FLUID MECHANICS AND HYDRAULIC MACHINES

UNIT - I
Fluid statics: Dimensions and units: physical properties of fluids- specific gravity, viscosity, and
surface tension - vapour pressure and their influence on fluid motion- atmospheric, gauge and
vacuum pressures – measurement of pressure- Piezometer, U-tube and differential
manometers.
UNIT - II
Fluid kinematics: Stream line, path line and streak lines and stream tube, classification of
flows-steady & unsteady, uniform & non-uniform, laminar & turbulent, rotational & irrational
flows-equation of continuity for one dimensional flow and three-dimensional flows.

Fluid dynamics: Surface and body forces –Euler’s and Bernoulli’s equations for flow along a
stream line, momentum equation and its application on force on pipe bend.

UNIT - III
Boundary Layer Concepts: Definition, thicknesses, characteristics along thin plate, laminar
and turbulent boundary layers (No derivation) boundary layer in transition, separation of
boundary layer, submerged objects – drag and lift.
Closed conduit flow: Reynold’s experiment- Darcy Weisbach equation- Minor losses in pipes-
pipes in series and pipes in parallel- total energy line-hydraulic gradient line. Measurement of
flow: Pitot tube, venturi meter, and orifice meter, Flow nozzle .
UNIT - IV
Basics of turbo machinery: Hydrodynamic force of jets on stationary and moving flat,
inclined, and curved vanes, jet striking centrally and at tip, velocity diagrams, work
done and efficiency, flow over radial vanes.

Hydraulic Turbines: Classification of turbines, Heads and efficiencies, impulse and

reaction turbines, Pelton wheel, Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine-working
proportions, work done, efficiencies, hydraulic design –draft tube theory- functions and
efficiency.
Performance of hydraulic turbines: Geometric similarity, Unit and specific quantities,
characteristic curves, governing of turbines, selection of type of turbine, cavitation,
surge tank, water hammer.

UNIT - V
Centrifugal pumps: Classification, working, work done – barometric head- losses and
efficiencies specific speed- performance characteristic curves, NPSH. Reciprocating
pumps: Working, Discharge, slip, indicator diagrams.
FLUID KINEMATICS:
 It is defined as that branch of science which deal with motion of particles
without considering the forces causing the motion

(or)

 It is the study of how fluids flow and how to describe fluid motion.
From a fundamental point of view, there are two distinct ways to describe motion
of the fluid:

1.LAGRANGIAN METHOD:
 In this method, the observer concentrates on the movement of each single particle. The path taken by the particle
and the changes in its velocity and acceleration are studied.

 In the Cartesian system, the position of the fluid particle in space (x, y, z) at any time t from its position (a, b, c) at
time t = 0 shall be given as:
x = f 1 (a, b, c, t) , y = f 2 (a, b, c, t) ,z = f 3 (a, b, c, t)

 The velocity and acceleration components (obtained by taking derivatives with respect to time) are given by:
 2. Eulerian Method:
 In this method a finite volume called a flow domain or control volume is defined, through which fluid
flows in and out.

 Instead of tracking individual fluid particles, we define field variables, functions of space (X,Y,Z) and
time, within the control volume.(i.e. X ,Y ,Z ,t )

 The field variable at a particular location at a particular time is the value of the variable(pressure ,
velocity acceleration etc.) for whichever fluid particle happens to occupy that location at that time.

For example:
 the pressure field is a scalar field variable,Pressure field: P = P(x, y, z, t)

 We define the velocity field as a vector field variable in similar fashion, Velocity field: V =V (x, y, z, t).

 Likewise, the acceleration field is also a vector field variable, Acceleration field: a = a (x, y, z, t).

 Collectively, these (and other) field variables define the flow field. The velocity field is expanded in Cartesian coordinates
(x, y, z), (i , j , k ) as V = V (u, v, w)= u(x, y, z, t) i + v(x, y, z, t)j + w(x, y, z, t)k .

 A similar expansion can be performed for the acceleration field.

Fig:
In the Eulerian description, we define
field variables, such as the pressure field
and the velocity field, at any location and
instant in time.
LOCAL AND CONVECTIVE ACCELARATION

(OR)

convective Local or temporal

acceleration acceleration
TYPES OF FLUID FLOW:

1.Steady and Unsteady Flow

2.Uniform and Non-Uniform

3.Compressible and Incompressible Fluid Flow

4.Laminar and Turbulent Flow

5.One,two and three dimensional Flow

6.Rotational and Irrigational

STEADY FLOW: Any flow properties (or) any fluid property like(velocity , density, pressure etc.). Not
change with change of time is said to be steady flow

Mathematically ,∂(T) = 0, ∂ (p) = 0 , ∂(ρ) =0; and so on

∂t ∂t ∂t
Example: Flow through a prismatic or non-prismatic onduit at a constant flow rate ‘Q ‘
m3/s is steady.

UNSTEADY FLOW: Any flow properties (or) any fluid property like(velocity , density, pressure etc. change
with change of time is said to be steady flow.

Mathematically ,∂(T) = 0, ∂ (p) = 0 , ∂(ρ) = 0 ; and so on

∂t ∂t ∂t
Example :The flow in a pipe whose valve is being opened or closed gradually.

NOTE: Unless otherwise stated every physical flow treated as steady flow.
UNIFORM FLOW :
Velocity at any given time does not change with respect to location (space )is
said to be uniform flow.

Mathematically,
∂V = 0 , ∂(u) = 0 , ∂(v) = 0 , ∂(w) =o
∂S ∂x ∂y ∂z

Displacement in any direction X,Y,Z

Example : Flow through a straight pipe of constant diameter pipe.

NON-UNIFORM FLOW :

Velocity at any given time does change with respect to location (space)is
said to be uniform flow.

Example : Flow through a Non-Prismatic pipe(non uniform diameter

pipe) and flow through a bend pipe.
Compressible flow: It is that type of flow in which the density (ρ) of the fluid changes
from point to point (or in other words density is not constant for this flow).

Mathematically: ρ ≠ constant.

Example. Flow of gases through orifices, nozzles, gas turbines, etc.

Incompressible flow: It is that type of flow in which density is constant for the fluid
flow. Liquids are generally considered flowing incompressible.

Mathematically: ρ = constant.

Example: Subsonic aerodynamics.

4.Laminar and Turbulent Flow:
5.One,two and three dimensional Flow:
6.Rotational and Irrigational:
ROTATIONAL FLOW:
If the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow rotates about their own
mass centre known as rotational flow.
(or)
A flow is said to be rotational if a fluid executing two motions(one motion rotates
its own axis)

Example: Motion of liquid in rotating tank.

IRROTATIONAL FLOW:
If the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow do not rotate about
their own mass centre known as irrigational flow.
(or)
A flow is said to be irrigational if a fluid executing one motion (one motion
rotates its own axis)

Example: Flow above a drain hole of a stationary tank or a wash basin

FLOW PATTERN:
Any fluid flow is described by the following flow pattern.

TYPES OF FLOW LINES:

1.PATH LINE

2.STREAM LINE

3. STREAM TUBE

4.STREAK LINE

5.TIME LINE
Not in Syllabus
6.FLOW NET
1.PATH LINE:
It is defined as path followed or trace made by a single fluid
particle in motion over a period of time. It shows the direction of
particular particle as it moves ahead.
2.STREAM LINE:
It is an imaginary line drawn in space to define the
direction of flow i.e. tangent to these line gives
velocity vector.

NOTE:
 Stream lines are always parallel to each other.
 No two stream lines intersect each other .
3. STREAM TUBE:
It is a fluid mass bounded by a group of streamlines. The contents of a stream
tube are known as ‘current filament’.

Examples :
Pipes and nozzles.

Following points about stream tube are worth noting:

1. The stream tube has finite dimensions.

2. As there is no flow perpendicular to stream lines, therefore, there is no flow across the surface
(called stream surface) of the stream tube.

3. The shape of a stream tube changes from one instant to another because of change in the
position of streamlines.
4.STREAK LINE:
The line formed by set of fluid elements that passes through fixed point.

EXAMPLES:
(i) The path taken by smoke coming out of chimney in Figure.

(ii) In an experimental work to trace the motion of fluid particles, a colored dye may be injected into the f
flowing fluid and the resulting colored filament lines at a given location give the streak lines in Figure.

NOTE:
1.In case of a steady flow there is no
geometrical distinction between the
streamlines, path lines and streak lines;
they are coincident if they originate at
the same point.

2. For an unsteady flow (e.g. a person

giving out whiff of smoke from a
cigarette), the path, streak and
stream lines are all different
RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE :

 It is defined as the quantity of a liquid flowing per second through a

section of pipe or a channel.

 It is generally denoted by ‘Q’.

 Let us consider a liquid flowing through a pipe.

 Let, A = Area of cross-section of the pipe, and V = Average velocity of

the liquid.

Discharge, Q = Area × average velocity i.e., Q = A*V

 Units: m3 /s
CONTINUITY EQUATION:
 It is based on the principle of conservation of mass.

 It states as follows: “If no fluid is added or removed from the pipe In

any length then the mass passing across different sections shall be same.”

 Consider two cross-sections of a pipe as shown in Figure.

Let,
A1 = Area of the pipe at section 1–1,
V1 = Velocity of the fluid at section 1–1,
ρ1 = Density of the fluid at section 1–1, and
And
A2, V2, ρ2 are corresponding values at sections 2–2.

 The total quantity of fluid passing through section 1–1= ρ1 A1 V1 and,

 the total quantity of fluid passing through section 2–2 = ρ2A2V2

 From the law of conservation of mass (theorem of continuity), we have: ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2------1

 Equation 1 is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible fluids and is called Continuity
Equation. In case f incompressible fluids, ρ1 = ρ2 and the continuity eqn.
(reduces to : A1 V1 = A2V2
Eq 4
Eq 7
Unit-II
2nd Part

Fluid dynamics: Surface and body forces –

Euler’s and Bernoulli’s equations for flow
along a stream line, momentum equation
and its application on force on pipe bend.
Fluid dynamics:
It is defined as that branch of science which
deal with motion of particles by considering
the forces causing the motion.

NOTE:
The dynamic behaviour of the fluid flow is analysed by
the newton’s second law of motion, which relates the
acceleration with the forces and fluid is assumed to be
incompressible and non-viscous.
SURFACE AND BODY FORCES:

 According to newton’s second law of motion, the net force Fx acting

on a fluid element in the direction of ‘x’ is equal to mass ‘m’ of the
fluid element multiplied by the acceleration ax in the x-direction .

 Thus mathematically, Fx = m* ax -------------- eq 1

 In the fluid flow, the following forces are present:

1.Fg ----------- Gravity force
2.Fp ----------- Pressure force
3.Fv ------------ Force due to viscosity
4.Ft ------------ Force due to turbulence
5.Fc------------- Force due to compressible

Thus in equation 1 ,net force,

Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x

 Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x + (Fc)x

 If the force due to compressibility ,Fc is negligible, the resulting net force from above
equation,
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x + (Ft)x ------------equation of motion is called
Reynold's equation of motion.

 For flow (Ft) is negligible,the resulting equations of motion

Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x + (Fv)x --------------are known as Navier-Stokes equation.

 If the flow is assumed to be ideal, viscous force Fv is zero and the resulting
equations of motion
Fx = (Fg)x + (Fp)x -----------------------is known as Euler’s equation of motion.
Euler’s equation for flow along a stream line:
 We know that Euler’s equation of motion in a particular
direction.

F = Fg + F p
m*a = Fg + Fp
 Consider steady flow of an ideal fluid
along the steam tube.
Ps -------Pressure in ‘s’ direction
 Separated out a small element of fluid c/s area of dA Ps+dA-----pressure force in ‘s’ direction
and length ds from the steam tube as a free body from
the moving fluid . (OR)
 Therefore ,The resultant Force on the fluid element in the
direction of ‘s’ direction must be equal to the mass of the
fluid element *acceleration in the direction ‘S’.
 Eq 1

= Ps* dA - P(s+ds)*dA

= Ps * dA – (Ps + ∂Ps * ds)*dA

∂S
= - ∂Ps *(dv)
∂s Eq 2

= - mg*cosθ Eq 3

Substitute Eq 3 in Eq 1 we have,

- ∂Ps *(dv) - mg*cosθ = m* Eq 4

∂s
 - ∂Ps *(dv) - mg*cos θ = m* Eq 4
∂s
Let
1. m= ρ*dV

2. cosθ
Cosθ = dz/ds
3. as is function of space and time
Therefore,
as = f(S,t) = v ∂v
+ ∂v
∂s ∂t
For steady flow ∂v = 0 , as = f(S,t) = v ∂v + 0
∂t ∂s

Substitute all in Eq 4, we have

Therefore,

Euler’s equation
for flow along a stream
line
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FROM EULER’S EQUATION:
 Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler's equation of motion
dp + vdv +gdz=0
Euler's equation of motion
ρ
Bernoulli equation stated
as follows:
The sum of the kinetic,
potential, and flow
energies of a fluid particle
Eq 1 is constant along a
streamline during steady
flow when compressibility
and frictional effects are
negligible.
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION ALONG STEAM LINE IN DIFFERENT FORMS:
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION:

Although Bernoulli’s equation is applicable in all problems of

incompressible flow where there is involvement of energy
considerations but here we shall discuss its applications in the
following measuring devices:

1. Venturimeter
2. Orifice meter
3. Rotameter and elbow meter Will be covered in Unit-IV 2nd part

4. Pitot tube.
MOMENTUM EQUATION
AND
ITS APPLICATION ON
FORCE ON PIPE BEND
THE IMPULSE-MOMENTUM EQUATION (or) MOMENTUM EQUATION:

 It is one of the basic tools for the solution of flow problems.

 Its application leads to the solution of problems in fluid mechanics

which cannot be solved by energy principles alone.

 Sometimes it is used in conjunction with the energy equation to obtain

complete solution of engineering problems.

 The momentum equation is based on the law of conservation of

momentum or momentum principle which states as follows:

 “The net force acting on a mass of fluid is equal to change in

momentum of flow per unit time in that direction”. As per Newton’s
second law of motion, F = ma
 F = ma
where, m = Mass of fluid,
F = Force acting on the fluid, and
a = Acceleration (acting in the same direction as F).

But acceleration, a = dv /dt

F = m*dv /dt
F = d(mv)/ dt -------Eq 1 (‘m’ is taken inside differential, being constant)

Equation 1 is known as momentum principle. It can also be written as:

F*dt = d (mv) -----Eq 2

Equation 2 is known as Impulse-momentum equation. It may be stated as follows:

“The impulse of a force F acting on a fluid mass ‘m’ in a short interval of time dt is equal to
the change of momentum d(mv) in direction of force”.
Applications of impulse-momentum equation:
The impulse-momentum equation is used in the following types of problems:

1. To determine the resultant force acting on the boundary of flow passage by a stream
of fluid as the stream changes its direction, magnitude or both. Problems of
this type are:
(i) Pipe bends,
(ii) Reducers,
(iii) Moving vanes,
(iv) Jet propulsion, etc.

2. To determine the characteristic of flow when there is an abrupt change of flow section.
Problems of this type are:
(i) Sudden enlargement in pipe
(ii) Hydraulic jump in a channel etc.