materials
Article
Stiffening Performance of Cold-Formed C-Section Beam Filled
with Lightweight-Recycled Concrete Mixture
Ahmed W. Al Zand 1, * , Mustafa Farooq Alghaaeb 1,2 , Mohammed Chyad Liejy 1,3 , Azrul A. Mutalib 1
and Riyadh Al-Ameri 4






Citation: Al Zand, A.W.; Alghaaeb,
M.F.; Liejy, M.C.; Mutalib, A.A.;
Al-Ameri, R. Stiffening Performance
of Cold-Formed C-Section Beam
Filled with Lightweight-Recycled
Concrete Mixture. Materials 2022, 15,
2982. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ma15092982
Academic Editor: Ding Faxing
Received: 4 April 2022
Accepted: 16 April 2022
Published: 20 April 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Materials 2022, 15, 2982. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15092982
1 Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia;
eng.m0123456@gmail.com (M.F.A.); chyd1982@gmail.com (M.C.L.); azrulaam@ukm.edu.my (A.A.M.)
2 Engineering Affairs, Ministry of Culture, Baghdad 13032, Iraq
3 Al-Hawija Technical Institute, Northern Technical University, Kirkuk 36001, Iraq
4 School of Engineering, Faculty of Science Engineering and Built Environment, Deakin University,
Geelong, VIC 3216, Australia; r.alameri@deakin.edu.au
* Correspondence: ahmedzand@ukm.edu.my
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to investigate the flexural performance of a new steel–concrete
composite beam system, which is required to carry higher loads when applied in flooring systems
with less self-weight and cost compared with conventional composite beams. This new composite
member is prepared by filling a single cold-formed steel C-section with concrete material that
has varied lightweight-recycled aggregates. In addition, varied stiffening scenarios are suggested
to improve the composite behavior of this member, since these cold-formed C-sections are of a
slender cross-section and more likely to buckle and twist under high bending loads than those of
hot-rolled C-sections. The influence of using four different lightweight-recycled aggregates that
combine together in the infill concrete material was investigated. These recycled aggregates are
recycled concrete aggregate (RCA), expanded polystyrene (EPS) beads, crumb rubber aggregates
(CRA) and fine glass aggregates (FGA). For this purpose, 14 samples of cold-formed galvanized
steel C-purlin were filled with concrete material (containing 0 to 100% recycled aggregates) which
are experimentally tested under pure bending load, and 1 additional sample was tested without
the filling material. Further numerical models were prepared and analyzed using finite element
analysis software to investigate the effects of additional parameters that were not experimentally
examined. Generally, the results confirm that filling the C-sections with concrete material that contains
varied percentages of recycled aggregates offer significantly improved the flexural stiffness, bending
capacity, and ductility performances. For example, using infill concrete materials with 0% and 100%
recycled aggregate replacement increased the bending capacity of hollow C-section by about 11.4
and 8.6 times, respectively. Furthermore, stiffening of the concrete-filled C-sections with steel strips
or screw connectors eventually improved the composite behavior of the specimens which led to
an increase in their bending capacities accordingly, and this improvement enhanced more with an
increased number of these strips and connectors.
Keywords: stiffening C-section; lightweight-recycled concrete; flexural strength; cold-formed beam;
concrete filled beam; confinement
1. Introduction
In recent years, several comprehensive studies have investigated the performance
of composite concrete-filled hollow steel tube members, and have reported significantly
improved strength, stiffness, and ductility [1]. For example, the bending capacity of a
hollow steel tube beam has been enhanced by using concrete as the infill material, such as
circular concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) beam and column [2], elliptical CFST beam and
column [3], rectangular CFST members [4], CFST and RC columns under combination of
compression and bending loads [5], square and rectangular steel tube filled with normal
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 2 of 23

and high strength concrete [6], built-up tubes filled with concrete [7–9], and concrete-filled
steel profiled wall and slab systems [10,11]. Generally, the cost of one ton of cold-formed
steel C-sections is about 800–900 USD as compared with 1100–1200 USD per ton for the
equivalent hot-rolled C-sections, whereas normal concrete material is about 40–50 USD per
ton. For example, in Malaysia’s local market, engineers have adopted cold-formed steel
C-sections in systems of concrete-filled steel tube members as a comparable solution to
hot-rolled C-sections. Cold-formed steel C-sections filled with concrete can increase the
member’s self-weight from about seven to eight times, as well as strength capacity by more
than four times [12].
The slender cross-section of steel tube members filled with concrete are usually lighter
and cost less than those with non-compact and compact sections, and they are more fa-
vorable in construction projects. However, these slender tube sections are more likely
to buckle under the compression stress that occurs due to bending load, such as with
cold-formed steel tubes filled with normal and recycled concrete [12], or when testing
the slenderness limit of cold-formed circular hollow tube [13], predicting the flexural
stiffness and strength of CFST beams [14], studying the post-cracking behavior of hybrid
fiber-reinforced CFST beams [15], or investigating the slenderness limits of circular and
rectangular CFST beam [16,17]. Therefore, several studies have used different scenarios to
investigate the stiffening performance of slender tube sections in order to delay/restrict
outward buckling failure [18–22]. For example, comprehensive experimental and numer-
ical investigations have been conducted by Al Zand et al. (2020) for stiffening a highly
slender square steel tube beam filled with normal concrete by using internal steel stiffeners
welded along the tube’s sides (web and flanges) [19] or by providing a V-grooved shape to
improve the plate’s resistance against buckling behavior [20]. The flexural performance,
including bending and energy absorption capacities, of the stiffened composite members
was significantly improved by more than 20%, and was further improved by increasing the
number of stiffeners, because the local buckling of tubes was sufficiently delayed due to
the effects of the internal/external stiffeners. However, using additional steel processes
such as welding [19] or fabricating new cross-sections [20], and/or adding additional steel
parts for stiffening the concrete-filled steel tube beams [23] can increase costs and time
which have impacts on projects. Therefore, steel C-sections (C-purlins) fabricated with a
thinner thickness and lower self-weight than equivalent hot-rolled steel C-sections have
recently been adopted in systems of concrete-filled steel tube members [12,24]. In particular,
combining two C-purlins face-to-face to produce a slender hollow steel tube beam filled
with concrete material and internal steel stiffeners (top and bottom lips of the C-purlin)
has achieved significant flexural performance under pure bending loads [12,24]. A single
C-purlin in a concrete-filled tube composite system shows different failure modes than two
C-purlins joined together, because it is a challenge to confine the infill concrete specifically
along the open side of the C-purlin, where the core concrete could leak out the section.
Furthermore, engineers have given significant attention to reducing the cost and self-
weight of concrete-filled steel tube members by adding different types of waste materials
such as recycled aggregates in concrete mixtures [9,18,25–30]. Several researchers have
experimentally investigated the performance of steel tube members by using recycled
concrete aggregate, usually known as “RCA or RAC”, prepared from crushed concrete
elements of demolished old reinforced concrete structures; the raw coarse aggregate of
the infill concrete material inside steel tube members was partially replaced with RCA
(by volume) [5,12,26,27,30–34]. In general, the performance testing results of steel tube
beams filled with recycled concrete material are quite close to those of corresponding
members filled with normal concrete material, with slightly less strength capacity [26,31].
Moreover, lightweight concrete material has been adopted as infill in a system of concrete-
filled steel tube beams/columns in order to reduce the self-weight of the core concrete
part of these composite members [35–38]. One of the most useful lightweight aggregates
used to reduce the self-weight of concrete mixtures has been expanded polystyrene (EPS)
beads, which have been used to replace the raw coarse aggregate of the concrete mixture by
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 3 of 23

volume [12,19,39–41]. Additionally, waste materials such as recycled aggregates have also
been used in concrete mixtures of plain and reinforced concrete elements such as crumb
rubber aggregates (CRA) [42–44] and fine glass aggregates (FGA) [45–49]; however, they
have not yet been used in composite members. Therefore, it is suggested that using more
than two types of waste materials (RCA, EPS, CRA, and/or FGA) as recycled aggregates
in a system of concrete-filled steel tube members is expected to be useful and could be
considered to be a new concept for environmental improvement.
Based on the above literature, the main aim of this research is to investigate the flexural
performance of single C-sections filled with concrete materials. This new composite beam
system is suggested to achieve a lighter weight and lower cost than the conventional
composite beams system, which is required to be adopted into flooring systems since,
to date, cold-formed C-sections are applicable for a roofing system to carry lighter loads
compared to those applied on floors. Therefore, 15 specimens were prepared and tested
under four-point bending. The specimens were categorized into four groups: Group 1, to
study the flexural performances of a cold-formed C-section (C-purlin) filled with concrete
material containing different percentages of combined recycled aggregates which are RCA,
EPS, FGA, and CRA; Group 2, to investigate the influence of using multi-steel strips for
restraining the top and bottom flanges together along the open side of the C-sections
to improve the concrete’s confinement behavior; and Groups 3 and 4, to investigate the
effects of providing connectors on the top-half of the C-section’s cross-section along varied
span lengths. Furthermore, finite element (FE) models were built and analyzed to further
investigate the flexural performance of the newly proposed steel C-sections filled with
concrete material. The results obtained from the current experimental and numerical works
are discussed.

2. Experimental Approach
2.1. Specimens Preparation
Fifteen (15) specimens were prepared in this research by filling single C-sections
(galvanized steel C-purlins) with concrete material to investigate their flexural performance.
In addition, to improve the behavior of the composite C-sections and core concrete, the top
and bottom flanges were stiffened with steel strips by providing multi-screw connectors
along the top-half of a C-section’s cross-section, as shown in Figure 1. The C-sections
had all been fabricated with depths of 150 mm, flange widths of 65 mm, lips of 20 mm,
and thicknesses of 1.6 mm. Twelve of the specimens were prepared with lengths of
1.5 m and, three specimens were prepared with 2.0 m lengths. Group 1 consisted of 6
specimens designed to study the effects of concrete filling material that contained varied
waste materials (RCA, EPS, CRA, and FGA); one specimen in this group was tested as a
control hollow beam (B-H, see Section A-A in Figure 1), and the other 5 specimens were
tested with different percentages of recycled aggregate in the concrete mixtures equal to
0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% (identified as specimens B-CM0, B-CM25, B-CM50, B-CM75,
and B-CM100, respectively, see Section B-B in Figure 1). Group 2 consisted of 3 specimens
designed to study the effects of externally stiffening the open side of the concrete-filled
C-section beam with 3, 5, and 7 steel strips (identified as B-CM0-3ST, B-CM0-5ST, and
B-CM0-7ST, respectively, see Section C-C in Figure 1); all specimens in this group were
filled with normal concrete (0% recycled aggregates). Group 3 consisted of 3 specimens
designed to study the effects of using multi-screw connectors that were provided before
concrete casting and distributed along 10 and 20 equal spacing (identified as B-CM0-10SR
and B-CM0-20SR, respectively, see Section D-D in Figure 1), as well as 1 specimen without
screw connectors (B-CM0). Finally, Group 4 was the same as Group 3 (3 specimens) but
with longer span lengths equal to 2.0 m (identified as LB-CM0, LB-CM0-10SR, and LB-CM0-
20SR). All specimens were placed horizontally on their backsides during concrete casting,
and both sides of the specimens were temporarily sealed to prevent concrete leaking, as
shown for all specimens in Figure 2. The specimens were cured at room temperature until
 Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 26

Materials 2022, 15, 2982 4 of 23

backsides during concrete casting, and both sides of the specimens were temporarily
sealed to prevent concrete leaking, as shown for all specimens in Figure 2. The specimens
were cured at room temperature until the day of testing (after 30 days from casting day).
the day 1ofpresents
Table testing the
(after 30 days from
designations, casting
size, day). Table
and physical 1 presents
properties of thethe designations, size,
specimens.
and physical properties of the specimens.

Figure 1. Sketch of suggested specimens with C-sections filled with concrete (out of scale).
Figure 1. Sketch of suggested specimens with C-sections filled with concrete (out of scale).

Table Designations
1. 1.
Table Designationsand
andresults
resultsof
ofthe
thetested
tested specimens.
specimens.

Specimens Specimens Le Strip/Screw Pu Mu Strength

Strength
Item Specimens
Designation Specimens
Specification (mm) L Le/D
Strip/Screw (kN)Pu (kN.m)
Mu
Spacing
e (mm) Deviation (%)
Item Le/D Deviation
1 Designation
B-H Specification
Hollow 1350 (mm) Spacing
- (mm)9 (kN) (kN.m)
4.3 1.0 -
Filled with concrete—0% (%)
2 B-CM0 1350 - 9 50.8 11.4 -
1 B-H recycled aggregates
Hollow 1350 - 9 4.3 1.0 -
3 B-CM25 Filled with concrete—25% 1350 - 9 45.0 10.1 −11.4
Filled withaggregates
recycled concrete—0% recycled
2 B-CM0 1350 - 9 50.8 11.4 -
4 B-CM50 aggregates
Filled with concrete—50% 1350 - 9 41.5 9.3 −18.3
recycled aggregates
5 3 B-CM25
B-CM75 FilledFilled with concrete—25%
with concrete—75% 1350 1350 - - 9 9 45.0
39.5 10.1
8.9 −11.4
−22.2
recycled
recycled aggregates
aggregates
Filled with concrete—100% −24.7
6 B-CM100 Filled aggregates
recycled with concrete—50%1350 - 9 38.3 8.6
4 B-CM50 1350 - 9 41.5 9.3 −18.3
recycled aggregates
Filled with concrete—stiffened
7 B-CM0-3ST 1350 337.5 9 52.8 11.9 +3.8
Filled
by with
3 steel concrete—75%
strips
5 B-CM75 Filled with concrete—stiffened 1350 - 9 39.5 8.9 −22.2
by 5recycled aggregates 1350
8 B-CM0-5ST 225.0 9 57.5 12.9 +13.2
steel strips
9 6 B-CM0-7ST Filled
Filled with with concrete—100%
concrete—stiffened 1350
B-CM100 by 7 steel strips 1350 168.75 - 9 9 65.5
38.3 14.7
8.6 +28.9
−24.7
recycled aggregates
10 B-CM0 FilledFilled
with with
concrete—stiffened
concrete—without stiffeners
by
1350 - 9 48.3 10.9 -
7 B-CM0-3ST 1350 337.5 9 52.8 11.9 +3.8
11 B-CM0-10SR 3 steel strips
Filled with concrete—stiffened 1350 135 9 52.8 11.9 +9.1
by 10 screw connectors
Filled with concrete—stiffened by
Filled with concrete—stiffened
12 8 B-CM0-5ST
B-CM0-20SR 1350 1350 67.5 225.0 9 9 57.5
54.8 12.9
12.3 +13.2
+13.4
by 20 screw 5connectors
steel strips
Filledwith
Filled with concrete—stiffened
concrete (long by
13 9 LB-CM0
B-CM0-7ST 1850 1350 - 168.75 12.3 9 35.8
65.5 8.0
14.7 -
+28.9
span)—without stiffeners
7 steel strips
Filled with concrete (long
14 LB-CM0-10SR Filled with concrete—without 1850
10 B-CM0 span)—stiffened
10 screw connectors
by 1350 135 - 12.3
9 43.5
48.3 9.8
10.9 +21.7
-
stiffeners
Filled with concrete (long
15 LB-CM0-20SR span)—stiffened by 1850 67.5 12.3 45.5 10.0 +27.3
20 screw connectors
Materials 2022, 15,2022,
Materials 298215, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 26 5 of 23

Figure 2. Specimens of C-sections filled with concrete: (a) concrete filled C-section specimens
Figure 2. Specimens of C-sections filled with concrete: (a) concrete filled C-section specimens
with/without steel strips; (b) short and long specimens stiffened with screw connections.
with/without steel strips; (b) short and long specimens stiffened with screw connections.

2.2. Material Properties

The C-sections used in this research were supplied from the same batch and had been
previously tested by Al Zand et al. [12], with average yield strength, ultimate strength,
and elastic modulus values equal to 489 MPa, 558 MPa, and 201 GPa, respectively. The
concrete mixtures contained different percentages of four recycled aggregates that replaced
 Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 26

Materials 2022, 15, 2982 2.2. Material Properties 6 of 23

The C-sections used in this research were supplied from the same batch and had been
previously tested by Al Zand et al. [12], with average yield strength, ultimate strength,
and elastic modulus values equal to 489 MPa, 558 MPa, and 201 GPa, respectively. The
the raw aggregates by volume,
concrete mixturesascontained
shown indifferent
Figure 3.percentages
The recycled of aggregates
four recycled were: (a) EPS that
aggregates
beads with sizes ranging from 4 to 6.3 mm and density equal to 9.5 kg/m 3 (replaced raw
replaced the raw aggregates by volume, as shown in Figure 3. The recycled aggregates
coarse aggregate),
were:(b)
(a)RCA prepared
EPS beads fromranging
with sizes crushed old4concrete
from to 6.3 mmelements
and densitywith 5–19
equal mm
to 9.5 kg/m3
particle sizes and overall
(replaced raw density equal to 1278
coarse aggregate), kg/m
(b) RCA 3 (replaced
prepared raw coarse
from crushed aggregate),
old concrete elements
(c) CRA preparedwithfrom
5–19crumb
mm particle
rubber sizes anddensity
with overall equal
densitytoequal to 1278
600 kg/m 3 and
kg/m2–5
3 (replaced raw coarse
mm particle
aggregate),
sizes, and (d) FGA (c) CRA
prepared prepared
from crushedfromwaste
crumbglass
rubbermaterial
with densitywithequal to 600equal
density kg/m3 to and 2–
3 5 mm particle sizes, and (d) FGA prepared from crushed
1570 kg/m and 1–5 mm particle sizes (both CRA and FGA replaced raw fine aggregate by waste glass material with density
equal to 1570 kg/m3 and 1–5 mm particle sizes (both CRA and FGA replaced raw fine
volume). For each concrete mix designed in this research, 3 cubes (150 mm) were taken
aggregate by volume). For each concrete mix designed in this research, 3 cubes (150 mm)
during the casting day which were cured and tested at 28 days, according to the standard
were taken during the casting day which were cured and tested at 28 days, according to
of BS 1881:1983.theTable 2 presents
standard the proportion
of BS 1881:1983. of concrete
Table 2 presents mixture (CM)
the proportion including
of concrete mixture the(CM)
percentages (0,including
25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) of combination from four different
the percentages (0, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) of combination from four recycled
aggregates (RCA, EPS, CRA,
different recycled and FGA) that
aggregates were
(RCA, used
EPS, CRA,in and
eachFGA)mixture. Also,
that were theinvalues
used of
each mixture.
physical properties (density,
Also, the values of cubic compressive
physical strength,cubic
properties (density, fcu , compressive
and elastic strength,
modulus, fcu,Eand
) of
c elastic
modulus, E ) of each concrete
each concrete mixture are shown in the same table.
c mixture are shown in the same table.

Figure
Figure 3. Recycled 3. Recycled
aggregate aggregate
materials usedmaterials used in the
in the concrete concrete mixture.
mixture.

Table 2. Proportion of the concrete mixtures (kg/m3).

Table 2. Proportion of the concrete mixtures (kg/m3 ).
Fine Coarse Silica Superplasticizer
Mixture Cement Coarse Silica
Water
Superplasticizer
Density fcu Ec
Mixture Cement Fine Agg. Agg. Fume
Water RF 611 Density f3cu) Ec (GPa)
Designation (kg)
Designation
Agg. (kg)
(kg) Agg. Fume (kg)
(kg) RF 611 3 (kg/m
(MPa)
(MPa) (GPa)
(kg) (kg) (kg)
(kg) (kg) (L) (litter) (kg/m )
CM0 395 CM0 700 395 1115 700 01115 1900 190 0 0 2323 2323
40.1 40.1 26.6 26.6
CM25 356 CM25 630 356 948 630 40948 190
40 190 1.42 1.42 2185 38.8
2185 38.826.2 26.2
CM50 356 560 781 40 190 1.42 2166 25.0 21.1
CM75 356 560 502 40 190 1.42 2036 23.0 20.2
CM100 356 525 279 40 190 1.42 2030 22.7 20.1
Total Agg.
Mixture EPS EPS RCA RCA CRA CRA FGA FGA
Designation (%) (kg) (%) (kg) (%) (kg) (%) (kg) Replacement
(%)
CM0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
CM25 15 1.1 0 0 10 26.8 0 0 25
CM50 15 1.1 15 143 10 26.8 10 54 50
CM75 25 1.8 30 285 10 26.8 10 54 75
CM100 25 1.8 50 476 12.5 33.4 12.5 68 100
CM25 15 1.1 0 0 10 26.8 0 0 25
CM50 15 1.1 15 143 10 26.8 10 54 50
CM75 25 1.8 30 285 10 26.8 10 54 75
CM100 25 1.8 50 476 12.5 33.4 12.5 68 100
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 7 of 23

2.3. Test Setup

The specimens were tested under pure bending load (two-point load), as shown in
2.3. Test Setup
Figure 4. The static load was continually applied using a 500 kN capacity manual
The specimens were tested under pure bending load (two-point load), as shown in
hydraulic jack with a loading rate of about 5–7 kN/minute. Single linear variable
Figure 4. The static load was continually applied using a 500 kN capacity manual hydraulic
differential
jack with atransducers
loading rate of (LVDT)
about 5–7were placed underneath
kN/minute. the mid-span
Single linear variable of specimens.
differential trans-
Three strain gauges were fixed at the top flange (STG1), mid-depth
ducers (LVDT) were placed underneath the mid-span of specimens. Three strain gauges (STG2), and bottom
flange
were(STG3)
fixed atof
thethe
topsteel C-section
flange (STG1), specimens to read and
mid-depth (STG2), the changes in tensile
bottom flange (STG3)strain during
of the
thesteel
test.C-section
The dataspecimens
collected tofrom
readthe
theLVDT,
changesload cell, and
in tensile strain
strain gauges
during during
the test. Thethe
datatesting
collected from the LVDT, load cell, and strain gauges during
were saved in a computer equipped with a data logger device (see Figure 4).the testing were saved in a
computer equipped with a data logger device (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Schematic test setup for short/long specimens (all dimensions in mm).
Figure 4. Schematic test setup for short/long specimens (all dimensions in mm).
3. Test Results Discussion
3. Test Results
3.1. Failure Discussion
Modes
In this
3.1. Failure section, we present and discuss the failure modes that were recorded from the
Modes
experimental testing of the specimens of steel C-sections filled with concrete materials,
In this section, we present and discuss the failure modes that were recorded from the
where all specimens were tested beyond their ultimate capacities in order to further inves-
experimental
tigate extreme testing of the
behavior. specimens
First, the hollowofC-section
steel C-sections filled with
showed twisting concrete
failure materials,
for the webs
where
at theall specimens
supports were tested
even before reachingbeyond theirbending
its ultimate ultimate capacities
capacity, in order
as shown to further
in Figure 5.
investigate extreme behavior. First, the hollow C-section showed twisting
However, the same C-section, when filled with concrete materials (B-CM0), showed delay- failure for the
webs at the
ing in thetwisting
supports evenatbefore
failure reaching
the supports, its the
where ultimate
web wasbending
twistedcapacity, as shown in
at higher loading
stage compared to that with hollow section. The tested specimen
Figure 5. However, the same C-section, when filled with concrete materials B-CM0 showed normal
(B-CM0),
deflection behavior (almost half-sine wave deflection behavior) very similarly
showed delaying in the twisting failure at the supports, where the web was twisted to the con- at
ventional concrete-filled cold-formed steel tube beam [12], as shown in Figure 6. Generally,
higher loading stage compared to that with hollow section. The tested specimen B-CM0
the deflection of the concrete-filled specimen (B-CM0) increased continually with increases
showed normal deflection behavior (almost half-sine wave deflection behavior) very
in the applied load until concrete cracks started to occur in the high shear zone (the distance
similarly
betweentothe the conventional
point concrete-filled
load and adjacent support).cold-formed steel further
Then, these cracks tube beam [12], as
increased, andshown
the concrete part slipped outside the C-section at the extreme loading stage (see Figure 6).
Replacing the infill concrete material in the C-sections with different percentages of recycled
aggregates showed failure modes similar to that of the C-section filled with normal con-
crete (0% recycled aggregates), even for the specimen filled with 100% recycled aggregates
concrete materials, as shown in Figure 7. Furthermore, the failure mode of the single hollow
C-section showed different failure behavior than that of double hollow C-section which
showed buckling of the entire cross-section at the supports [12]. Meanwhile, the concrete
filled single C-section showed almost the same failure behavior of the double C-section
filled with concrete materials [12], where both deflected smoothly and behaved similarly
to the half-sine wave and their top flanges buckled at the extreme loading stage. The
 C-sectionfilled
C-section filledwith
withnormal
normalconcrete
concrete(0% (0%recycled
recycledaggregates),
aggregates),even evenforforthe
thespecimen
specimen
filledwith
filled with100% 100%recycled
recycledaggregates
aggregatesconcrete
concretematerials,
materials,asasshownshownininFigure Figure7. 7.
Furthermore,the
Furthermore, thefailure
failuremode
modeofofthe thesingle
singlehollow
hollowC-section
C-sectionshowed
showeddifferent
differentfailure
failure
behavior than that of double hollow C-section which showed buckling
behavior than that of double hollow C-section which showed buckling of the entire cross- of the entire cross-
section at the supports [12]. Meanwhile, the concrete filled single C-section
section at the supports [12]. Meanwhile, the concrete filled single C-section showed almost showed almost
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 thethe same
same failure
failure behavior
behavior ofof the
the double
double C-section
C-section filled
filled with
with concrete
concrete materials
materials [12],
[12], where
where 8 of 23
both deflected smoothly and behaved similarly to the half-sine wave
both deflected smoothly and behaved similarly to the half-sine wave and their top flanges and their top flanges
buckledatatthe
buckled theextreme
extremeloading
loadingstage.
stage.TheThedifference
differenceis isthat
thatthe
thesingle
singleC-section
C-sectionshowed
showed
difference is that the single C-section showed less concrete confinement behavior,out
less
less concrete
concrete confinement
confinement behavior,
behavior, thus
thus the
the concrete
concrete waswas widely
widely cracked
cracked andand slid
slid out thethe
the
thus
concrete was widely cracked and slid out the steel tube at the extreme loading limitC-
steel
steel tube
tube at at the
the extreme
extreme loading
loading limit
limit (see
(see Figure
Figure 6),6), which
which did
did not
not occur
occur when
when double
double C- (see
sections
sections were used [12].
Figure 6),were
which used [12].
did not occur when double C-sections were used [12].

Figure
Figure
Figure 5. 5.
5. Typical
Typical
Typical failure
failure
failure modes
modes
modes ofofof hollow
hollow
hollow C-section
C-section specimen.
specimen.
C-section specimen.

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 26

Figure
Figure
Figure 6. 6. Typical
Typical
Typical failure
failure
failure modes
modes
modes ofofof C-section
C-section
C-section specimen
specimen
specimen filled
filled
filled with
with
with normal
normal
normal concrete.
concrete.
concrete.

Figure7.7.Typical
Figure Typical failure
failure modes of recycled
modes of recycledconcrete-filled
concrete-filledC-section
C-section specimens.
specimens.

In general, the concrete-filled C-section specimens stiffened with multi steel strips
(i.e., B-CM0-3ST, B-CM0-5ST, and B-CM0-7ST) showed the same behavior as the
unstiffened specimen (B-CM0), as shown in Figure 8. However, the appearance of
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 9 of 23

In general, the concrete-filled C-section specimens stiffened with multi steel strips
(i.e., B-CM0-3ST, B-CM0-5ST, and B-CM0-7ST) showed the same behavior as the unstiffened
specimen (B-CM0), as shown in Figure 8. However, the appearance of concrete cracks
in the stiffened specimens was delayed and occurred at a higher loading stage than that
of the unstiffened specimen B-CM0, this is due to the influence of these steel strips that
restricted the top and bottom flanges from opening under high bending which led to an
improvement in the behavior of concrete confinement. Increasing the number of steel
strips further enhanced the concrete confinement behavior. In this experimental study,
the screw connectors located at the maximum shear zone (between the point load and
adjacent support) failed under the extreme loading stage, and the concrete cracks suddenly
increased accordingly (see Figure 8). Therefore, the performance of these steel strips can be
more enhanced by providing better connection to the top and bottom flanges of the single
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
cold-formed C-section, in order to better improve the confinement behavior11ofofthe 26 core

concrete of the newly suggested composite beams system.

Figure
Figure 8. Typicalfailure
8. Typical failuremodes
modes of
of stiffened
stiffenedconcrete
concretefilled specimens
filled withwith
specimens steelsteel
strips.
strips.

Figure9 9shows
Figure shows the
the failure
failure mode
modeofofthe thetested
tested specimens
specimensthat that
werewere
stiffened with with
stiffened
multi-screw connectors provided along the top-half of a C-section’s cross section. The
multi-screw connectors provided along the top-half of a C-section’s cross section. The
concrete cracks began at the high shear zone similar to the unstiffened specimen (B-CM0).
concrete cracks began at the high shear zone similar to the unstiffened specimen (B-CM0).
However, for the stiffened specimens with screw connectors, the side-slip failure of the
However, for the stiffened specimens with screw connectors, the side-slip failure of the
cracked concrete part from the C-section was limited compared to control specimen B-
cracked
CM0. concrete part from
This behavior the C-section
occurred due to thewas limited
influence ofcompared to control
these connectors, specimen
which are wellB-CM0.
This behavior
bonded withoccurred due to the
the core concrete andinfluence of these
tilted perfectly connectors,
to the body (topwhich
flangeare
andwell
web)bonded
of the with
thesteel
coreC-section.
concrete Accordingly,
and tilted perfectly
increasingto the body (top
the number flange
of these andconnectors
screw web) of theledsteel C-section.
to more
Accordingly,
improvement increasing the number
in the interaction betweenof these screw connectors
this composite led(core
beam’s parts to more improvement
concrete and
in the
steelinteraction between
C-section), and this composite beam’s
also delayed/restricted the steelparts
tube’s(core concrete
outward andbehavior
buckling steel C-section),
at
andthe maximum
also bending zonethe
delayed/restricted (between both point
steel tube’s outwardloadsbuckling
and/or under the point
behavior at theloads).
maximum
Lastly,zone
bending increasing the span
(between both of concrete
point loadsfilled C-section
and/or underspecimen
the pointstiffened with multi-
loads). Lastly, increasing
screw connectors had not much of a difference to the corresponding
the span of concrete filled C-section specimen stiffened with multi-screw connectors hadspecimen with
shorter span (see Figure 9).
not much of a difference to the corresponding specimen with shorter span (see Figure 9).
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 10 of 23
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 26

Figure 9. Typical failure modes of stiffened concrete filled specimens with screws.
Figure 9. Typical failure modes of stiffened concrete filled specimens with screws.
3.2. Load vs. Deflection Relationship
3.2. Load vs. Deflection Relationship
The flexural load vs. mid-span deflection relationships of the tested concrete-filled
C-sections are shown in Figures 10–12. Generally, the load–deflection curves start with
The flexural loadupvs.
linear behaviors mid-span
to the deflection
load yielding limit, which relationships
is approximately atofthethe tested concrete-filled
deflection
C-sectionslimit
are shown
of about inThen,
Le/300. Figures 10–12. Generally,
the load–deflection the load–deflection
curves show elastic–plastic behavior up to curves start with
80–90% of the specimens’ loading capacities, where steel buckling starts to occur and the
linear behaviors up tocracking
width of concrete the load yielding
becomes limit,after
wider, where which
that theisload–deflection
approximately curves at the deflection
limit of about Le /300.
show fully Then, the
plastic behavior load–deflection
and reduces curves
rapidly till the end of test. show elastic–plastic behavior up
to 80–90% of the specimens’ loading capacities, where steel buckling starts to occur and
the width of concrete cracking becomes wider, where after that the load–deflection curves
show fully plastic behavior and reduces rapidly till the end of test.
The load–deflection curve of concrete filled specimen B-CM0 showed much better stiff-
ness and ductility behavior than that of the hollow specimen B-H, as shown in Figure 10a.
The most interesting outcome for the newly suggested composite members is that the
C-sections filled with different percentages of recycled aggregates showed similar load–
deflection behavior to that filled with normal concrete (0% recycled aggregates), as shown
in Figure 10b. However, the load–deflection curves of the C-specimens filled with recycled
aggregates achieved lower flexural stiffness and strength than that filled with normal
concrete, this performance is considered reasonable since the lightweight-recycled con-
crete materials achieved lower compressive strength compared with the normal concrete
material, as shown earlier in Table 2.
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 11 of 23
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 26
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 26

Figure 10. Load vs. mid-span deflection relationship of concrete-filled C-section specimens; (a)
Figure 10. Hollow
Figure 10. Load
Load vs. specimens;
mid-span
and filleddeflection
vs. mid-span
deflection
(b) Varied of
relationship contains
relationship
of recycled
concrete-filled
ofspecimens;
concrete-filled
aggregates.
C-section (a)
C-section specimens;
(a) Hollow
Hollow and
and filled filled specimens;
specimens; (b) Varied
(b) Varied contains contains
of recycled aggregates.of recycled aggregates.

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 26

Figure 11. Load vs. mid-span deflection relationship of stiffened specimens with steel strips.
Figure
Figure LoadLoad
11. 11. vs. mid-span
vs. mid-span deflectionofrelationship
deflection relationship of stiffened
stiffened specimens specimens with
with steel strips. steel strips.

Figure 12. Load

Figure vs. mid-span
12. Load vs. mid-span deflection relationship
deflection relationship of stiffened
of stiffened specimens specimens
with screws. with screws.

The load–deflection
The load–deflection curve of
curves ofconcrete filled specimen
the specimens B-CM0 with
stiffened showed muchsteel
multi betterstrips are stiffer
stiffness and ductility behavior than that of the hollow specimen B-H, as shown in Figure
than the10a.
control specimen
The most interesting(B-CM0),
outcome foras theshown in Figure
newly suggested 11. Additionally,
composite members is thatthe
theload–deflection
curve of the specimen
C-sections filled withstiffened with more
different percentages steel aggregates
of recycled strips (B-CM0-7ST)
showed similarbehaved
load– stiffer and
achieveddeflection behavior
a higher to that filled
loading with normal
capacity concrete (0%
compared to recycled aggregates),stiffened
the specimens as shown with a lesser
in Figure 10b. However, the load–deflection curves of the C-specimens filled with recycled
numberaggregates
of steelachieved
strips (i.e., B-CM0-3ST and B-CM0-5ST). The load–deflection curves of
lower flexural stiffness and strength than that filled with normal
the stiffened
concrete, this performance issteel
specimens with stripsreasonable
considered showedsince a sudden drop in stiffness once they
the lightweight-recycled
reachedconcrete materials achieved
their ultimate capacity, lower compressive
because strengthfailures
of sudden compared inwith
theirthesteel
normal
strip connections
concrete material, as shown earlier in Table 2.
and subsequent cracks in the core concrete in the high shear zone. Moreover, the load–
The load–deflection curves of the specimens stiffened with multi steel strips are
deflection curves
stiffer than theof the specimens
control stiffened
specimen (B-CM0), with
as shown multi-screw
in Figure connectors
11. Additionally, the load–were compared,
deflection curve of the specimen stiffened with more steel strips (B-CM0-7ST) behaved
stiffer and achieved a higher loading capacity compared to the specimens stiffened with
a lesser number of steel strips (i.e., B-CM0-3ST and B-CM0-5ST). The load–deflection
curves of the stiffened specimens with steel strips showed a sudden drop in stiffness once
they reached their ultimate capacity, because of sudden failures in their steel strip
connections and subsequent cracks in the core concrete in the high shear zone. Moreover,
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 12 of 23

as shown in Figure 12, and showed slightly higher load-deflection curves specifically at
the elastic–plastic stage than that of the unstiffened specimens (B-CM0 and LB-CM0), this
improvement increased continually with the increasing number of connectors.
The relationships between the load and longitudinal strain of the steel C-sections at the
mid-span of the tested specimens are presented in Figure 13. In general, replacing the raw
aggregates in the concrete material did not change the load–strain relationship, even when a
high percentage of replacement (i.e., 100%) recycled aggregate was used, as compared with
the specimens B-CM0 and B-CM100, as shown in Figure 13a. This performance had been
previously recorded for a double C-section that had been prepared as a closed tube section
filled with recycled concrete mixtures [12]. Additionally, stiffening the C-section with multi
steel strips provided along the open side and/or providing multi-screw connectors along
the top-half of the C-section’s cross section led to improved load–strain relationships, since
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW they achieved higher loading capacity than that of the unstiffened
15 of 26 specimen (B-CM0), as
shown in Figure 13b,c, respectively.

Figure
Figure 13.vs.Load
13. Load tensilevs. tensile
strain strainofrelationships
relationships tested specimens.of tested specimens.
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 13 of 23

3.3. Loading Capacity

This section presents and discusses the achieved loading capacities (ultimate flexural
strength capacity) of the tested C-section specimens that were filled with varied contains
of lightweight-recycled concrete materials aggregates, including those stiffened with steel
strips and screw connectors. The ultimate load (Pu ) and ultimate moment (Mu ) for the
tested specimens are presented and compared in Table 1. Generally, the results show that
increasing the percentages of the replacement recycled aggregates achieved lower Pu values
than that of the control specimen filled with normal concrete. The 50% lightweight, recycled
concrete aggregate mixture (B-CM50) achieved a Pu value equal to 41.5 kN which was about
−18.3% less than that of the B-CM0 specimen (50.8 kN), and then the loading capacity
was further reduced, up to 38.3 kN (−24.7%), by using a higher replacement percentage of
lightweight, recycled concrete aggregate mixture (100% replacement, B-CM100 specimen);
however, the loading capacity was still much higher than the Pu value of the hollow
specimen B-H (i.e., 4.3 kN). This performance was considered to be reasonable. Although
the compressive strength of the concrete mixture was gradually reduced as the percentage
of recycled aggregate increased, the recycled aggregate, when used as infill material in
single C-sections, still had a significant influence, which was similar to that of double
C-section [12].
Furthermore, both of the stiffening scenarios (providing steel strips or screw connec-
tors) adopted in this experimental investigation improved the loading capacity of the single
steel C-sections filled with concrete material. As highlighted earlier, tightening the top
and bottom C-section’s flanges with multi steel strips achieved better concrete confine-
ment behavior. For example, using three steel strips to stiffen the concrete-filled C-section
achieved a Pu value of 52.8 kN (+3.8% higher than the value of the unstiffened specimen
B-CM0), and this was further improved to 65.5 kN (+28.9 %) when seven steel strips were
used, as shown in Table 1. The same performance was recorded when connectors were
added along the top-half of the cross-sections of the concrete-filled C-section specimens,
where the loading capacity improved gradually with reduced spacing between these con-
nectors (i.e., using more screw connectors). Lastly, the improvement in loading capacity
of the longer specimens stiffened with multi-screw connectors was more obvious (higher
percentage) than the shorter specimens, see the Pu values of specimens B-CM0-20SR and
LB-CM0-20R (as compared in Table 1).

3.4. Ductility Index

This section presents the ductility index (DI) of the tested specimens. The DI per-
formance of the newly suggested composite members is important to be understand in
general. For flexural members, the DI is usually estimated using the ratio of the deflection
value at ultimate limit (∆u ) to the deflection value at yielding limit (∆y ) [50,51], as shown
in Figure 14. For the tested C-section specimens filled with a mixture of concrete and
different percentages of recycled aggregates, the DI was slightly reduced with increases
in the aggregate replacement percentages. For example, the DI for the B-CM0 specimen
(i.e., 0% aggregate replacement) achieved a value equal to 2.8, which was reduced about
21.4% (DI = 2.2) when 100% recycled aggregate replacement was used (see Figure 15a),
since the ultimate load of specimens with recycled aggregates occurred at an earlier deflec-
tion limit than the specimen with normal concrete (0% aggregate replacement), as shown
previously by the load–deflection curves. Furthermore, the DI of specimens stiffened with
multi steel strips improved gradually with an increase in the number of strips, because
the stiffened specimens were significantly improved due to the effects of the steel strips;
the stiffened specimen with seven strips (B-CM0-7ST) achieved a DI value of 3.7, which
was about 12.1% (DI = 3.3) and 8.8% (DI = 3.4) higher than those stiffened with three and
five steel strips (B-CM0-3ST and B-CM0-5ST), respectively, as shown in Figure 15b. Lastly,
stiffening the C-sections with multi-screw connectors improved the ductility index, since
the related load–deflection curves were improved, as in Figure 15c. Regardless of the span
length of the stiffened specimens, since the flexural behavior was improved, then the DI
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 2

Materials 2022, 15, 2982 14 of 23

in Figure 15c. Regardless of the span length of the stiffened specimens, since the flexura
behavior was improved, then the DI values improved accordingly, thus,
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 ofthe
26 improvemen
values improved
percentage accordingly,
of the DI thus, the
was increased improvement
gradually withpercentage of the
an increased DI was of
number increased
connectors, fo
gradually with an increased number of connectors, for example, as
example, as illustrated by the DI values of the D-CM0-10SR and B-CM0-20SRillustrated by the specimens
DI
in Figure
values 15c.D-CM0-10SR
of the Regardless ofand
the span length of the
B-CM0-20SR stiffened specimens, since the flexural
specimens.
behavior was improved, then the DI values improved accordingly, thus, the improvement
percentage of the DI was increased gradually with an increased number of connectors, for
example, as illustrated by the DI values of the D-CM0-10SR and B-CM0-20SR specimens.

Figure14.
Figure 14.Typical
Typical procedure
procedure for
forestimating
estimatingthethe
ductility index
ductility (B-CM0).
index (B-CM0).
Figure 14. Typical procedure for estimating the ductility index (B-CM0).

Figure 15. Ductility index (DI) of tested specimens: (a) Effects of varied concrete strength; (b)
Figure
effects15. Ductility
of steel strips;index (DI) of
(c) Effects of connectors
tested specimens:
distances.(a) Effects of varied concrete strength; (b) effects
of steel strips; (c) Effects of connectors distances.
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 26

Materials 2022, 15, 2982 15 of 23

4. Numerical Method
4.1. Describe the FE Model
4. Numerical Method
The performance of the steel C-sections filled with concrete material is further
4.1. Describe the FE Model
investigated in this section using a numerical method. The nonlinear finite element
The performance
software, namely ABAQUS,of the was
steelused
C-sections
for thisfilled with In
purpose. concrete material
particular, is further
the tested inves-
specimen
tigated in this section using a numerical method. The nonlinear finite
B-CM0 was simulated, as shown in Figure 16. The loading was applied using line loads element software,
namely ABAQUS,
located at the top was used
flange of for
thethis purpose.the
C-section; In nodes
particular, the tested
located along specimen
these linesB-CM0
were
was simulated, as shown in Figure 16. The loading was applied
gradually moved downwards during the FE analysis to implement the actual using line loads located
load duringat
the top [11,14,52].
testing flange of the C-section;
There are twothe nodes
lines located
located along these
underneath thelines were
bottom gradually
flange moved
of C-section,
downwards during the FE analysis to implement the actual load during testing [11,14,52].
which represent the pinned and rolled supports that allow the model to rotate freely
There are two lines located underneath the bottom flange of C-section, which represent
around the horizontal x-axis, but they are restricted to the vertical movement (y-axis). The
the pinned and rolled supports that allow the model to rotate freely around the horizontal
total reaction values accounted from these supports are equal to the total load applied in
x-axis, but they are restricted to the vertical movement (y-axis). The total reaction values
the FE model [12,14].
accounted from these supports are equal to the total load applied in the FE model [12,14].

Figure 16. Typical FE model (specimen B-CM0).

The components of the FE model are the same as the corresponding tested specimen
B-CM0, which
B-CM0, whichhad hadinfill
infillconcrete
concrete and
andsteel C-section.
steel C-section.These are are
These equal to 40.1
equal MPa,MPa,
to 40.1 26.6 GPa,
26.6
489 MPa, 558 MPa, and 201 GPa of the average cubic concrete compressive
GPa, 489 MPa, 558 MPa, and 201 GPa of the average cubic concrete compressive strength, strength,
concrete elastic
concrete elastic modulus,
modulus, steelsteel yield
yield strength,
strength, steel
steel ultimate
ultimate strength,
strength, and
and steel
steel elastic
elastic
modulus, respectively. The solid element type C3D8R, available
modulus, respectively. The solid element type C3D8R, available in the ABAQUS in the ABAQUS software’s
library, was
software’s selected
library, wasfor the concrete
selected elements,
for the concrete while the
elements, whileshell
theelement type type
shell element S4R was
S4R
was selected for the C-section elements [12]. Based on a preliminary convergence study,
selected for the C-section elements [12]. Based on a preliminary convergence study, aa
partial interaction
partial interaction between
between the inner surface
the inner surface ofof the
the C-section
C-section and
and outer
outer surface
surface of
of the
the core
core
concrete was adopted to select a friction coefficient equal to 0.2. In general, the valuethe
concrete was adopted to select a friction coefficient equal to 0.2. In general, the value of of
friction
the coefficient
friction varies
coefficient from
varies oneone
from case to another,
case forfor
to another, this type
this typeof of
composite
composite member,
member, it
depends on the size, shape, concrete confinement behavior, component
it depends on the size, shape, concrete confinement behavior, component properties, and properties, and the
loading
the scenarios
loading [6,14,19,53].
scenarios Accordingly,
[6,14,19,53]. the same
Accordingly, constitutive
the same models
constitutive of stress–strain
models of stress–
relationships for concrete and steel materials previously adopted in [19,24] were used in
strain relationships for concrete and steel materials previously adopted in [19,24] were
the current numerical method, as shown in Figure 17. Concrete material is considered to
used in the current numerical method, as shown in Figure 17. Concrete material is
be a brittle material that is usually crushed and cracked under compression and tensile
considered to be a brittle material that is usually crushed and cracked under compression
stresses, respectively. Thus, the concrete damage plasticity option was used to identify
and tensile stresses, respectively. Thus, the concrete damage plasticity option was used to
the properties of the concrete material [24,52,54]. The elastic–plastic isotropic option was
identify the properties of the concrete material [24,52,54]. The elastic–plastic isotropic
selected to identify the physical properties of the steel material (i.e., elastic modulus,
option was selected to identify the physical properties of the steel material (i.e., elastic
Poisson’s ratio, and yield strength).
modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and yield strength).
 Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 26

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 26

Materials 2022, 15, 2982 16 of 23

Figure 17. Materials constitutive stress–strain models.

Figure
Figure 17.17. Materials
Materials constitutivestress–strain
constitutive stress–strainmodels.
models.
4.2. Verifying the FE Model
4.2.
4.2.Verifying thetheFEFE
The results
Verifying ofModel
the analyses using the currently developed FE model were verified
Model
withThethe
The results of the tested
corresponding
results of the analyses
analyses specimen
using
usingthe B-CM0,
the currently since
currently the same FE
developed
developed boundary
FEmodel conditions
modelwere wereverified and
verified
materials
with the properties
corresponding were considered.
tested specimen First, a
B-CM0, convergence
since thestudy
with the corresponding tested specimen B-CM0, since the same boundary conditions andsame was performed
boundary to
conditionsselect
amaterials
and sufficient
materials mesh sizewere
properties
properties for
werethe elementsFirst,
considered.
considered. of First,
the suggested FE
a convergence
a convergence model,
wassince
study
study was increasing
performed
performed the
to
to select
number
select of
a sufficient elements
a sufficient
mesh mesh may
sizesize not
for the be
for the necessary
elements
elements to
of the achieve
of the accurate
suggested
suggested FEFE results,
model,
model, as shown
since
since in Figure
increasing
increasing the
18a.
the The
number load
of vs. deflection
elements may curve
not of
be the FE
necessarymodel to was perfectly
achieve
number of elements may not be necessary to achieve accurate results, as shown matched
accurate with
results, as the one
shown
in that
in
Figure
experimentally
Figure 18a.load
18a. The obtained
Thevs.load
deflection for
vs. deflectionthe of
curve corresponding
curve
the FEofmodel
the FE tested
wasmodel specimen B-CM0,
was matched
perfectly perfectly asthe
matched
with shown with
one in
that
the one
Figure that
18b. experimentally
In addition, the obtained
failure for
mode the
of corresponding
the analyzed
experimentally obtained for the corresponding tested specimen B-CM0, as shown in FE tested
model, specimen
including B-CM0,
the as
tube’s
shown
outward in Figure
buckling18b. and
In addition,
twisting the failure and
failures, mode of the analyzed FE model, including theat
Figure 18b. In addition, the failure mode of thethe concrete
analyzed FEslipping of the
model, including C-section
the tube’s
tube’s
extremeoutward
loading buckling
stage, and
is verytwisting
similar failures,
to the and the
actual concrete
failure modeslipping of the
recorded for C-section
the tested
outward buckling and twisting failures, and the concrete slipping of the C-section at
atspecimens,
extreme loading stage, is very
both results similar toachieved
the actualby failure mode recorded foranalyzed
the tested
extreme loading stage, were
is very reasonably
similar to the actual the currently
failure built and
mode recorded for the tested FE
specimens,
model, as both
shown results
in were
Figure reasonably
19. achieved by the currently built and analyzed FE
specimens, both results were reasonably achieved by the currently built and analyzed FE
model, as shown in Figure 19.
model, as shown in Figure 19.

Figure 18. Verifying the results of FE model B-CM0: (a) Mesh size convergence study; (b) Compare
Figure 18. Verifying the results of FE model B-CM0: (a) Mesh size convergence study; (b)
the load-deflection
Compare curve.
the load-deflection curve.
Figure 18. Verifying the results of FE model B-CM0: (a) Mesh size convergence study; (b)
Compare the load-deflection curve.
 Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 26
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 17 of 23

Figure 19.Verifying
Figure19. Verifyingthe
thefailure
failuremode
modeofofthe
theFE
FEmodel
modelB-CM0.
B-CM0.
4.3. Parametric Study
4.3. Parametric Study
Further parameters were investigated after confirming the validity of the proposed
FE modelFurther
of theparameters
C-sections were
filledinvestigated after for
with concrete, confirming
example,the thevalidity
effects ofof the proposed
varied plate
FE model of the C-sections filled with concrete, for example, the
thickness and the depth of the C-sections were investigated. Specifically, C-sections with effects of varied plate
thickness and the depth of the C-sections were investigated. Specifically,
thicknesses of 1.6, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 mm were considered (the highest thicknesses available C-sections with
in
thicknesses of 1.6, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 mm were considered (the highest
the local market) which achieved D/t values of 94, 75, 60, and 50, respectively. In addition, thicknesses available
in C-sections
the the local market)
with depthswhich achieved
equal to 125,D/t150,values
15, andof200 94,mm 75,achieved
60, and L/D50, respectively.
values of 10.8,In
addition, the C-sections with depths equal to 125, 150, 15, and
9.0, 7.7, and 6.7, respectively. Meanwhile, the rest of the physical properties of the infill200 mm achieved L/D
values ofand
concrete 10.8, 9.0,C-section
steel 7.7, and 6.7, respectively.
remained withoutMeanwhile,
change asthe rest of the
described physical
earlier properties
in Section 4.1,
of the infill concrete and steel C-section
and all FE models in this section are 1.5 m in total length.remained without change as described earlier in
Section
The4.1, and all
flexural FE models of
performance in the
thisconcrete-filled
section are 1.5C-section
m in totalmodels
length. changed due to the
effectsThe flexural
of varied performance
steel thicknesses; ofthe
theflexural
concrete-filled
stiffnessC-section
and strengthmodels
werechanged due to the
both significantly
effects ofwith
improved varied steel thicknesses;
an increase the flexural
in C-section thickness, stiffness
as shown and 20.
in Figure strength were load
The ultimate both
significantly
capacity of theimproved
analyzedwithmodel an increase in C-section
with a higher D/t ratiothickness,
occurred as shown in Figure
at an earlier 20. The
deflection
ultimate
limit than load
thosecapacity of the
with lower analyzed
ratios model20a).
(see Figure withFor
a higher
example,D/t the
ratioultimate
occurred at an
load earlier
value of
deflection
the FE model limit
withthan those
1.6 mm with lower
C-section ratios(D/t
thickness (see =Figure 20a). For
94) achieved example,
51.2 kN, which theoccurred
ultimate
atload value of limit
a deflection the FE model
equal to 10with
mm, 1.6while
mm theC-section thickness
same model (D/t =a94)
achieved achieved
higher 51.2 kN,
load capacity
ofwhich
86.4 kN (+68.7%
occurred atimprovement)
a deflection limit when the thickness
equal to 10 mm, was increased
while the sameto 2.5 mm (D/t
model = 60),a
achieved
as shown
higher in Figure
load capacity 20b.
of This
86.4 kN behavior
(+68.7% was considered towhen
improvement) be reasonable sincewas
the thickness the increased
outward
buckling
to 2.5 mm failure(D/tof= C-section
60), as shownwas gradually
in Figurerestricted
20b. This with an increase
behavior was in steel thickness
considered to be
(less D/t ratio), see Figure 21.
reasonable since the outward buckling failure of C-section was gradually restricted with
Furthermore,
an increase in steelasthickness
shown in Figure
(less 22, reducing
D/t ratio), see Figure the21.L/D ratio of the concrete-filled
single C-section model led to increases in flexural stiffness and strength accordingly, since
reducing the L/D means reducing the slenderness ratio of the beam’s span and becoming
closer to the non-compact and/or compact span’s limit [12]. For example, the 51.2 kN
loading capacity of the control model with D/t equal to 9.0 (D = 150 mm) was significantly
improved by about 22.4% (62.7 kN) when the D/t ratio was reduced to 7.7 (D =175 mm). In
general, the loading capacity of models with higher L/D ratio occurred at lower deflection
limits than the limit of L/50 (see Figure 22a). Figure 23 shows the outward buckling failures
of the FE models with varied L/D ratios, which mainly occurred since there were only
slender thickness (1.6 mm) models in this group.
Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 26

Materials
Materials2022, 15,15,
2022, 2982
x FOR PEER REVIEW 1821
of of
23 26

Figure 20. Comparison of the results of FE models with varied depth-to-thickness ratios (D/t): (a)
Load-deflection relationship; (b) Ultimate load.
Figure 20.20.Comparison
Figure Comparisonofof the
the results of
of FE
FEmodels
modelswith
withvaried
varieddepth-to-thickness
depth-to-thickness ratios
ratios (D/t):
(D/t): (a)
(a)Load-deflection
Load-deflectionrelationship;
relationship;(b)
(b)Ultimate
Ultimateload.
load.

Figure 21. Effects of the D/t ratio on the steel C-section’s buckling behavior.
Figure 21. Effects of the D/t ratio on the steel C-section’s buckling behavior.

Figure 21. Effects ofastheshown

Furthermore, D/t ratio
inon the steel
Figure 22,C-section’s
reducing buckling
the L/Dbehavior.
ratio of the concrete-filled
single C-section model led to increases in flexural stiffness and strength accordingly, since
Furthermore, as shown in Figure 22, reducing the L/D ratio of the concrete-filled
single C-section model led to increases in flexural stiffness and strength accordingly, since
 closer to the non-compact and/or compact span’s limit [12]. For example, the 51.2 kN
loading capacity of the control model with D/t equal to 9.0 (D = 150 mm) was significantly
improved by about 22.4% (62.7 kN) when the D/t ratio was reduced to 7.7 (D =175 mm).
In general, the loading capacity of models with higher L/D ratio occurred at lower
deflection limits than the limit of L/50 (see Figure 22a). Figure 23 shows the outward
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 19 of 23
buckling failures of the FE models with varied L/D ratios, which mainly occurred since
there were only slender thickness (1.6 mm) models in this group.

Materials 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 26

Figure22.
Figure 22. Comparison
Comparisonofofthe results
the of FE
results of models with varied
FE models length-to-depth
with varied ratios (L/D):
length-to-depth (a) (L/D):
ratios
Load-deflection relationship; (b) Ultimate load.
(a) Load-deflection relationship; (b) Ultimate load.

Figure 23. Effects of the L/D ratio on the steel C-section’s buckling behavior.
Figure 23. Effects of the L/D ratio on the steel C-section’s buckling behavior.
5. Conclusions
In this study, the following conclusions have been established based on the results
5. Conclusions
of the experimental and numerical investigation of concrete-filled C-sections under pure
In this study, the following conclusions have been established based on the results of
bending load:
the experimental and numerical investigation of concrete-filled C-sections under pure
bending load:
 The flexural loading capacity of the new composite member (single cold-formed steel
C-section filled with concrete materials) is significantly increased, i.e., more than 8
times, even by using 100% lightweight-recycled aggregates in the concrete mixture,
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 20 of 23

â The flexural loading capacity of the new composite member (single cold-formed
steel C-section filled with concrete materials) is significantly increased, i.e., more
than 8 times, even by using 100% lightweight-recycled aggregates in the concrete
mixture, which are a combination of four different waste materials (RCA, EPS, CRA,
and FGA). This is due to the influence of infill concrete material that delayed the
buckling/twisting failure of the hollow C-section.
â Unlike a double C-section fabricated with closed tube section that was tested by others,
the newly tested single C-section cannot achieve high concrete confinement impact,
due to how the top and bottom flanges in the single C-section still has one side open
along its span. Thus, concrete cracking that usually occurs under two-point loads
rapidly increases and the concrete leaks outside the tube section of single C-section
at the high bending loads. However, this failure performance can be significantly
improved by stiffening the concrete-filled single C-section with steel strips provided
along the open side and/or by providing multi-screw connectors distributed equally
along the span on the top-half of beam’s cross-section.
â It is worthwhile to note that using multi steel strips or screw connectors for stiffening
the single C-sections filled with concrete incredibly increased the flexural loading
capacity. For example, using seven steel strips to stiffen the open side of C-section
or providing 20 multi-screw connectors on the top-half of a C-section’s cross-section
increased the loading capacity about 28.9% and 13.4%, respectively as compared with
the corresponding unstiffened specimens.
â Additionally, the ductility index of the suggested single cold-formed steel C-section
beam filled with concrete materials was clearly improved once any of these stiffening
scenarios (providing steel strips or screw connectors) was adopted, since bonding be-
havior between the core concrete and steel C-section parts was significantly enhanced.
â Lastly, the numerical model of the specimens of a single C-section filled with concrete
material perfectly verified the actual flexural capacity and failure mode of the cor-
responding tested specimen. The results of the FE analysis confirmed that slightly
reducing the D/t and/or L/D ratios significantly improved the flexural capacity and
behavior of C-sections filled with concrete material. For example, using single steel
C-section filled with concrete with D/t equal to 75 (2.0 mm tube thickness) instead
of 94 (1.6 mm tube thickness) led to an increase in the flexural loading capacity of
about 36.1%.
The conclusions of this investigation are limited to the size and material properties that
were adopted in the current experimental and numerical research. Further investigations
are required to adopt newly suggested composite members in future modern projects,
including stiffening, strengthening, and connection concepts.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.W.A.Z. and R.A.-A.; data curation, A.W.A.Z., M.F.A.
and M.C.L.; formal analysis, A.W.A.Z. and M.F.A.; funding acquisition, A.W.A.Z. and A.A.M.; inves-
tigation, M.F.A. and M.C.L.; methodology, A.W.A.Z. and R.A.-A.; project administration, A.W.A.Z.
and A.A.M.; resources, A.W.A.Z., M.C.L., and A.A.M.; software, A.W.A.Z. and M.C.L.; supervision,
A.W.A.Z. and A.A.M.; visualization, M.F.A., and M.C.L.; writing—original draft, A.W.A.Z. and
M.F.A.; writing—review & editing, A.W.A.Z., M.C.L. and R.A.-A. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), grant number
“GGPM-2020-001”.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are presented in the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors highly acknowledge their Institutes and Universities for the support
to prepare and complete this research, including the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Ministry
of Culture-Iraq, Al-Hawija Technical Institute-Iraq, and Deakin University-Australia.
Materials 2022, 15, 2982 21 of 23

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviation
Depth of C-section (D), deflection value at ultimate limit (∆u ) to the deflection value
at yield limit (∆y ), modulus of elasticity for concrete (Ec ), modulus of elasticity for steel
(Es ), concrete cube compressive strength at 28 days (fcu ), ultimate tensile strength of steel
(fu ), yield tensile strength of steel (fy ), flexural stiffness of composite section (K), ultimate
bending moment capacity (flexural strength capacity; Mu ), effective length (Le ), steel C-
section thickness (t), width of C-section (W), depth-to-thickness ratio (D/t), length-to-depth
ratio (L/D).

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