυτός εντάσσεται στο ευρύ πεδίο συζητήσεων και θεωριών σχετικά
με την αισθητηριακή αντίληψη και σε αυτό των εγχειρημάτων εμπλοκής υποκειμένων σε
διαδικασίες χαρτογραφήσεων (κυρίως από τα ‘60, π.χ. ψυχογεωγραφικοί χάρτες, crowd-
sourcing, participative mapping). Τα περισσότερα εγχειρήματα περιορίζονται στη σφαίρα
του οπτικού και, τελευταία, και του οπτικο-ακουστικού, αφήνοντας τις ‘κατώτερες αισθή-
σεις’, είτε στο περιθώριο είτε στην υπό άνθιση (από τη δεκαετία του ‘90) θεωρία (Χαμηλά-
κης, 2013, σελ. 96). Από τη σκοπιά της πειθαρχίας του αρχιτέκτονα, το ερώτημα πλαισιώνε-
ται περαιτέρω από προβληματισμούς περί ένταξης, πρώτον, του ενσώματου υποκειμένου,
δεύτερον, του νοήματος και, τρίτον, του βιωματικού σε διαδικασίες σχεδιασμού και παρέμ-
βασης στην πόλη. Παρά τις σχετικές απόπειρες εγχειρημάτων διατεινόμενων ως ‘συμμετο-
χικών’ (από ’60-’70), οι κυρίαρχες πρακτικές δε συμπεριλαμβάνουν ούτε τη σημασιοδοτική
δυναμική του υποκειμένου ούτε την παράμετρο του βιώματος, το οποίο όπως διαπιστώνει
ο Ζardini (2005), ο Σταυρίδης (1990), αλλά και ο Pallasma (2012), υποτάσσεται στην ηγεμο-
νία του οπτικοκεντρισμού.
Ερώτημα, Αντικείμενο, Στόχος

Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, διαπραγματευόμαστε το εξής ερώτημα: πώς μπορεί να περιγραφεί μια
διαδικασία σημασιοδοτικής βιωματικής διάδρασης ως προς την πολλαπλότητα και τη δυ-
ναμικότητά της; Η πολλαπλότητα αφορά τα αισθητηριακά ερεθίσματα, τις διαφορετικές
συνέργειές τους και τις παραγόμενες σημασίες, Η πολλαπλότητα εντείνεται στην προο-
πτική της διυποκειμενικότητας, όχι λόγω της αύξησης των υποκειμένων, αλλά λόγω της
αύξησης του πλήθους και της πολυπλοκότητας των συνεργειών των σημασιοδοτήσεών
τους. Η δυναμικότητα αφορά τη συνθήκη διαρκούς μεταβολής του βιώματος, η οποία
επικεντρώνεται στη μεταβολή που προκαλείται από εναλλαγές της (δι)αισθητηριακής-αι-
σθητικής-συναισθηματικής αντίληψης του εκάστοτε υποκειμένου. Δίνεται βάρος στη με-
ταβολή: κατανοώντας την ως σημείο διαφοροποίησης που γεννά ‘πληροφορία’ (Bateson,
1979), κρίνουμε πως αποτελεί και σημείο δυνάμει γέννησης σημασίας, εφόσον αυτή η δι-
αφοροποίηση επιλεχθεί ως αισθητή από το εκάστοτε υποκείμενο.
Αντικείμενο του άρθρου αποτελεί η παρουσίαση της ανάπτυξης μιας –υπό εξέλιξη– με-
θοδολογίας περιγραφής της εντοπισμένης, έγχρονης και μεταβαλλόμενης διαισθητηρια-
κής διάδρασης (με όρους intra-action κατά Barad, 2007) ενός υποκειμένου με ένα γεω-
γραφικό πεδίο. Όπως αναλύεται παρακάτω, η επιδιωκόμενη ‘διαισθητηριακή χαρτογρά-
φηση’, είναι το ανοιχτό σύστημα πολλαπλών περιγραφών από διαφορετικά υποκείμενα.
Επιπλέον, λειτουργεί και ως ένα εργαλείο–μοντέλο κωδικοποίησης των πολλαπλών αι-
σθητηριο-σημειωτικών σχέσεων υποκειμένου-πόλης, με τρόπο που να επιτρέπονται με-
ταξύ τους σημειωτικές συνέργειες. Απώτερος στόχος της έρευνας, όπου εντάσσεται η
αναπτυσσόμενη μεθοδολογία, είναι η δυνατότητα ενσωμάτωσης των αναδυόμενων ση-
μασιοδοτικών δικτύων σε διαδικασίες σχεδιασμού στην πόλη.
Εννοιολογική πλαισίωση
Υποκείμενο-Αντικείμενο
Κεντρικό επιχείρημα αποτελεί η πρόκριση του υποκειμένου, βασισμένη στη θεώρηση της
πόλης ως σχεσιακά συγκροτούμενης. Θέση της προσέγγισης αυτής, σε ευρύτερο πνεύμα
αμφισβήτησης κυρίαρχων διχοτομιών, είναι πως αντικείμενο και υποκείμενο συγκροτού-
νται αμοιβαία κατά τις μεταξύ τους διαδράσεις (intra-actions) σε συγκεκριμένο συγκείμε-
νο. Η σχεσιακή συγκρότηση αντικειμένου-υποκειμένου, προϋποθέτει την κατανόηση του
υποκειμένου ως ενσώματου (embodied) νου, με όρους ‘emplacement’, όπως εισάγεται
από τον David Howes (2005): ο όρος ‘emplacement’ δεν αναφέρεται σε ένα σύστημα ‘σώ-
ματος-νου/πνεύματος’, αλλά στην αλληλοσυσχέτιση (βλ. και Rodaway, 1994 /2011, Tilley,
1994) ‘σώματος-νου-περιβάλλοντος’, όπου το περιβάλλον έχει και φυσική-και-κοινωνική
υπόσταση, ενώ το σώμα είναι βιολογική-και-κοινωνική κατασκευή.
Αντίληψη - Διαισθητηριακότητα (intersensioriality)

Η αντίληψη και η διαισθητηριακότητα αποτελούν συνιστώσες του ευρύτερου πεδίου της
βιωμένης εμπειρίας, η οποία κατά τον Bruner (1986, σελ. 4-5) περιλαμβάνει αισθήμα-
τα και προσδοκίες, ενώ “δεν εκδηλώνεται μόνο λεκτικά, αλλά και μέσα από εικόνες και
εντυπώσεις”. Η ‘αντίληψη’ προσεγγίζεται ως ενεργητική αλληλεπίδραση, θέση που βα-
σίζεται στην παραδοχή ότι αντίληψη-αίσθημα-αίσθηση είναι μη-ξεχωριστές καταστάσεις
που λειτουργούν ως σύστημα (π.χ. Gibson, 1966/1983, Rodaway, 2011). Η ενεργητικό-
τητα της αντίληψης ενισχύεται περαιτέρω από τη θεωρία των “συστημάτων αντίληψης”
του J.J Gibson (1966/1983), όπου οι αισθήσεις αντιμετωπίζονται ως ενεργητικά συστή-
ματα υπό δυναμική αλληλεπίδραση μεταξύ τους και με το περιβάλλον τους (Tilley, 2008,
σελ. 41), συμβάλλοντας στην παραπάνω θεώρηση της διάδρασης με όρους intra-action.
Η ενεργητικότητα της αντίληψης θεμελιώνεται στη διαισθητηριακή συγκρότησή της. Η
συνθήκη της διαισθητηριακότητας αντλεί από τον Howes (2005). Προϋπόθεση της διαι-
σθητηριακότητας είναι η πολυαισθητηριακότητα. Kατά τον Howes (2005, σελ. 9), διαισθη-
τηριακότητα είναι η “πολυ-κατευθυντήρια αλληλεπίδραση μεταξύ των αισθήσεων και των
αισθητηριακών ιδεολογιών”, μια διασύνδεση που έχει τη μορφή ‘κόμπου’ (knot). Όπως δι-
ευκρινίζει τα παραπάνω δε σημαίνουν συγχρονικότητα των αισθήσεων, ούτε ισότητα και
αρμονία. οι αισθήσεις ταξινομούνται και εκφράζονται με βάση ιεραρχίες, κοινωνικά και
πολιτισμικά προσδιοριζόμενες.
Σημειωτική ικανότητα της διαισθητηριακής χαρτογράφησης

H πρακτική της χαρτογράφησης (mapping) νοείται ως διαδικασία αναλυτική και παραγω-
γική ταυτόχρονα (Corner, 1999). Με τον όρο χαρτογράφηση αναφερόμαστε σε ολόκλη-
ρη τη διαδικασία που γεννά οποιαδήποτε μορφή καταγεγραμμένης αναπαράστασης (π.χ.
οπτική, ηχητική, πολυμεσική).
Θεωρημένη ως διαδικασία μεταβάσεων μεταξύ παραστάσεων και αναπαραστάσεων, κά-
θε χαρτογράφηση αποτελεί μια διαδικασία σημείωσης, λειτουργώντας με τους όρους της
τριαδικής συγκρότησης του ‘σημείου’ κατά Peirce: το σημείο είναι οι αμοιβαίες τριαδικές
σχέσεις μεταξύ τριών όρων. Ο πρώτος είναι μια (ανα)παράσταση ή αντιπροσωπεύον (repre-
sentamen) ενός δεύτερου όρου (object/ referent) στο οποίο αυτή αναφέρεται, με τρόπο που
να είναι ικανό να καθορίσει έναν τρίτο όρο, γνωστό ως ερμηνεύον (interpretant). Προβάλ-
λοντας και προσαρμόζοντας το σχήμα αυτό στο πλαίσιο του άρθρου, η πόλη αντιστοιχεί στο
αντικείμενο, η κάθε περιγραφή στην αναπαράσταση και το βίωμα της κάθε σχέσης υποκει-
μένου-πόλης στο ερμηνεύον. Η παραγωγή της περιγραφής κρίνεται ως η κύρια πράξη πα-
ραγωγής νοημάτων, που στην διαισθητηριακή χαρτογράφηση που αναπτύσσεται και ανα-
λύεται παρακάτω είναι είτε σύμβολα, είτε δείκτες είτε icons. To βίωμα, επικεντρωμένο στην
αισθητηριακή του διάσταση εν προκειμένω, αντιστοιχεί σε όλη τη διαδικασία της διάδρασης
από το επίπεδο των πειραμάτων μέχρι τη συγκρότηση των περιγραφών. Κάθε διαφορετική
τέτοια διάδραση παράγει και άλλη περιγραφή. άλλες σημειώσεις επί του ‘ίδιου’ αντικειμένου.
Η επιλογή του μοντέλου του Peirce επηρεάζεται από την επιχειρηματολογία του Webb
Keane (2014), ο οποίος διακρίνει δύο πλεονεκτήματα: πρώτον, πρόκειται για ένα μοντέλο
σημείωσης διαδικαστικό, όπου κάθε σημείο προκαλεί τη γέννηση άλλων σημείων σε μια
δυνητικά ‘αδιάκοπη’ διαδικασία σημείωσης. Αυτό το χαρακτηριστικό, κατά τον Keane, εν-
σωματώνει στη διαδικασία της σημείωσης –εν προκειμένω και της χαρτογράφησης– κοι-
νωνικότητα και ιστορικότητα. Το δεύτερο χαρακτηριστικό αφορά “το πολύπλοκο εύρος
των πιθανών σχέσεων μεταξύ σημείων, ερμηνειών και αντικειμένων”. Και τα δυο χαρα-
κτηριστικά τροφοδοτούν την πολλαπλότητα και τη μεταβλητότητα των σημασιοδοτήσεων
που προκρίνονται ως ιδιότητες της ‘διαισθητηριακής χαρτογράφησης’.
Ανάπτυξη της μεθοδολογίας περιγραφής
Η λογική των πειραμάτων ως εργαλείων ανάπτυξης της μεθοδολογίας

Η ανάπτυξη της μεθοδολογίας περιγραφής, συνδυάζοντας τη λογική της έρευνας δια της
πράξης/ σχεδιασμού (Schön, 1983) με την επιτόπια έρευνα και με μεθόδoυς ‘sense-walk-
ing’, γίνεται μέσα από πειράματα περπατήματος στην πόλη. Κάθε πείραμα αποτελεί μια
δοκιμαστική περίπτωση μελέτης, της οποίας αποκλειστικός σκοπός είναι να λειτουργή-
σει ως εργαλείο για την ανάπτυξη της μεθόδου. Ως εκ τούτου, δεν έχει πρόθεση να είναι
εξαντλητικό ούτε και να εξάγει συμπεράσματα για την περίπτωση μελέτης, καθότι το αντι-
κείμενο έρευνας είναι η ανάπτυξη της μεθοδολογίας. Στο στάδιο αυτό, κατά το οποίο έχει
πραγματοποιηθεί το πρώτο πείραμα, υποκείμενό του είναι η ίδια η ερευνήτρια, ακολου-
θώντας τη λογική της σκέψης/ γνώσης-κατά-την-πράξη (reflection-in-action) του Schön
(1983, σελ. 49). Αυτή η επιλογή είναι επίσης εργαλειακή ως προς την πρόθεση της άμε-
σης εμπλοκής της επιτόπιας διάστασης της έρευνας με πράξεις ενταγμένες στο άμεσο βί-
ωμα και στην καθημερινή ζωή στην πόλη κατά την ανάπτυξη της μεθοδολογίας. Βάσει της
σκέψης του Schön, τα επόμενα στάδια ανάπτυξης της μεθοδολογίας προβλέπεται να συ-
μπεριλάβουν ενέργειες που εμπίπτουν στη σκέψη-επί-της-πράξης (reflection-on-action),
σε συνδυασμό με επιπλέον πειράματα, τα οποία αποτελούν εργαλείο δοκιμών της μεθο-
δολογίας, προκαλώντας την να εξελιχθεί μέσα από το διάλογο θεωρίας και πράξης. Η δο-
κιμασία της αναπτυσσόμενης μεθοδολογίας με περισσότερα πειράματα αποτελεί και ένα
τρόπο ‘εκπαίδευσής’ της στο να είναι ικανή να ανταποκρίνεται σε διαφορετικά δεδομένα,
αυξάνοντας το εύρος της εφαρμοστικότητάς της.
Η πρακτική του περπατήματος προτάσσεται ως μέσο προσέγγισης της σημασιοδοτικής
δυναμικής της διαισθητηριακότητας, για τέσσερις λόγους: πρώτον, κρίνεται ως η επικρα-
τέστερη χωροποιητική καθημερινή ενσώματη πρακτική. Δεύτερον, πρόκειται για μια πρα-
κτική, της οποίας η ενσώματη κιναισθητική διάσταση εμπλέκει ολόκληρο το σώμα (Ingold,
2011. Gibson, 1966/1983), προκαλώντας πιο έντονα την διαισθητηριακότητα. Τρίτον, το
περπάτημα είναι παράγοντας που εντείνει τη συνθήκη της δυναμικότητας και της μεταβο-
λής των παραστάσεων του υποκειμένου: βάσει της άποψης του Bateson (1979) ότι η πλη-
ροφορία γεννιέται σε σημεία μεταβολής, η εν λόγω πρακτική κρίνεται ικανή να προκαλεί
πιο έντονα, αφενός, τη γέννηση πληροφορίας κατά τις διαδράσεις και, αφετέρου, νοημά-
των και σημασιών. Τέλος, το περπάτημα διαφοροποιείται από άλλες πρακτικές ως προς
το ότι επιτρέπει στο υποκείμενονα συνδέει ταυτόχρονα φυσικά-και-σημασιοδοτικά, αλλά
και χωρικά-και-χρονικά τόπους (Tilley, 2008).
Εικόνα 1. Τομές εδάφους σε δύο δρόμους κάθετους στις υπαίθριες εκτάσεις των λόφων.
Η επιλογή της πόλης ως περίπτωσης μελέτης για το πείραμα θεμελιώνεται στην εκτί-
μηση ότι αποτελεί ένα πεδίο εύφορο σε έντονες εναλλαγές παραστάσεων και αισθητηρια-
κών ερεθισμάτων. Πρόκειται για εναλλαγές που είναι κιναισθητικά πιο έντονες σε περι-
πτώσεις απότομων εναλλαγών της κλίσης του εδάφους, όπως ενδεικτικά συμβαίνει στην
περίπτωση του κέντρου της Αθήνας κατά τις μεταβάσεις από τον ιστό της πόλης στις υπαί-
θριες εκτάσεις των λόφων. Για το λόγο αυτό και δεδομένου του εργαλειακού ρόλου των
πειραμάτων, αυτά έλαβαν χώρα σε μια περιοχή έντονων τέτοιων εναλλαγών μεταξύ του
λόφου του Στρέφη και του λόφου του Λυκαβηττού. Επιπλέον πλεονεκτήματα αυτής της
περιοχής κρίνονται: πρώτον, η μικρή απόσταση μεταξύ των δύο λόφων (εικόνα 1). Δεύ-
τερον, το ότι περιλαμβάνει δρόμους με διαφορετικές εντάσεις κυκλοφορίας οχημάτων και
πεζών μέσα στην ημέρα, συντελώντας στην πρόκληση των επιδιωκόμενων έντονων αι-
σθητηριακών εναλλαγών.
Τρίτον, οι περιοχές γύρω από τους δυο λόφους έχουν ως κύρια χρήση γης το συνδυα-
σμό κατοικίας και εμπορίου. Κυριότερο, ωστόσο, χαρακτηριστικό κρίνουμε το ότι πρόκει-
ται για κατοικία που απευθύνεται σε διαφορετικές κοινωνικο-οικονομικές τάξεις και δια-
φοροποιημένες καθημερινές πρακτικές, το οποίο αποτελεί κομμάτι του ‘περιβάλλοντος’
που μετέχει στη διαδικασία των διαδράσεων.
Oργάνωση και διεξαγωγή επιτόπιων πειραμάτων

Το πείραμα έλαβε χώρα σε δυο –κάθετες στις ελεύθερες εκτάσεις των λόφων του Στρέφη
και του Λυκαβηττού– ροές μετακίνησης και στις 10 κάθετες σε αυτές ροές, όπως σημει-
ώνονται με κόκκινες γραμμές τα ίχνη τους στον χάρτη της εικόνας 3. Το περπάτημα και η
καταγραφή αισθητηριακών ερεθισμάτων έγινε μέσα από τέσσερις συν είκοσι διαδρομές:
από λόφο Στρέφη προς Λυκαβηττό και από Λυκαβηττό προς Στρέφη μέσω της οδού Ισαύ-
ρων και μέσω της οδού Τσιμισκή. Στο ίδιο πνεύμα ακολουθούν άλλες είκοσι μεταβάσεις
στις κάθετες στην Ισαύρων και Τσιμισκή ροές.
Όλες οι μεταβάσεις πραγματοποιήθηκαν διαδοχικά την ίδια μέρα, για δυο λόγους:
πρώτον, επιδιώκεται η ελαχιστοποίηση της απόκλισης των καιρικών συνθηκών που επη-
ρεάζουν τις αισθητηριακές συνθήκες, επιτρέποντας στο υποκείμενο να επικεντρωθεί σε
Εικόνα 2.
Χάρτης της περιοχής μελέτης
(υπόβαθρο: κολλάζ από
δορυφορικό χάρτη)
μεταβολές που προκύπτουν από την ενσώματη σχέση και όχι από μεταβολές που αφο-
ρούν το ‘περιβάλλον’, όπως για παράδειγμα η μεταβολή του καιρού. Δεύτερον, δίνεται έμ-
φαση στη χωρο-χρονική και αισθητηριακή συνέχεια μεταξύ των διαδρομών, διευκολύνο-
ντας τη δυνατότητα σύγκρισης και αντίληψης περισσότερων αισθητηριακών ασυνεχειών
- μεταβολών, επί τόπου σε επίπεδο παραστάσεων.
Κάθε διαδρομή χωρίστηκε σε σημεία - ‘καρέ’ λήψης και καταγραφής δεδομένων. Τα
σημεία αυτά (κόκκινοι κύκλοι εικόνας 3) ήταν η διασταύρωση της καθεμιάς ροής με άλλη
ροή μετακίνησης: πεδία όπου ευδοκιμεί η πιθανότητα της μεταβολής.
Κατά το περπάτημα, βασικό μέσο αλληλεπίδρασης με τις παραστάσεις και τα αισθητη-
ριακά ερεθίσματα ήταν το σώμα του υποκειμένου. Μέσα καταγραφής ήταν σημειώσεις
των κυρίαρχων αισθητηριακών εντυπώσεων εκείνη τη στιγμή, προκειμένου να συμπε-
ριληφθεί στη διαδικασία και ό,τι αφορά το επίπεδο της πρωτότητας (firstness). Οι σημει-
ώσεις ξεκινούσαν με τις πιο έντονες εντυπώσεις, σε μια λογική όπου το υποκείμενο ανα-
φέρει ό,τι εκτιμά πως περιγράφει το βίωμά του, αναλυμένο στις κατευθύνσεις των διαφο-
ρετικών αισθητηριακών-αισθητικών-συναισθηματικών ερεθισμάτων, χωρίς να υπόκειται
σε κανόνες συμπλήρωσης αυστηρά ορισμένων πραγμάτων. Η ανοιχτότητα αυτή αποσκο-
πεί στην μεταγενέστερη αναθεώρηση παραδοχών που έχουν γίνει. Ακολουθούσε η λήψη
φωτογραφιών από κινητό τηλέφωνο, μέτρηση θερμοκρασίας-υγρασίας και ηχογράφη-
ση, προκειμένου να συλλεχθεί μεγαλύτερη ποικιλία δεδομένων συμβολικά ανάλογων της
συνθήκης της διαισθητηριακότητας. Τέτοιες καταγραφές γίνονταν σε κάθε ‘καρέ’, με σκο-
πό να αξιοποιηθούν, αφενός, για την επικοινωνία αιτιών πρόκλησης παραστάσεων (ανά-
δειξη δεικτών - index) και, αφετέρου, ως στοιχεία που στη συνέχεια διεγείρουν τη μνήμη
της βιωμένης σχέσης (Σταυρίδης, 2006), επιτρέποντας μεταγενέστερες διαμεσολαβημέ-
νες διαδράσεις με το αντικείμενο. Η λογική λήψης φωτογραφιών και ήχων είχε σκοπό να
συμπεριλάβει και αισθητικές προεκτάσεις από την αλληλεπίδραση με ίχνη (π.χ. ήχος παι-
διών που παίζουν σε μπαλκόνι, μυρωδιά από βαφή ξύλου, γραφή σε τοίχους και κάδους),
που αποκαλύπτουν και περιγράφουν αποσπάσματα της καθημερινότητας και της ταυτό-
τητας του ‘περιβάλλοντος’ της σχέσης (δείκτες).
Συγκροτώντας την κάθε περιγραφή σε πίνακα

Το συλλεγμένο υλικό οργανώνεται σε πίνακες: κάθε διαδρομή και πίνακας. Για παράδειγμα,
ο πίνακας της εικόνας 3 και αυτός της εικόνας 4 αντιστοιχούν σε διαφορετικές διαδρομές.
Η συγκρότηση των πινάκων αντλεί στοιχεία από τη λογική του διαγραμματικού συλλο-
γισμού (diagrammatic reasoning) του Peirce (Stjernfelt, 2007). Κάθε πίνακας αναπαριστά
- περιγράφει και ταυτόχρονα αναλύει τις σχέσεις μεταξύ της αισθητηριακής αντίληψης του
μετακινούμενου υποκειμένου (κάθετος άξονας) και του χωρικού πεδίου, όπως ξεδιπλώ-
νεται στο χρόνο (οριζόντιος άξονας), δίνοντας ταυτόχρονα τους όρους σχηματισμού του
τρίτου όρου στο τριαδικό μοντέλο του Peirce. Ο κάθε πίνακας χωρίζεται σε καρέ, ανάλο-
γα των σημείων της διαδρομής, όπου έχει γίνει η λήψη των δεδομένων. Ο κάθετος άξονας
παρακολουθεί τη δομή του σώματος, ενώ ο οριζόντιος λειτουργεί ως μια αφαιρετική αφή-
γηση του έγχρονου και διαδικαστικού ξεδιπλώματος του βιώματος. Επιπλέον, μέσα από
τον οριζόντιο άξονα αναδεικνύεται πως το μετακινούμενο σώμα δημιουργεί χρονο-χώρο
Εικόνα 3. Πίνακας διαδρομής από Στρέφη προς Λυκαβηττό μέσω οδού Ισαύρων.
Εικόνα 4. Πίνακας διαδρομής από Λυκαβηττό προς Στρέφη μέσω οδού Ισαύρων.
(Σταυρίδης, 2006). Οι δύο άξονες προσδιορίζουν τις παραμέτρους οργάνωσης του περιε-
χομένου, έτσι ώστε αυτό να είναι ικανό να αναδείξει: πρώτον, την πολυαισθητηριακή και
διαισθητηριακή σύσταση του βιώματος. δεύτερον, την ετεροαναφορική διαμόρφωση των
σημείων - ‘τόπων’ κατά τη διάδραση υποκειμένου-αντικειμένου. τρίτον, τη διαρκή μετα-
βολή του αντικειμένου, όπως προκύπτει από τη διαρκή μεταβολή των παραστάσεων του
υποκειμένου και της σχέσης τους. Οι διαγραμματικές ικανότητες του πίνακα, αναδεικνύ-
ουν δομικές και αιτιώδεις σχέσεις των διαδράσεων και των διαισθητηριακών συνεργειών.
Ειδικότερα, κατά την οργάνωση αυτή του πίνακα, η συνέργεια των αισθητηριακών ερεθι-
σμάτων αναδεικνύεται σε δυο επίπεδα: πρώτον, στο επίπεδο του κάθε διαφορετικού καρέ
στον κάθετο άξονα του πίνακα. Δεύτερον, μέσα από την αλληλουχία των διαφορετικών κα-
ρέ, όπως παρατίθενται διαδοχικά το ένα δίπλα στο άλλο, κατά μήκος του οριζόντιου άξονα.
Η συνέργεια - διαισθητηριακότητα επικοινωνείται περαιτέρω μέσα από το κολλάζ διαφο-
ρετικών τρόπων (γλωσσικών και μη-γλωσσικών) και μέσων περιγραφής (π.χ. εικόνα, ήχος,
γραπτός λόγος). Κάθε καρέ (εικόνα 5), αποτελείται από σημειώσεις, από μη-επεξεργασμένες
φωτογραφίες και ηχογραφήσεις, καθώς και τις μετρήσεις, όπως συλλέχθηκαν. Όλα αυτά,
θεωρημένα σε παραπληρωματικές σχέσεις μεταξύ τους, επιχειρούν ταυτόχρονα την περι-
γραφή ερεθισμάτων που δεν οπτικοποιούνται (π.χ. μυρωδιά, απτικές εντυπώσεις) και την
περιγραφή μη-γλωσσικά εκφράσιμων αισθήσεων. Οι συνέπειες από τη σχέση και με υλικές
και με μη-υλικές πτυχές της πόλης συμπλέκονται. Το κολλάζ του κάθε καρέ αποτελείται από
τρεις φωτογραφίες, ανάμεσα στις οποίες παρεμβάλλονται λέξεις που αναφέρονται σε άλλες
αισθητηριακές παραστάσεις, καθώς επίσης οι μετρήσεις και οι ηχογραφήσεις. Οι παρεμβαλ-
λόμενες στις φωτογραφίες ζώνες οργανώνονται, ως προς το απτικό, το οσφρητικό-γευστι-
Εικόνα 5. Τμήμα από πίνακα της μετάβασης από Στρέφη στο Λυκαβηττό μέσω της οδού Τσιμισκή.
κό και το ακουστικό σύστημα της αντίληψης βάσει της σχετικής τους ‘θέση’ στο σώμα του
υποκειμένου, υιοθετώντας (κατά σύμβαση) το σχετικό διαχωρισμό των συστημάτων αντί-
ληψης του Gibson (1983). Οι περιγραφές που αφορούν την απτική αντίληψη τοποθετούνται
στον πίνακα, ανάλογα με τη θέση αντίληψης των σχετικών παραστάσεων από τα κάτω άκρα,
τα πέλματα, μέχρι το ανώτερο άκρο του σώματος, το κεφάλι.
Η πρώτη φωτογραφία στο κάτω μέρος του κάθε καρέ αφορά την οπτική εντύπωση του
εδάφους, οπτικοποιώντας αυτό που τα πόδια του υποκειμένου πατούν καθώς περπατούν
σε διαφορετικές υφές δαπέδου, παραπέμποντας μέσω της μνήμης και σε άλλες απτικές
εντυπώσεις των πελμάτων (Rodaway, 1994). Η δεύτερη φωτογραφία εστιάζει στο τι βλέ-
πει το υποκείμενο, όταν κοιτά στην ευθεία της κίνησής του. Η τρίτη φωτογραφία, στο πά-
νω μέρος του πίνακα, απεικονίζει τι βλέπει το υποκείμενο, όταν κοιτάξει προς τον ουρα-
νό και τις κορυφογραμμές των κτιρίων. Οι τρεις φωτογραφίες παρατίθενται έτσι ώστε να
περιγράψουν το εύρος της οπτικής αντίληψης που σχηματίζεται κατά την κίνηση του κε-
φαλιού από το έδαφος μέχρι τον ουρανό (εικόνα 6). Αντιστοίχως, γίνεται λήψη ερεθισμά-
των όλου του οπτικού πεδίου κατά την κατεύθυνση κίνησης του υποκειμένου. Βάσει της
σκέψης του Gibson (1983), οι πρωτογενείς εντυπώσεις μπορεί να αφορούν: πληροφορίες
υλικών πραγμάτων, κινήσεις, συμβάντα και άλλες τοποθεσίες: δεδομένα που αφορούν και
το φυσικό περιβάλλον, αλλά και μη-υλικές περιστάσεις. Παρατηρώντας τη διαδοχή των
φωτογραφιών στον πίνακα μεταξύ των καρέ, περιγράφεται η εντύπωση πρώτον, των με-
τασχηματισμών της απτικής επαφής με το έδαφος (κάτω σειρά πίνακα) και δεύτερον του
οπτικού βάθους καθώς το υποκείμενο μετακινείται (δεύτερη και τρίτη προς τα πάνω σει-
ρά), παραπέμποντας σε αυτό που ο Gibson ονομάζει οπτική κιναίσθηση.
Εικόνα 6. Τμήμα από τον πίνακα της μετάβασης από το λόφο του Λυκαβηττού προς το Στρέφη μέσω της οδού Τσιμισκή.
Τα απτικά ερεθίσματα περιγράφονται μέσα από λέξεις (μεταξύ πρώτης και δεύτερης
φωτογραφίας κάθε καρέ). Σύμφωνα με το σχήμα του Gibson (1983, σελ. 50), το απτικό
σύστημα που είναι και το πιο πλούσιο, περιλαμβάνει αισθήσεις που μπορούν να κατηγο-
ριοποιηθούν σε αυτές που έχουν να κάνουν με το δέρμα, τις αρθρώσεις και τους μύες
(π.χ. αίσθηση ανάβασης ή κατάβασης και κόπωσης των κάτω άκρων). Σε αυτές περιλαμ-
βάνονται και αισθήσεις που εμπίπτουν στη σωματαίσθηση (somaesthesis). Ενδεικτικά, τέ-
τοιες είναι η αίσθηση των καρδιακών παλμών, αναπνευστικών δυσκολιών, την αίσθηση
της θερμοκρασίας και της υγρασίας, την εφίδρωση που αισθάνεται κανείς στο δέρμα του
(Gibson, 1983. Rodaway, 1994). H αίσθηση του αέρα είναι μια ακόμα αίσθηση που μπο-
ρεί να οπτικοποιηθεί (π.χ. από τα κινούμενα φυλλώματα των δέντρων), αλλά και να γίνει
αντιληπτή μέσω του ήχου με προεκτάσεις στην αίσθηση της μυρωδιάς (Σταυρίδης, 1990).
Οι σημειώσεις που αφορούν τέτοια απτικά ερεθίσματα τοποθετούνται κάτω από την τρίτη
φωτογραφία, καθότι αλληλεπιδρούν με το άνω μέρος του σώματος. Σε αυτές τις σημειώ-
σεις περιλαμβάνονται η θερμοκρασία και το ποσοστό υγρασίας.
Η μυρωδιά: ένας τρόπος να περιγραφεί είναι οι λέξεις, δεδομένου ότι αντιστοιχούν
και σε οσφρητικές μνήμες. Ορισμένες φωτογραφίες περιλαμβάνουν δείκτες που παραπέ-
μπουν πιθανές σχέσεις με πιθανές μυρωδιές ενός πεδίου. Αυτό συμβαίνει όταν μια εικό-
να περιλαμβάνει υλικά πράγματα, όπως ένας κάδος σκουπιδιών ή άλλες αναγνωρίσιμες
πηγές και συνθήκες πρόκλησης μυρωδιών, όπως ένας φούρνος (Σταυρίδης, 1990).
Τα ηχητικά ερεθίσματα επικοινωνούνται μέσα από το συνδυασμό λέξεων και ενσω-
ματωμένων ηχογραφήσεων (30ʹʹ) μεταξύ δεύτερης και τρίτης φωτογραφίας κάθε καρέ.
Όπως διαπιστώθηκε κατά τα πειράματα, ένας τύπος πεδίου άμεσης συνέργειας μεταξύ
ηχητικού και απτικού συστήματος, είναι περιβάλλοντα όπου το υποκείμενο μπορεί να
ακούσει τον ήχο των βημάτων του. Επιπλέον, οι ήχοι ορισμένες φορές αποτελούν δείκτες
οπτικών ερεθισμάτων που δεν είναι άμεσα ορατά, όπως για παράδειγμα ο ήχος από φω-
νές παιδιών που παίζουν σε μπαλκόνι. Εδώ, ένας ήχος, δηλαδή, μπορεί να προκαλέσει ει-
κόνες στη φαντασία του υποκειμένου.
Και οι μυρωδιές και οι ήχοι, όταν αποτελούν συνέπειες καθημερινών πρακτικών άλ-
λων υποκειμένων, κρίνονται ως δειγματοληπτικά δεδομένα ικανά να αποκαλύψουν πτυ-
χές της καθημερινής κατοίκησης της περιοχής με συμβολικές προεκτάσεις.
Συνοψίζοντας, κάθε πίνακας λειτουργεί ως μια δομή παραγωγικής αφαίρεσης, ικανής
να κωδικοποιεί και να μεταφράζει. Κωδικοποιεί πρώτον, τα διαφορετικά ερεθίσματα σε
δεδομένα (ήχο, εικόνα, λέξεις-φράσεις), και, δεύτερον, τις διαφορετικές σχέσεις υποκει-
μένου-πόλης, οι οποίες μπορούν προσεγγιστούν μέσα από την ανάλυση των πρώτων δε-
δομένων (π.χ. με μεθόδους αναγνώρισης σημάτων/ pattern recognition). Η δομή του πί-
νακα, δηλαδή, επιτρέπει τη μετάφραση και τη συνέργεια μεταξύ ετερόκλητων σημασιο-
δοτήσεων.
Συμπεράσματα: ικανότητες της διαισθητηριακής χαρτογράφησης
Η πόλη μέσα από τη διαισθητηριακή χαρτογράφηση

Η διαισθητηριακή χαρτογράφηση αποτελεί ένα τρόπο περιγραφής και έρευνας σχεσια-
κά συγκροτούμενων γεωγραφικών πεδίων. Είναι ένα ανοιχτό σύστημα, αποτελούμενο
από πολλαπλούς πίνακες συνδεδεμένους με έναν χάρτη. Ας το δούμε πιο αναλυτικά στην
απλοποιημένη κλίμακα του παραπάνω πειράματος: η διαισθητηριακή χαρτογράφηση επι-
τρέπει μια προσέγγιση της πόλης ως δίκτυο-σύστημα χρονο-χωρικά (Σταυρίδης, 2006)
σημασιοδοτημένων κόμβων και συνδέσεων (π.χ. Salingaros, 2005), πέραν του φυσικού
της πεδίου. Κόμβος είναι κάθε διαφορετικό σημείο, ‘τόπος’, που εντάσσεται σε διαδρο-
μές: κάθε καρέ είναι κόμβος και κάθε πίνακας διαδρομή–σύνδεση. Κάθε πίνακας, δηλαδή
κάθε περιγραφή, δίνει ιδιότητες στο κάθε σημείο–‘τόπο’ (π.χ. ήχος από χαρούμενες φω-
νές παιδιών, αίσθημα κόπωσης, εικόνα χώματος, εικόνα κλειστού φούρνου κ.α., αίσθημα
δίψας), όπως αυτές σημειώνονται στο κάθε καρέ του κάθε πίνακα. Εκτός από την έμφα-
ση στα σημεία (καρέ στους πίνακες), δίνεται βάρος και στους μετασχηματισμούς, δηλαδή
στις μεταβάσεις και στις εναλλαγές μεταξύ των καρέ, από σημείο σε σημείο. Τέτοιες πλη-
ροφορίες μπορούν να εμπλουτίσουν τις ιδιότητες του κάθε σημείου.
Θεωρώντας, όμως, πως κάθε τόπος είναι μέρος του συστήματος κόμβων και διαδρο-
μών, τότε αυτό –και κατ’ επέκταση οι ιδιότητές του– εντοπίζονται σε τέσσερα διαφορετικά
Εικόνα 7. Πίνακας διαδρομής από Στρέφη προς Λυκαβηττό μέσω Ισαύρων. Με κόκκινο πλαίσιο: το καρέ σημείου Ι1.
Εικόνα 8. Πίνακας διαδρομής από Λυκαβηττό προς Στρέφη μέσω Ισαύρων. Με κόκκινο πλαίσιο: καρέ σημείου Ι1.
καρέ, το καθένα από τα οποία εντάσσεται σε διαφορετικό πίνακα και κατ’ επέκταση σε δι-
αφορετική διαδρομή. Με αυτόν τον τρόπο, τονίζεται ότι κάθε σημείο–καρέ–‘τόπος’ παίρ-
νει ιδιότητες όχι μόνο στο επίπεδο του κάθε πίνακα, αλλά και στο επίπεδο του συστήμα-
τος των πινάκων. Ως εκ τούτου, κάθε σημείο–κόμβος είναι ανοιχτό σε δυνάμει πολλαπλές
σημασιοδοτήσεις, ανάλογες του πλήθους (π.χ. μελλοντικών) περιγραφών και των μεταξύ
τους συσχετισμών. Για παράδειγμα: αν εστιάσουμε στο σημείο όπου η οδός Ισαύρων δι-
ασταυρώνεται με την Εμ. Μπενάκη (σημείο Ι1), μπορούμε να βρούμε ιδιότητες για το ση-
μείο αυτό στον πίνακα της εικόνας 7, 8 και 9).
Εικόνα 9. Πίνακες μεταβάσεων από Ισαύρων προς Τσιμισκή (αριστερά)

και από Τσιμισκή προς Ισαύρων (δεξιά) μέσω Εμ. Μπενάκη.
Η συνδυαστική θεώρηση πινάκων και χάρτη επιτρέπει την ταυτόχρονη προσέγγιση

της πόλης σε διαφορετικές κλίμακες εστίασης. Κατ’ αυτόν τον τρόπο, προσανατολιζόμα-
στε προς μια λογική ικανή να εστιάζει ταυτόχρονα σε ολόκληρες περιοχές και σε σημεία
ή διαδρομές, χωρίς να αποκόπτεται από το σύστημα και το πλαίσιο στο οποίο καθένα από
αυτά εντάσσεται.
Ως μεθοδολογία περιγραφής, η διαισθητηριακή χαρτογράφηση αναδεικνύει και προ-
σεγγίζει: την πολύ-διαισθητηριακή και σημασιοδοτική υπόσταση της σχέσης υποκειμέ-
νου-πόλης, αλλά και την πολλαπλότητα και τη μεταβλητότητά της. Ο συνδυασμός αυτών
των γενικών ικανοτήτων εκτιμάται ότι συνεισφέρει στο πεδίο μεθοδολογιών χαρτογράφη-
σης της πόλης και ειδικότερα σε εγχειρήματα που ενστερνίζονται τη φιλοσοφία της ψυχο-
γεωγραφίας. Η διαισθητηριακή χαρτογράφηση μοιραζόμενη αρκετές ιδέες σχετικά με την
αποδόμηση του φυσικού και επανασυρραφές του βάσει συναισθημάτων, ατμοσφαιρών ή
εν γένει παραμέτρων του βιώματος του υποκειμένου, προτείνει μια δομή συστηματοποί-
ησης τέτοιων δεδομένων και παραγωγής νέων συσχετισμών ‘τόπων’.
Μια επιπλέον συμβολή εκτιμάται πως αποτελεί η ενσωμάτωση της δυναμικότητας και
της χρονικότητας και ως εκ τούτου και της χωρικότητας, αφενός, με όρους διάρκειας και,
αφετέρου, με όρους μνήμης (Σταυρίδης, 2006). Παρότι ο πίνακας έχει τη μορφή ‘εικόνας’
απομακρύνεται από τον στατικό και δυσδιάστατο χαρακτήρα της. Κάθε καρέ αποτελείται
από φωτογραφίες. Καθεμιά απεικονίζει τις εντυπώσεις μιας στιγμής. Ωστόσο, η παραμο-
νή του κάθε υποκειμένου σε κάθε καρέ έχει διάρκεια. Η εμπειρία του δεν αιχμαλωτίζεται
μόνο σε αυτό το καρέ, αλλά συγκροτείται από μια συνέχεια στιγμών, ανάλογων της εκά-
στοτε διαδρομής: κάθε φωτογραφία του πίνακα ενσωματώνει περαιτέρω μεταβολές, οι
οποίες εξαρτώνται από τις εναλλαγές των αισθητηριακών παραστάσεων, που με τη σειρά
τους καθορίζονται από τον τρόπο μετακίνησης και αντίληψης του υποκειμένου (π.χ. όταν
η μετακίνηση συναντά κινούμενα οχήματα). Τέτοιες μεταβολές θα μπορούσαν να αποτε-
λούν εντυπώσεις που το υποκείμενο σημειώνει ως ιδιότητες ενός ‘τόπου’ στον πίνακα.
Ως εκ τούτου, και ο πίνακας, αλλά και κάθε ξεχωριστό καρέ του, προσανατολίζονται προς
τη λογική της κινούμενης εικόνας και της ανάδειξης της μεταβαλλόμενης αισθητικής. Αυ-
τό το χαρακτηριστικό της διαισθητηριακής χαρτογράφησης εντείνεται μέσα από τον πολ-
λαπλασιασμό των πινάκων, σε σενάριο συλλογής δεδομένων σε βάθος χρόνου, δίνοντας
την ευκαιρία παρατήρησης περισσότερων σημασιοδοτικών διαφορών (κατά Bateson).
Ειδικότερα, η χρονικότητα εντοπίζεται και στο επίπεδο του κάθε πειράματος και ακό-
μα περισσότερο στην προοπτική της διυποκειμενικότητας (κατά τον πολλαπλασιασμό
των πινάκων/ σημειώσεων). Η οπτικοκεντρική προσέγγιση (π.χ. φωτογραφίες – εικόνες
τοποθεσιών, δορυφορικός χάρτης), εκτός από αποκομμένη από το βίωμα, τείνει να εί-
ναι άχρονη (Σταυρίδης, 2006), όταν παρουσιάζει στιγμιότυπα είτε μεμονωμένα είτε χω-
ρίς σαφή σχέση μεταξύ τους. Η αναπτυσσόμενη μεθοδολογία, βασιζόμενη σε καρέ συ-
σχετισμένα μεταξύ τους μέσω μιας βιωμένης εμπειρίας που έχει αρχή και τέλος, αλλά
και συνδεόμενη με το γεωγραφικό χάρτη, επιχειρεί μια μετάβαση από τη λογική του απο-
κομμένου και αποπλαισιωμένου στιγμιότυπου στη λογική της δυναμικής διαδικασίας και
ταυτόχρονα ενός ζωντανού - δυναμικού χάρτη. Η εισαγωγή της χρονικότητας γίνεται και
ως προς την αμεσότητα του βιώματος με τον πραγματικό χρόνο (real time) και το πεδίο
βίωσης της πόλης.
Επιπλέον, ο πίνακας αναδεικνύει το αναδυόμενο πεδίο, όπως αυτό αποκαλύπτεται μα-
ζί με την εξέλιξη της μετακίνησης. Aυτό το χαρακτηριστικό, εκτός από το ότι συμβάλλει
στην ενσωμάτωση της χρονικότητας, τονίζει τη σχεσιακή προσέγγιση των πραγμάτων.
Κάθε παροντική παράσταση του πεδίου συνδέεται με το άμεσο παρελθόν της μέσω της δι-
αδοχής των αισθητηριακών ερεθισμάτων και της σωματοποιημένης μνήμης τους. Αν κά-
θε σημασιοδοτημένο καρέ είναι ένας ‘τόπος’, τότε αυτός αναδεικνύεται σε σχέση με τους
άλλους, ετεροαναφορικά. Δηλαδή το νόημά του προκύπτει από τις σχέσεις του με άλλους
‘τόπους’. Αντίστοιχα, κάθε ‘τόπος’ συμβάλει στο νόημα των άλλων καρέ με τα οποία μια
διάδραση τον συσχετίζει.
Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, ο πίνακας αναδεικνύει τη συνθήκη διαρκούς μεταβολής του υποκει-
μένου-αντικειμένου/ πεδίου και κατ’ επέκταση την πολλαπλότητα των δυνάμει βιωμένων
εμπειριών και σημασιοδοτήσεων ανά διαδρομή. Κάθε διαφορετική βιωμένη εμπειρία μιας
διαδρομής προκαλεί και την ανάδυση ενός διαφορετικού χωρο-χρονικού πεδίου: κάθε πί-
νακας, ως διαφορετικό συνάθροισμα διαφορετικών διαισθητηριακών ισορροπιών, εντά-
σεων και περιεχομένων είναι και μια άλλη ‘αίσθηση’, μια άλλη σημείωση της ίδιας τοπο-
θεσίας, εμπλουτίζοντας το δίκτυο σημασιών μιας τοποθεσίας, πέραν της φυσικής της υπό-
στασης. Αυτό το δίκτυο αποκτά μεγαλύτερη σημασία όταν προσεγγιστεί μέσα από τη συν-
δυαστική θεώρηση πινάκων – χάρτη, καθότι διαβάζεται συνδυαστικά με τα φυσικά δίκτυα
της πόλης.
Η διαισθητηριακή χαρτογράφηση δεν είναι μόνο εργαλείο ανάλυσης, αλλά ένας τρόπος
παραγωγής δεδομένων μέσα από τη λογική της ανάλυσης. Καταρχάς, αν σταθούμε στις
συστατικές μονάδες της μεθοδολογίας περιγραφής, δηλαδή στον κάθε πίνακα, η συγκρό-
τηση και περιεχόμενα δεδομένα του φανερώνουν όχι μόνο τι βιώθηκε, αλλά και το τι δυ-
νάμει μπορεί να βιωθεί –τουλάχιστον αισθητηριακά– σε επαναλήψεις περπατήματος της
εκάστοτε διαδρομής, μέσα από την ενσωμάτωση αισθητηριακο-αισθητικών δεικτών και
τη δυνάμει παραγωγή συμβόλων (με όρους Peirce). Αυτό γίνεται μέσω της ενσωμάτω-
σης των οπτικών ερεθισμάτων και της οπτικοποίησης σταθερών αιτιών (π.χ. κάδος σκου-
πιδιών, φούρνος, λεωφόρος) μη-οπτικών συνθηκών (π.χ. ήχος, μυρωδιά). Με αντίστοι-
χο τρόπο μπορούν να λειτουργήσουν και λέξεις που αναφέρονται σε ήχους ή μυρωδιές
σε λογική οπτικοποίησής τους με όρους φαντασίας και μνήμης. Σε αυτό το πλαίσιο, η ει-
σαγωγή περισσότερων δεδομένων στο σύστημα θα μπορούσε –με τη συμβολή του πεδί-
ου της αναγνώρισης σημάτων και αντίστοιχες αυτοματοποιημένες μεθόδους– να αναδεί-
ξει μοτίβα σημασιοδοτήσεων ή συσχετισμών αυτών.
Ωστόσο, η παραγωγική πτυχή της διαισθητηριακής χαρτογράφησης εκτιμάται πως
εντείνεται στην προοπτική ικανότητας της μεθοδολογίας να λειτουργήσει σε κλίμακα δι-
υποκειμενικότητας, κάτι που τίθεται και ως στόχος του εγχειρήματος. Αυτή η προοπτική
προϋποθέτει τη συλλογή πολλαπλών περιγραφών από πολλαπλά υποκείμενα μέσα από τη
διεξαγωγή περισσότερων πειραμάτων (πέραν του ρόλου τους για την εξέλιξη του σχήμα-
τος κατασκευής της μεθοδολογίας): η μεγαλύτερη δυνατή ετερογένεια υποκειμένων και
περιγραφών κρίνεται ως σημαντική για την βέλτιστη δυνατή ανταπόκριση της αναπτυσ-
σόμενης μεθοδολογίας στις απαιτήσεις της διυποκειμενικότητας και της ακόμα πιο διαι-
σθητηριακής αντίληψης που αναμένεται να προκύψει από τις συνέργειες των διαφορετι-
κών περιγραφών. Η οργάνωση πολλαπλών σημασιοδοτήσεων από διαφορετικά υποκεί-
μενα υπό τη λογική του προαναφερθέντος συστήματος πινάκων–χαρτών, το οποίο είναι
διαρκώς ανοιχτό σε νέα δεδομένα, δύναται να αναδείξει μη-ορατές ιδιότητες είτε ‘κόμ-
βων’-‘τόπων’ είτε συνδέσεών τους (διαδρομών). Στις σχέσεις των πολλαπλών σημασιο-
δοτήσεων αναμένεται να εντοπιστούν περιπτώσεις παραπληρωματικότητας και διεύρυν-
σης ‘σημείων’, αλλά και περιπτώσεις συγκρούσεων, αντιφάσεων και διαφορών. Mε αυ-
τό τον τρόπο, συμβάλλει στην ανάδειξη της ετερογένειας του κοινωνικού πεδίου ως συ-
γκροτούμενου από διαφορετικούς ‘τόπους’: από διαφορετικούς ‘τόπους’, πρωταρχικά κα-
θορισμένους από τη διαφορετικότητα βιωμάτων και υποκειμένων.
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και Εμπειρία του Χώρου (σελ.13-41). Αθήνα: Αλεξάνδρεια.
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Χαμηλάκης, Γ. (2013). Η αρχαιολογία και οι αισθήσεις. Βίωμα, μνήμη και συν-κίνηση. Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις
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MATERIALITY & SPACE
Η πολυαισθητηριακή
συνθήκη των τόπων
του τοκετού
Μυρτώ Χρονάκη Αριστοτελειο Πανεπιστημιο Θεσσαλονικης myrto.ch@gmail.com
Περίληψη
Η εισήγηση εξετάζει τον ρόλο της όρασης και των κοινωνικών σημασιοδοτήσεών της στην
ανάπτυξη της μαιευτικής επιστήμης και τη σχέση της με τη διαμόρφωση των χώρων στα
σύγχρονα μαιευτήρια. Παράλληλα, διερευνά το ρόλο των άλλων ‘κατώτερων’ αισθήσεων
στο μοντέλο του ‘φυσικού’ τοκετού σε κέντρα τοκετού ή την κατοικία σε σχέση με τα κοινω-
νικοπολιτισμικά τους νοήματα. Η παρουσίαση βασίζεται στην έρευνα πεδίου σε πόλη της
Ελλάδας, όπου οι αφηγήσεις των προσώπων που συμμετείχαν στον τοκετό συνδυάστηκαν
με τη μελέτη της βιβλιογραφίας. Η εργασία επιχειρεί να αμφισβητήσει την πρωτοκαθεδρία
της όρασης στη διαχείριση της περιγεννητικής περιόδου και στη διαμόρφωση των χώρων
της που κυριαρχεί στο ιατροκεντρικό μοντέλο. Ταυτόχρονα, εξετάζει την ολιστική προσέγ-
γιση για τη φροντίδα της γέννας που αξιοποιεί την πολυ-αισθητηριακή φύση της και την αλ-
ληλεπίδραση της με τον χώρο. Εστιάζει στις κοινωνικές και πολιτισμικές σημασίες ή τη ση-
μειωτική, αυτών των δύο παραδειγμάτων: του Καρτεσιανού-μηχανιστικού στη συμβατική
μαιευτική, και του μοντέλου του φυσικού τοκετού που βασίζεται στη θεωρία συστημάτων.
Τέλος, προτείνεται μια σύγκριση και εξετάζεται η δυνατότητα συνύπαρξης των δύο προσεγ-
γίσεων με βάση τη σχέση των αισθήσεων με τους τρόπους και τους τόπους του τοκετού και
των συμβολικών νοημάτων που αναπτύσσονται στην αλληλεπίδραση τους.
αφαιρετικότητα , ενσώματη εμπειρία , υβριδικότητα
Εισαγωγή
Η εισήγηση διερευνά τη σχέση της όρασης με την αποστασιοποίηση και την αφαιρετι-
κότητα όπως εμφανίζεται στις κοινωνικές σημασίες και στην ιδεολογία της προόδου και
της επιστήμης, και αντίστοιχα τη σχέση της υλικότητας και της ενσώματης άμεσης εμπει-
ρίας με ένα ολιστικό, οικολογικό παράδειγμα και τις αντιλήψεις και τα νοήματα που αυ-
τό εκφράζει. Βασικό αντικείμενο αποτελούν οι κοινωνικές και πολιτισμικές σημασίες της
εφαρμογής των δύο παραδειγμάτων στην αρχιτεκτονική και την ιατρική, και στη συνάντη-
ση τους στους χώρους της μαιευτικής περίθαλψης. Συγκεκριμένα, μελετά τη σημειωτική
των δύο διαφορετικών μεθόδων και χώρων για τη γέννα: το παράδειγμα (paradigm) της
συμβατικής τεχνολογικής μαιευτικής (Cunningham et al., 2005), και το εναλλακτικό μο-
ντέλο του επονομαζόμενου ‘φυσικού’ τοκετού (Odent, 1999. Kitzinger, 2000), καθώς και
τα νοήματα που προκύπτουν ή δημιουργούνται στη συνάρθρωση των δύο φιλοσοφιών.
Η πρωτοκαθεδρία της όρασης συσχετίζεται με την ανάπτυξη και καθιέρωση της μαιευτι-
κής επιστήμης και πρακτικής, με τη διαμόρφωση των χώρων για τη γέννηση στα σύγχρο-
να μαιευτήρια, καθώς και με τους περιορισμούς της. Παράλληλα, εξετάζεται η θέση των
άλλων ‘κατώτερων’ αισθήσεων στο μοντέλο του ‘φυσικού’ ή ολιστικού τοκετού, και στην
υλοποίηση του σε νέους χώρους για τη γέννα όπως η ιδιωτική κατοικία ή τα κέντρα τοκε-
τού. Καταλήγοντας, προτείνει την ανάπτυξη ενός υβριδικού μοντέλου όπου το τεχνο-επι-
στημονικό μοντέλο που στηρίζεται στην όραση μπορεί να συνδυαστεί με το ολιστικό των
άλλων αισθήσεων για να υποστηρίξει πιο ολοκληρωμένα τις πολλαπλές και μεταβαλλό-
μενες ανάγκες των γυναικών που γεννούν, αξιοποιώντας παράλληλα τις ποικίλες κοινω-
νικές και πολιτισμικές σημασίες της τεχνολογίας και της επιστήμης, αλλά και των φυσι-
κών δυνάμεων μητέρας και μωρού.
Η παρουσίαση αποσκοπεί στο να αναδείξει το γεγονός ότι τα διαφορετικά μοντέλα και
κοσμοαντιλήψεις συνδυάζονται στην πράξη μέσα από τις εμπειρίες των γυναικών από τη
γέννα και τη φροντίδα που λαμβάνουν και την αλληλεπίδραση τους με τους χώρους του
τοκετού. Η πολυπλοκότητα και οι σημασίες που αναδύονται σε πολλές καταστάσεις ανοί-
γουν δυνατότητες για νέα μοντέλα περιγεννητικής φροντίδας και εναλλακτικές προτάσεις
για το μέρος της γέννας, οι οποίες συνδυάζουν τις διαφορετικές πρακτικές και φιλοσοφί-
ες, και παράγουν νέες σημασιοδοτήσεις για τον τοκετό και τον ρόλο της γυναίκας σε αυ-
τόν.
Η μέθοδος της έρευνας

Αυτά τα ζητήματα εξετάστηκαν στην έρευνα πεδίου που έγινε σε μια επαρχιακή πόλη της
Ελλάδας, τον Βόλο. Αφορούσε τη μαιευτική φροντίδα στα δύο μαιευτήρια της πόλης, και
την εναλλακτική πρακτική του τοκετού στο σπίτι το 2008 με 2009 και συνεχιζόμενες πα-
ρατηρήσεις το 2013 με 2014 για τις αναδυόμενες τάσεις για την αποϊατρικοποίηση της
γέννας. Στην έρευνα πεδίου συμμετείχαν 75 άτομα, μητέρες, πατέρες, συγγενείς, όπως
και γιατροί, μαίες, διοικητικό και τεχνικό προσωπικό. Η έρευνα εστίαζε στη σχέση των δι-
αφορετικών συστημάτων περιγεννητικής φροντίδας και της οργάνωσης των χώρων του.
Για αυτή την ομιλία βασίστηκα στα στοιχεία αυτής της μελέτης για να εξετάσω το πώς οι
διαφορετικές αντιλήψεις και κοσμοθεωρίες για τις αισθήσεις και τη σημασία τους εκφρά-
ζονται και υλοποιούνται στους τόπους της γέννας, στη χρήση τους και στα νοήματα που
αναπτύσσονται σε αυτούς.
Θεωρητικά ζητήματα
Στην αρχιτεκτονική και στην ιατρική, όπως και στη μαιευτική, η κυριαρχία της όρασης και
η συνεπαγόμενη αποστασιοποίηση της εμπειρίας αντιπαρατίθεται σε μια ολιστική προσέγ-
γιση που δίνει μεγαλύτερη αξία στις άλλες αισθήσεις, όπως και στην άμεση εμπειρία του
σώματος. Αυτές οι δύο οπτικές βασίζονται σε δύο διαφορετικές κοσμοθεωρίες, το Καρ-
τεσιανό-μηχανιστικό παράδειγμα και την ολιστική οπτική της.
Η σημειωτική αυτών των δύο προσεγγίσεων βασίζεται στα νοήματα με τα οποία είναι
επενδυμένες: η αφαιρετικότητα, η αποϋλοποίηση και η τεχνολογία που βασίζονται στην
όραση παραπέμπτουν στην πρόοδο. Η πολιτισμική πρωτοκαθεδρία της όρασης βασίζεται
στον διαχωρισμό σώματος και ψυχής ή πνεύματος της Καρτεσιανής φιλοσοφίας και της
Νευτώνειας φυσικής όπου η όραση έχει αξιακά πρωτεύουσα θέση. Σημασιοδοτεί/παρα-
πέμπει σε ή ταυτίζεται με την αντικειμενικότητα, την αλήθεια, την πρόοδο και την επιστή-
μη, συνδέει την ορατότητα με την ίδια την ύπαρξη, ενώ ευνοεί την αποστασιοποίηση και
τον έλεγχο καταστάσεων και ανθρώπων. Ότι μπορεί να γίνει αντιληπτό οπτικά/μέσω της
όρασης ταυτίζεται ή παραπέμπει στην αλήθεια, όπως έλεγε και ο Φουκώ (Foucault, 1963).
Οι άλλες αισθήσεις υποτιμώνται και καταλαμβάνουν μια κατώτερη θέση. Ταυτόχρονα, o
φιλόσοφος David Michael Levin αποδίδει επιθετικότητα στην όραση, την οποία συσχετίζει
με την κυριαρχία της πατριαρχικής κουλτούρας:
Η βούληση για εξουσία είναι πολύ ισχυρή στην όραση. Υπάρχει μία πο-
λύ έντονη τάση στην όραση να αρπάζει και να σταθεροποιεί … να κυρι-
αρχεί, να διασφαλίζει και να ελέγχει, η οποία, επειδή προωθήθηκε τόσο
εκτεταμένα, απέκτησε μια συγκεκριμένη αδιαμφισβήτητη ηγεμονία πάνω
στον πολιτισμό μας και στον φιλοσοφικό του λόγο, καθιερώνοντας, μαζί με
τον εργαλειακό ορθολογισμό της κουλτούρας μας και τον τεχνολογικό χα-
ρακτήρα της κοινωνίας μας, μία οπτικοκεντρική μεταφυσική της ύπαρξης
(Levin, 1993, σελ. 212).
Η σύγχρονη αρχιτεκτονική βασίζεται σε αυτό το παράδειγμα (Franck, 2007). Αποδίδει τη

μεγαλύτερη αξία στην όραση, πάνω από τις άλλες αισθήσεις, και καθοδηγείται από την
ιδεολογία της καθαρότητας, της άυλης αφαιρετικότητας και της α-χρονικότητας με τις
οποίες ταυτίζεται η όραση, ή το ορατό σύμπαν. Τα υλικά «σημεία» που είναι ορατά παρα-
πέμπουν ή ταυτίζοντα με την αλήθεια, ή ακόμη και με την ύπαρξη την ίδια. Ο αρχιτέκτων-
ακαδημαϊκός Juhanii Pallasmaa προβληματίζεται για την εμμονή της μοντέρνας αρχιτε-
κτονικής στην όραση και την οπτικοκεντρική προσέγγιση κα τις αρνητικές της επιπτώσεις:
Πολλές πλευρές της παθολογίας της σημερινής αρχιτεκτονικής μπορούν

να γίνουν κατανοητές μέσω μιας κριτικής της οπτικής προκατάληψης του
πολιτισμού μας. Ως μια επίπτωση της εξουσίας του ματιού πάνω στις άλλες
αισθήσεις, η αρχιτεκτονική έχε μετατραπεί σε μια μορφή τέχνης της στιγ-
μιαίας οπτικής εικόνας (Pallasmaa, 2000, σελ. 78).
Η ύλη και ο χρόνος, και οι άλλες πιο γήινες αισθήσεις (η αφή, η ακοή, η όσφρηση, η γεύ-
ση, και η κιναίσθηση) θεωρούνται λιγότεροι σημαντικές, μικρότερης αξίας. Αυτή η οπτική
όμως τοποθετεί τους αρχιτέκτονες έξω από τη βιωμένη εμπειρία ενός κτιρίου.
Το να είσαι έξω και να διατηρείς την «αντικειμενικότητα» σου είναι η προ-

τιμώμενη οπτική στη Δύση. Αρχίζοντας με τον Rene Descartes πριν από
τρεις αιώνες, αυτός ο τρόπος σύλληψης της πραγματικότητας βασίζεται σε
μια απόπειρα να αποσπάσει την ανθρώπινη συνείδηση από ότι θεωρείται η
ωμή υλικότητα των σωμάτων και της ύλης (Franck, 2007, σελ. 19).
Στην οργάνωση του χτισμένου περιβάλλοντος, η κυριαρχία της όρασης έχει οδηγήσει σε
μια σχέση απόστασης ανάμεσα στους χρήστες και την αρχιτεκτονική, σε έναν ορισμό του
χώρου ως αδρανούς υποβάθρου ανεξάρτητου από τις ανθρώπινες δραστηριότητες.
Αντίστοιχα στην ιατρική, η όραση θεωρήθηκε ταυτόσημη με την αλήθεια ή με την απο-
κάλυψη της σύμφωνα με τον Φουκώ, γεγονός που σήμαινε την καθιέρωση εξετάσεων
που βασίζονται στην οπτική αναπαράσταση του σώματος. Η αξία της ορατότητας δεν αμ-
φισβητείται, και η επιδίωξη της οπτικής διαφάνειας και του ελέγχου βρίσκεται στην καρ-
διά της ιατρικής σκέψης και πρακτικής.
Στον κλάδο της μαιευτικής, η έμφαση στην όραση έχει συντελέσει στην καθιέρωση
εντατικών ελέγχων και υψηλής παρεμβατικότητας, στη λεγόμενη ιατρικοποίηση του το-
κετού. Τεχνολογικά προηγμένες μέθοδοι, όπως οι υπέρηχοι και η καρδιοτοκογραφία με-
τατρέπουν το εσωτερικό του σώματος της γυναίκας σε ένα διαφανές πεδίο, ανοιχτό στο
ιατρικό βλέμμα. Αυτή η επιδίωξη υποστηρίζεται από την οργάνωση των χώρων του το-
κετού με έναν τυποποιημένο γεωμετρικό τρόπο ο οποίος επιτρέπει την ορατότητα και τον
έλεγχο της γυναίκας που γεννά, ενώ ο εξοπλισμός και οι μεταλλικές επιφάνειες παραπέ-
μπουν στην υψηλή τεχνολογία και συνειρμικά στην πρόοδο και τον πολιτισμό.
Τα τελευταία χρόνια ωστόσο παρατηρείται μια στροφή στην υλικότητα, την άμεση σω-
ματική εμπειρία και τη διαίσθηση, μια «επανανακάλυψη» των άλλων αισθήσεων, της ακο-
ής, της αφής, της όσφρησης, της γεύσης και της κιναισθησίας στις ποιοτικές διαστάσεις
της εμπειρίας. Αυτές οι ελάσσονες αισθήσεις συσχετίζονται με τη φύση, το γυναικείο φύ-
λο και ορίζονται ως το ‘ολιστικό’ μοντέλο. Το σώμα, η βιωμένη ενσώματη εμπειρία, τα αι-
σθήματα, οι σκέψεις και οι αναμνήσεις αποκτούν μεγαλύτερη βαρύτητα και αξία, καθώς
θεωρείται ότι οι αισθήσεις προσφέρουν τη δυνατότητα πιο ολοκληρωμένων εμπειριών
και όχι μόνο αποστασιοποιημένων διανοητικών παρατηρήσεων.
Σε αυτή την προσέγγιση, την «άλλη παράδοση της αρχιτεκτονικής» (Wilson, 2005), ο χώ-
ρος και τα κτίρια δεν θεωρούνται ως ξεχωριστά αντικείμενα ανεξάρτητα από την καθημερινή
ζωή αλλά ως ενεργές οντότητες που βιώνονται με ολόκληρο το σώμα και αλληλεπιδρούν με
αυτό. Ο χώρος των καθημερινών δραστηριοτήτων είναι ένας υλικός συγκεκριμένος χώρος),
ένα προϊόν σχέσεων, που δημιουργείται μέσω της κατοίκησης του χώρου από τους χρή-
στες του, όπως και από τα τεχνικά μέσα της κατασκευής του (Lefevbre, 1991. Willis, 1999).
Αρχιτέκτονες και θεωρητικοί του χώρου πιστεύουν ότι είναι απαραίτητο να «υιοθετήσου-
με μια αρχιτεκτονική που θα απευθύνεται σε όλες τις αισθήσεις ταυτόχρονα» (Pallasmaa,
2005, σελ. 11), να αντικαταστήσουμε «την αίσθηση του εξωτερικού ελέγχου και του οπτι-
κού εντυπωσιασμού» με μια «ενισχυμένη αίσθηση εσωτερικότητας και απτικής οικειότητας»
(Pallasmaa, 2000, σελ. 81). Αυτή η πολυαισθητηριακή άποψη για τον χώρο και την αρχιτε-
κτονική συνδέεται με μία πιο οικολογική, ολιστική φιλοσοφία, η οποία αναγνωρίζει τη σημα-
σία των σχέσεων και της αλληλεξάρτησης, ανάμεσα στους ανθρώπους, τα πράγματα και το
περιβάλλον τους.
Αντίστοιχα, στη φροντίδα της υγείας οι εναλλακτικές ολιστικές μέθοδοι που κερδί-
ζουν έδαφος τα τελευταία χρόνια, δίνουν μεγαλύτερη σημασία στην άμεση εμπειρία των
ασθενών, στην επαφή με το σώμα, στη θεραπεία μέσα από απλές και άμεσες, λιγότερο τε-
χνολογικά προηγμένες μεθόδους. Όλες οι σωματικές αισθήσεις, όπως η αφή, η ακοή, η
όσφρηση και η γεύση, θεωρούνται σημαντικές – όχι μόνο η όραση. Η σημασία του συ-
ναισθήματος, της μνήμης και των προσδοκιών, ακόμη και των απόψεων, αναγνωρίζεται
επίσης. Το ολιστικό παράδειγμα για την υγεία βασίζεται και αυτό σε μια οικολογική άπο-
ψη, στην οπτική της θεωρίας συστημάτων και της κβαντικής φυσικής. Αυτή η φιλοσοφία
αποτελεί τη βάση πολλών εναλλακτικών πρακτικών οι οποίες αμφισβητούν το κυρίαρχο
βιοϊατρικό παράδειγμα, όπως η ομοιοπαθητική, ο βελονισμός, η φυσική ιατρική με βότα-
να και διατροφή, και άλλες μέθοδοι.
Στη μαιευτική φροντίδα, και ως αντίδραση στη μετατροπή της γέννας σε ένα χειρουργι-
κό γεγονός, έχει εμφανιστεί ακόμη και την Ελλάδα το κίνημα του φυσικού τοκετού (Ελλη-
νικό Δίκτυο για τον Σεβασμό στη Γέννα, 2017. Ευτοκία, 2018. Birth Voice, 2018. Midwives,
2018). Το χαρακτηριστικό του είναι η έμφαση στις άμεσες και ελάσσονες αισθήσεις, κυρί-
ως στην αφή και στην κιναισθησία, όπως και στις εσωτερικές αισθήσεις του σώματος της
γυναίκας. Το εναλλακτικό μοντέλο του φυσικού τοκετού υλοποιείται σε χώρους διαφορε-
τικούς από το τυπικό μαιευτήριο, όπως το σπίτι, τα κέντρα τοκετού ή οι αίθουσες φυσικού
τοκετού σε μαιευτήρια, συνήθως με την υποστήριξη μαιών και τη μη-παρεμβατική τους
φροντίδα. Σε αυτό το μοντέλο δίνεται περισσότερο σημασία στην υποκειμενική εμπειρία
της μητέρας για την εγκυμοσύνη και την πορεία του τοκετού της από ότι σε αντικειμενι-
κές μετρήσεις, σηματοδοτώντας έτσι τη γέννα ως ένα φυσιολογικό σωματικό γεγονός και
τη φροντίδα της ως μια πράξη της καθημερινότητας (Fahy, et al., 2008).
Εντούτοις, υπάρχει κι ένας τρίτος πόλος: η συνύπαρξη και η άρθρωση αυτών των δύο
μοντέλων. Παραδείγματα του έχουν εμφανιστεί ήδη και δημιουργούν μία άλλη εναλλακτι-
κή, τόσο για την αρχιτεκτονική και την ιατρική όσο και για τη μαιευτική φροντίδα και τους
χώρους του τοκετού. Στη συνάρθρωση τους δημιουργούνται νέα εννοιολογικά πεδία, νέ-
ες χρήσεις και σημασιοδοτήσεις της τεχνολογίας και της εργαλειακότητας, της σωματικό-
τητας και της διαίσθησης. ένας τρίτος υβριδικός πόλος, όπου τα όρια των πρακτικών και
των σημασιών τους επαναπροσδιοριόζονται συνεχώς.
Η φροντίδα του τοκετού και οι τόποι της γέννας σήμερα: η περίπτωση του Βόλου
Αυτοί οι διαφορετικοί τρόποι με τους οποίους αντιμετωπίζονται ο τοκετός και οι χώροι
του, ο μηχανιστικός ή ο ολιστικός, θεωρούνται αποφασιστικοί παράγοντες στην πορεία και
έκβαση της γέννας και στις πολιτισμικές σημασίες που αναπτύσσονται, και εξετάζονται στη
συνέχεια μέσω της μελέτης περίπτωσης του μαιευτικού τοπίου του Βόλου. Η παρεμβα-
τική μαιευτική, όπου ο τοκετός σημασιοδοτείται ως χειρουργική επέμβαση, ελέγχεται ια-
τρικά και πραγματοποιείται σε νοσοκομεία, είναι το κυρίαρχο μοντέλο, ενώ ο τοκετός στο
σπίτι ή σε χώρους φυσικού τοκετού που ορίζει τη γέννα ως μια φυσιολογική δραστηριό-
τητα για την οποία η γυναίκα, σε συνεργασία με τις μαίες, είναι υπεύθυνη, είναι μια αριθ-
μητικά περιθωριακή πρακτική.
Τα δύο μοντέλα διαχείρισης του τοκετού διακρίνονται από τις διαφορετικές τους φιλο-
σοφίες σχετικά με την επιστήμη και την τεχνολογία ή με τη φύση και την αναπαραγωγή,
όπως φαίνεται στις διαφορετικές πρακτικές για τη γέννα και τους τόπους όπου αυτή συμ-
βαίνει. Η όραση/ορατότητα κυριαρχεί στην περιγεννητική φροντίδα και στον σχεδιασμό
των χώρων του τοκετού στην καθιερωμένη μαιευτική περίθαλψη σήμερα, ενώ η έννοια
της υλικότητας/πολυαισθητιριακότητας αποτελεί τη βάση του μοντέλου του φυσικού το-
κετού στο σπίτι.
Όμως, τα τελευταία χρόνια στην Ελλάδα, ακόμη και σε μικρές πόλεις όπως ο Βόλος,
φαίνεται να αναδύεται μια τάση για τις γυναίκες και τις βοηθούς τους να συνδυάζουν στοι-
χεία και από τα δύο παραδείγματα. Δημιουργούν νέα πολύπλοκα πεδία τοκετού παρόμοια
με αυτά των κέντρων τοκετού, τόσο σε ειδικά σχεδιασμένους χώρους σε μαιευτικές κλι-
νικές στην Αθήνα και τη Θεσσαλονίκη, ή απλώς με τη χρήση των τυπικών χώρων με δια-
φορετικούς, μη παρεμβατικούς τρόπους στον Βόλο.
Η κυριαρχία της όρασης στην περιγεννητική περίθαλψη στην έρευνα πεδίου

Στη μαιευτική περίθαλψη στον Βόλο διαπιστώθηκε ότι κυριαρχούσε η ιατροκεντρική προ-
σέγγιση στον τοκετό. Το μοντέλο αυτό βασίζεται στον έλεγχο που παρέχει η όραση. Η χρή-
ση των ιατρικών μηχανημάτων, οι εξετάσεις και η παρακολούθηση της εγκύου και της
επιτόκου βασίζονται σχεδόν εξ ολοκλήρου στον οπτικό έλεγχο, κυρίως μέσω ηλεκτρονι-
κών συσκευών. Ο σχεδιασμός, η διαρρύθμιση και η χρήση του υλικού περιβάλλοντος κα-
θοδηγείται από τις ίδιες αρχές, της ορατότητας και του ελέγχου.
Στην προγεννητική περίοδο η παρακολούθηση μέσω τεχνολογικά ενισχυμένης όρα-
σης, με εργαστηριακά τεστ και υπερήχους μεταμόρφωνε την αδιαφανή μήτρα και το εσω-
τερικό του γυναικείου σώματος σε ένα δημόσιο διαφανές πεδίο (βλ. και Duden, 1993. Van
Dijck, 2005), ορατό είτε από τον/τη μαιευτήρα είτε από την οικογένεια της εγκύου. Σε αυ-
τό το μοντέλο οι σωματικές αισθήσεις της μητέρας δεν θεωρούνταν αρκετά αξιόπιστες σε
σχέση με τις μετρήσεις των μηχανημάτων.
Στον τοκετό, η χρήση της υψηλής τεχνολογίας θεωρείτο απαραίτητη και αυτονόητη.
Η συνεχής παρακολούθηση του εμβρύου και των εσωτερικών διαδικασιών του σώματος
της επιτόκου με ηλεκτρονικό καρδιοτοκογράφο που κατέγραφε κάθε παλμό και σύσπαση
και τις καθιστούσε ορατές στο ιατρικό βλέμμα ήταν μια καθιερωμένη πρακτική. Ο τοκετός
ελεγχόταν χημικά και χειρουργικά, έτσι ώστε αυτό το απρόβλεπτο φυσικό, εν πολλοίς αδι-
αφανές, γεγονός να μετατραπεί σε μια ελεγχόμενη ορατή επιστημονική διαδικασία.
Μετά τη γέννα, το βρέφος το αναλάμβανε το προσωπικό: οι γιατροί το εξέταζαν, οι μαί-
ες το άλλαζαν, το έπλεναν και το τάιζαν, αλλά από απόσταση. το παρατηρούσαν οπτικά και
εργαστηριακά αλλά δεν το αγκάλιαζαν. Η μητέρα δεν θεωρείτο αρκετά αξιόπιστο πρόσω-
πο για τη φροντίδα του μωρού.
Ωστόσο, παρά την κυριαρχία της τεχνολογίας, η οπτική αναπαράσταση της εγκυμο-
σύνης και της γέννας σε ένα γράφημα ή μια εικόνα υπερήχου θα ήταν ανεπαρκής, τόσο
πρακτικά όσο και συμβολικά, χωρίς τον έλεγχο του ίδιου του φυσικού σώματος στον υλι-
κό χώρο. Οι προγεννητικές εξετάσεις τοποθετούνταν στον ανοιχτό και δημόσιο χώρο του
νοσοκομείου ή των ιατρείων, σε ένα κλινικό περιβάλλον που απευθυνόταν αποκλειστι-
κά στην όραση. Στο μαιευτήριο, οι αίθουσες ωδίνων και τοκετού ήταν σχεδιασμένες ως
ορθογωνικά δωμάτια, με ευθείες γραμμές σε κάτοψη και τομή, οι οποίες διευκόλυναν
την ορατότητα και τον έλεγχο. Δεν υπήρχαν υποπεριοχές όπου η γυναίκα θα μπορούσε
να δημιουργήσει τον δικό της ιδιωτικό χώρο. Αντίθετα, ξάπλωνε σε ένα κρεβάτι στο κέ-
ντρο του δωματίου με τα πόδια ανοιχτά πάνω στους αναβολείς και τα γεννητικά της όργα-
να εκτεθειμένα. Τα κρύα και σκληρά υλικά των ιατρικών μηχανημάτων ευνοούσαν στην
κυριαρχία της όρασης, καθώς ήταν ίσια και αντανακλαστικά. Η απουσία των εναλλαγών
του φυσικού φωτός και ο έλεγχος του φωτισμού με τη χρήση ισχυρών ηλεκτρικών λα-
μπτήρων οροφής έκαναν το σώμα της γυναίκας πιο ορατό: «για να πάει το φως εκεί που
πρέπει!», στο γεννητικά όργανα της μητέρας, όπως ανέφερε μία μαία στην έρευνα πεδί-
ου. Επιπλέον, η ορατότητα και ο έλεγχος εντείνονταν με τη χρήση της νοσοκομειακής πο-
διάς ή ενός ημιδιαφανούς νυχτικού.
Το ίδιο ιδανικό καθόριζε τη φροντίδα του νεογέννητου: το μωρό έμπαινε σε ένα δια-
φανές πλαστικό κουτί κάτω από δυνατά φώτα με σκοπό την παρακολούθηση του από το
προσωπικό. Η αγκαλιά της μητέρας δεν ήταν αρκετά αξιόπιστο μέρος. εκεί θα μπορούσε
να κουλουριαστεί και να «κρυφτεί», δεν θα ήταν άμεσα ορατό.
Σε ένα συμβολικό επίπεδο, τα τεχνητά υλικά όπως το μέταλλο και το πλαστικό, που
σχετίζονται με την τεχνολογία και συνειρμικά με την επιστήμη και την πρόοδο, θεωρού-
νταν καταλληλότερα από μαλακά φυσικά υλικά όπως το βαμβάκι ή το ξύλο που μας θυ-
μίζουν την υλικότητα της φύσης. Ακόμη και ουσιαστικά άυλα στοιχεία όπως το νερό ή το
φως του ήλιου απουσίαζαν από τους χώρους του τοκετού.
Όμως η επιδίωξη της ορατότητας και του ελέγχου έχει υποστεί κριτική από πολλούς
φορείς, όπως και πολλούς επαγγελματίες της μαιευτικής (World Health Organization,
1996. Wagner, 2003). Το να κάνουμε τη διαδικασία του τοκετού ορατή δεν έχει αποδειχτεί
ότι έχει τόσα οφέλη όσα υποθέταμε. Η συνεχής παρακολούθηση μέσω της όρασης σημα-
σιοδοτεί μεν την πορεία του τοκετού ως μια μηχανική διαδικασία ελεγχόμενη από την ια-
τρική επιστήμη, στην πραγματικότητα όμως μπορεί να δημιουργεί περισσότερα προβλή-
ματα απ’ όσα επιλύει, πχ την υπερβολική αύξηση των καισαρικών τομών που έχει συσχε-
τιστεί με την καρδιοτοκογραφία. Αυτές οι διαπιστώσεις έχουν προκαλέσει πολυάριθμες
αντιδράσεις που οδήγησαν στη συγκρότηση του εναλλακτικού μοντέλου του φυσικού το-
κετού (Odent, 1999. Kitzinger, 2000).
Ο χορός των αισθήσεων στη γέννα στο σπίτι

Παράλληλα, ακόμη και στον Βόλο, έχει αναπτυχθεί μία τάση αμφισβήτησης αυτής της πα-
ρεμβατικής προσέγγισης που χαρακτηρίζεται από την κυριαρχία της όρασης. Η επιλογή
του φυσικού τοκετού στην ιδιωτική κατοικία έχει εμφανιστεί με μια νέα δυναμική. Σε αυτή
την εναλλακτική, αναγνωρίζεται η σημασία και ο ρόλος των άλλων ελασσόνων αισθήσε-
ων, της αφής και της κιναίσθησης, της ακοής, της όσφρησης, ακόμη και της γεύσης. Αυτά
τα χαρακτηριστικά του ολιστικού τοκετού και της φροντίδας του, η αμεσότητα και η υλικό-
τητα του, υποστηρίζονται από τα αντίστοιχα χωρικά χαρακτηριστικά: την άνεση, την οικει-
ότητα και την ιδιωτικότητα που προσφέρει το περιβάλλον του σπιτιού στη μέλλουσα μητέ-
ρα (Chronaki, 2015), όπως και τη συναισθηματική ασφάλεια με την οποία είναι ταυτισμένο.
Στην προγεννητική φροντίδα, η όραση δεν έπαιζε μεγάλο ρόλο, αντίθετα δινόταν μεγα-
λύτερη σημασία σε όλες τις άλλες αισθήσεις και στην άμεση εμπειρία της γυναίκας. Η πα-
ρακολούθηση της εγκυμοσύνης δεν εξαρτάτο τόσο πολύ από ποσοτικές μετρήσεις. Μερι-
κές εξετάσεις πραγματοποιούνταν επίσης, αλλά πιο επιλεκτικά και με πολλές αμφιβολίες
για την αποτελεσματικότητα της τεχνοεπιστήμης. Η ιδιωτικότητα της μητέρας γινόταν σε-
βαστή, και η εγκυμοσύνη της θεωρούνταν ως μία προσωπική εμπειρία μεταμόρφωσης.
Στον τοκετό στο σπίτι ακολουθούνταν διαφορετικές διαδικασίες από αυτές του τοκετού
στο νοσοκομείο: οι μαίες συνεργάζονταν με τη γυναίκα, σέβονταν την ενστικτώδη γνώση
της, τα αισθήματα και τις αισθήσεις της, αντί για τις μετρήσεις των μηχανημάτων. Η φρο-
ντίδα της εγκύου, της επιτόκου και της λεχώνας από τις μαίες βασιζόταν σε αυτά τα ποι-
οτικά δεδομένα, ήταν πιο άμεση, λιγότερο αποστασιοποιημένη, συμπεριλάμβανε περισ-
σότερη σωματική επαφή και λιγότερη τεχνολογία (hi-touch, όχι hi-tec, όπως έγραφαν οι
Sears & Sears το 1994).
Η μεταγεννητική φροντίδα εξαρτιόταν πολύ περισσότερο από τη μητέρα, η οποία ανα-
λάμβανε τη φροντίδα του νεογνού. Το παιδί τοποθετείτο στην αγκαλιά της μητέρας του,
κρυμμένο ανάμεσα από τα στήθη της, σχεδόν αόρατο, τόσο μυστηριώδες όσο ήταν και
πριν γεννηθεί, προσφέροντας μια πολυαισθητηριακή εμπειρία και στους δύο (ζεστασιά,
οικείες μυρωδιές, τον χτύπο της καρδιάς), και σηματοδοτώντας τον τοκετό ως μία φυσι-
ολογική φυσική εμπειρία, μέρος του κύκλου της ζωής. Η όραση δεν έπαιζε σπουδαίο ρό-
λο εδώ, αντίθετα όλες οι άλλες αισθήσεις ήταν πιο ενεργές.
Η περιγεννητική φροντίδα στο σπίτι σχετιζόταν με το είδος της περίθαλψης, αλλά και με
τα χαρακτηριστικά του χώρου της κατοικίας. Το σπίτι είναι εξ ορισμού πιο γήινο, καθημε-
ρινό από το περιβάλλον του νοσοκομείου: πιο οικείο, άνετο, ζεστό, ανεπίσημο, ευέλικτο,
χαλαρό, λιγότερο αυστηρά οργανωμένο στον χώρο και στον χρόνο, μικρότερο, πιο άνετο.
Υπάρχει μεγαλύτερη ποικιλία, τα υλικά της επίπλωσης είναι πιο μαλακά, προσαρμόζονται
στις στάσεις και τις κινήσεις του σώματος, προσφέρουν μεγαλύτερη στήριξη στην επίτο-
κο. Τα χρώματα είναι ζωντανά και όχι ψυχρά όπως του νοσοκομείου. Ο φωτισμός είναι πιο
ήπιος κι ελέγξιμος από τη μητέρα. Στις περισσότερες περιπτώσεις υπήρχε κάποια επαφή
με το εξωτερικό περιβάλλον και με τη φύση, έστω με γλάστρες στο μπαλκόνι (Chronaki,
2015).
Η σημασία της όρασης υποβαθμιζόταν, ενώ οι άλλες αισθήσεις αναδεικνύονταν. Η υλι-
κότητα και η άμεση σωματική επαφή θεωρούνταν πιο κατάλληλες μέθοδοι φροντίδας
από τον αποστασιοποιημένο έλεγχο, τόσο στη διαρρύθμιση του χώρου όσο και στον τρό-
πο διαχείρισης του τοκετού. Στο σπίτι, ο τοκετός και η μητρότητα δεν αντιμετωπίζονταν
ως αφηρημένες ιδέες ή στατιστικά δεδομένα, αλλά σημασιοδοτούνταν ως ενσώματες δι-
αδικασίες, πυκνές βιωμένες αισθησιακές εμπειρίες, που αλληλεπιδρούσαν με την υλική
πραγματικότητα. η κατοικία γινόταν ένας τόπος που φιλοξενούσε την πολλαπλότητα των
αισθήσεων στη γέννα.
Αναδυόμενες πολυπλοκότητες στους τόπους του τοκετού

Αν και η έμφαση στην όραση και στον επιστημονικό-τεχνολογικό έλεγχο υφίσταται έντονη
κριτική αυτή τη στιγμή ακόμη και στην Ελλάδα, η εναλλακτική πρακτική του φυσικού το-
κετού στο σπίτι δεν εμπνέει αρκετή εμπιστοσύνη στις περισσότερες γυναίκες και στις οι-
κογένειες τους. Έτσι, πολλοί άνθρωποι τελευταία κάνουν προσπάθειες να συνδυάσουν τα
χαρακτηριστικά των δύο παραδειγμάτων, επιχειρώντας να αναδιαμορφώσουν τον χώρο
και τη μαιευτική φροντίδα ώστε να νοηματατοδοτηθεί εκ νέου ο τοκετός ως ένα φυσικό
φυσιολογικό γεγονός αλλά με την υποστήριξη της ιατρικής τεχνογνωσίας. Στις ΗΠΑ και
στη Δυτική Ευρώπη, ένας τέτοιος συνδυασμός υπάρχει από τον 20ο αιώνα στο εναλλακτι-
κό μοντέλο του κέντρου τοκετού. Η κυριαρχία της όρασης και ο επιστημονικός έλεγχος
δεν απορρίπτονται εξ ορισμού, αλλά τους δίνεται μια δευτερεύουσα θέση συγκριτικά με
την υλικότητα, τις άλλες σωματικές αισθήσεις και την αυτονομία των ίδιων των γυναικών.
Ακολουθώντας αυτό το μοντέλο, χώροι για τον φυσικό τοκετό μέσα σε συμβατικές
μαιευτικές κλινικές στην Αθήνα και στη Θεσσαλονίκη έχουν εμφανιστεί τα τελευταία χρό-
νια (Λητώ-Μαιευτικό Κέντρο, 2011. Βιοκλινική Θεσσαλονίκης, 2018. Euromedica Γενι-
κή Κλινική Θεσσαλονίκης, 2017. Σε μικρότερες πόλεις όπως ο Βόλος και η Λάρισα όπου
αυτή η εναλλακτική δεν είναι διαθέσιμη, οι γυναίκες, σε συνεργασία με τις μαίες, επιχει-
ρούν να έχουν έναν τοκετό όσο πιο φυσικό γίνεται στις τυπικές μαιευτικές κλινικές. Με-
ρικές φορές χρησιμοποίησαν τους χώρους ωδίνων και τοκετού με εναλλακτικούς τρό-
πους, για δραστηριότητες διαφορετικές από τις συνηθισμένες στις κλινικές: άκουγαν μου-
σική, κάθονταν στο κρεβάτι αντί να ξαπλώνουν ανάσκελα, περπατούσαν ή δοκίμαζαν διά-
φορες στάσεις. Κάποιες πέρασαν το πρώτο στάδιο στο σπίτι τους, στον κήπο τους ή ακό-
μη και περπατώντας στην παραλία. Μερικές γέννησαν στο δωμάτιο ωδίνων στα τέσσερα
ή σε βαθύ κάθισμα. Έτσι η πορεία της γέννας δεν μπορούσε να ελεγχθεί οπτικά, με τα ια-
τρικά μηχανήματα, μόνο με τρόπους που προϋπέθεταν την άμεση σωματική επαφή με την
επίτοκο όπως το χειροκίνητο doppler ή το «χωνί» των μαιών.
Μέσω της υποστήριξης από τα πρόσωπα που τις φρόντιζαν, οι γυναίκες κατάφεραν να
ξεπεράσουν τους περιορισμούς του υλικού περιβάλλοντος (το οποίο βασιζόταν στα ιδεώ-
δη της όρασης και του ελέγχου, της καθαρότητας και της τάξης), και να χρησιμοποιήσουν
τους ίδιους χώρους με πιο άμεσους σωματικούς τρόπους, με όλες τις αισθήσεις και όχι
μόνο την όραση. Έτσι, ο τοκετός νοηματοδοτήθηκε ως μία ενσώματη εμπειρία, όχι ως μία
αφηρημένη αποστασιοποιημένη διαδικασία.
Σε πολλές περιπτώσεις λοιπόν, το μοντέλο ενός ενδιάμεσου πεδίου ανάμεσα από την
παρεμβατική μαιευτική και την ολιστική φροντίδα από μαίες, εμφανίζεται τα τελευταία
χρόνια και στην Ελλάδα, με παλινδρομήσεις βέβαια, αλλά με μια πραγματική δυναμική,
δημιουργώντας νέες, πολύπλοκες περιοχές και καταστάσεις, όπου προηγούμενα αντιθε-
τικά συστήματα σκέψης και πρακτικές συνδυάζονται για να παράξουν μία νέα σύνθεση.
Τα πολύπλοκα τοπία του τοκετού στη βιωμένη εμπειρία

Η όραση και η αφαιρετικότητα, ή η προτεραιότητα στις άλλες αισθήσεις, μοιάζουν να
έχουν εγκαθιδρυθεί ως τα δύο αντίθετα συστήματα-πόλοι σκέψης και δράσης στην αρχι-
τεκτονική και στην ιατρική. Στο ιατρικοποιημένο μοντέλο της περιγεννητικής περίθαλψης,
η κυριαρχία της όρασης έχει καθορίσει την οργάνωση και τον εξοπλισμό των χώρων του
μαιευτηρίου, που παραπέμπουν στην επιστήμη και την τεχνολογία και τα αντίστοιχα κοι-
νωνικά νοήματα. Το εναλλακτικό ολιστικό μοντέλο του τοκετού στο σπίτι, αντίθετα, δίνει
μεγαλύτερη σημασία και συμβολική αξία στην υλικότητα/σωματικότητα της γέννας και την
εγγενή αισθαντικότητα της.
Ωστόσο, όπως παρατηρείται και στη σχετική βιβλιογραφία και διαπιστώθηκε και στην
έρευνα πεδίου στον Βόλο, τόσο οι χρήσεις του χώρου όσο και η εμπειρία των γυναικών
ήταν γεμάτη από αντιφάσεις και πολύπλοκες υβριδικές καταστάσεις. συνδυασμοί των δύο
αυτών μοντέλων εμφανίζονται συχνά μέσα στην πρακτική της περιγεννητικής φροντίδας.
Οι γυναίκες που γεννούν σε νοσοκομειακό περιβάλλον προσπαθούν να βρουν ανακού-
φιση και συναισθηματική ασφάλεια στα χαρακτηριστικά του χώρου που υποστηρίζουν τη
σωματικότητα της γέννας, όπως τα έπιπλα, τα μαξιλάρια, το φως ή το νερό. Η υλικότη-
τα και η αισθαντικότητα που φέρνει το σώμα της επιτόκου στο δωμάτιο τοκετού, ο πόνος
των ωδίνων, ακόμη και ο πόνος της φαρμακευτικής πρόκλησης του τοκετού, απειλούν να
υπονομεύσουν το ιδανικό της χημικά ελεγχόμενης γέννας και της μετατροπής της, συμ-
βολικά και πρακτικά, σε μια τεχνική διαδικασία (συχνά βέβαια αυτή η αντίφαση επιλύεται
με την επισκληρίδιο αναισθησία, η οποία μετατρέπει τον τοκετό ξανά σε μια μηχανική δι-
αδικασία). Η παρουσία των μωρών στη μονάδα νοσηλείας είναι μια παρόμοια αντιφατική
κατάσταση. Ενώ οι χώροι του νοσοκομείου υποτίθεται ότι είναι καθαροί, λευκοί, αφηρη-
μένοι και άυλοι, τα μωρά που κινούνται, κλαίνε ή θηλάζουν διαταράσσουν τη φαινομενι-
κά ελεγχόμενη πολιτισμένη ατμόσφαιρα. Σε κάποιο βαθμό, τα δύο μοντέλα συνυπάρχουν
στις μαιευτικές κλινικές, δημιουργώντας ένα υβριδικό μοντέλο της γέννας και της φρο-
ντίδας της με πολλαπλές και αντιφατικές σημασίες.
Από την άλλη πλευρά, κάποια μορφή συνύπαρξης και άρθρωσης ανάμεσα στο πρό-
τυπο της όρασης και της αφαιρετικότητας και την αξία της εμπειρίας μέσω του σώματος
και των αισθήσεων παρατηρείται και στο εναλλακτικό ολιστικό παράδειγμα. Οι γυναίκες
που γεννούν στο σπίτι αναμένουν και εκτιμούν κάποια μορφή επιστημονικής αντικειμενι-
κής παρακολούθησης και τεχνολογικής υποστήριξης στην εγκυμοσύνη και στη γέννα, συ-
νήθως είναι σε επαφή με μαιευτήρα για την περίπτωση επιπλοκών, οι ανεξάρτητες μαίες
πάντα έχουν μαζί τους μια σειρά από ιατρικά εργαλεία και συσκευές. Η αντικειμενικότητα
της όρασης και η τεχνολογία δεν απορρίπτονται εξ ορισμού, αλλά χρησιμοποιούνται μέ-
σα σε κάποια πλαίσια που ορίζονται από το αντίθετο τους, την τοποθέτηση της γέννας σε
ένα υλικό, πολύ-αισθητηριακό περιβάλλον και την άμεση ενσώματη εμπειρία του τοκε-
τού. Έτσι, αυτές οι εναλλακτικές κατασκευές της γέννας και του χώρου του τοκετού δη-
μιουργούν ρευστά και πολύπλοκα υβριδικά τοπία, πρακτικά και συμβολικά.
Η εισήγηση επιχειρηματολογεί υπέρ αυτού του υβριδικού παραδείγματος που θα απο-
φεύγει το δόγμα της τεχνο-επιστήμης και την παγίδα της ουσιοκρατίας του φυσικού. Το εάν
η επιδίωξη της κυριαρχίας της όρασης στη μαιευτική φροντίδα είναι όντως επωφελής για
την εμπειρία και το αποτέλεσμα της γέννας, ή η έμφαση στις σωματικές αισθήσεις, η ιδιω-
τικότητα, η εσωτερικότητα και η οικειότητα είναι προτιμότερες, ή στην πραγματικότητα η
αναδυόμενη τάση για έναν συνδυασμό και των δύο και των νοημάτων στα οποία παραπέ-
μπουν είναι μια καλύτερη επιλογή, δεν μπορεί να απαντηθεί εύκολα σε μία απλή παρουσία-
ση. Μπορεί όμως να προτείνει μια ισορροπημένη εκτίμηση των δύο προσεγγίσεων και των
κοινωνικών τους σημασιοδοτήσεων, που να κρατάει χρήσιμα στοιχεία και από τις δύο, και
θα δημιουργήσει εναλλακτικές λύσεις βασισμένες στην επιστημονική γνώση, την πρακτική
εμπειρία και τις ανάγκες των γυναικών που γεννούν. Είναι ένα ερώτημα το οποίο επιθυμεί
να θέσει σε ερευνητές/ερευνήτριες και επαγγελματίες, τόσο στους τομείς των επιστημών
υγείας και των κοινωνικών επιστημών αλλά και των πρακτικών του χώρου, στους αρχιτέ-
κτονες, πολεοδόμους, γεωγράφους, όπως και σε γονείς και μελλοντικές οικογένειες!
Βιοκλινική Θεσσαλονίκης (2018). Γυναικολογικό-Μαιευτικό Τμήμα. http://www.bioclinic.gr/index.php/
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Birth Voice (2018). Supporting Natural Childbirth. http://www.birthvoice.gr/.
Chronaki, M. (2015). Experiences, uses and significations of the home as a birth territory in a town in
central Greece. International Journal of Childbirth, 5(2), 71-82.
Cunningham, F. G., Leveno, J. K., Bloom, L. St., Hauth, C. J., Rouse, J. D. & Spong, Y. C. (2005). Wil-
liams Obstetrics (23rd ed.). Νέα Υόρκη: McGraw-Hill Professional.
Davis-Floyd, R. (1992). Birth as an American rite of passage. Berkley, Los Angeles, London: Univer-
sity of California Press.
Duden, B. (1993). Disembodying women: Perspectives on pregnancy and the unborn. Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, London: Harvard University Press.
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hellas.eu/.
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ketos-san-sto-spiti-sas/.
Ευτοκία (2018). Σωματείο για την Προαγωγή του Φυσικού Τοκετού. http://www.eutokia.gr/.
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Practice, Education and Research. London: Elsevier.
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side Out (pp. 46-73). Chichester: Wiley & Sons.
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K., Foureur, M. & Hastie, C. (Eds). (2008). Birth Territory and Midwifery Guardianship-Theory for
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78-85.
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11th International Conference
of the Hellenic Semiotics Society
Organizing & Scientific Committee
Anastasia Christodoulou, Dept. of Italian Language and Literature,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Michalis Kokonis, Dept. of English Language and Literature,
Evangelos Kourdis, Dept. of French Language and Literature,
Apostolos Lampropoulos, Départment Lettres,
Université Bordeaux-Montaigne
Maria Papadopoulou, Dept. of Early Childhood Education,
University of Thessaly
Gregory Paschalidis, School of Journalism & Mass Communications,
Lia Yoka, School of Architecture,
Panagiotis Xouplidis, Dept. of Italian Language and Literature,
The Hellenic Semiotics Society
Ελληνική Σημειωτική Εταιρεία
ISBN 978-618-82184-1-3
9 786188 218413

The Fugue of The Five Senses

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The Fugue

of the Five Senses

The Hellenic Semiotics Society

ΙΙ. MEDIA AND MULTIMEDIA

6 The Fugue of the Five Senses. Semiotics of the Shifting Sensorium

ΙΙΙ. SOCIAL SEMIOTICS

V. MATERIALITY AND SPACE

Organizing & Scientific Committee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404

8 The Fugue of the Five Senses. Semiotics of the Shifting Sensorium