Lecture 9 Class Notes 1651907265940

PE ZC213/TA ZC233
Engineering Measurements
BITS Pilani Dr. Sujan Yenuganti
Pilani Campus EEE Department
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Lecture No. 9
Force & Pressure
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Force
What is Force?
Physically, it is a directed push or pull.
According to Newton’s second law of motion, for a particle of constant mass, force
is equal to the product of mass and acceleration. Thus,
F  ma
The weight of a body is the force exerted on the body by the acceleration of
gravity at sea level
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

BITS Pilani, Pilani 3, UGC Act
Campus
Contd..
• Force is associated with the body till it is in motion.
• When a body is at rest the force acting on it is zero.
• Force is always in the same direction as the velocity of the body.
• If the velocity is changing then the force is also changing.
• Centripetal force and centrifugal force both act on the body moving uniformly in
a circle.
• The weight of a body is the force exerted on the body by the acceleration of
gravity at sea level so that
W  mg

Campus
Elastic elements for force
measurement
 Elastic elements are frequently employed to provide an indication of the

magnitude of an applied force through a displacement measurement.
 The simple spring is an example of this type of force-displacement transducer.

In this case the force is given by
F  ky
where k is the spring constant and y is the displacement from the equilibrium
position.

Campus
Contd..
3EI
F 3
y
L
AE
F y
L
Campus
Contd..
16 EI
F y
 / 2  4/ d 3
where d is the outside ring diameter and I is the

moment of inertia about the centroid axis of the
ring section

Campus
Stress and Strain
The property of a body, by virtue of which it tends to regain its original size and
shape when the applied force is removed, is known as elasticity and the
deformation caused is known as elastic deformation.
[If you stretch a helical spring by gently pulling its ends, the length of the spring
increases slightly. When you leave the ends of the spring, it regains its original
size and shape.]
When a body is subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force is developed in

the body. This restoring force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
applied force.
The restoring force per unit area is known as stress.

Campus
Contd..
If F is the force applied and A is the area of cross section of the body,
Magnitude of the stress = F/A
The SI unit of stress is N/m2 or pascal(Pa)
Pressure vs Stress
Pressure is often used with fluids (gases or liquids), whereas stress is more often
used with solids.
One major difference is that pressure only acts perpendicular to a surface,

whereas stress can also be parallel to a surface as well as perpendicular to it. A
stress parallel to a surface is called shear stress. The perpendicular part is called
normal stress.

Campus
Contd..
Tensile stress=F/A Compressional stress=F/A

Tensile strain=Δl/l Compressional strain=Δl/l

Campus
Contd..
Shear stress=F/A(N/m2)
Shear strain=Δx/l=tanθ
Where Δx=deformation and l=width of sample

Campus
Strain measurement
 The electrical-resistance strain gage is the most widely used device for strain
measurement.
 Its operation is based on the principle that the electrical resistance of a

conductor changes when it is subjected to mechanical deformation.
 An electric conductor is bonded to the specimen with an insulating cement

under no-load conditions.
 A load is then applied, which produces a deformation in both the specimen and
the resistance element.
 This deformation is indicated through a measurement of the change in

resistance of the element

Campus
Strain gauge
A strain gauge is a metal or semiconductor element whose resistance

changes when under the strain.
Tensile stress Compressive stress

Campus
Contd..
Longitudinal strain (eL)
Tensile stress
Transverse strain (eT)

Campus
Strain gauge: Gauge factor
Change in resistance is given by,

Campus
Strain gauge: Gauge factor

Campus
Metal strain gauge
For most metals ν ≈ 0.3, and the term (1/e) (∆ρ/ρ) representing strain-induced
changes in resistivity (piezoresistive effect) is small (around 0.4), so that the
overall gauge factor is around 2.0
A typical gauge has:
• Gauge factor 2.0 to 2.2

• Unstrained resistance 120 ± 1 Ω
• Linearity within ±0.3%
• Maximum tensile strain +2 × 10−2
• Maximum compressive strain −1 × 10−2
• Maximum operating temperature 150 °C

Campus
Semiconductor strain gauge
In semiconductor gauges the piezoresistive term (1/e) (∆ρ/ρ) can be large, giving
large gauge factors.
The most common material is silicon doped with small amounts of p-type or n-type
material.
Gauge factors of between +100 and +175 are common for p-type silicon, and
between −100 and −140 for n-type silicon.
A negative gauge factor means a decrease in resistance for a tensile strain. Thus
semiconductor gauges have the advantage of greater sensitivity to strain than
metal ones, but have the disadvantage of greater sensitivity to temperature
changes.

Campus
Types of Strain gauge
Typical structure of strain gauges (Bonded) (Unbonded strain gauge)

Campus
Contd..

Campus
Strain gauge: Applications with elastic
elements…
Cantilever load cell Pillar load cell

Campus
2
2
Contd..
In the cantilever force element or load cell, the applied force F causes the
cantilever to bend so that the top surface experiences a tensile strain +ε and the
bottom surface an equal compressive strain −ε. The magnitude of strain ε is
given by
6(l - x)
 2
F
wt E
Strain gauges 1 and 3 sense a tensile strain +ε so that their resistance increases
by ΔR. Gauges 2 and 4 sense a compressive strain −ε so that their resistance
decreases by an equal amount.
ΔR  GR 0
where G is the gauge factor and R0 the unstrained resistance of the gauges. This
gives:

2
3
Contd..
R 1  R 3  R 0  ΔR  R 0 (1  G )
R 2  R 4  R 0  ΔR  R 0 (1  G )
The four gauges are connected into a deflection bridge to get an output voltage
In the pillar load cell the applied force F causes a compressive stress −F/A,
where A is the cross-sectional area of the pillar. This produces a longitudinal,
compressive strain:
F
L  
AE
2
4
Contd..
which is accompanied by a transverse, tensile strain
F
 T   L 
AE
where E and ν are respectively Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio for the
pillar material. Strain gauges are bonded onto the pillar so that gauges 1 and 3
sense εT and gauges 2 and 4 sense εL thus
GF
R 1  R 3  R 0  R 0 G T  R 0 (1  )
AE
GF
R 2  R 4  R 0  R 0 G L  R 0 (1  )
AE
Quarter bridge configuration
1
e0  Gei
4

Contd..

Contd..

Dummy Gauge

Half bridge configuration
1
e0  Gei
2

Campus
Contd..

Contd..

Contd..

Contd..

Full bridge configuration
e0  Gei

Contd..

Pressure
 Pressure is an important physical parameter to be measured in almost all

fields of engineering and industrial applications.
 Pressure measurements are not only important for monitoring and control, but
also for measuring other parameters like flow and level through differential
pressure arrangement.

Contd..
Types of pressure

U Tube Manometer
 The U-tube manometer is a primary standard for pressure measurement. The

pressure being measured is balanced by the height of a column of liquid
(gravitational force of liquid).
 Both the legs have same area.
 Used in the measurement of Liquid or gas pressure.

Contd..
 The difference in liquid level represents the applied

pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of
height h and density ρ is given by the hydrostatic
pressure equation, P=hgρ.
 Therefore the pressure difference between the applied

pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube
manometer can be found by solving Pa−P0=hgρ.

Contd..
 Water is the cheapest manometer liquid but few precautions need to be taken.
 Water evaporates quickly
 Water is transparent and manometer is transparent. So reading should be

taken carefully.
 Density of water is less. So pressure range measured is less.
 Commonly used manometric liquids are Aniline, Carbon tetra chloride,

Mercury, transformer oil.

Well type Manometer
 One leg is tube and the other

leg is well.
 For small displacement of

liquid level in well there will be
large change in the height of
tube.

Inclined Tube Manometer
 It is similar to well type but the measuring leg is slant.

 Because of inclination the sensitivity will be more.
 Used to measure small pressure difference.

4
3
Bourdon Tubes
 Bourdon tube-type elastic elements are used commonly used to detect pressures
 Bourdon tubes are manufactured in C, helical, and spiral forms .
 The C-Bourdon element is made by winding a tubular element circularly to form

a segment of a circle, the helical element is made by winding the tube several
turns into a helix, and the spiral is formed by winding two or three turns in a
spiral around the same axis.
 Helical and spiral elements are used when it is desired to reduce the stress in the
tube and to increase the tip movement.
 The tubes are made from strain-hardened alloys (brass, bronze, 304 and 316
stainless steel, or Monel) and from precipitation-hardened alloys (beryllium,
copper, Inconel X, Ni-Span C, and K Monel).

4
4
Types of Bourdon Tubes

4
5
C- Bourdon Tube
C-Bourdon tube used in direct

indicating gauges, which
usually have an arc of 270
degrees. The process pressure
is connected to the support end
of the tube, while the tip end is
sealed.
The tip motion is transferred to the tail of the movement sector by the connector
link. The angle between the connecting link and the sector tail is called the
travelling angle. This angle changes with tip movement in a nonlinear fashion,
compensating for the nonlinearity of the tip movement.
4
6
Contd..
Fluid filled Bourdon tube

connected to a capillary
Fluid filled Bourdon tube

4
7
Spiral Bourdon Tube
The free end motion of the C-Bourdon tube

is insufficient to operate some of the motion
balance devices, such as the transmitters.
The spiral element is essentially a series of

C-Bourdon tubes joined end to end. When
pressure is applied, this flat spiral tends to
uncoil and produces a greater movement of
the free end, requiring no mechanical
amplification.
This increases the sensitivity and accuracy of the instrument because no lost motion
or friction is introduced through the links and levers.

4
8
Helical Bourdon Tube
Helical Bourdon element is similar to the spiral element, except it is wound in the
form of helix. This sensor produces an even greater motion of the free end than the
spiral element, eliminating the need for mechanical amplification.
Other advantages of this design include the high over range protection available
and also suitable for pressure measurement on continuously fluctuating services.
The range of the helical coil is affected by the diameter, wall thickness, number of
coils used, and construction materials.
4
9
Bellows
Bellows are thin-walled cylindrical shells with deep convolutions, and are
sealed at one end.
The sealed end moves axially when the pressure is applied to the other end. The
number of convolutions varies from 5 to 20 depending on the pressure range,
displacement required and operating temperature.
The deflection d of the bellows can be expressed by the equation
Where
0.453P b n D 2 1  ν 2
P= pressure d
b=radius of each corrugation E t3
n= number of semi circular corrugations
t=thickness of the wall
D=mean diameter
E= modulus of elasticity
υ= Poisson’s ratio
5
0
Contd..
The deflection d of the bellows with spring

element is given by
Ab
dP
Kb  K s
Where
P= Applied pressure
Ab= effective area of bellows
Kb=Stiffness of bellows
Ks=Stiffness of spring element

5
1
Contd..
An arrangement for measuring absolute

pressure where Bellows B has an
Bellows A
evacuated reference.
Bellows B
Same arrangement can be made to
measure guage pressure by opening
bellows B to atmospheric pressure.
Bellows B
Bellows A
Same arrangement can be made to measure
differential pressure P=P1-P2 when pressure
P1 is applied to bellows A and pressure P2 is
applied to bellows B
5
2
Diaphragms
The most common type of pressure sensing elastic element is a diaphragm. The
diaphragm is essentially a thin plate stretched and fastened at its periphery.
The structure of the diaphragm may be flat or corrugated.
Diaphragms are rugged, have excellent stability and reliability, low hysteresis and
creep, high accuracy and good dynamic response.
Diaphragms are made from elastic metal alloys such as bronze, phosphor bronze,
beryllium copper and stainless steel or from proprietary alloys such as Monel,
Inconel and Nickle -Span-C
The main considerations while selecting a suitable diaphragm material are the
chemical nature of the measurand fluid, temperature range ,effects of shock and
vibration and frequency response requirements.

5
3
Contd..
The pressure deflection characteristics of both flat and corrugated diaphragms

have been well investigated.
The available corrugated profile types include sinusoidal, saw-tooth, or

trapezoidal

5
4
Flat circular diaphragm
The deflection w at any point on the diaphragm is given by
3 P(1 -  2 ) 2 2 2
w(r)  3
R  r 
16 Et
Where
P= applied pressure
t=thickness of the diaphragm
R=radius of the diaphragm
E= modulus of elasticity
υ= Poisson’s ratio
Dead weight tester
• A device used for static calibration of pressure gages.
• Dead weight tester is named so because it use dead weights in determination

of pressures.
• Each dead weight indicates the force that it can exert on predetermined area.
• A dead weight tester consists of a pumping piston with a screw that presses it
into a reservoir when rotated containing a fluid like oil.
• A primary piston (with cross sectional area A) that carries the dead weights
and a pressure gauge to be calibrated.
• It works by loading the primary piston with the amount of weight W that
corresponds to the desired calibration pressure (P=W/A)

Contd..
When the screw is rotated, the pumping piston increases the fluid pressure and will be
applied to both the gauge and the weights. When the weights start to lift, the pressure
applied to the gauge will be the same as the pressure indicated by the weights.

Contd..

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PE ZC213/TA ZC233

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Physically, it is a directed push or pull.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

• Force is associated with the body till it is in motion.

• When a body is at rest the force acting on it is zero.

• Force is always in the same direction as the velocity of the body.

• If the velocity is changing then the force is also changing.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

 Elastic elements are frequently employed to provide an indication of the

 The simple spring is an example of this type of force-displacement transducer.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

where d is the outside ring diameter and I is the

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

When a body is subjected to a deforming force, a restoring force is developed in

The restoring force per unit area is known as stress.

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

Magnitude of the stress = F/A

The SI unit of stress is N/m2 or pascal(Pa)

One major difference is that pressure only acts perpendicular to a surface,

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

Tensile stress=F/A Compressional stress=F/A

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

Where Δx=deformation and l=width of sample

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

 Its operation is based on the principle that the electrical resistance of a

 An electric conductor is bonded to the specimen with an insulating cement

 This deformation is indicated through a measurement of the change in

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

A strain gauge is a metal or semiconductor element whose resistance

Tensile stress Compressive stress

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

Longitudinal strain (eL)

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

Change in resistance is given by,

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

A typical gauge has:

• Gauge factor 2.0 to 2.2

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

Typical structure of strain gauges (Bonded) (Unbonded strain gauge)

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

Cantilever load cell Pillar load cell

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

which is accompanied by a transverse, tensile strain

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

 Pressure is an important physical parameter to be measured in almost all

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus