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Non-Reproductive Sexual Behavior in Animals
Non-Reproductive Sexual Behavior in Animals
Sex plays a fundamental role in the social lives of bonobos. Female bonobos have been
observed to engage in sexual activities to create bonds with dominant bonobos. Having
created this bond with the male, they will share food with each other and not compete with
each other.[1] All members of a bonobo group are potential sex partners, regardless of age
combination or gender combination. In "Biological Exuberance," Bagemihl writes: "when
new females (usually adolescents) join a troop, they often pair up with an older female with
whom they have most of their sexual and affectionate interactions." In addition, bonobos need
not limit themselves to a single partner: "These bond need not be exclusive - either party may
have sex with other females or males - but such mentorlike pairings can last for a year or
more until the newcomer is fully integrated into the troop." Pairings between younger and
older male bonobos are also common: "typically an adolescent male spreads his legs and
presents his erect penis to an adult male, who takes the shaft in his hand and caresses it with
up-and-down movements."[9]
Social pairings between youth and adult bonobos happen across gender combinations: "Both
adult males and females interact sexually with adolescents and juveniles (three-to-nine-year-
olds). In fact, young females go through a five-to-six-year period sometimes referred to as
adolescent sterility (although no pathology is involved) during which they actively participate
in heterosexual mating (often with adults) but never get pregnant. Sexual behavior between
adults and infants of both sexes is common - about a third of the time it is initiated by the
infant and may involve genital rubbing and full copulatory postures (including penetration of
an adult female by a male infant)."[9]
Proximate causes
Awareness in species is difficult to determine. Learned behaviors that have been
demonstrated in laboratories have provided good evidence that animals have instinct and a
reward system. The behavior of laboratory animals demonstrates a mental experience wherein
the animal's instincts tell it if it carries out a certain action, it will then receive what it needs.
[10] For example, the lab rat will push the lever because it knows food will fall out of the hole
in the wall. It does not need awareness, but it does seem to work on a reward system. The lab
rat learned the action needed to be fed.
Studies of the brain have proven that pleasure and displeasure are an important component in
the lives of animals.[11] It has been established that the limbic neural mechanism that
generates reactions are very similar across all mammals. Many studies have concentrated on
the brain reward system and how similar it is across mammals. Through extensive research,
scientists have been able to conclude that the brain reward system in animals is extremely
similar to that of humans. The mechanism of core pleasure reaction is significantly important
for animals and humans.[11]
Case study
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Reward system
Evolutionary principles have predicted that the reward system is part of the proximate
mechanism underlying the behavior. Because animals possess a brain reward system they are
motivated to perform in different ways by desire and reinforced by pleasure.[10] Animals
establish security of food, shelter, social contact, and mating because proximate mechanism,
if they do not seek these necessities they will not survive.[13]
All vertebrates share similarities in body structure; they all have a skeleton, a nervous system,
a circulatory system, a digestive system and excretory system. Similar to humans, non-human
animals also have a sensory system. The sensory system is responsible for the basic five
senses from touch to tasting. Most of the physiological and biochemical responses found in
animals are found in humans. Neurophysiologists have not found any fundamental difference
between the structure and function of neurons and synapse between humans and other
animals.[10]
Case study
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Types of behavior
Engagements of sexual activities during non-breeding seasons have been observed in the
animal kingdom. Dolphins and Japanese macaques are two of the many species that engage in
sexual activities that do not lead to fertilization. Great varieties of non-copulatory mounting
are expressed in several species. Male lions engage in mounting with other male lions,
especially when in search for another pride.[7] The varieties of mounting include mounting
without erections, mounting with erection but no insertion, and mounting from the side.
Expressions of affection are displayed in the animal kingdom as well. Affectionate behaviors
do not include insertion or genital rubbing, but are still seen as a manner of sexual behavior.
An affectionate activity can be as simple as licking.[4] Male lions are known for head
rubbing, bats engage in licking, and mountain sheep rub horns and faces with each other.
[15] Animals have also engaged in kissing, touching of noses, mouths and muzzles have been
witnessed in African elephants, walruses, and mountain zebras.[5] Primates also engage in
kissing that is incredibly similar to human display of kissing. Chimpanzees have full mouth-
to-mouth contact, and bonobos kiss with their mouth open and mutual tongue stimulation.
[4] There are a variety of acts to show affection such as African elephants intertwining their
trunks, giraffes engaging in “necking”, and Hanuman langurs cuddling with each other in a
front to back sitting position.
Anal insertion
Anal insertion with the penis (both in heterosexual and male homosexual dyads, i.e. pairs of
animals) has been observed among some primate species. Male homosexual anal insertion has
been recorded in Old World primate species, including gorillas, orangutans, and some
members of the Macaca genus (namely, stumptail, rhesus, and Japanese macaques).[17][18]
[19] It has also been recorded in at least two New World primate species, the squirrel
monkey and the spider monkey.[18][20] Morris (1970) also described one heterosexual
orangutan dyad where all insertion was anal. However, the practice might have been a
consequence of homosexual rearing, as the male orangutan in this dyad had had extensive
same–sex experience.[21]
A case of male homosexual anal insertion with the finger has also reported among orangutans,
[22] and Bruce Bagemihl mentions it as one of the homosexual practices recorded at least
once among male chimpanzees.[9]
Autoeroticism or masturbation
Vervet monkey
It appears that many animals, both male and female, masturbate, both when partners are
available and otherwise.[23][24] For example, it has been observed in cats,[25] dogs,[26]
[27] male Cape ground squirrels,[28] male deer,[29][30][31] rhinoceroses,[32] boars,[33] and
male monkeys.[34][35]
Autoeroticism also occurs widely among animals, both male and female. A
variety of creative techniques are used, including genital stimulation using
the hand or front paw (primates, Lions), foot (Vampire Bats, primates),
flipper (Walruses), or tail (Savanna Baboons), sometimes accompanied by
stimulation of the nipples (Rhesus Macaques, Bonobos); auto-fellating or
licking, sucking and/or nuzzling by a male of his own penis (Common
Chimpanzees, Savanna Bonobos, Vervet Monkeys, Squirrel Monkeys,
Thinhorn Sheep, Bharal, Aovdad, Dwarf Cavies); stimulation of the penis by
flipping or rubbing it against the belly or in its own sheath (White-tailed and
Mule Deer, Zebras and Takhi); spontaneous ejaculations (Mountain
Sheep, Warthogs, Spotted Hyenas); and stimulation of the genitals using
inanimate objects (found in several primates and cetaceans).[40]
Many birds masturbate by mounting and copulating with tufts of grass, leaves
or mounds of earth, and some mammals such as primates and dolphins also
rub their genitals against the ground or other surfaces to stimulate
themselves.[40]
... perhaps the most creative form of animal masturbation is that of the male
bottlenose dolphin, which has been observed to wrap a live, wriggling eel
around its penis.[41]
Among elephants, female same-sex behaviours have been documented only in captivity
where they are known to masturbate one another with their trunks.[42]
Oral sexEdit
Animals of several species are documented as engaging in both autofellatio and oral sex.
Although easily confused by laypeople, autofellatio and oral sex are separate, sexually
oriented behaviors, distinct from non-sexual grooming or the investigation of scents.
In the greater short-nosed fruit bat, copulation by males is dorsoventral and the females lick
the shaft or the base of the male's penis, but not the glans, which has already penetrated the
vagina. While the females do this, the penis is not withdrawn and research has shown a
positive relationship between length of the time that the penis is licked and the duration of
copulation. Post copulation genital grooming has also been observed.[51]
Homosexual behaviour
Main articles: Homosexual behavior in animals and Bisexuality § Among other animals
To turn the approach on its head: No species has been found in which
homosexual behaviour has not been shown to exist, with the exception of
species that never have sex at all, such as sea urchins and aphis. Moreover, a
part of the animal kingdom is hermaphroditic, truly bisexual. For them,
homosexuality is not an issue.[55]
Homosexual behavior exists on a spectrum, and may or may not involve insertion. Apart from
sexual activity, it can refer to homosexual pair-bonding, homosexual parenting and
homosexual acts of affection. Engaging in homosexual behavior may allow species to obtain
benefits such as gaining practice, relieving tension, and experiencing pleasure.[4][13]
[15] Georgetown University professor Janet Mann has specifically theorised that homosexual
behaviour, at least in dolphins, is an evolutionary advantage that minimizes intraspecies
aggression, especially among males.
"Humans have created the myth that sexuality can be justified only by reproduction, which by
definition limits it to hetero sex," says Michael Bronski, author of The Pleasure Principle:
Culture, Backlash, and the Struggle for Gay Freedom. "But here is an animal society that uses
homosexuality to improve its social life."
After studying bonobos for his book Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape, primatologist Frans de
Waal, a professor of psychology at Emory University in Atlanta, says that such expressions of
intimacy are consistent with the homosexual behaviour of what he terms "the erotic
champions of the world". "Same-sex, opposite-sex — bonobos just love sex play," de Waal
said in an interview. "They have so much sex, it gets boring."
Homosexual behaviour is found in 6–10% of rams (sheep) and associated with variations in
cerebral mass distribution and chemical activity.[56]
Homosexual parenting is especially present among certain species of birds,[9] one of the most
famous examples being Laysan albatross. It is fairly uncommon among different species for
unrelated individuals of the same sex to raise offspring together, but female-female pairings
in Laysan albatross populations are one of the exceptions. This same-sex pairing and mutual
cooperation in chick-rearing often occurs in the Laysan albatross populations which have
uneven sex ratios (and an overall greater surplus of females). Also, Laysan albatross are
known for being monogamous, and this tendency actually allows same-sex parenting to
persist.[62]
Genital-genital rubbing
Genital-genital rubbing, or GG rubbing, among non-human animals is sexual activity in
which one animal rubs his or her genitals against the genitals of another animal. The term GG
rubbing is frequently used by primatologists to describe this type of sexual intimacy among
female bonobos, and is stated to be the "bonobo's most typical sexual pattern, undocumented
in any other primate".[63][64] The term is sometimes used in reference to GG rubbing among
male bonobos, under the term "penis fencing", which is the non-human form of frot that
human males engage in. Such rubbing between males is thought, according to varying
evolutionary theorists, to have existed before the development of hominids into humans and
bonobos, and may or may not have occurred in the homosexual activity of both of these
genetically related species.[65]
Genital rubbing has been observed once among male orangutans[22] and several times in a
small group of lar gibbons, where two males thrust their genitals together, sometimes
resulting in ejaculation in one of the partners.[66] It has been observed among bull manatees,
in conjunction with "kissing",[52] and is also common among homosexually active mammals.
[52]
Inter-species sex
See also: Animal hybrid, Sexual imprinting, and Zoophilia
A 2008 review of the literature found 44 species pairs that had been observed attempting
interspecies mating, and 46 species pairs that had completed interspecies matings, not
counting cases that had resulted in hybridization. Most were known from laboratory
experiments, but field observations had also been made.[69] It may result in fitness loss
because of the waste of time, energy, and nutrients.[69]
The Japanese macaque has been observed attempting to mate with the sika deer.[75]
Among insects, there have been reports of immature females being forcibly copulated with.
[80]
Necrophilia
A male black and white tegu mounts a female that has been dead for two days and attempts
to mate. Photo by Ivan Sazima.[83]
Main article: Necrophilia § Other animals
Necrophilia describes when an animal engages in a sexual act with a dead animal. It has been
observed in mammals, birds, reptiles and frogs.[6] It sometimes occurs in the Adélie penguin.
[79] Homosexual necrophilia has been reported between two male mallard ducks. One duck
was believed to be pursuing another duck with the goal of rape (a common aspect of duck
sexual behaviour) when the second duck collided with a window and died immediately. The
observer, Kees Moeliker, suggested that "when one died the other one just went for it and
didn't get any negative feedback—well, didn't get any feedback."[84] The case study earned
Moeliker an Ig Nobel Prize in biology, awarded for research that cannot or should not be
reproduced.[85]