Question.

1
Classification of pumps
Generally Pumps classification done on the basis of its mechanical configuration
and their working principle.Classification of pumps mainly divided into two
major categories:
1. Dynamic pumps / Kinetic pumps
2. Displacement Pumps / Positive displacement pumps

Dynamic Pumps
Dynamic pumps are most widely used for high-pressure applications. These pumps have a
high efficiency compared to positive displacement pumps. There are many types of dynamic
pumps, and an axial flow pump is one of them. According to the flow of working fluid,
dynamic pumps have two major types:
1. Centrifugal radial flow pump
2. Axial flow pump
The centrifugal pumps have an inflow of the fluid perpendicular to the impeller, while the
axial pumps have a parallel suction flow of fluid to the axis of the impeller. 
Dynamic pumps impart velocity and pressure to the fluid as it moves past or
through the pump impeller and, subsequently, convert some of that velocity into
additional pressure. It is also called  Kinetic pumps
Kinetic pumps are subdivided into two major groups and they are  centrifugal
pumps and positive displacement pumps.

Classification of Dynamic Pumps

Axial flow Pump(vertical pumps)

An axial flow pump is a type of dynamic pump which has a suction parallel to the impeller
direction. An axial flow pump doesn’t change the flow direction of the fluid. In this pump,
the fluid enters and exits the pump in the parallel direction to the impeller. It has an impeller
inside the pipe. This pump has three to four blades that are installed on the impeller. 
The pump blades design in such a way that the pump discharges the water axially in the
parallel direction to the impeller nor perpendicular. The parallel alignment of the impeller
blades creates a very low pressure when pumping water. These pumps use for high flow rate
and low pressure applications.
These dynamic pumps can generate high flow rates, up to hundreds of thousands of gallons
per minute. It is sometimes called a propeller pump because the axial impeller is similar to a
ship’s propeller. In some configurations, the flow rate and head can be adjusted by changing
the pitch of the impeller blades.
The functional specifications of the axial pumps are a little bit different than other types of
pumps. The head produced at normal operating points is minimal, but the curve of head
versus capacity is considerably vertical than other dynamic pumps. The shut-off pressure can
be three times the pump’s delivery head at the point with the greatest efficiency. Besides, the
required power rises when the flow rate declines, and the maximum power consumption is
with the power switched off (zero flow). This contrasts with the same tendency for the radial-
pump, which requires higher flow rates and higher power.
Working Principle of Axial Flow Pump
In the axial flow pump, the impeller blades guide the fluid axially. In this pump, the pressure
generates by passing the fluid over the impeller vanes. In these dynamic pumps, the impeller
vanes have an airfoil section through which fluid runs and creates pressure.
The liquid pushes in the direction of the axis of rotation of the impeller. That is, the fluid
particles do not transform their radial position as they flow through the pump. This permits
the liquid to flow axially into the impeller and to exit the fluid approximately axially. The
propellers of these dynamic pumps drive through an electric motor.
The required power increases with a decreasing flow rate, and the maximum power is drawn
at a zero-flow rate. While in the case of the centrifugal radial-pump, this feature is the
opposite, in which power requirements increase with increasing the flow rate. The power
requirements and pump heads also increase as the slope increases to adjust the pump to
system conditions for the most efficient operation.
Compared to conventional centrifugal or radial pumps, axial pumps can pump up to three
times more liquids with a delivery head of fewer than 4 meters. By changing the propeller
pitch, you can easily set these dynamic pumps to run with maximum efficiency at high or low
pressure and low/high pressure.
The axial flow pump generally has a low head than radial pumps but can generate higher
currents. Axial flow pumps can only produce heads of 10 to 20 feet. This is lower as
compared to other types of centrifugal pumps.
 Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal Pump Working Principle
The first step of the working of the centrifugal pump is to provide mechanical power to its
impeller by using an electric motor. The impeller, which is connected to the electric motor
through the shaft, starts rotating. Due to the rotation of the impeller, a vacuum creates inside
the eye of the impeller, hence the liquid below the suction pipe begins to enter inside the
impeller’s eye in the axial direction. After entering the impeller’s eye, the liquid strikes the
vanes of the impeller. The high speed of the impeller rotates the liquid radially and in an
outward direction by using centrifugal force. The impeller keeps on rotating until the liquid
passes through every component of the impeller, the rotation accelerates the fluid, which
increases the fluid’s energy and creates the fluid head. The blades of the impeller convert the
kinetic energy of the liquid into its speed, which eventually increases the speed of the liquid.
Now, the fluid enters the diffuser area after leaving the impeller. The speed of the fluid slows
down at the diffuser area as the diffuser transforms the speed of the fluid into the pressure
energy, this is based on Bernoulli’s principle, according to which, to produce a high head the
fluid gets slow down. Finally, after gaining the desired pressure, the fluid discharges from the
outlet of the centrifugal pump to the required area. Hence, we can conclude that the working
of the centrifugal pump is mainly based on the principle that if liquid of a specific mass is
allowed to rotate with the help of an external source, it gets thrown out from the centrifugal
axis of rotation and the pressure head of the rotating fluid rises. The pressure head rises at any
point is proportional to the velocity of the fluid at that point. Thus, the rise in pressure head is
large at the outlet of the impeller because of the larger radius (due to the volute shape casing)
towards the outlet, and the discharge fluid at the outlet have a high-pressure head. Hence, the
fluid gets lifted to a high level from a low level.
Flow passage through a centrifugal pump (Reference: Face book.com)

A schematic figure to show the flow passage starting from the eye of the impeller
(Reference: Research gate.net)
A centrifugal pump is a rotating machine in which flow and pressure are
generated dynamically. The energy changes occur by virtue of two main parts of
the pump, the impeller and the volute or casing. The function of the casing is to
collect the liquid discharged by the impeller and to convert some of the  kinetic
(velocity) energy into pressure energy.Centrifugal pumps  are subdivided into
several categories, as shown in above Figure
Radial Flow:
The impeller discharges fluid at right angles to the shaft axis.  In this centrifugal
pump in which the pressure is developed wholly by centrifugal force. The radial
type pumps are used for the application of  high head and low discharge.
In radial flow pumps ratio of impeller outside Dia (D2) to eye Dia (D1) is 2 or
more and impeller having narrow width. 
Mixed Flow :
The flow direction is partly axial and partly radial. Hence has a result the flow is
diagonal. The mixed flow type pumps are used for the application of medium
head and high discharge.
In this centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed partly by centrifugal
force and partly by the lift of the vanes of the impeller on the liquid.
In mixed flow pumps ratio of impeller  outside Dia ( D2) to eye Dia ( D1) less
than 1.5 and impeller having wider width. 
Axial Flow:
The flow through impeller is parallel to shaft axis  low head and very high
discharge. The axial flow type pumps are used for the application of medium
head and high discharge.
In this centrifugal pump in which the pressure is developed by the propelling or
lifting action of the vanes of the impeller on the liquid.
In axial flow pumps ratio of impeller   outside Dia ( D2) to eye Dia ( D1) is
one and impeller having no width.
Axial, Radial and mixed flow pumps impeller dimensions
Specific speed ( Ns ) of the centrifugal pump  identifies the approximate
acceptable ratio of the impeller eye diameter (D1) to the impeller outside
diameter (D2) in designing a good impeller.

Specific Speed (Ns): 500 to 5000;     > 1.5 – radial flow pump

Ns: 5000 to 10000;      < 1.5 – mixed flow pump

Ns: 10000 to 15000;       = 1 – axial flow pump

Axial Split-Case Pumps
Axial split-case pumps have a casing that is split along the center line of the
shaft.  The impellers can be readily exposed for service and inspection by
removing the upper half of the casing. It is also called  horizontal split or
horizontal split-case pump. Axial-split pumps may be single stage or multistage
for higher pressures.
The pumps are usually mounted with shafts in the horizontal position, but
vertically mounted pumps for reduced floor space are also available.

The mainly Positive displacement pumps are subdivided into three categories as

follow
 Reciprocating pumps
 Rotary pumps
 Pneumatic pumps.
 Reciprocating pumps:
In a reciprocating pump, a piston or plunger moves up and down. During the
suction stroke, the pump cylinder fills with fresh liquid, and the discharge stroke
displaces it through a check valve into the discharge line.
Reciprocating pumps can develop very high pressures. Plunger, piston and
diaphragm pumps are under these type of pumps.
Plunger / piston type pumps:
The plunger contains the cross head, driven by a cams haft arrangement. The
capacity of the pump can be adjusted by changing the stroke, the rotating speed
of the pump, or both. The stroke of the pump is changed by the eccentric pin
setting.These types pumps used for the application of sewage, sludge, scum,
clarified thickener underflow. It can be applied for transfer and for metering
service. Such pumps are available in single- and multi cylinder models.  
Diaphragm pumps :
These type of pumps are quite versatile, handling a wide variety of   fluids like
food additives, chemicals, dry powders,   slurries, pharmaceutical products, and
wastewater etc. The advantages in diaphragm pumps is the absence of seals or
packing, meaning they can be used in applications requiring zero leakage.
Rotary Type Pumps
The pump rotor of rotary pumps displaces the liquid either by rotating or by a
rotating and orbiting motion. The  rotary pump mechanisms consisting of a casing
with closely fitted cams, lobes, or vanes,   that provide a means for conveying a
fluid.Vane, gear, and lobe pumps are positive displacement rotary pumps.
Rotary Lobe Pumps
Lobe pumps contains two elastomer-coated rotors that are driven by an integral
gear box and synchronized by timing gears. The rotors run without touching each
other or the casing. The liquid is drawn through the inlet port into the pockets
between the lobes and chamber walls. Because liquid cannot escape between the
two rotors, it discharges in the direction of rotation of the outer lobes through
the discharge nozzle.
Screw Pumps
Screw pumps are a special type of rotary  positive displacement pump in which
the flow through the pumping elements is truly axial.  Screw pumps are high-
volume, non-clog, atmospheric -head devices that can pump a variety of solids
and debris in raw waste water without screening. Screw pumps, however, have a
practical limitation as to pumping head .

Progressive Cavity Pumps

A progressive cavity pump is designed specifically to transfer abrasive and
viscous fluids with a high solid, fiber, and air content. A hard steel screw rotor
rotates and orbits within an elastomer stator.
Pneumatic Pumps
Compressed air is used to move the liquid in  pneumatic pumps.  In pneumatic
ejectors, compressed air displaces the liquid from a gravity-fed pressure vessel
through a check valve into the discharge line in a series of surges spaced by the
time required for the tank or receiver to fill again.

Question no.2A

Gas Turbine Cycle

The gas turbine works on the Brayton (or Joule) Cycle. A working cycle of the gas turbine is
explained below with the help of the P-V diagram:
Gas Turbine Working Cycle
Compression (A to B): –
As the ambient air enters into the compressor, the compressor compresses it and increases its
pressure. After compression, the air enters in the combustion chamber (at point B in the
above diagram).
Combustion (B to C): –
When compressed air comes into the combustion chamber (line B to C), an injector injects
fuel which mixes with the air. An ignition ignites to this air-fuel mixture and increases its
pressure and temperature.
Expansion (C to D): –
After passing through the combustion process, the air enters into the turbine section (line C to
D represents this process), where it expands.
As the air expands, it rotates the turbine blades, which further rotate the turbine shaft and
compressor. Some power of this expanded air uses to drive the compressor, while the
remaining power is used to drive the coupled generator. The generator transforms this power
into electricity.
Work and Efficiency(closed cycle)
the

The objective now is to find the work done, the heat absorbed, and the thermal efficiency of
the cycle. Tracing the path shown around the cycle from   -  -  -  and back to the first law
gives (writing the equation in terms of a unit mass),

Here   is zero because   is a function of state, and any cycle returns the system to its
starting state.The net work done is therefore

where q1,q2 are defined as heat received by the system ( q1is negative). We thus need to

evaluate the heat transferred in processes   -  and   -  .

For a constant pressure, quasi-static process the heat exchange per unit mass is
We can see this by writing the first law in terms of enthral or by remembering the definition
of cp.
The heat exchange can be expressed in terms of enthalpy differences between the relevant
states. Treating the working fluid as a perfect gas with constant specific heats, for the heat
addition from the combustor,

The heat rejected is, similarly,

The net work per unit mass is given by

The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle can now be expressed in terms of the
temperatures:

To proceed further, we need to examine the relationships between the different temperatures.
We know that points   and   are on a constant pressure process as are points   and   ,

and   ;   . The other two legs of the cycle are adiabatic and reversible, so

Td Td
Therefore   =Ta /Tb or, finally,   =Tc /Td . Using this relation in the expression for
Tc Ta
thermal efficiency, Eq. (3.8) yields an expression for the thermal efficiency of a Brayton
cycle:
 Tb
The temperature ratio across the compressor,  . =TR In terms of compressor temperature
Ta
ratio, and using the relation for an adiabatic reversible process we can write the efficiency in
terms of the compressor (and cycle) pressure ratio, which is the parameter commonly used:

Question no2B.Boiler
Basic boiler working principles
Boiler heat loss is the loss of money, if your business losing money then it is a serious
concern. An efficient boiler is a solution. Thermodynamic Engineering Systems provide you
with various ways to improve your boiler efficiency, but to understand these ways we must
know where the heat losses are actually occurring in your boiler system.
Heat ex-changer facilitates heat transfer from one medium to another. Often these media are
two process fluid streams such as - oil, water, steam, gas, air etc. In general, one fluid has to
be significantly hotter than the other.So, we have a hot and a cold fluid. And a heat ex-
changer enables the heat to flow from hot fluid to cold through a metallic wall.

Heat ex changer channels the flow of hot and cold streams through passages separated from
each other by metal surface. Thanks to the high heat conductivity of the metal, heat flows
from hot stream to the cold one. So the hot fluid exits the heat ex changer, a little colder. And
cold stream goes out a little hotter.That is why heat ex changers are widely used for heat up
or cooling down a fluid stream in a processing plant.
Flow rate, temperature difference, surface area
The overall heat transfer rate required in a heat transfer operation is calculated using the
following equation

where, Q = overall heat transfer rate

WTube and WShell are mass flow rates for tube side and shell side respectively
CpT and CpS are specific heat capacities for tube side and shell side respectively
ΔTTube is the temperature difference in tube side (between tube side inlet/outlet)
ΔTShell is the temperature difference in shell side (between shell side inlet/outlet)
So, the overall heat transfer rate required to bring about the required temperature change in a
fluid (from inlet to outlet), is proportional to the flow rate, specific heat and the ΔT itself.
Further, this heat transfer rate requirement gives us the overall heat transfer area required to
enable the desired heat transfer operation.

where, Q = overall heat transfer rate

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient
AOverall = Overall heat transfer surface ares
LMTD = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference

Where,
ΔT1 → the temperature difference between hot and cold fluids at one end of the heat ex
changer
ΔT2 → the temperature difference between hot and cold fluids at the other end of the heat ex
changer
Energy balance calculation for heat ex-changer
Energy balance calculation is often done for designing a heat ex-changer to determine
operating parameters for hot and cold fluids such as - inlet / outlet temperatures and flow
rates.or hot fluid side of a heat ex changer let,

mH : mass flow rate of the hot fluid in kg/hr

CpH : mass heat capacity of the hot fluid in Joules/kg0C
TiH and ToH : Respectively inlet and outlet temperatures on ex-changer hot side in 0C

mC : mass flow rate of the cold fluid in kg/hr

CpC : mass heat capacity of the cold fluid in Joules/kg0C
TiC and ToC : Respectively inlet and outlet temperatures on ex-changer cold side in 0C

Heat lost by the hot fluid = -Q = mH × CpH × (ToH - TiH) … (1)
Heat gained by the cold side = Q = mC × CpC × (ToC - TiC) … (2)

Comparing equations (1) and (2),

mH × CpH × (TiH - ToH) = mC × CpC × (ToC - TiC) … (3) (Heat balance equation)

This energy (heat) balance equation can be solved for one variable for any given case. Out of
total six variables in the equation (3), five should be fixed to determine the unknown variable.

It should also be noted that the mass balance equation is already applied in this case to
develop equation (3).

The fact that mHin = mHout = mH and mCin = mCout = mC is already considered while writing
equations (1) and (2). Hence application of mass balance equation for heat ex-changer does
not present any new information here.

How does evaporator work ?

For a basic refrigerant cycle shown in figure 1, which is used in many forms in
all common air conditioning, refrigeration, heat pump applications. It uses a
proper refrigerant that has the capability to change phase from liquid to gas
and from gas to liquid.

For a home air conditioning example, the refrigerant enters the compressor is
a low pressure cool gas, where it compressed to a high pressure hot gas, then
passes to the condenser. In the condenser coil, the refrigerant phase changes
from hot gas at high pressure to hot liquid at high pressure. This condensation
causes a large heat rejection to surrounding.

The liquid refrigerant is then passed through a fixed nozzle or expansion

device to exit as a cold liquid at a low pressure. Finally refrigerant enters the
evaporator at about 70% to 80% liquid and 20% to 30% vapor.

In the evaporator a very large amount of heat is absorbed from surrounding

(the indoor air) causing the liquid refrigerant to boil and turn into a gas phase,
which is passed to compressor to repeat the cycle again untile the indoor air
be comfortable and sufficiently cool.
The evaporator works at a constant temperature as long as the pressure
remains constant.

Calculation part: (1)

Given Required
P1=40bar Determine exit area of nozzle
¿ m2 (A2) ? T1=400℃
V=10m/s
P2=15bar and V=665m/s
ṁ=2 Kg/ s

Solution
(2). Given
A refrigerator 134a
P=between 0.14 and 0.8 Mpa
ṁ =0.05 Kg/s
Required
A. QL˙ and ẇ in=?

B. Q̇H
C. COPR
D. It would be interesting to see what happens if the throttling valve were replaced by an
isentropic turbine.
Solution