NETWORKING

INTRODUCTION

A computer network is group of computers that are connected together to

share resources, such as hardware, data, and/or Software.

It is a data communication system that interconnects computer Systems

at different sites. Networking is a collection of individual networks,
connected by Intermediate Working devices that function as a single large
network.

Industries, colleges & many business organizations use internetworking

For many purpose such as fast communications internally, sharing a
Device for many computers and for many other purposes also.
HISTORY & CHALLENGES of NETWORKING

The first networks were timesharing networks that use mainframes and
Attached terminals. LAN evolved around PC evaluation. LAN enabled
Multiple users in a limited geographical area. Lack of management and
Duplication of resources resulted in evolution of LAN.
Challenges were connecting various systems together having various
Technologies. Making standards was again a big challenge.
Challenges were face in mostly these areas such as connectivity,
reliability, network management & flexibility. The final concern was
related to network expansion & new technologies.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

1. LAN (local area network)

2. MAN (metropolitan area network)
3. WAN (wide area network
 LOCAL AREA
NETWORK

INTRODUCTION:
A local area network is a group of computers and associated devices
that share a common Communications line or wireless link and typically
share the resources of a single processor or server within a small
geographic area. Usually, the server has applications and data storage
that are shared in common by multiple computer users. A local area
network may serve as few as two or three users or as many as thousands
of users.
A non-public data Communications network Confined to a limited
geographic area (usually within a few miles), used to provide
communication between computers and peripherals. The area served may
consist of a single building, a cluster of buildings, or a campus-type
arrangement.
In a typical LAN configuration, one computer is designated as the file
server. It stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as
the software that can be shared by the computers attached to the
network. Computers Connected to the file server are called work stations.
The workstations can be less powerful than the file server, and they may
have additional software on their hard drives. cables are used to connect
the network interface cards in each computer.
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION
MODEL (OSI)

The International Standards Organization developed a theoretical model

of how networks should behave and how they are put together. The ISO's
model is used through the industry today to describe various networking
issues. This model is called the Open Standards Interconnect Model.
The Open Systems Interconnection reference model for describing
network protocols was devised by the Internet Standards Organization. It
divides protocols in to seven layers to standardize and simplify
definitions.

SEVEN LAYERS OF OSI MODEL:

1. Application Layer

2. Presentation Layer

3. Session Layer

4. Transport Layer

5. Network Layer

6. Data-link Layer

7. Physical Layer
Layer P protocol N/W
Function Device
Application  used for applications specifically written DNS; FTP; Gateway
to run over the network TFTP;
User Interface  allows access to network services that TELNET;
support applications; NCP;
 directly represents the services that
directly support user applications
 handles network access, flow control
and error recovery
 Example apps are file transfer-mail.

Present- Translates from application to network   Gateway

-ation format and vice-versa all different formats
from all sources are made into a common
Translation uniform format. Responsible for protocol
conversion, character conversion, data
encryption / decryption, data
compression.
Session establishes, maintains and ends sessions NetBIOS Gateway
across the network provides
"syncs and synchronization services by planning RPC
sessions" check points in the data stream => if
session fails, only data after the most
recent checkpoint need be transmitted
manages who can transmit data at a
certain time and for how long
Transport  divides streams of data into chunks or TCP, ARP, Gateway
packets; the transport layer of the RARP;
packets; flow receiving computer reassembles the Brouter
control & error- message from packets
handling  provides flow control & error-checking
to guarantee error-free data delivery,
with on losses or duplications
 provides acknowledgment of successful
transmissions; requests retransmission
if some packets don’t arrive error-free
 Network
 translates logical network address and IP; ARP;
addressing; names to their MAC address responsible RARP, Router
for addressing, determining routes for ICMP;
routing sending , managing network problem ATM
 If router can’t send data frame as large IGMP; Switch
as the source computer sends, the
network layer compensates by breaking IPX
the data into smaller units. At the
receiving end, the network layer OSI
reassembles the data

Data Link  Turns packets into raw bits at the Logical Link Bridge
receiving end turn bits into packets. Control
data frames to  handles data frames between the Switch
bits Network and Physical layers error
 the receiving end packages raw data correction Hub
from the Physical layer into data and flow
frames for delivery to the Network control NIC
layer
802.1 OSI
 responsible for error-free transfer of
Model
frames to other computer via the
Physical Layer 802.2 Logical
 This layer defines the methods used to Link Control
transmit and receive data on the Media Access
network. It consists of the wiring; the Control
devices use to connect the NIC to the
wiring, the signaling involved
transmitting / receiving data.

Physical  transmits raw bit stream over physical IEEE 802 Repeater
cable
hardware; raw  defines cables, cards, and physical IEEE 802.2 Multiple--
bit stream aspects xer
 defines NIC attachments to hardware, ISO 2110
how cable is attached to NIC Hubs
 defines techniques to transfer bit ISDN
stream to cable .
 WORKING OF OSI MODEL

COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM -1 SYSTEM -2

Components of LAN

a. Network Cabling

b. Network Devices

c. Network Topology

d. Protocols
 What is Network Cabling?

Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one
network device to another. There are several types of cable which are
commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one
type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of
cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol,
and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and
how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the
development of a successful network.

The following sections discuss the types of cables used in networks and
other related topics.

Φ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Φ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Φ Coaxial Cable

Φ Fiber Optic Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded.

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the
best option for school networks.

Unshielded twisted pair

The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely

high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each
pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter
is the twisting, the higher is supported transmission rate and the greater
the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry
Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established
standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.

Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair

Type Use

Category 1 Voice Only (Telephone Wire)

Category 2 Data to 4 Mbps (Local Talk)

Category 3 Data to 10 Mbps (Ethernet)

Category 4 Data to 20 Mbps (16 Mbps Token Ring)

Category 5 Data to 100 Mbps (Fast Ethernet)

Both Category 3 and Category 5 UTP have a maximum segment length

100 meters10BaseT refers to the specifications for unshielded twisted pair
cable (Category 3, 4, or 5) carrying Ethernet signals. Category 6 is
relatively new and is used for gigabit connections.

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45

connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-
style connector . A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ
stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard
borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which
wire goes with each pin inside the connector.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

A disadvantage of UTP is that it may be susceptible to radio and electrical

frequency interference. Shielded twisted pair (STP) is suitable for
environments with electrical interference; however, the extra shielding
can make the cables quite bulky. Shielded twisted pair is often used on
networks using Token Ring topology.

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer
provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal
shield .The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from
fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.

Fig. 3. Coaxial cable

Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal

interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between
network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling
are thick coaxial and thin coaxial.

Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the

specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers
to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In
actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial
cable is popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks.

Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the

specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5
refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial
cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away
from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when
running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick
coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install.

Coaxial Cable Connectors

The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the
Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector.

Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a

T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable
are the weakest points in any network.

To help avoid problems with were network; always use the BNC
connectors that crimp, rather than screw, onto the cable.

Fiber Optics

Fiber optics is a system which transmits signals from one location to

another through a thin strand of glass which carries light pulses to carry
data. This transmission system works on the same principle that copper
wires do, but is done in a different way. Data is encoded from electrical
signals into optical light pulses, sent through a glass medium and
converted back and decoded at the other end. Both copper and optics use
electricity at the end of their lines, but optics uses light in between to
carry the data.
 BRIEF OVER VIEW OF FIBER OPTIC CABLE ADVANTAGES OVER COPPER:

• SPEED: Fiber optic networks operate at high speeds - up into the

gigabits
• BANDWIDTH: large carrying capacity
• DISTANCE: Signals can be transmitted further without needing to be
"refreshed" or strengthened.
• RESISTANCE: Greater resistance to electromagnetic noise such as
radios, motors or other nearby cables.
• MAINTENANCE: Fiber optic cables costs much less to maintain.

The Fiber Optic Data Communications Link, End-to-End

This is the basic building block for a fiber optic based network. A model of
this simple link is shown

Facts about fiber optic cables:

 Outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC.

 Kevlar fiber helps to strengthen the cable and prevent
breakage.
 A plastic coating is used to cushion the fiber center.
 Center (core) is made of glass or plastic fibers.
 Light propagation.

Light travels along a fiber cable by a process called 'Total Internal

Reflection’ this is made possible by using two types of glass which have
different refractive indexes. The inner core has a high refractive index
and the outer cladding has a low index.
This is the same principle as the reflection. At some specific angle
between two view points the light stops reflecting off the surface of the
water and passes through the air/water interface allowing us to see the
bottom of the pond.
In multi-mode fibers, as the name suggests, there are multiple modes of
propagation for the rays of light.
These range from low order modes which take the most direct route
straight down the middle, to high order modes which take the longest
route as they bounce from one side to the other all the way down the
fiber.

Types of Fiber Optic Cable

SINGLE-MODE FIBER: has a narrow core (eight microns or less), and the
index of refraction between the core and the cladding changes less than it
does for multimode fibers. Light thus travels parallel to the axis, creating
little pulse dispersion. Telephone and cable television networks install
millions of kilometers of this fiber every year.

 
Total internal refection confines light within optical fibers (similar to
looking down a mirror made in the shape of a long paper towel tube).
Because the cladding has a lower refractive index, light rays reflect back
into the core if they encounter the cladding at a shallow angle (red lines).
A ray that exceeds a certain "critical" angle escapes from the fiber (yellow
line). 

Types of Multimode Fiber Optic Cable

STEP-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER has a large core, up to 100 microns in

diameter. As a result, some of the light rays that make up the digital
pulse may travel a direct route, whereas others zigzag as they bounce off
the cladding. These alternative pathways cause the different groupings of
light rays, referred to as modes, to arrive separately at a receiving point.
The pulse, an aggregate of different modes, begins to spread out, losing
its well-defined shape. The need to leave spacing between pulses to
prevent overlapping limits bandwidth that is, the amount of information
that can be sent. Consequently, this type of fiber is best suited for
transmission over short distances, in an endoscope, for instance.

GRADED-INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER contains a core in which the refractive

index diminishes gradually from the center axis out toward the cladding.
The higher refractive index at the center makes the light rays moving
down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding. Also,
rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically
because of the graded index, reducing its travel distance. The shortened
path and the higher speed allow light at the periphery to arrive at a
receiver at about the same time as the slow but straight rays in the core
axis. The result: a digital pulse suffers less dispersion. 
 Fiber optic connectors have traditionally been the biggest concern in
using fiber optic systems. While connectors were once unwieldy and
difficult to use, connector manufacturers have standardized and simplified

connectors greatly. This increasing user-friendliness has contributed to

the increase in the use of fiber optic systems; it has also taken the
emphasis off the proper care and handling of optical connectors.

Parts of a Fiber Optic Connector

Fiber-to-fiber interconnection can consist of a splice, a permanent connection,
or a connector, which differs from the splice in its ability to be disconnected
and reconnected. Fiber optic connector types are as various as the applications
for which they were developed. Different connector types have different
characteristics, different advantages and disadvantages.

The The fiber is mounted in a long, thin cylinder, the ferrule, which acts as a
Ferrule fiber alignment mechanism. The ferrule is bored through the center at
: a diameter that is slightly larger than the diameter of the fiber
cladding. The end of the fiber is located at the end of the ferrule.
Ferrules are typically made of metal or ceramic, but they may also be
constructed of plastic.
 Coupling Most fiber optic connectors do not use the male-female configuration
common to electronic connectors. Instead, a coupling device such as an
Device: alignment sleeve is used to mate the connectors. Similar devices may
be installed in fiber optic transmitters and receivers to allow these
devices to be mated via a connector. These devices are also known as
feed-through bulkhead adapters.

The Also called the connector housing, the connector body holds the ferrule.
Cable: It is usually constructed of metal or plastic and includes one or more
assembled pieces which hold the fiber in place. The details of these
connector body assemblies vary among connectors, but bonding and/or
crimping is commonly used to attach strength members and cable
jackets to the connector body. The ferrule extends past the connector
body to slip into the coupling device.

Method for Connecting Fiber Optic Cable: ─

1. Cut the cable one inch longer than the required finished length.

2. Carefully strip the outer jacket of the fiber with “no nick” fiber
strippers. Cut the exposed strength members, and remove the fiber
coating. The fiber coating can be removed by carefully stripping the fiber
with a fiber stripper. Be sure to use strippers made specifically for use
with fiber rather than metal wire strippers as damage can occur,
weakening the fiber. 

3. Thoroughly clean the bared fiber with isopropyl alcohol poured onto a
soft, lint-free cloth NEVER clean the fiber with a dry tissue. Note: Use
only industrial grade 99% pure isopropyl alcohol. Commercially available
isopropyl alcohol is for medicinal use and is diluted with water and a light
mineral oil. Industrial grade isopropyl alcohol should be used exclusively.

4. The connector may be connected by crimping. Insert the clean,

stripped fiber into the connector.

5. Anchor the cable strength members to the connector body. This

prevents direct stress on the fiber. Slide the back end of the connector
into place (where applicable).
Advantages :─
 Data security
 Transmission distance
 Small size and weight
 Information carrying capacity into terabyte
 30,000 simultaneous conversations in one
optical fiber vs. 10,000 Coaxial
 Phone lines carry 4.5 times & area 30 times less
 Operation up to 900 degrees Fahrenheit
 Not affected by electromagnetic
interference(EMI) & radio-frequency interference
(RFI)
 Silicon dioxide is plentiful(glass fibers)
 Strong and flexible

Disadvantages :─
 High Cost
 Connectors have high loss & installation time
 General installations are different
 Electrical-to-optical conversions
 Repairs are not easily made

STRUCTUCTURED CABLING

What is structure cabling?

 It is a complete system of cabling & hardware which provide
comprehensive communication.
------------------------------------------------------------------------
 All type topologies & networks are all together forms structure
cabling.
 Structure cabling is device independent.
 Structure cabling begins at that pt. where service provider
terminates.
 Structure cabling depends on the structure of buildings.
 It depends on cable & connection products and their functions.

 Structured cabling is increasing in popularity as part of the

telephone system installation.
It enables a building to be “flood wired” using only one type of cable,
and be used for voice, data, video, text and multi-media applications,
(or Combinations of them all). Any piece of equipment can be plugged
 into any outlet and, providing it is patched into to the correct service
provider (voice system or data network) it will work.

 The present Categories of structured cable are 5E and 6, which are

based on standards proposed by TIA (an American standard) and ISO
(International Standards Organization – a European standard).
 
Comparison of Cat 5 & Cat 6 & 7
 Major diff. b/w these cats are multipair transmission scheme.
 High speed transmission of data & bandwidth.
 Category 5 cable is rated for 100 MHz.
 Category 6 cable is rated for 250 MHz & cat 7 for 600MHz.

 NETWORK DEVICES

INTRODUCTION:
Network Devices is a machine or component that is attached to a
computer. Examples of devices include disk drives, printers, mice, and
DSL modems. These particular devices fall into the category of peripheral
devices because they are separate from the main computer.

Most devices, whether peripheral or not, require a program called a

device driver that acts as a translator, converting general commands
from an application into specific commands that the device understands.
Types of Network Devices: ─

1. Hub
2. Switch
3. Router
4. Repeater
5. Network card
6. Bridge
7. Gateways

HUB:
As its name implies, a hub is a center of activity. In more specific network
terms, a hub, or concentrator, is a common wiring point for networks that
are based around a star topology. Arcnet, 10base-T, and 10base-F, as
well as many other proprietary network topologies, all rely on the use of
hubs to connect different cable runs and to distribute data across the
various segments of a network. Hubs basically act as a signal splitter.
They take all of the signals they receive in through one port and
redistribute it out through all ports.
Hub works on Physical Layer of OSI model.
Types of Hubs

As we know that hubs provide a crucial function on networks with a star

topology. There are many different types of hubs, each offering specific
features that allow you to provide varying levels of service.

Types of Hub: ─
1. Passive Hub
2. Active Hub
PASSIVE HUB: ─

Passive hubs, as the name suggests simply take all of the packets they
receive on a single port and rebroadcast them across all ports--the
simplest thing that a hub can do.

Passive hubs commonly have one 10base-2 port in addition to the RJ-45
connectors that connect each LAN device. Most passive hubs are excellent
entry-level devices that you can use as your starting points in the world
of star topology Ethernet. Most eight-port passive hubs Passive hubs act
as connection points and do not amplify or regenerate the signal; the
signal passes through the hub. It hubs do not require electricity to run.

ACTIVE HUB: ─

Most hubs are Active in that they regenerate and retransmit the signals
the same way a repeater does. In fact, because hubs usually have eight
to twelve ports for computers to connect to, they are often called
multiport repeaters.

Active Hubs need electrical power to run. If a signal received by an Active

Hub is weak but still readable, the Active hub restores the signal to a
stronger state before rebroadcast it. Active hubs will also retime and
resynchronize certain packets when they are being transmitted. It is more
expensive than simple, passive hubs and can be purchased in many
configurations with various numbers and types of ports.

Active Hub also act as intelligent Hub : ─

Intelligent Hubs offer many advantages over Passive

An Intelligent hub typically is stackable.
It also typically includes remote management capabilities.
SWITCH: ─

A Switch is a device that provides a central connection point for cables

from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-
pair wire is run from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most
switches are active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it moves
from one device to another. Switches no longer broadcast network
packets as hubs did in the past, they memorize addressing of computers
and send the information to the correct location directly. Switches are:

 Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports

 Switch works on Data-Link Layer of OSI model.
 Often used in a star or star-wired ring topology
 Sold with specialized software for port management
 Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may
store net DSL modems, bridges, or routers

Switches subdivide larger networks and prevent the unnecessary flow of

network traffic from one segment to another, or in the case of cross-
segment traffic, switches direct the frames only across the segments
containing the source and destination hosts.

This ensures the integrity of our data; it does nothing to increase overall
network speed. Switches help to ensure additional network access
opportunities for attached devices (increasing speed and reducing traffic)
by restricting data flows to local segments unless frames are destined for
a host located on another segment. The switch examine the destination
address and forward the requisite frames only across the destination
segment, leaving all additional segments attached to that switch free
from that particular broadcast and (theoretically) able to facilitate local-
segment traffic. Rather than being a passive connection between multiple
segments, the switch works to ensure that network traffic burdens the
fewest number of segments possible.
Types of switch

There are different types of Switch, each offering specific features that
allow varying levels of services.
Switch is divided according to there functions: ─

1. According to managing
2. According to layers

According to Managing: ─

Manage Switch:-In this type of Switch have to give IP address

It is auto configuration. It can use in large networking.
Unmanaged Switch:-In this type of Switch we have to configure
It is not costly to use.

According to Layers: ─

Layer Two Switches: -Layer two switches often make their forwarding
decisions based on the Media Access Control (MAC) address of an
Ethernet node.
Layer Three Switches: -The switch then uses this information to off-
load all IP packets forwarding from the legacy router. This scenario
requires very little network re-configuration, and offers a cheap boost in
IP forwarding speeds Even though layer three switches are cheap, users
don't need all their functionality at the desktop.
Difference between a hub and a switch
Hubs and switches are different types of network equipment that connect
devices. They differ in the way that they pass on the network traffic that
they receive. Switches differ in some ways. They can be of the store-and-
forward type, storing each incoming packet in an internal buffer before
forwarding it, or cut-through, beginning to forward packets already after
their header is in and before the rest of the packet has been received.
Hubs repeat everything they receive and can be used to extend the
network. However, this can result in a lot of unnecessary traffic being
sent to all devices on the network. Hubs pass on traffic to the network
regardless of the intended destination.

In a small network (less than 30 users), a hub (or collection of hubs) can
easily cope with the network traffic generated and is the ideal piece of
equipment to use for connecting the users.

When the network gets larger (about 50 users), you may need to use a
switch to divide the groups of hubs, to cut down the amount of
unnecessary traffic being generated.

ROUTER: ─

A device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is

connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a
LAN and its ISP’s network.
Routers use headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path for
forwarding the packets, and they use protocols such as ICMP to
communicate with each other and configure the best route between any
two hosts. We're all used to seeing the various parts of the Internet that
come into our homes and offices -- the Web pages, e-mail messages and
downloaded files that make the Internet a dynamic and valuable medium.
But none of these parts would ever make it to your computer without a
piece of the Internet that you've probably never seen. In fact, most
people have never stood "face to machine" with the technology most
responsible for allowing the Internet to exist at all: the router.

─ It use for routing the packets in

 • defined path.
• ─ It stores and forward packets on
• network layer, so it works on
• work layer of OSI model.
• ─ Router is connected to at least 2
• networks, commonly two LANs
• or WANs or a LAN and its WANs
• ─ A Router may create or
• maintain table.
•
•

Types of Router:─

Static - static routers require an administration to manually set up

and configure the routing table and to specify each route.

Dynamic - dynamic routers do an automatic discover route

routes.
 Fig: routing of data through routing table

REPEATER: ─

A network device that repeats signals from one cable onto one or
more other cables, while restoring signal timing and waveforms.
Repeaters are the most common way to connect local networks
together, and can provide either Thin wire or Thick wire connections.
They are commonly used to create larger local networks up to a certain
limit based on the number of repeaters and the length of the cables.

It amplifies (and sometimes reshapes), and retransmits a signal. It is

used to boost signal levels and extend the distance a signal can be
transmitted.
It can physically extend the distance of a LAN or connect two LAN
segments. The main purpose of a repeater is to extend the length of the
network transmission medium beyond the normal maximum cable
lengths.

Network Interface Cards

The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection

between the network and the computer workstation. Most NICs are
internal, with the card fitting into an expansion slot inside the computer.
Some computers, such as Mac Classics, use external boxes which are
attached to a serial port or a SCSI port. Laptop computers can now be
purchased with a network interface card built-in or with network cards
that slip into a PCMCIA slot.

Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and
performance of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network
card available for the type of workstation you are using.

The three most common network interface connections are Ethernet

cards, Local Talk connectors, and Token Ring cards. According to a
International Data Corporation study, Ethernet is the most popular,
followed by Token Ring and Local Talk.

Features of NIC: ─

• Wake up LAN
• It can be used for server connection.
• Auto sensing of speed.
• Reliable data transfer.
• Alert monitor for physical removal
• Alert monitor for power failure.
• Load balancing.
• Plug and play operation.

BRIDGE: ─

• Bridge operate at the data link layer.

• Bridge forward frames according to their MAC address
• Bridge connects two LAN together.
• In Bridge we use twisted pair & co-axial Ethernet as physical
media.

Bridges, which operate at the data link layer, connect two LANs (local
area networks) together, and forward frames according to their MAC
(media access control) address. Often the concept of a router is more
familiar than that of a bridge; it may help to think of a bridge as a "low-
level router" (routers operate at the network layer, forwarding by
addresses such as an IP address).
GATEWAYS: ─
• Gateways communicate architectures and environments.
• They repackage and convert data going from one environment to
another so that each can understand the other environment's data.
• A Gateway connects two dissimilar networks.
• Gateways use in all layers of OSI model.

Process of data in gateways:─

1.Dcapsulation of incoming data of the other network.
2.Encapsulation of outgoing data of the other network.

PATCH PANEL:─
A panel of network ports contained together, usually within a
telecommunications closet, that connects incoming and outgoing lines of
a LAN or other communication, electronic or electrical system. In a LAN,
the patch panel connects the network's computers to each other and to
the outside lines that enable the LAN to connect to the Internet or
another WAN. Connections are made with patch cords. The patch panel
allows circuits to be arranged and rearranged by plugging and unplugging
the patch cords.
It is a mounted hardware unit containing an assembly of port locations in
a communications or other electronic or electrical system. In a network, a
patch panel serves as a sort of static switchboard, using cables to
interconnect computers within the area of a local area network (LAN) and
to the outside for connection to the Internet or other wide area network
(WAN). A patch panel uses a sort of jumper cable called a patch cord to
create each interconnection.

TOPOLOGY

The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables,

computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be
confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass
information between workstations.

Main Types of Topologies:─

The following sections discuss the topologies used in networks .

 Linear Bus
 Star
 Star-Wired Ring
 Tree
 Considerations When Choosing a Topology
 Summary Chart

Linear Bus

A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at

each end. All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are
connected to the linear cable. Ethernet and Local Talk networks use a
linear bus topology.
 Linear Bus topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main

cable.
 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts
down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large
building.
Star
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub on a star
network passes through the hub before continuing to its destination. The
hub manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a
repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair
cable & also used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing
devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost
of the concentrators.
Tree
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star
topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations
connected to a linear bus backbone cable.

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of

cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology:

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way

to install a network; you do not have to purchase
concentrators.
  Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter
lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is
easily done by adding another concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in network is unshielded
twisted pair, which is most often used with star topologies.

Summary Chart:
Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol

Twisted Pair
Ethernet
Linear Bus Coaxial
Local Talk
Fiber

Twisted Pair Ethernet

Star
Fiber Local Talk

Star-Wired Ring Twisted Pair Token Ring

Twisted Pair
Tree Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber

PROTOCOLS

A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between

computers on a network. These rules include guidelines that regulate the
following characteristics of a network: access method, allowed
topologies, types of cabling, and speed of data transfer.

The most common protocols are:

♦Ethernet ♦Token ring ♦FDDI ♦ATM ♦IP protocol ♦TCP protocol

Ethernet

The Ethernet protocol is by far the most widely used. Ethernet uses an
access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision
Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable
before sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the
computer will transmit. If some other node is already transmitting on the
cable, the computer will wait and try again when the line is clear.

Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant.

When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and
waits a random amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this
access method, it is normal to have collisions. However, the delay caused
by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not normally effect
the speed of transmission on the network.

The Ethernet protocol allows for linear bus, star, or tree topologies. Data
can be transmitted over twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cable at a
speed of 10 Mbps up to 1000 Mbps.

Fast Ethernet

To allow for an increased speed of transmission, the Ethernet protocol has

developed a new standard that supports 100 Mbps. This is commonly
called Fast Ethernet. Fast Ethernet requires the use of different, more
expensive network hubs and network interface cards.

Token Ring

The Token Ring protocol was developed by IBM in the mid-1980s. The
access method used involves token-passing. In Token Ring, the
computers are connected so that the signal travels around the network
from one computer to another in a logical ring. A single electronic token
moves around the ring from one computer to the next. If a computer
does not have information to transmit, it simply passes the token on to
the next workstation. If a computer wishes to transmit and receives an
empty token, it attaches data to the token. The token then proceeds
around the ring until it comes to the computer for which the data is
meant. At this point, the data is captured by the receiving computer.
The Token Ring protocol requires a star-wired ring using twisted pair or
fiber optic cable. It can operate at transmission speeds of 4 Mbps or 16
Mbps. Due to the increasing popularity of Ethernet, the use of Token Ring
in school environments has decreased.

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

FDDI is a network protocol that is used primarily to interconnect two or

more local area networks, often over large distances. The access method
used by FDDI involves token-passing. FDDI uses a dual ring physical
topology. Transmission normally occurs on one of the rings; however, if a
break occurs, the system keeps information moving by automatically
using portions of the second ring to create a new complete ring. A major
advantage of FDDI is speed. It operates over fiber optic cable at 100
Mbps.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

ATM is a network protocol that transmits data at a high speed. ATM works
by transmitting all data in small packets of a fixed size; whereas, other
protocols transfer variable length packets. ATM supports a variety of
media such as video, CD-quality audio, and imaging. ATM employs a star
topology, which can work with fiber optic as well as twisted pair
cable.ATM is most often used to interconnect two or more local area
networks. It is also frequently used by Internet Service Providers to
utilize high-speed access to the Internet for their clients. As ATM
technology becomes more cost-effective.

 It is abbreviated for –asynchronous transfer mode.

 Has a great ability to maintain dedicated bandwidth on all end stations
link .
 Has a ability for sophisticated congestion management & acts as a
back bone for hubs , switches, routers because of some std protocols
such as LANE (E-emulation)
 Provides speed of 622 Mbps to more than 10Mbps Lane protocol
enables the Ethernet end stations to communicate with ATM attached
server without having go to router .

Reference model of ATM :─

 ATM functions on physical layer & data link layer of the OSI
reference model.
 It contain following planes which spans all the layers .
  control :─ for generating & managing
signaling request .
 user :─ for managing the transfer of data.
 management :─
# Layer management:─ It manages layer specific functions such as
protocol problems .
# Plane management:─ manages functions related to whole system.
 ATM usually work on 3 layers & not on higher layers.

LAYERS OF ATM

 Physical Layer:─ It manages medium dependent transmission that

is same as physical layer of OSI model.
 ATM:─ This layer is same as data link layer of OSI model . ITS
main work is of multiplexing & passing cell through ATM network
through VCI (VIRTUAL CHANNEL IDENTIFIER)
 ATM Adaptation layer:─ Convert data into cell & segments .

INTERNETWORK PROTOCOL (IP)

The Internetwork Protocol (IP) provides all of Internet's data transport
services.
IP is the Internet's most basic protocol. In order to function in a TCP/ IP
network, a network segment's only requirement is to forward IP packets.
In fact, a TCP/IP network can be defined as a communication medium
that can transport IP packets.
IP is a datagram-oriented protocol, treating each packet independently
This means each packet must contain complete addressing information
IP makes no attempt to determine if packets reach their destination or to
take corrective action if they do not.

IP provides several services:

 Addressing. IP headers contain 32-bit addresses which identify the

sending and receiving hosts. These addresses are used by
intermediate routers to select a path through the network for the
packet.
 Fragmentation. IP packets may be split, or fragmented, into
smaller packets. This permits a large packet to travel across a
network which can only handle smaller packets.
 Packet timeouts. Each IP packet contains a Time To Live (TTL)
field, which is decremented every time a router handles the packet.
If TTL reaches zero, the packet is discarded, preventing packets
from running in circles forever and flooding a network.
  Type of Service. IP supports traffic prioritization by allowing
packets to be labeled with an abstract type of service.

IP Packet Format

Version (4)- The version number of the IP.Set to 4 right now, 6 for Pv6.

H Length (4)- Header Length, this is the length of the IP header in

multiples of 4 bytes.

Service Type (8)- Defines how the datagram should be handled.

Total Length(16) The total length of the IP datagram

Datagram ID Sequence number if the information was fragmented due to

(16)- frame size limitations.

Flag (4)- Is it fragmented? If so, is it the first, last, or some middle

packet.

Fragment Offset Pointer that shows how far from the original datagram this
(10)- one is if it has been fragmented.

Time to Live (8)- A number representing how long until this information is
killed. Every time a router receives it, this entry is
decreased by one. At zero, the datagram is discarded. This
prevents infinite loops.

Protocol (8)- Which upper level protocol is present? (TCP, UDP, etc.)

Header Used in error correction for the header.

Checksum(16)-
IP Addressing

The IP addressing scheme is integral to the process of routing IP data

gram through an internet work. Each IP address has specific components
and follows a basic format. These can be sub divided and used to create
addresses for sub networks. Each host on a TCP/IP network is assigned a
unique 32-bit logical address that is divided into two main parts: the
network number and the host number. The network number identifies a
network and must be assigned by the Internet Network Information
Center (InterNIC) if the network is to be part of the Internet.

IP Address Format

The 32-bit IP address is grouped eight bits at a time, separated by dots,

and represented in decimal format (known as dotted decimal notation).
Each bit in the octet has a binary weight (128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1). The
minimum value for an octet is 0, and the maximum value for an octet is
255.
 IP Address Classes

IP addressing supports five different address classes: A, B,C, D, and E.

Only classes A, B, and C are available for commercial use. The left-most
(high-order) bits indicate the network class

IP Format Purpose High- Address Range No. Bits Max.

Cla- Order N/W Hosts
-ss Bit(s) Host

A N.H.H.H1 Few large 0 1.0.0.0 to 7/24 16,777,

org.
126.0.0.0 2142

(224 - 2)

B N.N.H.H Medium- 1, 0 128.1.0.0 to 14/16 65, 543

size org. 191.254.0.0
(216 - 2)

C N.N.N.H Relativel 1, 1, 192.0.1.0 to 22/8 245

y small 0 223.255.254.0
org. (28 - 2)

D N/A Multicast 1, 1, 224.0.0.0 to N/A N/A

groups 1, 0 239.255.255.
(RFC
1112) 255

E N/A Exp. 1, 1, 240.0.0.0 to N/A N/A

1, 1 254.255.255.2
55

NOTE: 1
N = Network number, H = Host number.
2
One address is reserved for the broadcast address, and one address is
reserved for the network.
The class of address can be determined easily by examining the first octet
of the address and mapping that value to a class range in the following
table. In an IP address of 172.31.1.2, for example, the first octet is 172.
Because 172 falls between 128 and 191, 172.31.1.2 is a Class B address.

IP Subnet Addressing

IP networks can be divided into smaller networks called subnetworks (or

subnets). Subnetting provides the network administrator with several
benefits, including extra flexibility, more efficient use of network
addresses, and the capability to contain broadcast traffic (a broadcast will
not cross a router).

Subnets are under local administration. A given network address can be

broken up into many subnetworks. For example, 172.16.1.0, 172.16.2.0,
172.16.3.0, and 172.16.4.0 are all subnets within network 171.16.0.0.
(All 0s in the host portion of an address specifies the entire network.)
IP Subnet Mask

A subnet address is created by "borrowing" bits from the host field and
designating them as the subnet field. The number of borrowed bits varies
and is specified by the subnet mask.

Subnet masks use the same format and representation technique as IP

addresses. The subnet mask, however, has binary 1s in all bits specifying
the network and subnetwork fields, and binary 0s in all bits specifying the
host field. Subnet mask bits should come from the high-order (left-most)
bits of the host field.

Various types of subnet masks for Class B and C subnets.

The default subnet mask for a Class B address that has no subnetting is
255.255.0.0, while the subnet mask for a Class B address 171.16.0.0 that
specifies eight bits of subnetting is 255.255.255.0. The reason for this is
that eight bits of subnetting or 28 - 2 (1 for the network address and 1 for
the broadcast address) = 254 subnets possible, with 28 - 2 = 254 hosts
per subnet.

The subnet mask for a Class C address 192.168.2.0 that specifies five bits
of subnetting is 255.255.255.248.With five bits available for subnetting,
25 - 2 = 30 subnets possible, with 23 - 2 = 6 hosts per subnet. The
reference charts shown in table 30-2 and table 30-3 can be used when
planning Class B and C networks to determine the required number of
subnets and hosts, and the appropriate subnet mask.

Class B Subnetting Reference Chart

Number of Bits Subnet Mask Number of Number of
Subnets Hosts

2 255.255.192.0 2 16382

3 255.255.224.0 6 8190

4 255.255.240.0 14 4094

5 255.255.248.0 30 2046

6 255.255.252.0 62 1022

7 255.255.254.0 126 510

8 255.255.255.0 254 254

9 255.255.255.128 510 126

10 255.255.255.192 1022 62

11 255.255.255.224 2046 30

12 255.255.255.240 4094 14

13 255.255.255.248 8190 6
14 255.255.255.252 16382 2

Class C Subnetting Reference Chart

Number of Subnet Mask Number of Number of
Bits Subnets Hosts

2 255.255.255.192 2 62

3 255.255.255.224 6 30

4 255.255.255.240 14 14

5 255.255.255.248 30 6

6 255.255.255.252 62 2

How Subnet Masks are Used to Determine the Network Number

The router performs a set process to determine the network (or more
specifically, the subnetwork) address. First, the router extracts the IP
destination address from the incoming packet and retrieves the internal
subnet mask.

It then performs a logical AND operation to obtain the network number.

This causes the host portion of the IP destination address to be removed,
while the destination network number remains.

The router then looks up the destination network number and matches it
with an outgoing interface. Finally, it forwards the frame to the
destination IP address. Specifics regarding the logical AND operation are
discussed in the following section.

IP Routing

IP routing protocols are dynamic. Dynamic routing calls for routes to be

calculated automatically at regular intervals by software in routing
devices. This contrasts with static routing, where routers are established
by the network administrator and do not change until the network
administrator changes them.

An IP routing table, which consists of destination address/next hop pairs,

is used to enable dynamic routing. An entry in this table, for example,
would be interpreted as follows: to get to network 172.31.0.0, send the
packet out Ethernet interface 0 (E0).

IP routing specifies that IP datagrams travel through internetworks one

hop at a time. The entire route is not known at the onset of the journey,
however. Instead, at each stop, the next destination is calculated by
matching the destination address within the datagram with an entry in
the current node's routing table.

Each node's involvement in the routing process is limited to forwarding

packets based on internal information. The nodes do not monitor whether
the packets get to their final destination, nor does IP provide for error
reporting back to the source when routing anomalies occur. This task is
left to another Internet protocol, the Internet Control-Message Protocol
(ICMP), which is discussed in the following section.

TCP PROTOCOL

TCP is one of several protocols operating at the host-to-host layer of the

DoD 4-layer model. They are session management protocols.

The network-layer protocols of the Internet are fundamentally datagram-

oriented and unreliable. It is the responsibility of the Transport and
Session layer protocols to enhance the quality of service to that desired
by a particular application. In Internet terminology, these are the
protocols of the Host-to-Host Layer.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) provides almost no additional

functionality over IP. It performs fast, unreliable, datagram
delivery. UDP is the Internet's version of the no-look pass.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) provides reliable, stream-
oriented delivery for applications such as file transfers and remote
logins. TCP is a sliding-window protocol that takes steps to insure
reliable data transfer, resending if needed due to network overloads
or malfunctions. TCP, one of the most important Internet protocols,
is also one of the most complex. Although it often works well
unattended, a good understanding of TCP is essential for diagnosing
performance problems.
Request/reply flow control requires each data packet to be acknowledge
by the remote host before the next packet is sent. Sliding window
algorithms, used by TCP, permit multiple data packets to be in
simultaneous transit, making more efficient use of network bandwidth.
Finally, Internet's Unreliable Delivery Model allows packets to be
discarded if network resources are not available, and demands that
protocols make provisions for retransmission.

socket is a network communications endpoint. The analogy is to a wire

(the network data connection) being plugged into a socket.

Sockets come in two primary flavors. An active socket is connected to a

remote active socket via an open data connection. Closing the connection
destroys the active sockets at each endpoint. A passive socket is not
connected, but rather awaits an incoming connection, which will spawn a
new active socket.

VIRTUAL PRIVATE NETWORK

VPN is a private connection between two machines or networks over a

shared or public network. In practical terms, VPN technology lets an
organization securely extend its network services over the Internet to
remote users, branch offices, and partner companies. In other words,
VPNs turn the Internet into a simulated private WAN.

HOW VPN WORKS

To use the Internet as a private wide area network, organizations may

have to overcome two main hurdles. First, networks often communicate
using a variety of protocols, such as IPX and NetBEUI, but the Internet
can only handle IP traffic. So, VPNs may need to provide a way to pass
non-IP protocols from one network to another.

Second, data packets traveling the Internet are transported in clear text.
Consequently, anyone who can see Internet traffic can also read the data
contained in the packets. This is clearly a problem if companies want to
use the Internet to pass important, confidential business information.

VPNs overcome these obstacles by using a strategy called tunneling.

Instead of packets crossing the Internet out in the open, data packets are
first encrypted for security, and then encapsulated in an IP package by
the VPN and tunneled through the Internet.
i.e. if we are running NetWare on one network, and a client on that
network wants to connect to a remote NetWare server.

The primary protocol used with traditional NetWare is IPX. So, to use a
generic layer-2 VPN model, IPX packets bound for the remote network
reach a tunnel initiating device - perhaps a remote access device, a
router, or even a desktop PC, in the case of remote-client-to-server
connections - which prepares them for transmission over the Internet.

The VPN tunnel initiator on the source network communicates with a VPN
tunnel terminator on the destination network. The two agree upon an
encryption scheme, and the tunnel initiator encrypts the packet for
security. (For better security, there should be an authentication process
to ensure that the connecting user has the proper rights to enter the
destination network. Most currently available VPN products support
multiple forms of authentication.)

Finally, the VPN initiator encapsulates the entire encrypted package in an

IP packet. Now, regardless of the type of protocol originally being
transmitted, it can travel the IP-only Internet. And, because the packet is
encrypted, no one can read the original data.

On the destination end, the VPN tunnel terminator receives the packet
and removes the IP information. It then decrypts the packet according to
the agreed upon encryption scheme, and sends the resulting packet to
the remote access server or local router, which passes the hidden IPX
packet to the network for delivery to the appropriate destination.

DIGITAL SUBCRIBER LINE (DSL)

Definition: DSL provides high-speed networking over ordinary phone lines

using digital DSL modem technology. It integrates voice and data
functionality, bringing the "always on" feature of the telephone to the
computer network. The technology theoretically supports data rates of
8,448 Kbps (8.448 Mbps), although typical rates vary from 1,544 Kbps to
512 Kbps and sometimes as low as 90 Kbps.

DSL services target home and small business customers. However, the
service only works over a limited physical distance and remains
unavailable in many residential areas. The term "xDSL" generally refers
to the complete family of related DSL technologies -- ADSL, SDSL, VDSL,
and so on -- rather than any one specific implementation.
DSL Crib Sheet

Digital Subscriber Line (or Loop) technology provides high-speed,

broadband network connections to homes and small businesses. DSL
utilizes the same cabling used for normal telephones, but it can offer
higher data rates through use of so-called digital DSL modem technology.
Still a relatively new technology that telephone companies and other
access providers are in the process of deploying for the first time, DSL
remains unavailable in many locations. Some customers already
subscribed to DSL -- so-called "early adopters" -- have experienced the
growing pains of this very promising network service.

DSL runs about 18,000 feet (3.5 miles or 5.5 kilometers) from a
telephone exchange. Without going into to all the details of public
exchanges, suffice it to say that companies in the United States
historically did not install them this close to homes in some suburban and
many rural areas. Technology constrain these physical cable distances
even further -- down to as low as 1,000 feet (0.2 miles or 0.35
kilometers). They do this in order to offer even faster network speeds.

ASYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (ADSL)

Definition: ADSL is a form of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service that

provides greater bandwidth for so-called downstream (from provider to
consumer) traffic at the expense of lesser upstream (from consumer to
provider) bandwidth.

ADSL takes advantage of the typical pattern of network access on the

Web by home users who frequently download large amounts of Web site
data but upload relatively small amounts of data.

In other respects, ADSL possesses all of the characteristics one associates

with DSL, including an "always on" combination of voice and data
services, availability limited by physical distance, and high speed access
compared to analog DSL modems. ADSL is technically capable of up to 6
Mbps (roughly 6000 Kbps), but the service customers actually receive
generally performs at 2 Mbps or lower for downloads and 512 Kbps for
uploads.

SYMMETRIC DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE ( SDSL)

Definition: SDSL is a form of Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service that

provides equal bandwidth for both uploads and downloads. Originally
developed in Europe, SDSL was one of the earliest forms of DSL to not
require multiple telephone lines.

SDSL possesses all of the common characteristics of DSL, including an

"always on" combination of voice and data services, availability limited by
physical distance, and high speed access compared to analog DSL
modems. SDSL supports data rates up to 3,088 Kbps.

SYMMETRIC HIGH-BIT-RATE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (SHDSL)

Definition: SHDSL technology can transport data symmetrically at data

rates from 192 Kbps to 2,320 Kbps. SHDSL utilizes a single copper wire
pair, making it an affordable DSL option attractive to small businesses.

HIGH-DATA-RATE DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (HDSL)

High-Data-Rate Digital Subscriber Line. One of four DSL technologies.

HDSL delivers 1.544 Mbps of bandwidth each way over two copper
twisted pairs. Because HDSL provides T1 speed, telephone companies
have been using HDSL to provision local access to T1 services whenever
possible. The operating range of HDSL is limited to 12,000 feet (3658.5
meters), so signal repeaters are installed to extend the service. HDSL
requires two twisted pairs, so it is deployed primarily for PBX network
connections, digital loop carrier systems, interexchange POPs, Internet
servers, and private data networks

VERY-HIGH-SPEED DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (VDSL)

Definition: VDSL was developed to support exceptionally high-bandwidth

applications such as High-Definition Television (HDTV). VDSL is not as
widely deployed as other forms of DSL service. However, VDSL can
achieve data rates up to approximately 51,840 Kbps, making it the
fastest available form of DSL.

To perform at this speed, VDSL relies on fiber optic cabling. VDSL is

designed to work more as a business service that uses ATM
internetworking rather than as a consumer service that utilizes IP. VDSL
supports both voice and data communication on the same line, like other
forms of DSL.

Also like most DSL technology, the performance of VDSL depends

significantly on the physical distance traversed by wires: Shorter
distances mean faster networking. The technology was originally named
VADSL ('A' for asymmetric), but VDSL has now been improved and can
operate in either symmetric and asymmetric modes.

WIRELESS NETWORKING

Increased use of laptop computers within the enterprise, and increase in

worker mobility have fuelled the demand for wireless networks. The
technology was slow, expensive and reserved for mobile situations or
hostile environments where cabling was impractical or impossible. With
the maturing of industry standards and the deployment of lightweight
wireless networking hardware across a broad market section, wireless
technology has come of age.

The term wireless networking refers to technology that enables two or

more computers to communicate using standard network protocols, but
without network cabling. Strictly speaking, any technology that does this
could be called wireless networking.

Types of wireless network

There are two kinds of wireless networks:

a. peer-to-peer wireless network consists of a number of

computers each equipped with a wireless networking interface
card. Each computer can communicate directly with all of the
other wireless enabled computers. They can share files and
printers this way, but may not be able to access wired LAN
resources, unless one of the computers acts as a bridge to
the wired LAN using special software. (This is called
"bridging")

Peer-to Peer Networking

b. A wireless network can also use an access point, or base
station. In this type of network the access point acts like a
hub, providing connectivity for the wireless computers. It can
connect (or "bridge") the wireless LAN to a wired LAN,
allowing wireless computer access to LAN resources, such as
file servers or existing Internet Connectivity.

There are two types of access points:

i. Dedicated hardware access points (HAP) such as

Lucent's. Hardware access points offer comprehensive
support of most wireless features, check our
requirements carefully.

Hardware Access Point

ii. Software Access Points which run on a computer

equipped with a wireless network interface card as used
in a peer-to-peer wireless network. Vicomsoft Integrate
suites are software routers that can be used as a basic
Software Access Point, and include features not
commonly found in hardware solutions, Poe support and
extensive configuration flexibility, but may not offer the
full range of wireless features defined in the 802.11
standard.
 With appropriate networking software support, users on the
wireless LAN can share files and printers located on the wired LAN
and vice versa. Vicomsoft's solutions support file sharing using
TCP/IP.

Software Access Point.

Wireless Transmission Standards

Currently, four specifications make up the 802.11 series: 802.11,
802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g. The Microsoft products that conform to
the 802.11g specification are sometimes said to use Wireless-G
technology, and the Microsoft products that conform to the 802.11b
specification are said to use Wireless-B.

The main features that distinguish these specifications are connection

speed and radio frequency. The following table summarizes the four
specifications in the 802.11 series.
Specification Connection Speed Radio Frequency
802.11 1 or 2 Mbps 2.4 GHz
802.11a Up to 54 Mbps 5 GHz
802.11b 5.5 and 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz
802.11g Up to 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz
Range of a wireless network

Each access point has a finite range within which a wireless

connection can be maintained between the client computer and the
access point. The actual distance varies depending upon the
environment; manufacturers typically state both indoor and outdoor
ranges to give a reasonable indication of reliable performance. Also
it should be noted that when operating at the limits of range the
performance may drop, as the quality of connection deteriorates
and the system compensates.

Typical indoor ranges are 150-300 feet, but can be shorter if the
building construction interferes with radio transmissions. Longer
ranges are possible, but performance will degrade with distance.

Outdoor ranges are quoted up to 1000 feet, but again this depends
upon the environment.

Extension Point.
Wireless connected computers using an Access Point with an
Extension Point.
Roaming

A wireless computer can "roam" from one access point to another,

with the software and hardware maintaining a steady network
connection by monitoring the signal strength from in-range access
points and locking on to the one with the best quality. Usually this
is completely transparent to the user; they are not aware that a
different access point is being used from area to area. Some access
point configurations require security authentication when swapping
access points, usually in the form of a password dialog box.

A user can move from Area 1 to Area 2 transparently. The Wireless

networking hardware automatically swaps to the Access Point with
the best signal.

Not all access points are capable of being configured to support

roaming. Also of note is that any access points for a single vendor
should be used when implementing roaming, as there is no official
standard for this feature.

Use of a wireless network to interconnect two LANs

Wireless networking offers a cost-effective solution to users with

difficult physical installations such as campuses, hospitals or
businesses with more than one location in immediate proximity but
separated by public thoroughfare. This type of installation requires
two access points. Each access point acts as a bridge or router
connecting its own LAN to the wireless connection. The wireless
connection allows the two access points to communicate with each
other, and therefore interconnect the two LAN's.

A Hardware Access Point providing wireless connectivity to local

computers and a software access point. The software access point
provides Wired Ethernet network 2 computers access to Wired
Network 1.
 LAN to LAN Wireless Communications

Multiple Access Points.

Wireless connected computers using Multiple Access Points.

 Cost wireless network hardware cost more than Ethernet

 hardware.
 Range and coverage Both wireless networks and wired
networks can cover most home and small-business areas.
Depending on the physical characteristics and interference
factors in your environment, one or the other type of network
might be more effective.
 Security Because of the unrestricted nature of their
transmission, wireless networks have inherent security issues.
However, to help improve security, you can implement network
features, such as wireless security or Network Address
Translation For more information about wireless security, see
Wireless Network Security.
 Speed The type of network connection that you use does not
affect your Internet connection speed, but it can affect how fast
you can perform tasks such as transferring files and playing
games between computers on your network. 802.11g connection
speed is comparable to Ethernet; 802.11b connection speed is
typically slower. If connection speed between your networked
computers is of primary importance (particularly for playing
games with dense graphic detail), you might want to opt for
Wireless-G technology or an Ethernet connection.