EVS Merged

Module 1
ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE- A MULTIDISCIPLINARY SUBJECT
Structure
Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What exactly is environment?
1.3 Key terms related to environment.
1.4 Is environment a multidisciplinary subject?
1.5 Global, local and individualistic nature of environment
1.6 Need of public awareness.
1.7 Summary
1.8 Questions
1.9 Answers
Objectives
At the end of the unit you will be able to:
>Understand environment
>Its multidisciplinary nature
> Its relevance at individual, local and global levels
1.1 Introduction
Chinese proverb, 'If you plan for one year, plant rice, if you plan for ten years, plant trees, if
you plan for hundred years, educate people'
This education has to be in terms of our environment and its management to be able to sustain our
environment and consequently quality of life.
1.2 What exactly is environment?
Environment in one word means surroundings (obviously of organisms)
Environment is a collective term embracing all the conditions in which an organism lives,
for example, light, temperature, water and other organisms. Some components of environment like
soil water etc serve as resource while other components such as temperature, light etc. act as
regulatory factor (to the organism). All components of environment are interlinked and
interdependent.
The environment in relation to man is the sum total of all- social, economical, biological,
physical or chemical factors which constitutes the surroundings of man, who is both creator and
moulder of his environment.
It is implicit in the above two descriptions of environment that there can be two types of
environment; environment in natural form without the interference of man is called natural
environment and environment changed or modified by the interference of human beings is called
man-made environment.
1.3 Key terms related to environment.
Weather- It refers to the short term properties of the atmosphere at a particular place at a given
time as regards heat, cloudiness, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc.
Climate- Climate is the weather averaged over a long period, the standard averaging period being
30 years.
Habitat- It is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that
one finds around (influences and is utilized by) different species. The habitat may be small as a
burrow or very large as ocean.
Ecological Niche- It is the role that an animal or plant species plays in the environment, the status
of an organism within its environment, which affects its survival. Two species can occupy the same
habitat in a community but cannot occupy the same niche for a long time as it would result in
competition and survival of the fittest.
Biome- A large regional unit characterized by distinctive plant and animal species and with similar
climatic conditions over the whole region, especially such a community that has developed to
climax. E.g. desert, tropical rain forest etc.
Biosphere- Part of the Earth's surface and atmosphere that contains the entire terrestrial
ecosystem, and extends from ocean depths to about six kilometers above sea level which contains
all living organisms and what supports them, the soil, subsurface water, bodies of water, air and
includes hydrosphere and lithosphere. It is also called ecosphere.
Ecological Hierarchy – It is a series of graded ecological categories or levels of organization, with
the smallest unit being organism which is an individual form of life such as a plant, an animal.
Similar organisms are called a species and the plants or organisms inhabiting a particular area at a
specific time constitute a population and various populations present in a given area at a particular
time constitute a community. A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical
environment is termed as ecosystem. Above in hierarchy is biome, followed by the whole of
biosphere.
1.4 Is Environment a Multidisciplinary subject?
Environmental studies deal with every issue that affects an organism and so it is essentially
a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human
impacts on it. It is an applied science as it seeks practical answers in making human civilization
sustainable on the earth's finite resources.
Its components include
1. Life Sciences including botany, zoology, microbiology etc help in understanding the biotic
and abiotic components of the environment.
2. Geosciences are the sciences related to the planet Earth and include topics of geology,
oceanography, hydrology, soil science etc Apart from these physics, chemistry and
atmospheric sciences together help us understand the physical and chemical structure and
also the mass and energy transfers in the abiotic environment.
3. Engineering includes civil, chemical, hydraulics, nanotechnology which help provide
solutions to environmental problems.
4. Health is vital and it is important to be aware how our environment affects our health.
5. Anthropology is the study of humanity and anthropological insights could help in
understanding the nature of the man made environment and also deals with finding
solutions to the problems caused by man’s intervention in nature.
6. Economics and sociology provide inputs in dealing with socio-economic aspects associated
with various development activities
7. Statistics, mathematics and computer science are tools required in environment
modeling
8. Philosophy is required to understand and enhance the spiritual environment, the inner
health and peace of the individual which can help in the holistic development of the society.
9. Environment education and mass communication help in spreading environmental
awareness
Physical sciences Physical
Psychology Mental
Sociology Social
a few of the
Philosophy subjects to study aspects Spiritual
The Human
Communication and resolve Environment Educational
Economics Economic
Engineering Intellectual
Fig 1.1 Diagrammatic representation of the Multidisciplinary nature of

environment science
1.5 Global, Local and Individualistic Nature of Environment.
Environment is a closely and intricately woven network of components and functions. Any
change affects all the components of the environment. The various levels at which the changes
affect, reflect the global, local or individualistic nature of environment.
To explain how any act can have far reaching effects, let us consider the example of the far
reaching effects of the isolated act of damage to the forests of a hilly region. Cutting down trees
destroys the habitat of a variety of flora and fauna thus reducing biodiversity which is a wealth to
the field of medicine. The deforestation on hills also leads to erosion of soil from these hills during
heavy rains. These hills are catchments of streams and rivers and the soil that is carried by the
streams and rivers is deposited in the bottom of rivers which in turn raises the river bottom (which
is called siltation). The disastrous floods of 1978 and 1980 which inundated almost all north India
can to a large extent was due to siltation of river beds. The siltation was a result of felling of soil
holding trees in the mountains affecting the length and breadth of the Indo-Gangetic Plain . As the
river bears with it its load of silt and mud out to the sea, harbours too are silted up, making it
necessary to continuously carry out expensive dredging operations. All this loss and expense affects
the economy of the country. Apart from all this, ground water is also being lost because water
falling on hills can be halted and can get percolated into the earth only if there is a good cover of
trees. Thus a single act of cutting of trees on hills has far reaching effects- endangers various rare
flora and fauna; erosion of soil results in siltation of river and harbours which in turn leads to
frequent floods and dredging needs in harbours. Consequently there is loss of soil, ground water,
production, wealth.
There are environmental issues or changes which may occur at any place but affects the
globe as a whole and such issues reflect the global nature of environment. For example, the green
house gases in any region affects the globe as a whole by increasing the over all temperature over
the years, that is it aggravates the process of global warming. CFCs contributed by any act on earth
anywhere effects the whole globe by ultimately reaching the ozone layer and depleting it.
Dwindling of energy resources like petroleum would make us dependants on nuclear fuels until
they reach the stage of exhaustion too. Thus depleting energy resources is a global problem.
Dwindling biodiversity would make us lose on valuable plants which could have been useful in
the field of medicine, and so to the whole humanity.
Issues like ground water pollution, hydroelectric projects, impacts of mining etc effect a local
area. These are local issues with respect to environment. For example the region of Hinkley in
California was affected by hexavalent chromium in its groundwater percolated from the unlined
ponds from the cooling towers of PG&E. The wastewater percolated into the groundwater, affected
an area near the plant approximately two miles long and nearly a mile wide. It adversely affected
the health of people who had been living in that area. Thus the factors that constitute and influence
the local environment reflect the local nature of environment.
Individually each person needs clean air, clean water, healthy food, clean and safe surroundings.
The nature of the water, food and air that an individual uses or interacts with constitutes the
individual nature of the environment. Any issues affecting our immediate surroundings thus affect
us. Thus, the most mundane needs and interactions of man are related to our environment, so it
becomes essential to understand and preserve our environment at the individual, local and global
levels.
1.5 Need for Public Awareness
In reality, environment consciousness is more difficult to incorporate in the psyche of people

as economic concerns make people blind to the effects that a particular economic activity can have
on the environment. For example poachers know for a fact that there are only a few hundred tigers
left in the forests of India, but they are more concerned about their economic needs. It is important
to educate the people that sometimes the adverse effects on us of the altered environment is not
experienced or noticed until a threshold is crossed. The public has to be educated about the fact
that if we are degrading the environment we are actually harming our own selves, our own
health and our own future.
A passion for environment is essential to develop a change in the consumption pattern of the
populace (for example all people aware of the problems of pollution still travel by private vehicle,
do not switch off their vehicles at traffic signals, use plastic covers extensively). Care for
environment is required to push a change in the individual consumption pattern which is
possible only through education.
Environment study necessarily requires developing awareness of what is going on in the

world. The holistic approach to teaching of environment science in schools and holistic study of
each topic (understanding interconnections) is required to develop the ability of problem solving,
as the real purpose of studying environment science is to be able to find solutions. The intelligence
of the student pool is required to find new ways out of the current deplorable situation.
1.7 Summary
>Study of a number of subjects is required to understand and find solutions for environmental
problems
>What we do to our environment actually comes back to us as all components of environment are
interconnected
>Creating awareness about environment and the interconnectedness of all components is essential
to replace indifference to environment with proactive interest
1.8 Terminal Questions
1. Identify a local problem and what should be the approach to solve it.
2. One global problem is the threat to the biodiversity. Find out the global level approach taken to
reduce the threat?
3. How can an environmentally aware individual contribute towards a healthy environment?
Activities
1. From your home to your college, note down the various features, peculiarities and any major problem of your
environment.
2. What would you need to study to resolve that particular problem?
1.9 Answers
Terminal Questions
1. Example: Noise pollution; planting quick growing shrubs and trees in the vicinity
2. Refer “suggested reading”- conventions like CBD
3. Refer section 1.5
References
Our Environment , Laeeq Futehally, 1988, National Book Trust, India

http://www.newagepublishers.com/samplechapter/001426.pdf
Module 3
ECOSYSTEMS
Structure
Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Concept of Ecosystem
3.3 Structure and Function of Ecosystem
3.4 Ecological succession
3.5 Major types of ecosystem
3.6 Summary
3.7 Questions
3.8 Answers
Objectives
> understand how nature functions in relation to its various components
> understand different types of ecosystems and their similarities and differences.
3.1 Introduction
Let us a little permit Nature to take her own way; she better understands her own
affairs than we.
~Michel de Montaigne (translated)
Our Earth is the only known planet with life. We have to understand its delicate balance,
develop respect for its complexity and learn to obey it realizing that nature knows better
than we do just as parents know better than a little child. Anthropogenic interference due
to developmental activities affects the delicate balance that is maintained in the units of self
dependent systems in the biosphere called as ecosystems This is because in these units the
living and non living environment work in complete coordination for the well being of the
whole unit. It is important to understand this coordination to fathom how man is working
against this otherwise perfect system and destroying it in small and big ways. Thus
endangering his own survival.
3.2 Concept of Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be defined as a biological environment consisting of all
the organisms living in a particular area interacting with each other, as well as with all the
nonliving, physical components of the environment, such as air, soil, water, and sunlight,
exchanging energy and matter. That is, it is all the organisms or in other words the
biological communities of different species in a given area and its physical environment or
abiotic components of the area.
The study of ecosystems is called ecology. The term ecology was coined in 1869 (by Earnst
Haekal) much before the term ecosystem. It is derived from the Greek word Oikos (Home)
and Logos (study) and so ecology meant the study of organisms in their natural
environment or home interacting with their surroundings. The unit of study of ecology was
later described by Tansley (1935) as ecosystem.
Ecosystems have become particularly important politically, since the Convention on

Biological Diversity (CBD) - ratified by 192 countries – which defines "the protection of
ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species in
natural surroundings" as a commitment of ratifying countries. This has created the political
necessity to spatially identify ecosystems and somehow distinguish among them. The CBD
defines an "ecosystem" as a "dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism
communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit". Some of
the major ecosystems are forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, desert ecosystem, aquatic
ecosystems etc. Though there are obviously various differences in different ecosystems, the
basic structure and functions are common.
3.3 Structure and function of Ecosystem

Ecosystems show large variations in size, structure, composition etc. However all
the ecosystems are characterized by certain basic structural and functional features which
are common. The basic structural components of an ecosystem are biotic and abiotic
components. That is the ecosystem can be viewed as a series of biotic components that
are linked together and thus interact with one another exchanging energy and matter, and
being influenced by other abiotic factors. The fact that ecosystem components are linked
indicates that disturbances to one component impact on all other components of the
ecosystem to varying degrees.
A. Structure of ecosystems – This can be summarized in four ways

a. Trophic levels (Biotic Components)
b. Abiotic Components
c. Trophic relationships
d. Ecological pyramids
a. Trophic levels - Ecosystems have a basic structure according to how different

populations acquire energy flow, where energy flow is a function of ecosystems. Species
obtaining energy in a similar way are grouped into trophic levels. There are three primary
trophic levels:
1. primary producers
2. consumers
3. decomposers
Primary producers are autotrophic organisms(primarily green plants) capable of

photosynthesis making food for themselves and indirectly for other components. In
terrestrial ecosystems the autotrophs are usually rooted plants, while in aquatic
ecosystems shallow waters have rooted plants and deep waters have phytoplanktons as
the major autotrophs
Consumers are heterotrophic organisms dependent on other organisms for food.
Consumers can be subdivided into more specific trophic levels .Those feeding directly on
producers are called primary consumers (herbivores) like rabbit, deer for terrestrial and
protozoa, many mollusk species for aquatic ecosystems. The secondary and tertiary
consumers (carnivores) eat other consumers. For e.g. frog, tiger for terrestrial ecosystems
and fishes for aquatic ecosystems. Decomposers are organisms that obtain energy and
nutrients from remains of dead producers and consumers. Decomposers are
primarily bacteria and fungi which are extremely important in the process of nutrient
cycling.
Composition of Species: For each ecosystem, the species composition in these three basic
structural levels of producers, consumers and decomposers will be different. For example,
pond ecosystem will have different composition of species in the three levels compared to
marine ecosystem. A desert will have fewer species as compared to the variety of species in
a forest ecosystem. Thus Species composition differentiates ecosystems.
b. Abiotic Components – The abiotic components are air, water, salts, light, temperature,
nutrients etc. These are basic components in the structure of every ecosystem. In deserts,
temperature and light will be in excess, but with scarcity of water. In deep sea, light would
be limited. But all these components are vital and the species composition is affected by
these abiotic factors. Nutrients such as N, P and Ca, necessary for the growth of living
organisms are accumulated in the biomass and the abiotic components like the soil. The
amount of these nutrients present in the soil at any given time is known as standing state.
Different ecosystems have different standing state of nutrients. The standing state of
nutrients may vary at different time even in the same ecosystem.
c. Trophic relationships - Ecosystems also have a basic structure according to trophic

relationships. This is the relationship of "who-eats-whom" in an ecosystem and is a food
chain. More often, however, food chains are not isolated from one another but rather are
"cross-linked" into more complicated structures called food webs. Thus a food chain can be
defined as a linear series of organisms dependent on each other for food, resulting in the
function of transfer of energy in an ecosystem. Example Grass is eaten by sheep, which in
turn is eaten by a lion. A food web can be defined as an interconnected set of food chains in
the ecosystem. For example a mouse in the field may eat several types of seeds and be
preyed upon by several different carnivores animals. But each of these carnivores animals
may consume not just the mouse but several different types of prey and so on, thus forming
an interconnected network of species.
The two most important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycling takes place through
this basic structure of food chains and food web. The food chains are also significant in that
it helps in maintaining and regulating the population size of different animals and thus
maintain ecological balance.
As the diversity (e.g. number of species) in the ecosystem increases, the complexity of
these food webs also increases and as complexity increases so does stability. e.g.
disturbance or extinction of one or two species can be compensated for . In simple food
webs or chains, extinction of one species may lead to the collapse of the entire system.
Fig3.1: Trophic Relationships
Human agricultural ecosystems are good examples of simple, unstable ecosystems.

Monocultures of single crop plants consumed by livestock and/or humans are the single
food source of insects in the ecosystem making the system unstable and because they are
unstable, they require additional energy inputs to prevent them from collapsing e.g.
insecticides, herbicides, fertilizers, irrigation water, etc. Irish potato famine is an example
of the instability of human agricultural ecosystems.
d. Ecological Pyramids- Another way to summarize the structure of trophic of ecosystems

is in the form of ecological pyramids for the trophic relationships. Ecological pyramids are
graphic representation of the structure of trophic and function of an ecosystem, starting
with producers at the base and successive trophic levels leading to the apex. These are
mostly upright but can be inverted or even urn shaped. Ecological pyramids can be based
on three different kinds of information related to the trophic relationships. These are as
follows:
1. Pyramid of numbers – It is based on numbers of individuals in each trophic level. For
example the producers in the grasslands are grasses which are small in size and large in
number thus forming a broad base. The herbivores in this ecosystem are insects while
tertiary carnivores are hawks or other birds which are gradually less and less in number,
thus forming an upright pyramid. In forest ecosystem the producers are big trees which are
less in number, where the birds, insects etc that feed on the trees are more in number
forming a broader middle structure. The secondary consumers like lizards, snakes, fox etc
which feed o these are lesser in number and thus the pyramid is urn shaped. For parasitic
food chain of few big trees with fruit eating birds harboured on them, which in turn have
higher number of lice, bugs etc as parasites growing on them, while a still greater number
of hyperparasites like microbes feeding on them, makes for an inverted pyramid of
numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass – It is based on weight of living material in each trophic level. For
example in a forest the producers (trees) accumulate a huge biomass while the total
biomass of the consumers feeding at each successive level decreases resulting in a broad
base and narrowing top, that is an upright pyramid. Whereas for a pond ecosystem the
producer are phytoplanktons which have much less biomass as compared to herbivores
(zooplanktons, insects) and carnivores (small fish) and tertiary carnivores (big fish). Thus
the pyramid takes an inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex.
3. Pyramid of energy – It is based on energy content of each trophic level. As energy is
always lost at each step of a food chain, the pyramid of energy is always upright. The
energy loss in the form of heat, respiration etc at each trophic level is as high as 90%, that
is only about 10% of the energy is passed on to the next trophic level. This would mean that
if there were a 1000 units of energy at the producers level the primary consumers would
receive 100 units of energy, the secondary consumers would receive 10 units of energy,
and the tertiary consumer would receive 1 unit of energy. That is why it takes a lot of
producers to support a few top consumers. Hence the pyramid of energy is the best
representation of the trophic relationship. This pyramid helps to demonstrate the loss of
energy from one level of the food chain to the next level.
Fig 3.2.a. Basic pyramid of trophic relationship (source: Utah State Office of
Education)
Lion, Tiger
Snakes, foxes, lizards
Insects, birds
Trees
Fig 3.2. b. Pyramid of Numbers for forests
Big fish
Small fish
Insects
Phytoplanktons
Fig 3.2.c Pyramid of Biomass for pond

Values for all the pyramids based on the three types of information, thus generally get
smaller from producers to primary consumers to secondary consumers, etc (hence takes a
pyramidal form when represented) where major exceptions are Forest ecosystems
showing urn shaped pyramid of numbers and parasitic food chains showing inverted
pyramid of numbers. Pond ecosystems showing inverted pyramid of biomass. The pyramid
of energy has no exceptions being always upright. The three pyramids (of number, biomass
and energy) drawn for each ecosystem thus gives a holistic representation of trophic
relationships, or the structure of the particular ecosystems, is based on the function they
perform. (Refer fig.)
B. Functions of Ecosystem- Interactions between ecosystem components involve two

general processes or functions:
1. Energy flow.
2. Nutrient cycling.
1. Energy Flow – Energy flow is an important function that sustains the ecosystem but
the energy does not cycle and so needs a constant input. Energy flow is a one-way
process in ecosystems The sun is the ultimate source of energy for most ecosystems,
which provides for the essential constant input of energy. This is called radiant
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, as is sunlight. Primary
producers capture a fraction of energy in sunlight striking the earth and convert it
into chemical energy (carbohydrate) that is stored in their tissues. This is fixed
energy, which is potential chemical energy bound up in various organic substances,
which are broken down in order to release their energy content. Energy in tissues of
primary producers is transferred to consumers as each consumes tissue of other
organisms. Each organism oxidizes the organic substances of the first to liberate
energy to synthesize its own cellular constituents, thus further decreasing the useful
energy at each step. About 90% - 95% of energy present in one component is lost as
heat at each transfer. The fixation of energy and its flow thus obeys the two laws of
thermodynamics where the first law states that energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to another. And the second law
states that every transformation of energy is accompanied by a simultaneous
degradation of energy from concentrated form to dispersed form. Energy flow is
thus a very inefficient process and very little energy is left when decomposers get to
it.
There are two important energy flow models.

a. Single channel energy flow model- It depicts the energy flow in a grazing food
chain which starts from green plants and ends to carnivores passing herbivores.
This is depicted using narrowing pipes to depict the gradual loss of energy at
every level and using smaller boxes to depict the decreasing stored energy that
is biomass (B). The incident energy (I), energy assimilated (A), loss of energy,
that is excreted or not utilized energy (NU), the energy loss or respiration(R) and
the energy used for production (P) is depicted. (Refer fig 3.3)
Fig3.3: Single channel shaped Enegy Flow Model
b. Y-shaped energy flow model- It was E.P. Odum who noted that food chain may
begin with live parts of plants or dead parts of plants parts which led to his
conclusion that in nature two basic food chains the grazing food chain and
detritus food chain operate, in the same ecosystem. The detritus that is dead
matter derived from the grazing food chain serves as source of energy for
detritivores or decomposers that are separate from the grazing food chain and
generally termed as the detritus food chain. The significant part in Y-shaped
model is that the two food chains are not isolated from each other. Refer fig 3.4,
for a representation of the Y shaped energy flow.
Y-shaped energy flow model is more realistic and practical than the single-
channel energy flow model because of the following points :(i) It conforms to
the basic stratified structure of ecosystems.(it) It separates the two
chains i.e. grazing food chain and detritus food chain in both time and
space.(iii) Microconsumers (e.g. bacteria, fungi) and the macroconsumers
(animals) differ greatly in. size-metabolism relations in two models.
In some ecosystems either grazing or detritus food chain may predominate.
Grazing food chain predominates in marine ecosystems as primary production in
the open sea is limited and much of it is eaten by marine herbivores leaving little
dead matter for the detritus food chain whereas in forest ecosystem the huge
quantity of biomass produced cannot be all consumed by herbivores, leaving a
large proportion of biomass in the form of litter for the detritus food chain.
The basic components of an energy flow model can be examined in a Generalized model of
Y-shaped energy flow called the Universal model given by E.P. Odum 1983. This model is
applicable to both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. It is applicable to any living
component, an individual, a population or a trophic group. (Refer fig 3.5)
Fig3.4: Simple Enegy Flow diagram representing both the grazing and the
detritus(dead matter) food chain
Fig3.5: Generalised Y shaped Enegy Flow Model (Universal Model)
It can be concluded form the energy flow, that shorter the food chain, greater would be the
available food energy as with the increase in length of the food chain, there is a
correspondingly greater loss of energy. It also implies that a larger population of people
can be supported if people shorten the food chain by eating grains directly rather than
eating animals that feed on grains. Although fruit and vegetable-sources of protein are
more often lower in one or more essential amino acids than animal sources, like lysine, and
to a lesser extent methionine and threonine. Yet the plant sources of protein can be
adequate for adult needs even with any one of the legume, cereal, nut, seed, or fruit food
groups.
2. Nutrient Cycling - Now, let's consider nutrient cycling in ecosystems and see how it is in
contrasts to energy flow. Nutrients are molecules required by living organisms e.g. carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus. Unlike energy, there is no major input of nutrients from outside the
ecosystem. Thus, nutrients are used over and over again which would mean that the
carbon, nitrogen, etc. atoms in our body have been used over and over again in ecosystems.
Nutrients move through ecosystems by way of biogeochemical cycles which by name
indicate that these cycles include biological, geological and chemical processes. Major
cycles are Nitrogen, Carbon and Phosphorous cycle. Nutrients exist in either
a reservoir or exchange pool: reservoir is the storehouse of nutrients. The nutrients in the
reservoir are not directly available to organisms in the ecosystem e.g. reservoirs for carbon
include limestone, coral reefs, and fossil fuels such as coal and natural gas. Reservoir of
phosphorous are rocks, fossils etc. Exchange pool is the source of nutrients in a form that
can be taken up by primary producers e.g. carbon in the form of atmospheric carbon
dioxide is the exchange pool form. . From Phosphate rocks the phosphorous becomes
available as dissolved phosphorous due to erosion. Nutrients tied up in biomass are
released by decomposition back into exchange pool.
Nutrients are taken up by primary producers and passed from trophic level to trophic level
like energy but is not lost as heat, rather are incorporated into biomass of each trophic
level. In obtaining energy from dead organic material, decomposers release nutrients back
into exchange pool. Some of this dead material may not be decomposed and nutrients may
become part of reservoir -- e.g. carbonification of dead organic materials not decomposed
produces reservoir forms such as natural gas, oil and coal.
3.4 Ecological Succession

"Ecological succession" is the observed process of change in the structure of species
of an ecological community over a period of time. Within any community some species may
become less abundant over some time interval, or they may even vanish from the
ecosystem altogether. Similarly, over some time interval, other species within the
community may become more abundant, or new species may even invade into the
community from adjacent ecosystems. This observed change over a period of time in what
is living in a particular ecosystem is "ecological succession".
It occurs because ecosystems are not static in nature, and is triggered by changes in the
environment. The original environment may have been optimal for the first species of plant
or animal, but the newly altered environment is often optimal for some other species of
plant or animal. Under the changed conditions of the environment, the previously
dominant species may fail and another species may become ascendant.
Does ecological succession ever stop?

In ecological succession there is the concept of the "climax" community. The climax
community represents a stable end product of the successional sequence. Its apparent that
the structure of the species and composition will not change much over observable time. To
this degree, we could say that ecological succession has "stopped". We must recognize,
however, that any ecosystem, no matter how inherently stable and persistent, could be
subject to massive external disruptive forces (like fires and storms) that could re-set and
re-trigger the successional process. As long as these random and potentially catastrophic
events are possible, it is not absolutely accurate to say that succession has stopped. Also,
over long periods of time ("geological time") the climate conditions and other fundamental
aspects of an ecosystem change. These geological time scale changes are not observable in
our "ecological" time, but their fundamental existence and historical reality cannot be
disputed. No ecosystem, then, has existed or will exist unchanged or unchanging over a
geological time scale.
Process of Succession
Thus Ecological Succession can be elaborately defined as an orderly process of change in
the community structure and function with the passage of time, mediated through
modifications in the physical environment and ultimately culminating in a stabilized
ecosystem known as climax. The whole sequences of communities which are transitory are
known as Seral stage or seres whereas the community established first of all in the area is
called a pioneer community. The process of succession takes place in a systematic order of
sequential steps as follows.
1 Nudation-It is the development of a bare area without any life form. The bare area may
be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruptions, drought, glaciers, frost, overgrazing,
outbreak of diseases, agricultural, industrial activities etc
2. Invasion-It is the successful establishment of one or more species on a bare area
through dispersal (by wind water birds etc) or migration, followed by ecesis or
establishment. As growth and reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number
and form groups or aggregations.
3.Competition and coactions- As the number of individuals grows there is interspecific
(between species) and intraspecific(within species) competition for space water and
nutrition. This influence on each other in a number of ways is called coaction.
4. Reaction- the cause of ecosystem change, is the impact that established species have
upon their own environments, sometimes subtle and sometimes overt alteration of one's
own environment. This modification of the environment by established species is called
reaction and the modifications are very often such that they become unsuitable for the
existing species and favour some new species which replace them. This reaction is what
leads to seral communities.
5. Stabilization-The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community
called climax which is in equilibrium with the environment owing to full adjustment with
the environment, maximum biomass and mutually beneficially linkages with other
organisms
Significance of Biotic succession

The information gained through the understanding that the sequence of seral communities
in succession is fixed is very useful. For ecologists it helps in their study of any area, in
recognizing the seral stage at any area and to understand its stage of succession. It also
helps them judge the history of an area whether it was a lake or rock or desert in the past.
In measures of afforestation and reforestation, this understanding helps in incorporating
the conditions and procedure that is conducive to bringing about a climax community of
forests. Commercially it helps in maintaining a particular biotic community by interfering
with biotic succession by identifying and preventing the members of the next seral stage to
invade the area.
Natural Control
Have you thought about the various implications of the fact that in a forest all the plants and animals
are present in relation to the dominant species? For example in a typical rain forest an almost solid
roof is formed by the tops of large trees. The dense mass of leaf material makes a permanent ceiling
for the entire forest (since the trees are not deciduous). This prevents direct sunlight from reaching
the ground, which means that there is little undergrowth.
It is obvious that because of the dominant tree canopy through out the year, only shade loving plants
flourish except in pockets where a tree has fallen and sunlight enters in till the space is filled up again.
It is also obvious that according to the dominant flora of a habitat are the fauna that survive in these
habitats (animals etc dependent on the plants prevalent in a habitat).So the climax condition in any
habitat is very much in accordance with the dominant species which is currently mankind and mostly
according to mankind is whatever other life survives and whatever does not...
In this respect therefore our dominance of nature does not seem to have been against the natural
growth and climax in natural habitats! So it is only natural that there also has to be a check not far off
in future that is predestined for a species like ours. Aren’t we the dominant species altering our habitat
making it unsuitable for our own survival which is what does happen naturally in succession in
habitats which eliminates that errant species? Nature has never been helpless; it always has a check
for everything, however slow in coming. Our efforts to conserve environment and remedy the damage
is our effort to prevent the natural succeeding stage of elimination of the errant species.
To understand Succession it would be interesting to study two types of succession,

depending upon the nature of the habitat; namely Hydrosere and Xerosere. It is to be noted
that the climax community irrespective of whether succession started from water body or
desert or rock, is still a forest, implying that forest is the most diverse and hence most
stable community.
Hydrosere:
Hydrosere or Hydrarch succession occurs in a pond and its community are converted into
a land community in the following stages-
Phytoplankton- rooted submerged stage -rooted floating vegetation(swampy)-
reed swamp stage(marshy) –sedge meadow stage- Land plants
Characteristics of Hydrosere:
 Phytoplankton stage- In the initial stage, phytoplankton (cyanobacteria), green
algae (Spirogyra, Oedogonium), diatoms etc are the pioneer colonizers.
 Rooted submerged stage- The phytoplanktons consumed by zooplankton
(protozoans as Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium etc), fish such as sun fish, blue gill fish
etc. Gradually these organisms die and increase the content of dead organic matter
in the pond. This is then utilized by bacteria and fungi, and minerals are released
after decomposition. Nutrient rich mud supports rooted hydrophytes which have
roots but are submerged such as Hydrilla, Ceratophyllum etc in the shallow water
zone which is created by increasing silt brought in by streams of water flowing into
the lake. This submerged stage is also inhabited by animals such as may flies, dragon
flies etc. and Crustaceans as Daphnia, Cyclops etc.
 Rooted floating stage- The hydrophytes die and are decomposed by micro
organisms and thus release nutrients. Due to silting, depth of water is further
reduced, and sunlight is able to penetrate to the bottom. At the margin of pond grow
rooted floating vegetation. Example- Nelumbo nucifera, Monochoria, Trapa etc.In
floating stage faunal living space is increased and diversified. Example- frogs,
salamander, hydra, diving beetles etc inhabit such conditions. Some turtles and
snake also invade the pond.
 Reed swamp stage- Gradually, the depth of water decreases due to water
evaporation and organic matter decomposition. Free floating plants as Lemna,
Azolla, Pistia, Spirodella, Wolffia etc increase in number as the availability of
nutrients are more in water. When these die, they build up the pond ecosystem,
resulting in further build up of the substratum. Pond becomes a Swampy ecosystem
where the shoots of the plants are above water. The reed swamp species are
Scirpus, Typha etc
 Sedge meadow stage- With further increase in sedimentation the mud becomes
almost visible with just a thin layer of water over it finally forming a marsh land.
Mesic (growing in moderate moisture) communities like sedges like Juncus and
grasses begin forming a mat like vegetation.
 Wood Land Stage- The marshes get dry due to the sunlight and the marshy
vegetation disappears. The soil encourages land plants as shrubs and trees.
 Forest stage- Depending upon the geographic conditions, different forests like
deciduous or tropical forest stage takes over. The once aquatic fauna gets replaced
by land animals.
Xerosere:
Xerosere or Xerarch succession begins on exposed parent rocks (lithosere) or dry sand
(psammosere).
A lithosere involves following stages-
crustose lichen stage (pioneers) – foliose lichen stage – moss stage – herbs stage –
shrub stage – forest stage (climax stage).
Characteristics of Lithosere:
 Crustose lichen stage- The pioneer plants are lichens, later followed by stages of
mosses and Selaginella (Spikemossess) that basically help in soil formation. Rocks
cannot absorb water and are not in a position to hold nutrients, but the weak acids
formed by the pioneer lichens to appear, the crustose lichens like graphis,
Rhizocarpum etc corrode the rock surface forming small depressions and release
the minerals needed for the growth of these lichens.
 Foliose lichen stage- The dead and decaying organic matter of the lichens along
with the weathered rock and sand particles brought by the wind get collected in
depressions making the substratum suitable for the growth of foliose lichens like
Parmelia, which gradually replace the crustose lichens. These increase the shading
of the rocks, accumulation of organic matter and formation of larger depressions
thus accelerating soil formation. Lithosere also involves successive changes in
animal life. Pioneer stages in animals are few species of mites, spiders and ants,
which are exposed to harsh temperatures.
 Moss stage- Large sized xerophytic mosses like Grimmia, Tortula shade the Lichens
and replace them. Their rhizoids can penetrate deep into the crevices of the rocks,
and more of soil and organic matter is added to the soil. During moss stage, many
new species of mites, spiders, springtails invade the community.
 Herbs stage- The compact mat formed by mosses retains sufficient moisture and
especially in rainy season making it possible for seeds of annual grasses and herbs
like Poa, Eleucine etc to germinate. The roots of these annuals and herbaceous
vegetation penetrate deeper through the soil and cause more weathering of the
rocks. Increased moisture and soil invites perennial grasses like Cymbopogon etc
which spread very fast because of runners and rhizomes. Increased shade, soil
moisture and perennial grasses makes the area suitable for the existence of several
small animals. Herb stage is invaded by nematodes, mites and various insect larvae
 Shrub stage- Xerophytic shrubs like Zizyphus, Rubus etc start invading the area and
they soon replace the grasses. Shrubs provide more shade for the sol surface, and
the atmosphere becomes more moist due to more of transpiration. Roots of shrubs
cause more fragmentation of rocks and there is more accumulation of soil.
 Forest stage: - Shrubs are replaced by hardy trees and the community becomes
more stable, called the climax community. The nature of the climax community is
determined by the climate of the area. For example in tropical regions the climax
community may be a rain forest while in temperate regions it might be a coniferous
or deciduous forest. Whereas areas with less rainfall will have grasses as climax
community Great modifications occur in the fauna of shrub and forest stage.
Numerous kinds of animals as snails, wire worm, millipede, mites, ants and
amphibians such as frogs, salamander occur. Reptiles which occur there are skinks,
turtles and other lizards. Birds such as goose, flycatcher and mammals as shrews,
mouse, mole, squirrels, fox and chipmunk occur. Thus, the reason why climax
community acquires stability is that a variety of producers, consumers and
decomposers are present and the community can regulate the flow of energy and
matter economically.
Self Assessment Questions

1. What are the three ways to summarize the structure of an ecosystem?
2. What are the functions of ecosystem?
3. The modifications of the environment by established or dominant species in a way that it is
often detrimental to its own survival is called……………………………
3.5 Major Types of Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystems
These ecosystems tend to be stable climax community of various strata of trees shrubs
herbs climbers and a variety of animals and birds, or they are always moving towards
maturity called a climax forest. This maturing, also called forest succession, of the
ecosystem increases diversity. Management of forests for sustainability is desirable when
forest diversity is threatened by overuse, resource exploitation and poor management.
Forest ecosystems can be disrupted and harmed when not properly sustained. A sustained
forest that is certified by a qualified certification program is assurance that the forest is
managed to have maximum diversity while satisfying environmental and economic
demands. Complex forest ecosystems are extremely diverse, ranging from dry desert shrub
land to large temperate rain forests
Depending on climatic conditions forests can be of various types
a. Tropical Rain Forests- These are considered the storehouse of biodiversity and
found near the equator having high temperature, humidity and rainfall favouring
broad leafed evergreen tree growth which forms a dense canopy which prevents
sunlight from reaching in. Therefore mostly shade loving smaller trees and shrubs
exist as understory. Some trees shoot out through the canopy and stand out tall and
are called emergent. On the tree trunks some woody climbers are found to grow
which are known as Lianus. Epiphytes like orchids attach to the branches of big
trees and their special leaves capture and hold the water falling from above. Large
epiphytes often act like mini ponds in the forest crown and attract birds and animals
like monkeys to make their home in the forest crown. Termites, mushroom and
fungi grown on the ground layer which receives almost no sunlight. Warm
temperature and moisture facilitate decomposition of dropped leaves releasing
nutrients rapidly which the trees take up by the mycorrhizal roots. The silent valley
in Kerala is the only tropical rainforest lying in India. Other examples are most
notably the Amazon rainforest in South America, Central American countries such
as Panama, the Kilum-Ijim Forest (west Africa) and Madagascar Lowland forest in
Africa
b. Tropical Deciduous Forests-Found a little away from equator, having warm
climate, rainfall only during monsoon,(moderate amount of precipitation), ), a large
part of year remaining dry and so favouring deciduous trees which lose their leaves
in autumn.
c. Tropical Scrub Forests- Found in areas where the dry season is very long
favouring small deciduous trees and shrubs. Some areas of Western Ghats in India
have shrub forests.
d. Temperate Rain Forests- Found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall
dominated by coniferous trees like pines, firs, redwood and also some evergreen
broad leaved trees owing to the plentiful rainfall. Found in United States along the
coastline of the Pacific Northwest and in Canada, and Alaska. Temperate rainforests
are formed in the Pacific Northwest because the coastal mountain ranges in
Washington, Oregon, and Northern California trap the air masses full of moisture
that rise from the Pacific Ocean. As this moisture condenses into rain it creates lush
rainforests with trees like the Coastal Redwood in California that grow to enormous
sizes and a biomass that exceeds that of the tropical rainforests.
e. Temperate Deciduous Forests- Found in areas with marked seasonality but
moderate temperature and abundant rainfall throughout the year favouring broad
leaf deciduous trees like oak(Quercus), hickory, poplar etc. Therefore they are more
precisely termed as temperate broadleaf forest, and are found in North America,
southern South America, Europe, and Asia.
f. Evergreen Coniferous Forests(Boreal Forests)- Found south of arctic tundra
having long cold and dry winters, sunlight being available for a few hours only and
summer season being mild and short favouring coniferous trees like fir, cedar, pines,
spruce etc. having tiny needle shaped leaves with wax coating to withstand the cold.
The soil gets frozen in winter where only few species can survive. Species diversity
is rather low in these forests. The taiga or boreal forest exists as a nearly continuous
belt of coniferous trees across North America and Eurasia. Taiga is the Russian
name for this forest which covers so much of that country
Grassland Ecosystem
Grasslands are open areas where grasses or grass-like plants are the dominant
vegetation and where there are few trees. Grasses came to dominate over other species,
such as trees, because they are better able to thrive in hot, dry climates where spring and
summer rain is sparse. Grasses take advantage of moisture in the soil during spring and
have many long, fine roots to search for water at, and just below, the surface of the soil. The
blades of grass plants curve inward to capture rain drops and direct them into the center of
the plant, where they are absorbed by the roots. A layer of mulch and a crust of mosses,
lichens, liverworts and other organisms on the ground between the grasses help to shade
the ground from summer heat and from wind, thus preventing evaporation of precious
water from the root zone below. Grass pollen is distributed by the wind that blows
constantly in these dry, open areas. Grass seeds themselves are tiny cylinders, often with a
long thread-like "awn" on the end, allowing them to move into cracks in the ground
towards moisture. Grasses are also able to withstand grazing and fire. The growing point of
most plants is situated at the tip of a leaf or shoot, but in grasses it is at the base, close to
the ground. When a grass plant has been grazed or burned it is able to grow again from this
protected base. Grasses are not the only plants in grasslands.
The rolling landscape of grasslands includes hills, river valleys, canyons and cliffs.
All these features alter the amount of sun and precipitation a specific part of the landscape
receives. Elevation also influences temperature and precipitation: at higher elevations days
are cooler and shorter, precipitation is higher and snow stays longer. Some areas of the
grasslands are hot and dry while others may be relatively cool and moist. Flowering plants
become more abundant with elevation. Many flowering plants, also called forbs, have
adapted to the hot, dry climate, completing their cycle of flowering, seed formation and
drying out before the hottest part of the summer. Shrubs are also an important component
of grasslands, and in some areas they are the dominant plants which have long, deep tap
roots that search for water well below the surface. Water runs over the landscape in the
form of rivers, streams and small creeks, collecting in low areas to form lakes, ponds,
wetlands and moist ground. The combination of landscape features, elevation and
climatic differences create a mosaic of plant communities and habitats that includes open
grasslands; rocky talus slopes and rock outcrops; riparian areas; wetlands; ponds and
lakes; gullies; aspen stands; open coniferous forests; and closed coniferous patches, shoal
forests.
Distinct plant and animal species live in grasslands; they are adapted to living where
drought is common, summers are long and hot, and winters are cold and relatively dry.
Many animals that live in grasslands are grazers, like the California Bighorn Sheep, and
many, like the marmot, burrow underground. Some animals, such as the Sharp-tailed
Grouse, use both the grasslands and nearby forests during the year, while others such as
the Western Harvest Mouse (vole) spend their whole lives in the grasslands.
Three types of grasslands are found to occur in different climatic regions

a. Tropical Grasslands-In Africa these are known as Savannas, which have tall
grasses, scattered shrubs, stunted trees and perennating bulbs, rhizomes, runners
etc. Termite mounds are very common. Animal diversity is high including Zebras,
giraffes, gazelle, antelope
b. Temperate Grasslands-In United States and Canada these grasslands are known as
prairies, in South America as Pampas, in Africa as Velds and in central Europe and
Asia they are known as Steppes. The soils are very fertile and often cleared for
agriculture.
c. Polar Grasslands- These grasslands are found in Arctic Tundra where the climate is
too cold and harsh for trees to grow. A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the
surface of soil throughout the year. Only in summers when the sun shine round the
clock some annual plants grow and even shallow lakes, bogs etc appear which
attract migratory birds. Animals include arctic wolf, weasel, arctic fox, reindeer etc.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are defined as regions wherein the average annual precipitation seldom exceeds
more than 10 inches per year, and the amount of water lost to evapotranspiration is much
more than the amount of water gained by precipitation. Deserts are basically of two types
that is, hot and cold deserts. Hot deserts such as the Sahara in Africa (tropical desert) and
Mojave in Southern California(temperate desert) and cold deserts, like Gobi desert in China
and the best example being Antarctica. In India we have a hot desert, the Thar in
Rajasthan. One of the prominent differences between the two types of desert is the form of
precipitation, which is snowfall in cold deserts and rainfall in hot deserts. Irrespective of
whether it is a hot or a cold desert, the characteristic traits of both almost remain the same.
In fact the areas which we refer to as hot deserts have a chilling temperature at night.
Though a desert may seem like a barren land devoid of forms of life, life does exist in this
harsh environment. Numerous plants and animal species have adapted to these seemingly
unsuitable conditions. In the desert ecosystem, climate is a deciding factor for the existence
of forms of life. In deserts, temperatures can reach up to 115° F during the day, and come
down to 32° F at night. Many plants and animals have adapted themselves over the years,
and have become an important part of the desert ecosystem today.
Desert Ecosystem: Animals

Deserts are home to a number of species of the animal kingdom. Biodiversity of the deserts
is as unique as other biomes of the world. Like in most of the other ecosystems, plants are
the primary producers, while rodents, insects and reptiles which feed on these plants are
the primary consumers. Then come the secondary consumers, who mainly comprise larger
reptiles and insects which feed on primary consumers. At the top of the desert food
chain are the apex predators in the form of birds and mammals. Most prominent members
of the desert animals list include the Gila monster, chuckawallas, desert tortoise,
rattlesnakes, hawks, ostriches, bobcat, kangaroo rats, mountain lions, etc. Most of these
desert animals are nocturnal, i.e. active during the night, and spend the entire day
burrowing. This adaptation helps them to fight the soaring temperatures that persist
during the day. Water is scarce in deserts; these animals also have modified themselves to
make the most of the available water. Some animals absorb water from plants, while others
store it in their fatty tissues like the hump of the Camel.
Desert Ecosystem: Plants

Desert vegetation is only thought about as cactus. However, within cactus, there are
different types which grow in different deserts of the world. These plants have modified
themselves to sustain in the desert environment. Some plants store water in the specialized
tissues, while others have small leaves with hair like structures which reduce the
evaporation of moisture. In many cactus stem gets flattened and develop chlorophyll and
take up the function of photosynthesis whereas leaves become like thorns to prevent
evapotranspiration losses. In North American deserts, barrel cactus is the most abundantly
found cacti species, while other species include crimson hedgehog cactus, pancake prickly
pear cactus, saguaro cactus, etc. Other cactus plants such as brittle bush, saltbush, creosote
bush, desert ironwood, gravillias, Joshua tree, Mojave aster, Soaptree yucca, hanging chain
cholla, etc., are also quite common in deserts.
Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic systems are those that contain plants and animals that predominantly depend on a
significant amount of water to be present for at least part of the year. They are either
freshwater or marine.
Freshwater ecosystems are further standing type (lentic) like ponds or free flowing
type(lotic) like rivers.
Pond Ecosystem- Ponds are often shallow water bodies and seasonal. Like in a forest, the
top, middle, and bottom of a pond can be vastly different from each other, and even the
layers in between. Under different temperature or light conditions the water in a pond can
vary greatly in oxygen, clarity, and other factors that effect where plants and animals might
live. The air above the pond and the land below the pond are important as well, as those
provide space for animals to live, plants to root, and predators and prey to interact.
Diversity - A pond is not just a small lake with frogs and fishes, rather there are thousands
of different species of plants, algae, insects fishes and animals living together in a natural
pond. The more diverse a pond is (more species that it has) the stronger and healthier it is.
Micro-organisms - Some of the most important plants and animals in a pond are micro
organisms and while a few may cause disease, almost all are very beneficial and important
to a pond ecosystem. While bigger animals may fly, walk, or swim away to other ponds,
micro-organisms are always present in large numbers.
Macro-organisms - Larger plants and animals that are easy to see on a pond are called
"macro-organisms (macro=large). They are the plants and animals that we often notice
first, and can more easily spread from pond to pond, for example water birds.
Lake Ecosystem- These are usually big water bodies having shallow water zone called
littoral zone, open water zone where effective penetration of sunlight takes place called
limnetic zone and a deep bottom area where light penetration is negligible called profundal
zone.
Organisms- Several types of organisms occur like planktons(that float on water surface),
nektons(that swim like fishes), Neustons (rest ir swim on surface, like water insects,
Benthos(attached to bottom like snails), Periphytons(clinging to other plants and surfaces
like crustacians)
Dal lake of Srinagar, Naini lake of Nainital , Loktak lake in Manipur are some famous lakes
of the country.
Streams and Rivers- Streams are shallow flowing water and rivers are large streams
flowing through plains and falling into the sea. Stream organisms have to face extremes of
temperature and current but constant movement and shallow water provides abundant
oxygen. Large rivers are relatively deep and wide and rich in organic matter but also
contain a lot of inorganic sediment produced by erosion and runoff into the upland waters.
Thus, the water is more turbid (muddy), and there is insufficient light to support as much
photosynthesis as in smaller rivers. Collectors and predators dominate the consumer
community, and consumption exceeds primary production. Fish species such as sturgeon
and catfish, which feed on sediments, are more common here than predatory fish.
All lotic organisms must adapt to drift, the incessant flow of water towards the sea,
carrying nutrients and the organisms themselves downstream. Drift is particularly
significant when spring snow melts and heavy summer rains increase the current. River
valleys offer especially rich farmland because of the great quantities of nutrients deposited
by periodic flooding. Nutrient loss by drift is compensated for by the continual addition of
riparian organic matter to the lower-order upland streams, while animals compensate for
drift by their rheotaxis and other means. Many aquatic insects fly upstream to lay their
eggs, and fish such as trout and salmon are well known for their upstream spawning runs.
The immature animals drift downstream as they grow and typically reach maturity at
lower altitudes, only to repeat the process and deposit their offspring back in the
headwaters.
Marine ecosystems-These are among the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They
include oceans, salt marsh and estuaries and lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs, the deep
sea and the sea floor. Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth. Such
places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice-
versa.
Marine ecosystems are very important for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial
environments. According to the World Resource Center, coastal habitats alone account for
approximately 1/3 of all marine biological productivity, and estuarine ecosystems (i.e., salt
marshes, seagrasses, mangrove forests) are among the most productive regions on the
planet. In addition, other marine ecosystems such as coral reefs, provide food and shelter
to the highest levels of marine diversity
An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers
or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a
transition zone between river environments and ocean environments and are subject to
both marine influences, such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and riverine
influences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The inflow of both seawater and
freshwater provide high levels of nutrients in both the water column and sediment, making
estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world.
Estuary mudflats seem an unlikely setting for some of the most productive habitats in the
world, but here at the interface of land and sea life abounds though for the select few.
Certain plants, seaweeds and photosynthetic micro-organisms (phytoplankton) absorb
nutrients at a fast rate, grow rapidly and produce lots of food. The estuary is a hostile
environment for most plants because salt dominates. A few grow further back on the shore,
where they live in a fluctuating environment of sea water and fresh water. These plants
must cope with:
 varying salinity levels
 strong currents and storm waves
 varying exposure to sunlight and wind
 low oxygen levels in muddy soils.
Estuaries are termed ‘open’ ecosystems because they are vitally linked to the wider
environment. Nutrients are carried in from the land via rivers, and from the sea by the
tides. Some of these nutrients are then taken out again when animals such as fish and birds
leave the estuary. Some are also flushed out to sea on outgoing tides. Living organisms
within an estuary co-exist in a network of interdependent feeding relationships that is food
web. Estuaries have a rich biodiversity and many of the species are endemic. An estuarine
food web contains the following elements:
 Phytoplankton. These microscopic organisms manufacture food by photosynthesis
and absorb nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen from the water.
 Detritus (dead organic matter).
 Microscopic animals known as zooplankton eat some of the phytoplankton. The
remainder of the phytoplankton becomes detritus, when it dies.
 Larger estuary animals such as filter-feeding worms, shellfish and hungry young fish
feed on the zooplankton and detritus. There are many migratory species of fishes
like eels and salmons in which half of the life is spent in fresh water and half in salty
water. Some fishes migrate to fresh waters in the breeding season.
3.6 Summary
> Ecosystems are complex and varied but they have a basic structure and functions.
> There is an amazing complexity to different ecosystems.
> Ecosystems are not stable and succession is a feature of ecosystems, that is structural
changes take place over time till stable communities are established over time

1. Explain Ecosystem and its basic structure and functions
2. Describe any two ecosystems that you have noticed in your region giving their structural
and functional features.
3. Explain succession and explain with any one type of succession.
4. Differentiate pond, lake and marine ecosystem
3.8 Answers
1. Trophic levels, Trophic relationships, Ecological pyramids

2. Energy flow and Nutrient cycling
3. Reaction
Terminal Questions
1. Refer in section 3.3

2. Refer in section 3.5 and 3.3
References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem
http://schools.utah.gov/curr/Science/sciber00/8th/energy/acrobat/ecosys.pdf
http://www.psu.edu/dept/nkbiology/naturetrail/succession.htm
http://forestry.about.com/od/environmentalissues/a/forest_ecosystem.htm
http://www.bcgrasslands.org/whataregrasslands.htm
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/desert-ecosystem.html
http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/classes/bio100/Lectures/Lect22/lect22.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_ecosystem
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuary
http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/projects/jason/xv/docs/TempRain.pdf
http://www.tutornext.com/energy-flow-models/11853
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_web (file from the Wikimedia Commons)
Module 2
NATURAL RESOURCES
Structure
Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification
2.3 Major Natural Resources
2.4 Summary
2.5 Questions
2.6 Answers
Objectives
> understand natural resources and their importance
> understand the issues that affect our resources and what we can do to sustain
them.
2.1 Introduction
There is a sufficiency in the world for man's need but not for man's greed.
~Mohandas K. Gandhi
A substance in nature becomes a resource when it is being utilized. Thus

natural resources can be defined as those natural reserve stocks of supply, which
man utilizes for his sustenance and welfare. The reservoirs of natural resources are-
(1) the sun (2) the atmosphere (3) the lithosphere (4) the hydrosphere. Examples of
natural resources provided by these reservoirs are air, water, soil, coal, minerals,
coal, forests, crops, wildlife
2.2 Classification
Classification of resources can be done in three major ways.
1. Exhaustible and Inexhaustible resources

2. Renewable and Non renewable resources
3. Biotic and Abiotic resources (Traditional Classification)
Exhaustible Resources are those which are limited and can be diminished or
degraded if improperly used. E.g. fossil fuels
Inexhaustible Resources are those that will never run out (though air can be
qualitatively affected by pollution and become limiting). E.g. Sunlight, air
Renewable Resources are those that can be replaced in a timely manner, which
include wild life, plants, trees, water, grass and wind energy.
Non renewable resources may be irreplaceable once extracted from water or soil
and include gold, silver, fossil fuels, diamonds, natural gas, copper and ore
Biotic resources include all living things and their products e.g. forests and their
products
Abiotic resources include all non living resources such as minerals, fossil fuels and
natural gas.
Renewable : soil(Biotic +Abiotic)

Wildlife(Biotic)
Exhaustible
Non renewable: minerals(Abiotic)

Natural Resources Fossil
fuels(Abiotic)
Inexhaustible : sunlight, air/wind (Abiotic).
Fig 2.1 Diagrammatical depiction of the classification of resources to

understand how they are inter twined
2.3 Major Natural Resources
It is very important to protect and conserve our natural resources and use
them in a judicious manner so that we donot exhaust them. To be able to sustain
resources we need to understand them and their problems.
The major natural resources are:-

1. Forest resources 2. Water resources
3. Mineral resources 4. Food resources
5. Land resources
2.3.1. Forest resources
A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominantly of trees, shrubs

or any other woody vegetation usually with a closed canopy. Depending upon the
type of dominant vegetation, the forest biomes can be classified into coniferous
forest, tropical forest and temperate forest.
There are two broad categories of functions that forests perform. The
protective forests on hill slopes protect the soil and keep it in place; the
productive forest produce timber and other forest produce like bamboo, cane and
thatch. A third type of forest that is being included is the social forest. The growing
magnitude of our need for wood, matched by the destruction of trees by our rapidly
multiplying population has made it important to plant and maintain many small
areas of forests for local needs.
We should recognize the importance for forest conservation as the damage

caused to environment when the original forest resources are destroyed cannot
always be corrected. Afforestation and reforestation efforts should match the rate of
exploitation of forests, which is more often not the case. Reforestation of hilly
regions is of utmost importance as it helps flood prevention as tree roots hold the
water and prevent excess run off. The soil of the Himalayan region is rich and deep
and there is a chance of the new plantation in reforestation effort of growing
quickly. But the case with Western Ghats is not the same, where the soil is thin and
Laterite, held in place for centuries only by the tree roots. Once denuded, a slope on
the western ghats cannot be replanted, for the thin soil is almost immediately
washed away. These were protective forests but all over the country the ‘protective
forests on the hillsides have either gone, or are in the process of going. If a forest
loses 40% of its strength, it ceases to be efficacious, and can no longer protect the
soil. Therefore it is important to understand that the mistakes we make in
deforestation cannot always be remedied by reforestation. According to Laeeq
Futehalli “To reduce our forest area in size or quality, is to deliberately impoverish
our country, and ultimately, our earth. We must think of ourselves not only as
beneficiaries but also as trustees of the wealth which comes to us through our
forests.”
Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where the preceding
vegetation or land use was not forest.
Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover either naturally (by natural seeding, coppice,
or root suckers) or artificially (by direct seeding or planting), usually maintaining a same or similar
forest type, and done promptly after the previous stand or forest was removed.
Destruction of whole blocks of forests takes place to make room for other
activities like agriculture, hydro-electric projects or for resettling refugees. But a
great deal of forests is destroyed by more indirect methods. While remaining a
forest in name its character is drastically changed in a manner that it cannot fulfill
its role. The issues that make a forest loose its character is in one word ‘exotics’. The
invasion of imported (exotic) plants which do not rightfully belong in our country,
once it captures the forest, it is virtually impossible to free it. An exotic plant is a
plant which has evolved in another geographical area far away, but with a similar
climate. By some chance- quite often human –a seed or plant finds its way into our
areas-like our forests. Here its natural enemies are absent – that is, those animals,
birds and insects, which feeds on it, and so the exotic spreads everywhere
unhampered by pests and predators. Meanwhile it does not provide suitable food
and shelter for the local animals for it could be strange tasting, unfamiliar,
indigestible or even poisonous. Thus the exotic plants with no natural checks or
enemies spread all through the forest, overwhelming the local vegetation. The
reduction in quantity of the natural vegetation means a reduction in the food
available for the forest animals, and this upsetting of the balance starts a chain
reaction where the vegetation and animals both suffer, and the total quality of the
forest is greatly diminished.
1. The eupatorium is an escapee from South America. It is a man high bushy

shrub which first appeared in our forests around the 1960s. Being without
enemies it began to spread rapidly. Apart from all the issues that are
associated with the spread of exotic plants as mentioned above, eupatorium
has another alarming characteristic; it is prone to catch fire during the dry
months. The eupatorium is such a disaster to our forests in every way that
unless we interfere we might find that our fine forests have become
eupatorium deserts.
2. Another exotic problem but of a different kind is the eucalyptus which is

native of Australia. Since it is very fast growing and therefore useful for
producing, quick timber, especially for pulp and paper making, it was planted
extensively in India, especially in the south. It only grows where it is planted
but its great drawback is that its roots draw up a tremendous amount of
moisture from the ground, so that a large stand of eucalyptus trees can
reduce the water table of an entire area. It gives little food or shelter to any
native bird or animal, and except for one or two special varieties, the native
vegetation does not grow in its shade. In other words, the eucalyptus does
not integrate with the local flora or fauna and a eucalyptus plantation
remains a sterile commercial plantation. It never becomes a part of a forest
and so it must not be mixed up with the forest proper and should rather be
treated as a crop.
The Kolar district of Karnataka is one of the leaders in Social Forestry with World Bank Aid,
but all its 11 taluks suffer from drought. It is because the tree used for plantation here was
Eucalyptus which later came to be known to lower the water table because of its high
transpiration rate. This case speaks for the amount of damage we do to our own region by
our lack of understanding of the infinite aspects of nature. Activities with least interference to
natural processes or replicating what existed naturally in an area(planting indigenous trees)
is the best option keeping in view that only nature knows best..
Uses of Forests
1. Commercial uses like timber, firewood, pulpwood, food items, gum, resins,
non-edible oils, rubber, fibers, lac, bamboo canes, fodder, medicine, drugs etc.
2. Ecological services include production of oxygen, reduction of global
warming by absorbing CO2, habitat for wild animals, regulation of
hydrological cycle by absorbing water into soil and recharging springs, soil
conservation, improving air quality.
3. Proximity to forest area has uses like, reduction in heat due to
transpiration from the large mass of leaves in a forest. Thus they help to
moderate climate. The reduction in the number of forests and trees near
towns like Ranchi and Pune have made the towns more scorching, forests
near farmlands break the force of wind, provides stillness and so protects the
agricultural land from losing the fertile top soil, pest population is also
controlled as the forest provides the natural enemies for the pests
Causes of deforestation
1. Increasing population and livestock resulting in increased requirement of
timber, fuel wood, land for grazing, for farms, for habitation etc
2. Industrialization, paper industries, plywood industries based on forest
produce, clearing areas for setting up industries without considerations or
assessments, all cause gradual decline of forests. For example the finest areas
of the great sal belt of north India (Bihar) were sacrificed to build the
industrial township of Rourkela, Durgapur and Bhilai.
This case depicts how decisions favouring short term benefits leads
to long-term loss. As with the forest gone the climate of the locality
became unbearably hot and Bihar became a prey to alternating floods
and drought, even the local populace was found to be unable to adapt to
work in factories removed from their usual way of living on forest
produce.
3. Activities like mining and quarrying are also responsible for large scale
deforestation.
4. Big dams and river valley projects are also responsible for the destruction
vast areas of forests
5. Other factors in the past have been shifting cultivation, allotting forest land
to refugees to accommodate the waves of refugees over the last 25 years
from Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka, East Africa and Pakistan
Hazards of Deforestation
1. Soil Erosion, increase of floods, heavy siltation of dams due to soil lost from
deforested hills
2. Depletion of resources like timber , firewood etc
3. Changes in the microclimate
4. Destruction of wildlife as the forest habitat is lost and depletion of
biodiversity in terms of both flora and fauna.
5. Desertification of formerly fertile lands, leading to loss of precious land
6. Destruction of the scenic beauty of the environment
Forest Conservation measures

In 1953 Indian government drew up a National Forest Policy whose main directive
was that 33% of the land surface must remain under forest, but less than 50 years
later, we find that the area of forest has been reduced to about 11% of the land
surface
The central and State Government has launched several afforestation programmes
throughout the country as a part of the forest conservation policy.
1. The Social Forestry Programme was launched in 1976 which seeks to use public
as well as waste land to grow firewood, fodder and small timber to meet the daily
requirements of the rural people
2. Another afforestation measure is the Urban Forestry Programme. Have you
noticed the trees in your city? What sort are the trees throughout the length of the
roadsides, are they impressive looking (ornamental), shady or fruit trees? Urban
forestry programme involves planting of trees for aesthetic purposes in urban
areas, fruit trees and flower trees are also planted along roadsides and also in the
private compounds. Ornamental trees are planted in vacant land and parks in the
urban areas. These plants reduce air pollution and also increase the scenic beauty
of the area.
3. Agroforestry Programme encourages the use of a single block of land for
farming, forestry and animal husbandry. The forest area enriches and protects the
agricultural area and the crops. The grass in the shade of trees especially during
the hot months is more nutritious for cattle and grazing to a limited extent also
does no major harm to a forest.
What can the common people do to help with forest conservation?
There are several movements started by people, for example the Chipko Movement
in Tehri Garhwal area of UP was initiated by Shree Sundar Lal Bahuguna in1973 in
which women hugged the trees and successfully checked felling of trees by
contractors.
The public agitation against the construction of a hydroelectric project in Silent

Valley saved a kind of forest now rare in India, evolved over thousands of years,
from being lost under water and this happened as a result of public awareness
towards the comparative need and importance of preservation of nature with
respect to short term benefits of hydroelectric projects.
Government drives cannot succeed without the support of local populace. As far as
Social forestry is concerned a lesson can be learnt from Gujarat state, where every
small piece of open land is used to plant trees for fruit, fuel, wood and shade. People
have to cooperate in supporting and protecting the saplings.
Self-Assessment Question
1. Though Bangalore has a larger number of trees as compared to other Indian cities, why
according to you is it that the bird life is not so rich? How do you think it impacts the agriculture?
2.3.2 Water Resources

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to
humans. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, constructions, household,
recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require
fresh water.
97% of water on the Earth is salt water, and only 3% is fresh water of which slightly
over two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen
freshwater is mainly found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above
ground or in the air.
Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is
steadily decreasing. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the
world and as the world population continues to rise, so too does the water demand.
With the growth of human population, there is an increasing need for larger
amounts of water to fulfill a variety of basic needs. Today, in many areas, this
requirement cannot be met. The over-utilization of water occurs at various levels
.Most people use more water than they really need. Most of us waste water during a
bath by using a shower or while washing clothes. The per capita use of water in a
family of four members in the USA is 1000m^3 per year, many times more than in
the developing countries. Many agriculturists use more water than necessary to
grow crops .There are many ways in which farmers can use less water with out
reducing yields such as the use of drip irrigation systems. It is important to realize
what the long term effects of overutilization of water are and to understand how we
could prevent major damages.
a. Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater

Water is among the most precious of natural resources. The water coming
through precipitation when does not percolate down into the ground or is
not lost as evaporation or transpiration loss assumes the form of streams,
lakes, ponds, wetlands etc. which is known as surface water. The surface
water is largely used for public water supply, irrigation, industrial use; river
water and sea water are also used for transportation and often unfortunately
for waste disposal which is both industrial and human waste. In many
regions of the world, the pressures of economic development and
overpopulation are producing a surface-water scarcity which is both in terms
of quantity and quality. Yet in most places, groundwater can be found within
a relatively short distance below the ground surface. The seemingly
abundant supply of groundwater has led to its indiscriminate and sometimes
excessive use. However, this use can have diverse and often wide ranging
effects on the local and regional hydrology and ecology as groundwater often
supports the water supply to streams, wetlands etc. and so their depletion
creates further surface water scarcity in connected areas. These
interdisciplinary aspects of groundwater utilization have brought into
question the concept of safe yield, defined as the maintenance of a long-term
balance between the rate of withdrawal and the rate at which groundwater
can be naturally recharged by the precipitation and percolation which is
specific to each area. A region's groundwater resources should be exploited
without unduly compromising the principle of sustainable development.
Groundwater is the portion of the Earth's water cycle that flows underground.
Groundwater originates from precipitation that percolates into the ground.
Percolation is the flow of water through soil and porous/fractured rock.
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
(The World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987).
b. Sustaining the water resource

Sustaining groundwater quantity- Sustainable utilization of groundwater would
mean utilization of ground water at a safe yield, that is water drawn at a given point
of time in an area should be at a rate which matches its natural ground water
recharge rate. For sustainable utilization of groundwater, it is important to
understand the recycling rates and connectivity of groundwater with respect to the
surface water systems. Age is a major difference between surface water and
groundwater. Surface waters are typically fresh, distinctly new. On a global basis,
surface water recycles every 9 to 16 days with an average of 11 days. Evaporation,
evapotranspiration and surface runoff are the agents responsible for the relatively
fast recycling of surface water. Unlike surface water, groundwater does not recycle
readily. Rates of groundwater turnover vary from days to years, and from centuries
to millennia, depending on aquifer location, type, depth, properties, and connectivity
(a layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable and contains water is called an
aquifer) The average time for the renewal of groundwater is 1,400 years. Shorter
renewal times tend to be associated with shallow groundwater, while longer
renewal times are associated with deep groundwater.
So it becomes important that shallow groundwater flow systems be distinguished

from deep groundwater flow systems; the former interact with surface water, while
the latter do not. Therefore the sustainable use of groundwater should begin by
tapping primarily deep percolation, and secondarily shallow percolation. The latter
should be exploited only if its effects on the base flow (groundwater seepage into a
stream channel) of neighboring streams and water bodies are shown to be minimal.
Excessive pumping can lead to groundwater depletion, where groundwater is

extracted at a rate faster than it can be replenished. Unregulated groundwater use
leads to the eventual depletion of the resource. The effects of excessive groundwater
development tend to become apparent gradually, with time often measured in
decades. The unsustainable use of groundwater stands to significantly impact a host
of ecosystems. Base flow will decrease and wetlands will disappear, streams and
rivers will degrade as channel erosion (stream bank erosion) will increase more
than normally, occurs in stable river systems, and wildlife habitat will be reduced
due to effects of the depleted water on vegetation. Other impacts include lowering of
water table, drying up of wells, ground subsidence and salt-water intrusion in
coastal areas. Therefore to assure sustainability of both ground and surface water in
any area, studies must be done to assure that the hydrological, ecological, and other
impacts of groundwater utilization are minimal.
When groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in
the aquifer get compacted, a phenomenon known as ground subsidence. Huge
economic losses occur as it results in the sinking of overlying land surface which
leads to structural damage in buildings, fracture in pipes which causes reversing
the flow of sewers and canals. As land continues to sink in coastal areas it can
cause tidal flooding.
The natural balance between freshwater and saltwater in coastal aquifers is

disturbed by ground-water withdrawals and other human activities that lower
ground-water levels, reduce fresh ground-water flow to coastal waters, and
ultimately cause saltwater to intrude coastal aquifers referred as salt water
intrusion.
Sustaining groundwater quality- In addition to water quantity, sustainability must
imply the preservation of water quality. A contaminated aquifer cannot be used as a
resource. Therefore, every effort should be taken to ensure that both groundwater
quantity and quality are preserved for the benefit of present and future generations.
Groundwater used to be considered very pure however, of late, groundwater
aquifers have been found to be contaminated by leachates from sanitary landfills
etc.
Rivers and streams have long been used for discharging the wastes. Most of the
civilizations have grown and flourished on the banks of rivers but unfortunately
growth in turn has been responsible for pollution of the rivers. Increasing
population and expanding development is causing a high demand on water and also
polluting the waters. It is estimated that by 2024, two thirds of the world population
would be suffering from acute water shortage.
c. Floods
Basically flood is when the water level in an area rises where there was normally
little or none before. Floods can be dramatic and quick or slow and creeping. Floods
are natural phenomena common in many places around the world where either
there is river nearby or the local weather can dump large amounts of rain.
Causes of floods
1. Heavy rainfall often causes floods in the low lying coastal areas .
2. Prolonged downpour can also cause the over flowing of lakes and rivers
resulting into floods.
3. Deforestation of catchments of rivers leads to heavy run off of soil which
settles down at the bottom of rivers raising the river bed and causing more
frequent floods.
4. Human activities have contributed largely to the sharp rise in the incidence
of floods, which otherwise is a natural disaster. For mining activities, a land
has to be cleared of all vegetation and then dug up. This aggravates the
possibilities of flooding. Similarly are the effects of industrialization and
overgrazing.
5. Researchers have found that if global temperatures increase by 2 degrees
Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit), then large floods that occurred about once
every 100 years could occur up to 5 times more often. The flood risk is more
in mountainous regions as here run off rates is supposed to be significantly
affected by temperature.
6. Unplanned urbanization leads to land surface covered by construction with
very little open space to allow for percolation of water. The result is that even
moderate rainfall can cause floods.
7. Dams are a reason for floods when excess water pressure on dams during
rains has to be eased by opening the flood gates.
CASE STUDY
In New Delhi, 66 people died on Nov. 15, 2010 when a building collapsed in
Laxmi Nagar area. The building collapsed as its foundation had been weakened
due to standing water in its basement during the monsoon when the Yamuna
breached its banks, Delhi Urban Development Minister A K Walia on Monday
said. What were the reasons for the waterlogging?
First of all the main reason for this rise of water level in Yamuna is not natural
but release of excess water from Tajewala headworks (a bairrage) 240 kms
upstream to the two canals one on left and other on the right bank of the river.
When it rains heavily in the catchment area excess water is released from
Tajewala. Depending upon the river flow level down stream, it takes about 48
hours for Yamuna level in Delhi to rise. The rise in water level causes backflow
effect on the city's drains also because its network of 18 major drains have
catchment areas extending beyond the city's limits.
High rates of development along with the resultant loss of soft landscape has
led to high surface water run-off rates. This results in flash floods in the low lying
areas even after moderate precipitation. The low lying areas are obviously the
worst hit, particularly the unplanned colonies which get water logged.
Another factor adding to this effect is the siltation of river basin because the
river is already flowing at a higher level within its embankments. Thus, the
water gets logged in the city areas and it takes several days to mechanically
d.
pump it out and bring the situation under control.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
Drought
Drought is a meteriological phenomenon, basically arising when annual rainfall is
below normal and less than evaporation. But apart from countries and areas that
have shown trends of drought, in recent times many other regions have been added
or the frequency of droughts in some areas has increased beyond usual. In some
cases, drought prone areas have become dessertified ones. The causes here can be
easily understood as anthropogenic.
The major reason behind every problem is usually overpopulation leading to poor
land use, unplanned urbanization and over utilization of water resources.
Population needs, coupled with industrialization, mining and quarrying needs leads
to clearing of forested areas, erosion etc which adversely impact the ability of the
land to capture and hold water which in turn effects the hydrological cycle
drastically, reducing ground water and also water available in atmosphere due to
reduced transpiration from lack of tree cover. All this in turn reduces surface water
supplies and an already water short region become drought prone.
Increasing cattle population leads to overgrazing which exceeds the rate of

regeneration of grasslands or undergrowth of forests or even the establishment of
saplings of trees preventing forest regeneration. Eventually the cattle move on to
other areas and so more and more land is denuded of vegetation which definitely
effects the hydrological cycle and could lead to eventual desertification.
Erroneous cropping practices also lead to drought. For example in Maharashtra

there has been no recovery from drought for the last 30 years due to over
absorption of water by sugarcane crop. Intensive cropping patterns and increased
utilization of scarce water resources to get high productivity has converted drought
prone areas into desertified ones.
Lack of proper understanding, awareness or necessary research can also

become a cause of drought like in the case of Social Forestry with eucalyptus
(having high water needs) in Kolar district of Karnataka led to droughts in those
regions.
Drought mitigation strategies

 Drought monitoring - Continuous observation of rainfall levels and
comparisons with current usage levels can help prevent man-made drought.
 Land use - Carefully planned crop rotation can help to minimize erosion and
allow farmers to plant less water-dependent crops in drier years.
 Rainwater harvesting - Collection and storage of rainwater from roofs or
other suitable catchments.
 Recycled water - Wastewater (sewage) is treated and purified for reuse.
 Cloud seeding- an artificial technique to induce rainfall is done in some
drought prone areas
 Desalination- of sea water for irrigation or consumption.
 Education to avoid overgrazing and overcropping.
n. Conflicts over water

Water conflict is a term describing a conflict between countries, states, or groups in
order to gain access to water resources. Water is a basic requirement for life,
sanitation, agricultural commercial and industrial needs and with the burgeoning
human population there is quite a water crisis where the demand for water cannot
be met by the available water resources. Water crisis may put pressures on affected
parties to obtain more of a shared water resource, causing diplomatic tension or
outright conflict. This has led to the oft quoted remark that the Third World War
would be fought over water.
Numerous types of parties can become implicated in a water dispute. As a resource,

some consider water to be as valuable as oil, needed by nearly every industry, and
needed nearly every day. As many as 1.1 billion people are without adequate
drinking water and so the potential for water disputes is correspondingly large.
Water’s viability as a commercial resource, which includes fishing, agriculture,
manufacturing, recreation and tourism, among other possibilities, can create
dispute even when access to potable water is not necessarily an issue. Corporate
entities may pollute water resources shared by a community, or governments may
argue over who gets access to a river used as an international or inter-state
boundary. Fisheries can also become sources of conflict, as nations expand and
claim portions of oceans and seas as territory for ‘domestic’ commercial fishing.
The broad spectrum of water disputes makes them difficult to address. Local and
international law, commercial interests, environmental concerns, and human rights
questions make water disputes complicated to solve – combined with the sheer
number of potential parties, a single dispute can leave a large list of demands to be
met by courts and lawmakers.
Water conflicts can occur at intrastate and interstate levels. Interstate conflicts occur
between two or more neighboring countries that share a transboundary water
source, such as a river, sea, or groundwater basin. For example, the Middle East has
only 1% of the world's freshwater shared between 5% of the world's population
and this has led to conflicts between the Middle East countries like Ethiopia, Egypt,
Sudan, Turkey for the three river basins of the Jordan, the Tigris-Euphratus and the
Nile. Intrastate conflicts take place between two or more parties in the same
country. An example is that of conflict among different Indian states as out of 18
major rivers, 17 are shared among different states. Another example would be the
conflicts between farmers and industry (agricultural vs industrial use of water).
Some analysts estimate that due to increase in human consumption of water

resources, water conflicts will become increasingly common in the near future. But
it has also been noted that water is a resource whose characteristics tend to induce
cooperation, and only rarely incite violence. Shared interests along a waterway
seem to consistently outweigh water's conflict-inducing characteristics.
Furthermore, once cooperative water regimes are established through treaty, they
turn out to be impressively resilient over time.
Water Crisis in Bangalore (Dec 15 2010 report in the Times of India)
Even the Cauvery is not enough for a Bangalore bursting at its seams. The BWSSB is now looking
far and wide, and proposes to fetch water from the river Krishna — a good 400km away.
Bangalore is a thirsty city, and faces a shortage of 225 million litres of water per day (mld). This
shortfall is expected to go up to 1030 mld by 2036. A proposal has been made to get 12 tmcft
water from the Krishna, though experts feel it is not economically sound and would also lead to an
uproar.." Getting water 400km away from Bangalore might be a feasible option. But the challenge
lies in the economics of the project. Villagers would be up in arms if water is not supplied to the
Water disputes in India
As per the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956 (ISRWD Act, 1956) when the
water dispute arises among two or more State Governments, the Central
Government receives a request under Section 3 of the Act from any of the basis
States with regard to existence of water dispute. In accordance with the said Act, the
Central Government is required to refer a dispute to a Tribunal after it is satisfied
that the dispute cannot be settled through negotiations. (Refer table 2.1)
Inter-State water disputes under Inter-State River Water Disputes Act (ISRWD), 1956
River(s) States Date of Date of Award

Constitution of (decision)
Tribunal
Krishna Maharashtra, Andhra April 1969 May 1976
Pradesh, Karnataka
Godavari Maharashtra, Andhra April 1969 July 1980
Pradesh, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh & Orissa
Narmada Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, October 1969 December 1979
Gujarat, Maharashtra
Cauvery Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil June 1990 Report u/s 5(2)

Nadu and Pondicherry received
5.2.2007
Krishna Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh April 2004 Report u/s 5(2)
& Maharashtra pending
Model/ Mandovi/ Goa, Karnataka and Under -
Mahadayi/ Construction
Vansadhara Andhra Pradesh & Orissa Under -
Construction
Table 2.1 The status of inter-State water disputes under ISRWD Act, 1956 (source:
India.gov.in)]
CASE STUDY
The Indus Water Treaty sets out the legal framework for the sharing of the waters of six
rivers: the Indus River and its five tributaries. All six rivers - Indus, Chenab, Jhelum, Sutlej, Beas,
and Ravi - flow through northern India into Pakistan. Under the pact, the waters of three rivers - the
Indus, the Chenab and the Jhelum, which pass through Jammu & Kashmir - are to be used by
Pakistan, while India has rights to the waters of the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi before these
three enter Pakistani territory. The Chenab is the key tributary, as it carries the waters of the rest
four rivers into the Indus. The Chenab combines the waters of four rivers, the Jhelum, the Sutlej,
the Beas and the Ravi, to form a single water system which then joins the Indus in Pakistan. The
Indus River is considered to be the lifeline of Pakistani economy and livestock. Pakistani concern
regarding the water from the rivers started in the 1990s after India began constructing a
hydroelectric power project Baglihar Dam on the Chenab River in the Doda district of Jammu &
Kashmir.
While Pakistan's domestic behaviour in terms of water usage is partly responsible for the
depletion of the water table, the construction of Baglihar dam by India multiplied Pakistani concerns
with fears that it will deprive Pakistan of 321,000 acres’ feet of water during the agricultural season,
greatly affecting wheat production. In 2003, Pakistan served a final notice to the Indian
government, urging it to resolve the Baglihar issue by December 31, 2003, a process that failed to
yield results. In 2005, Pakistan approached the World Bank for mediation. The World Bank noted
that it was "not a guarantor of the treaty," but had the authority to appoint a neutral expert. In 2007,
the appointed neutral expert Professor Raymond Lafitte of Switzerland delivered a verdict rejecting
most of the Pakistani objections. However, Professor Lafitte did require India to make some minor
changes, including reducing the dam's height by 1.5m. Professor Lafitte's judgment classified
Pakistani objections as "differences" and not a serious "dispute," which could have paved the way
for the issue to be taken to a Court of Arbitration as envisaged in the treaty. Pakistan was
dissatisfied over the Lafitte verdict.
Bilateral talks between the two countries are increasingly focused on water disputes. . A
number of Pakistani commentators warned that the water issues may incite nuclear war between
the two countries. However in late June 2009, Pakistani Water and Power Minister Raja Parvez
Ashraf observed that India does have a right to build dams, but that it cannot stop the flow of water
into Pakistan in order to fill the dams. Also Jamaat Ali Shah, Pakistan’s Indus Water
Commissioner, gave an interview in April 2008, stating that the Indian water projects currently
undertaken do not contravene the provisions of the 1960 Indus Water Treaty. Noting that India can
construct dams within the technical specifications outlined in the treaty, Shah acknowledged: "In
compliance with the Indus Water Treaty, India has so far not constructed any storage dam on the
Indus, the Chenab and the Jhelum rivers. The hydroelectric projects India is developing are on the
run-of-the-river waters of these rivers, projects which India is permitted to pursue according to the
treaty."
o. Dams and their issues
There are around 4000 large dams in India. A multipurpose dam project is
launched often for storing water for irrigation, generating hydro-electricity by
utilizing the water stored by the dams, preventing floods and facilitating
afforestation in the catchments areas of the reservoirs. For example the Chambal
Project in MP, Damodar Valley project in Jharkhand. A ‘Multipurpose dam’ is
impressive to watch and hear about but it has too many disadvantages. The Kadam,
Panchet, Nanaksagar, Chickhole, Dantiwada and Aran dams are total failures.
The major problems that are an inescapable part of the building of dams over
river valleys situated between high hills are (1) The first step of building roads to
get the labour and equipment to the site destroys the forest. (2) The encampment of
a large labour force at the dam site denudes the nearby hillsides of tree cover (for
their fuel needs as well as housing). The longer the construction takes, the greater
the damage- that is, the bigger the dam, the greater the erosion. (3) With every
rainfall, the unprotected soil on the hillsides is washed down into the new lake. (4)
The bottom of the lake becomes silted up, and in a short time the lake is so reduced
that it can no longer perform its function. In Laeeq Futehalli words ‘As man became
more confident, and began more arrogantly to alter natural features, nature began
to pay him back by passive non- co- operation in completely predictable ways’.
The life of many of our major dams has decreased in this manner. So at the
end of a long exercise of building a huge dam, it is found that a fine mountainous
area is destroyed, but the expected amount of power is not produced. The dam
which should have given us a certain amount of electricity in fact ends up producing
only half the amount due to all the associated issues. Moreover large-scale
confiscation(stagnation) of water raises the level of contamination of this largely
stagnant waters and thus increases chances of several vector-borne diseases, like
filarial malaria, schistosomiasis etc.
We cannot exclude dams from our development goals either, so the

manageable midway solution could be in “scale”: “A manageable project where
failure does not imply total disaster”. Small things that work well, is better than
something big which does not as the non functioning of something small affects only
a few; while the non success of a big project, can effect the wealth and well being of
an entire population.
Another issue is that when government decided to irrigate agricultural lands

with river water, by building a dam and collecting a body of water, canals were built
in various suitable directions, by the government. Farmers in nearby areas were
required to draw the water into their fields themselves, arranging to dig a length of
channel between the public canal and their own lands. The first drawback is that
many farmers are reluctant to dig that last stretch which will bring water into their
properties usually because they do not believe that the benefits will be worth the
trouble and expense. In these circumstances, many a time it has so happended that
several kilometers of channelised water found no takers and in turn water was
wasted (as water evaporates into the air or percolates into the soil). Since the canals
are just plain, straight mud ditches through which the water flows very slowly,
much of it seeps into the bed of the canal and is lost. With passage of time the land
on either side becomes waterlogged and salanisation also sets in as a result. This
could be prevented if the channels were lined with cement or some other
waterproof material but then it becomes costly. For example only around six
percent of the waters of the panchet dam (the last of the four multi-purpose dams
included in the first phase of the Damodar Valley Corporation) was getting used,
while the utilization of some of the other dams was not much better. Water scarce
lands thus become waterlogged and saline, and new irrigation schemes have to be
devised to bring water to new areas to replace the lost lands. It has been said that
the area which is ruined by canal irrigation is roughly the same in extent as the new
areas which are brought under irrigation each year.
2. What is the cause of ground subsidence?

3. As per your understanding of the causes of floods what do you think should be the one
major step to be taken to minimize floods?
4. What could be a major step to mitigate drought?
5. What is the major advantage of small dams compared to huge ones?
2.3.5 Energy resources

The first form of energy technology probably was fire, which produced heat and the
early man used it for cooking and heating. The burning of wood for fire was replaced
by coal. Coal fueled the industrial revolution in the 18th and 19th century. The
twentieth century saw a rapid twentyfold increase in the use of fossil fuels. With the
advent of the automobile, airplanes and the spreading use of electricity, oil became
the dominant fuel during the twentieth century. But after the oil shocks of 1973 (
Arab oil embargo when the oil supplying nations refused to supply oil to the US) and
1979 (Iranian revolution leading to strikes resulting in reduction of oil extraction),
during which the price of oil increased from 5 to 45 US dollars per barrel, there was
a shift away from this oil dependency. This led to increased exploration and use of
several alternate sources of energy. There was effort to increase energy efficiency.
For e.g. in the U.S. the average car more than doubled the number of miles per
gallon. Japan, made spectacular improvements and now has the highest energy
efficiency in the world. Despite advances in efficiency and sustainability, of all the
energy created since the industrial revolution, more than half has been consumed in
the last two decades. In 2009, world energy consumption decreased for the first
time in 30 years (-1.1%) as a result of the financial and economic crisis. But overall
the energy needs are only expanding and the sources of energy are getting
exhausted at a very fast rate.
Growing Energy Needs

All development activities are directly or indirectly dependant upon energy.
Agriculture, industry, mining, transportation, lighting, cooling, and heating in
buildings all need energy. Developed countries constitute 5% of the world’s
population but consume one fourth of global energy resources. A person in a rich
country consumes almost as much energy in a single day as one person does in a
whole year in a poor country. Thus, improved standard of living, change in lifestyle
apart from population growth is putting stress on our conventional sources of
energy like fossil fuels which are not going to last for many more years. And so we
have been looking at alternate sources of energy to take the stress off the
conventional sources and to supply the ever increasing energy demands without
running out. For this we require renewable sources of energy, i.e which can be
generated continuously in nature and are inexhaustible as compared to non
renewable sources like fossil fuels which are accumulated in nature over a long span
of time and cannot be quickly replenished when exhausted.
Sources of Energy
In energy sources, it is important not just to know the various alternatives we have
but also the feasibility of these alternate or non conventional sources of energy
sources when harnessed on a large scale with the intent to put ‘in the shoes’ of the
conventional sources. It is also important to be aware of the current researches in
the area of making alternate sources more feasible, and be able to recognize or
identify the best possible solutions for the energy needs of any area, region or
country. There is in fact a significant potential in India for generation of power from
renewable energy sources-, small hydro, biomass, and solar energy.
Renewable energy sources The major alternate sources which are also
environmentally favourable by being renewable are as follows
1. Solar Energy- Energy derived from the Sun's radiation is Solar Energy. Passive
solar energy can be exploited through architectural design, as by positioning
windows to allow sunlight to enter and help heat a space. Active solar energy
involves the conversion of sunlight to electrical energy, especially in solar
(photovoltaic) cells. With the sun being one of our few freely available, infinite
resources, it will be vital to our future survival to harness the power of the sun and
alleviate our current reliance on finite resources which are fast running out. Current
usage of solar energy is Solar cooker, Solar water heater, Solar heat collectors etc.
Descriptions of some important usages are as follows:-
a. Solar cells used in calculators, electronic watches, street lighting, traffic signals,
water pumps, in artificial satellites for electricity generation, for running radio,
television.
b. Solar power plant-Solar energy is harnessed on a large scale by using concave
reflectors which cause boiling water to produce steam. The steam turbine drives a
generator to produce electricity. A solar power plant (50K Watt capacity) has been
installed at Gurgaon, Haryana. The largest solar powerplant in India is located in
Madhapur near Bhuj.
c. Solar Furnace- A solar furnace is a structure that captures sunlight to produce
high temperatures, usually for industry. This is done with a curved mirror (or an
array of small plane mirrors) that acts as a parabolic reflector, concentrating light
onto a focal point. The temperature at the focal point may reach as high or higher
than 3,000 °C , and this heat can be used to generate electricity, melt steel, make
hydrogen fuel or nanomaterials.
Current Technology
a. Thin-film solar cells The manufacture and maintenance of solar panels has
traditionally been hugely expensive to set up and maintain which accounts for the
slowness of energy producers to switch to solar from non renewable energy
sources. Thin-film solar cells are a relatively modern invention, often seen as a
potential future replacement for conventional crystalline solar panels due to their
low cost, low space usage and large flexibility in placement and form factor. It
achieves low production cost per watt and can drive down the cost of solar
electricity installations by around 20%. One major usage of thin film panels can be
in building a skyscraper with a glass façade. If thin-film type solar panels are
integrated there, buildings can generate power with the same facade that was
otherwise just glass.
Fig 2.3a Crystalline solar panel Fig 2.3b Thin film solar panels
b. Fresnel Reflectors These are a low-cost alternative to the use of expensive

parabolic mirrors as a means of concentrating the suns rays. These reflectors make
use of the Fresnel lens effect, which uses a concentrating mirror with a large
aperture and short focal length while simultaneously reducing the volume of
material required for the reflector. This greatly reduces the system’s cost since
parabolic reflectors are typically very expensive, although it is to be noted that in
recent years thin-film nanotechnology has significantly reduced the cost of parabolic
mirrors.
Linear Fresnel reflectors (LFR) use long, thin segments of mirrors to focus sunlight
onto a fixed absorber located at a common focal point of the reflectors. These
mirrors are capable of concentrating the sun’s energy to approximately 30 times its
normal intensity. This concentrated energy is transferred through the absorber into
some thermal fluid (typically oil capable of maintaining liquid state at very high
temperatures). The fluid then goes through a heat exchanger to power a steam
generator. As opposed to traditional LFR’s, the Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors
(CLFR) utilizes multiple absorbers within the vicinity of the mirrors. This is of
advantage because a major challenge that must be addressed in any solar
concentrating technology is the changing intensity of the incident rays as the sun
progresses throughout the day. The reflectors of a CLFR are typically aligned in a
north-south orientation and turn about a single axis using a computer controlled
solar tracker system. This allows the system to maintain the proper angle of
incidence between the sun’s rays and the mirrors, thereby optimizing energy
transfer.
Fig 2.4a Parabolic Reflector Fig 2.4b Linear Fresnel Reflector
Many organizations are now trying to address the issue to make solar more
affordable. Research has been done to make solar power more reasonable and by
2050 half of energy requirements is anticipated to be from sustainable sources like
wind, water and solar power. Germany and Japan have long led the field in solar
thermal energy production. Germany is home to the Gut Erlasee Solar Park, a 12
megawatt facility located near the Bavarian town of Arnstein. The park powers the
homes of 1,000 local residential customers each year. From 2007, Spain became a
pioneer in using Fresnel reflectors In July 2007 a test facility to cut the cost of large-
scale solar thermal energy production was opened in Almería in southern Spain by
utilizing Fresnel reflectors.
With the number of commercial solar plants growing at a rapid rate and the huge
investment into research and development to make solar energy more affordable it
seems that solar does have the potential to become a viable alternative energy
source on a large scale. Solar is particularly an attractive option for countries with
vast expanses of uninhabitable desert or even a good average of clear sunny days a
year (300days per year average for India). Presently India fulfills around 10.9% of
the total requirement with renewable sources of energy while solar accounts for
a total of 1% of the renewable energy generation. . In 2010, installed capacity for
solar in India was only 54 megawatts (MW). Now, a year later, due to the speed with
which solar is becoming cost effective, it is expected to install six times as much
capacity by year’s end, and there is well over 1,600 MW of projects with signed
power purchase agreements in the pipeline. According to a new report by GTM
Research and Bridge to India, by 2016, India could be installing more than 3,000
MW annually in solar projects. India also plans to make solar-powered equipment
and applications mandatory in all government buildings including hospitals and
hotels in the near future.
2. Wind Energy- Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of
energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical
power, wind pumps for pumping water or drainage, or sails to propel ships. Wind
energy, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed,
clean, and produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation. However, the
construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed because of their visual
impact but any effect on the environment is generally among the least problematic
of any power resource. Today, India has one of the highest potentials for the
effective use of renewable energy. India is the world’s fifth largest producer of wind
power after Denmark, Germany, Spain, and the USA. As of 31st October 2009 the
installed capacity of wind power in India was 11,806.69 MW, mainly spread across
Tamil Nadu Maharashtra , Gujarat , Karnataka , Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal and other states. It is estimated that 6,000 MW
of additional wind power capacity will be installed in India by 2012. Wind power
accounts for 6% of India's total installed power capacity, and it generates 1.6%
of the country's power.
4. Tidal energy - Tidal power is a means of electricity generation achieved by

capturing the energy contained in moving water mass due to tides. The rise
and fall of the water in the oceans is referred to as the high and low tide and
this force of moving water is harnessed as tidal energy to move turbines and
generate electricity.Two types of tidal energy can be extracted: kinetic
energy of currents due the tides and potential energy from the difference in
height (or head) between high and low tides. A difference of several meters is
required between the height of high and low tide to spin the turbines. The
tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a tidal barrage. During high
tide the sea water flows into the reservoir and rotates the turbines and
during low tide the water flows out of the reservoir and again turns the
turbine. There are some drawbacks of tidal energy as an alternate source. A
major drawback of tidal power stations is that they can only generate when
the tide is flowing in or out - in other words, only for 10 hours each day.
However, tides are totally predictable, so we can plan to have other power
stations generating at those times when the tidal station is out of action.
Another disadvantage is that a barrage across an estuary is very expensive to
build, and affects a very wide area - the environment is changed for many
miles upstream and downstream. Many birds rely on the tide uncovering the
mud flats so that they can feed. Fish can't migrate, unless "fish ladders" are
installed. There are also only a few suitable sites for tidal barrages. Russia,
France and the Gulf of Kutch in India have huge tidal mill farms. In India the
gulf of Cambay and the Sundarbans are also the tidal power sites
Fish Ladder
Fish make only two really significant journeys in their lives. The first is shortly after birth, when
fish move away from their spawning grounds, and the second occurs when the fish return to the
spawning area to breed and die. But now, fish face huge barriers and obstructions in the form
of dams. If they can't get back to the spawning grounds, then fish populations dramatically
decrease. Fish ladders (also known as fish passages or fishways) provide a detour route for
migrating fish so that they can get over or around a dam that's blocking the way. Fish Ladder is
a series of ascending pools that are reached by swimming against a stream of water. The fish
leap through the cascade of rushing water, rest in the pool and then repeat the process until
they're beyond the dam.
4. Biomass energy Biomass energy or bioenergy is the energy from organic matter.
It has been used for thousands of years, ever since people started burning wood to
cook food or to keep warm. Today, wood is still our largest biomass energy
resource. But many other sources of biomass can now be used, including plants,
residues from agriculture or forestry, and the organic component of municipal and
industrial wastes. Even the fumes from landfills can be used as a biomass energy
source.
The use of biomass energy has the potential to greatly reduce our greenhouse gas
emissions. Biomass generates about the same amount of carbon dioxide as fossil
fuels, but every time a new plant grows, carbon dioxide is actually removed from the
atmosphere. The net emission of carbon dioxide will be zero as long as plants
continue to be replenished for biomass energy purposes. These energy crops, such
as fast-growing trees and grasses, are called biomass feedstocks. The use of biomass
feedstocks can also help increase profits in agriculture.
There are three major biomass energy technology applications:
Bioproducts are obtained by converting biomass into chemicals for making

products that are typically made from petroleum. Whatever products we can make
from fossil fuels, we can make using biomass. These bioproducts, or biobased
products, are not only made from renewable sources, they also often require less
energy to produce than petroleum-based products.
Biopower is from the burning of biomass directly, or converting it into a gaseous

fuel or oil, to generate electricity. The Biopower plants could involve burning
bioenergy feedstocks directly to produce steam. Methane generated from landfills
can be used as biopower by obtaining it from drilling wells in land fills. It can be
used as an energy source in many ways. Most facilities burn it in a boiler to produce
steam for electricity generation or for industrial processes.
Biofuels are obtained by converting biomass into liquid fuels for transportation. It
is an alternate source of energy involving cultivation of crops, the non-edible oil of
which can be used as a bio-fuel, which can replace fossil fuels. Biomass can be
fermented to alcohols like ethanol and methanol which is then used as fuel.
Methanol is a clean non polluting fuel. Gasohol is a mixture of Ethanol and Gasoline.
It is a common fuel used in Brazil and Zimbabwe for running cars and buses. But
there are certain issues related to the cultivation of plants for biofuels. Questions
like how much of land resource has to used to produce a fair enough supplement to
fossil fuels? Fargione et al. (2008) estimated that the conversion of rainforests,
peatlands, savannahs or grasslands to produce ethanol and biodiesel in Brazil,
Indonesia, Malaysia or the United States of America releases at least 17 times as
much carbon dioxide as those biofuels save annually by replacing fossil fuels.
Though plant-based biomass from non-food crops and waste does offer an effective
alternative, but to make the process more efficient, we need to examine ways of
optimising the plant matter we use to produce fuels. The Science Daily (Jan. 27,
2010), reports that scientists have found a way to increase fermentable sugar stores
in plants which could lead to plant biomass being easier to convert into eco-friendly
sustainable biofuels. Also there is possibility of producing diesel (low carbon) from
plant wastes through genetically engineered E coli (1 step easy process). This is to
come through in two years and can be quite a feasible option for the future.
In India Jatropha oil has been used for several decades as biodiesel to cater to
the diesel fuel requirements of remote rural and forest communities. Jatropha oil
is produced from the seeds of the Jatropha curcas, a plant that can grow in
wastelands across India, and the oil is considered to be an excellent source of bio-
diesel. Jatropha oil can be used directly after extraction (i.e. without refining) in
diesel generators and engines. Jatropha has the potential to provide economic
benefits at the local level since under suitable management it has the potential to
grow in dry marginal non-agricultural lands, thereby allowing villagers and farmers
to leverage non-farm lands for income generation. Increased Jatropha oil production
delivers economic benefits to India on the macroeconomic or national level as it
reduces the nation's fossil fuel needs. Jatropha incentives in India is a part of
India's goal to achieve energy independence by the year 2012. India is keen on
reducing its dependence on coal and petroleum to meet its increasing energy
demand and encouraging Jatropha cultivation is a crucial component of its energy
policy.
5. Biogas energy Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological

breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas originates from
biogenic material and is a type of biofuel. Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion
or fermentation of biodegradable materials such as biomass, manure, sewage,
municipal waste, green waste, food waste, plant material and energy crops. It is very
useful for rural areas where lot of animal waste and agricultural waste are available.
This type of biogas comprises primarily methane and carbon dioxide. The gases
methane, hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be combusted or oxidized with
oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel. Biogas can be used as
a low-cost fuel in any country for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also
be used in modern waste management facilities where it can be used to run any type
of heat engine, to generate either mechanical or electrical power. Biogas can be
compressed, much like natural gas, and used to power motor vehicles and in the UK
for example is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel.
Biogas is a renewable fuel, is clean, non polluting and cheap. Direct supply from
plant avoids problems of storage requirements. Sludge left over is a rich fertilizer.
Biogas plants used in our country are basically of two types namely floating gas
holder type and fixed dome type. The latter one with fixed cement dome avoides
problems of corrosion and leakage problems of the former type. In Indian villages,
thousands of small biogas plants use the cattle waste (especially cow dung) and
provide biogas used for home heating and cooking. It is estimated that over 2
million such biogas plants have been installed all over India.
The use of biogas for electricity generation in India is more recent, but this trend is
accelerating. In many cities across India, sewage treatment centers and organic
waste treatment plants (those treating organic municipal solid waste, for instance)
already use anaerobic digesters to generate biogas and electricity. Some of the
industries that generate significant amounts of solid or liquid organic waste also
have installed digesters and gas engines for electricity production. Many of these
require sizable investments, but it is estimated that they have a good return on
investment as the main feedstock that they use is essentially free. It is estimated
that India can produce power of about 17,000 MW using biogas. This is over
10% of the total electricity installed capacity in India.
6. Geothermal energy Geothermal energy is the energy obtained from the heat
from the Earth. It's clean and sustainable. Resources of geothermal energy range
from the shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a few miles beneath the
Earth's surface, and down even deeper to the extremely high temperatures of
molten rock called magma. In India hot water surface sources called natural geysers
are found in Manikaran, Kullu and Sohana, Haryana.
Geothermal Electricity Production Geothermal power plants use steam, however,
use steam produced from reservoirs of hot water found a couple of miles or more
below the Earth's surface. . A hole can be drilled to the hot rocks where the hot
water has not found the escape to the surface. The steam or hot water can be made
to gush out by putting a pipe in this hole. This high pressure hot water or steam
turns the turbine of a generator to produce electricity. Worldwide, about 10,715
megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is available in 24 countries. USA has the
world’s largest geothermal power plants followed by New Zealand, Iceland,
Philippines and Central America. In India, geothermal plants are located in
Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh.
Geothermal Direct Use Geothermal hot water can be used for many applications
that require heat. Its current uses include heating buildings (either individually or
whole towns), raising plants in greenhouses, drying crops, heating water at fish
farms, and several industrial processes, such as pasteurizing milk. With some
applications, researchers are exploring ways to effectively use the geothermal fluid
for generating electricity as well. In the United States, geothermal reservoirs are
located in the western states, Alaska, and Hawaii. Worldwide 28 gigawatts of direct
geothermal heating capacity is installed for application like heating, spas, industrial
processes, desalination and agricultural applications.
7. Hydropower- Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into
electricity. This is called hydroelectric power or hydropower.
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant uses a dam on a river to store
water in a reservoir. . Some important hydel power stations in India are Bhakra
Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunsagar and Damodar valley projects. Water released
from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a
generator to produce electricity. But hydroelectric power doesn't necessarily
require a large dam. Some hydroelectric power plants just use a small canal to
channel the river water through on to a turbine. These are called Small Hydro Power
projects. Small projects create less environmental damage compared to large dams.
India has an estimated SHP (small-hydro power) potential of about 15000 MW.
Small Hydro Power ( SHP) Programme is therefore one of the thrust areas of power
generation from renewable in the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy. It has
been recognized that small hydropower projects can play a critical role in improving
the over all energy scenario of the country and in particular for remote and
inaccessible areas.
A number of NGOs are now propagating water mills (water wheels) or micro hydel
sets for electricity generation to meet small scale electrical requirements of villages.
Uttaranchal has taken a lead in setting up electricity generation watermills and over
450 such watermills were installed in remote and isolated areas of the state.
Nagaland has recently commenced setting up such micro hydel sets for rural
electrification. Watermills are also being installed in Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, J&K, Karnataka and Manipur.
8. Hydrogen fuel Hydrogen is high in energy, yet an engine that burns pure
hydrogen produces almost no pollution. NASA has used liquid hydrogen since the
1970s to propel the space shuttle and other rockets into orbit. Hydrogen fuel cells
power the shuttle's electrical systems, producing a clean byproduct - pure water,
which the crew drinks.
Hydrogen can be separated from hydrocarbons through the application of heat - a
process known as reforming. Currently, hydrogen is made this way from natural gas.
An electrical current can also be used to separate water into its components of
oxygen and hydrogen. This process is known as electrolysis. Some algae and
bacteria, using sunlight as their energy source, even give off hydrogen under certain
conditions. However hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive in nature. Also it
is difficult to store and transport. In use as vehicle fuel, car manufacturers still need
a fuel cell that is sturdy, durable and cheap, as well as a way to store enough
hydrogen on board to allow for long-distance travel. Hydrogen also requires a new
distribution infrastructure, and even then the greenhouse-gas benefits would be
marginal until a cost-effective way to make hydrogen from low-carbon energy
sources rather than natural gas is worked out.
Non renewable energy sources Other sources of energy which are more in use as of
today but have the possibility of getting exhausted being non renewable are as follows
1. Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world formed millions of years ago in
the carboniferous age when forests were buried by nature and the action of heat
and pressure gradually converted it into peat which was converted with time to
different types of coal. There are mainly three types of coal anthracite(90% carbon),
bituminous(80% carbon) and lignite(70%). Peat is only 60% in carbon content. The
Indian coal industry is the fourth largest in terms of coal reserves and third largest in
terms of coal production in the world. The coal producing areas of India are
Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad and Bokaro in Jharkhand. But despite its huge resource
base, till date, India has not been able to minimize its coal deficit. Also Indian coal
reserves are likely to be exhausted by the year 2041, keeping in view the current
rate at which the coal demands are rising. About 70% of India's energy generation
capacity is from fossil fuels, with coal accounting for 40% of India's total energy
consumption followed by crude oil and natural gas at 24% and 6% respectively.
Coal is also likely to remain a key energy source for at least the next 30-40 years.
But coal produces carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas. It contains impurities
like sulphur and so its burning produces toxic gases like sulphur and nitrogen
oxides. The development of cost effective alternative renewable sources is not only
good for the environment but is also desirable for the Indian economy.
2. Petroleum- Along coastal areas and continental shelves where marine life and
sediment supplies from rivers are plentiful rock particles accumulate into layers,
they pile up microscopic plant and animal remains, trapping them in the sediment. It
then undergoes tremendous heat and pressure without having undergone bacterial
decomposition. This process generates petroleum or crude oil . It consists of a
complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid
organic compounds. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. It is refined
and separated, most easily by boiling point differences (in its constituents), into a
large number of consumer products, like petrol, kerosene, chemical reagents used to
make plastics and pharmaceuticals.
The leading producers in India are Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in Mumbai and
the deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers. The combination of rising oil consumption
and relatively flat production has left India increasingly dependent on imports to
meet its petroleum demand. In 2009, India was the sixth largest net importer of oil in
the world, importing nearly 2.1 million bbl/d, or about 70 percent, of its oil needs. The
EIA(Energy Information Administration, US) expects India to become the fourth
largest net importer of oil in the world by 2025, behind the United States, China, and
Japan. Nearly 70 percent of India’s crude oil imports come from the Middle East,
primarily from Saudi Arabia, followed by Iran.
Fig 2.5 Graphical Representation of India’s Oil Production and Consumption

1990-2009
3. Natural Gas- Natural Gas is mainly composed of methane (95%) with small
amounts of propane and ethane. Natural gas deposits mostly accompany oil deposits
although natural gas will almost certainly be one or two miles lower in the ground
than oil as it requires greater pressure for its formation. It is the cleanest fossil fuel
and can be easily transported through pipelines. It burns without any smoke. It is
used as a domestic and industrial fuel and in thermal power plants to generate
electricity. Compressed natural gas (CNG) is being used as an alternative to petrol
and diesel for transport of vehicles. Delhi public transport is totally switched to CNG
and it has greatly reduced vehicular pollution in the city. In India Jaisalmer, Krishna
Godavari delta, Tripura and some areas off shore in Mumbai have natural gas
resources.
4. Nuclear fuel - Nuclear energy is the energy from nuclear reactions of fission and
fusion which can be harnessed for providing commercial energy. There are now 439
nuclear reactors in operation around the world in over 30 countries, providing
almost 16% of the world’s electricity. These are based on fission reactions where
one neutron is made to bombard certain isotope like Uranium (U235 ) nucleus which
releases a lot of energy which boils water to steam to run a turbine and generate
electricity. In fusion reaction, two nuclei of light element like Hydrogen-
2(Deuterium) are fused at high temperatures to form a heavier nucleus (Helium-3)
releasing enormous energy, higher than that of fission reactions. This technology
has not been put into practice, but fusion reactors are now in experimental stages at
several laboratories in the United States and around the world. Their advantage is
that they will not leak radiation above normal background levels and they will
produce less radioactive waste than current fission reactors.
The greatest producers of nuclear power are USA and Europe. In India Rajasthan
and Jharkhand have large deposits of Uranium. Thorium is found in large quantities
in the Monozite sands of Kerala. For a large developing country like India with large
population density, nuclear power will play an important role for sustainable supply
of energy. Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India after
thermal, hydro and renewable sources of electricity. As of 2010, India has 20
nuclear power plants in six nuclear powerplants, generating 4,780 MW while 7
others are under construction and are expected to generate an additional 5,300 MW.
India’s nuclear power industry is undergoing rapid expansion with plans to increase
nuclear power output to 63,000 MW by 2032. India stands 9th in the world in terms
of number of operational nuclear power reactors. Reactors in India include
Kalpakkam (Tamilnadu), Narora (U.P), Tarapur (Maharashra),
Rawatbhata(Rajasthan),Kakrapar (Gujarat) and Kaiga (Kanataka) Only Nuclear
Energy offers Emission free energy on the massive and expanding scale the world so
urgently requires. Moreover nuclear energy is considered to be an environmentally
benign source of energy except for the problems of disposal and devastating nuclear
pollution from any leakage.
CASE STUDY
Concerns regarding the proposed Jaitapur nuclear plant
On November 26, 2010 the Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) accorded
environmental clearance for the 6x1650 MWe nuclear power project in Jaitapur,in Ratnagiri
district Maharashtra. The environmental clearance granted to the project, has come after a
serious hearing of apprehensions over its environmental impact. Clearance has also been
accompanied by as many as 35 conditions and safeguards of a general as well as specific
nature. Extensive opposition to the project, notably from the Konkan Bachao Samiti (KBS),
was overruled by the MoEF in granting this clearance. The reasons of apprehensions in the
public are mainly the following
1. Buying French high-priced power reactors of unproven design and safety does not
seem a sound decision to the masses.The French reactor approved by India has not
been approved by the Nuclear Regulatory Authority of any country. There is not a
single EPR (European Pressurized Reactor) working reactor in the world and India
has signed deal to build 4 of them. This has led to public outcry and insecurity
2. An impact assessment report by Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) has come
down heavily on the proposed nuclear power plant stating that it is sitting on a high to
moderate severity earthquake zone. However, project developer Nuclear Power
Corporation of India (NPCIL) has claimed that the site selection for the power plant
was done keeping in mind the safety aspects and there was not "any active geological
fault within 5-km radius from the proposed site".
Issues with Nuclear Energy
Non-conventional energy sources must be tapped to the fullest extent but there is
no viable alternative to nuclear power if we are going to bridge the enormous
energy deficit, projected to touch 150,000 megawatts by 2030 despite all advances,
there still is a long way to go on in making the resources like solar more feasible So
it is important to understand the comparative advantages and disadvantages of
using Nuclear fuel compared to renewable resources as nuclear energy has become
an unavoidable need of the nation
Comparative Disadvantages
There are legitimate environmental concerns over nuclear power generation. It is
supremely important to ensure safety by strict adherence to international protocols
on the design, construction, and operation of plants to avoid any leakages. There is
also concerns regarding sabotage as clear cases of breach of nuclear safety has
occurred in the Kaiga plant where the water in a water cooler was laced with
tritium. There is also the issue of final disposal of radioactive waste, which waits to
be resolved through advances in technology that seek to transmute such waste into
non-radioactive elements. Also carbon dioxide is released in every component of
nuclear fuel cycle except the actual fission or fusion reaction in the reactor. . Fossil
fuels are involved in the mining, milling conversion and enrichment of the ore, in the
handling of mill tailings, in the fuel-can preparation, in the construction of the
station and its de-commissioning and demolition, in the handling of the spent waste,
in its processing and vitrification and in digging the hole in rock for its deposition.
Comparative Advantages
On the other hand existing alternatives for large-scale power generation such as
hydroelectric projects often bring massive deforestation and displacement of
people; and emissions from coal-fired plants are a major contributor to harmful
greenhouse gases. The net CO2 emissions from the entire nuclear power production
process (including uranium mining, enrichment, plant construction, plant operation,
plant decommissioning and waste disposal etc) is negligible compared to fossil fuels
and similar to renewable sources. Many scientific studies have been performed to
estimate the net CO2 emissions from various energy sources. The studies show that
nuclear's net CO2 emissions is ~2% as much as coal, ~5% as much as gas, and
similar to or lower than most renewables.
Self Assessment Question
12. Enlist the four largest sources of eletricity in India?

13. Which renewable source shows the greatest promise with respect to the situations of
our country and why?
2.3.6 Land Resources
Land as a Resource
All human settlements subsist on land, so it is land, which constitutes the single
most important component of the total environment upon which we also depend for
our food, fibre and fuel wood etc. Every environmental advantage or disadvantage
arises out of the way in which we use our land resources. Environmentally
compatible planning requires evaluating the land and keeping its use as close to
what nature intended. For example land which can be cultivated should not be given
in to industries and only land which is a wasteland should be used for industrial use
etc. The land use pattern of agricultural communities is environmentally the most
compatible. As the agricultural cycle has to follow nature,(like keeping it fallow in
between cropping to retain its fertility) such land use is by and large in harmony
with the overall environment and causes the least conflict between what nature had
intended and what man disposes. Inappropriate use of land is environmentally and
economically costly. For e.g. in Delhi barren land is converted into gardens at
immense cost while fertile land is smothered under concrete and asphalt. During a
study by IIT-Roorkee in 2010, it was found that 90% of the high rise in Noida are
unstable as Noida and GN region are on Yamuna Khadar( the flood prone periphery
of the yamuna). Environmentally speaking the true use of the yamuna khadar was as
a flood moderator and its pools marshes, ridges, grasses and trees harboured an
aquaculture and a mammal reptile and avian population and the destruction of
khaddar has made Delhi ecologically poorer. Another example is the use of fertile
south Gujrat land (which were famous for fruit crops) for industrial and urban
activity just because of its proximity to Bombay, whereas a proper use of land plan
would have used the 60 km stretch between Ahmedabad and Limbdi known as Khar
Patti of the Bhal for industries where the salt encrusted land is unclaimable for any
form of vegetation. The growth of the slum called Dharavi in Bombay on low lying,
mangrove covered salt water pans and lagoons, for example, has not only created
conditions of filth and squalor, but it has also directly affected both land and water,
destroyed natural vegetation and adversely affected a fine habitat of avifauna.
Understanding Land resources is thus the first step to proper planning and
assigning its use. Zoning is the present system of land use planning but exclusive
zoning like into residential area commercial area, institutional area, industrial area
can increase inter destination distances like from home to work and so require
wider roads and more transportation needs. Proper planning should anticipate city
growth and provide space for poorer sections who cannot afford to compete in
market, to reside closer to work places.
Land Degradation
Land degradation is a global problem, where its natural characteristics and aesthetic
value is negatively affected. The major causes of degradation include:
1.Land clearance, such as deforestation and clear cutting (in which most or all trees
in a harvest area are cut down).
2.Agricultural depletion of soil nutrients through poor farming practices
3.Overgrazing when plants are exposed to intensive feeding on grasses and
plants for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods.
4.Inappropriate Irrigation can cause problems like salinisation and water logging
5. Overdrafting that is extracting groundwater beyond the safe yield or equilibrium
yield of the aquifer can cuase issues like land subsidence.
5.Urban sprawl (spreading outwards of a city) and commercial development
6.Land pollution (which occurs when waste is not disposed properly like industrial
wastes which can be toxic).
7.Quarrying or open pit mining for stone, sand, ore and minerals
Some important issues linked to land are landslides, soil erosion and desertification
and the magnitude of their threat needs to be understood
Landslides
Landslides are more widespread than any other geological event. They are defined
as downslope transport of soil and rock resulting from natural phenomena or man
made actions. Landslides can be secondary effects of heavy storms, volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes.
Man made causes of landslides
1.Intense deforestation, and consequent soil erosion.
2.Construction of human settlement or other anthropogenic activities related to
large dams etc in hilly or landslide prone areas.
3.Roads or communication lines in mountain areas.
4.Building with weak foundations.
5.Burying pipelines weaken an already mountainous area.
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is a natural process where the natural top soil cover gets removed. It
becomes a problem when human activity causes it to occur much faster than under
natural conditions. The FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization, a branch of United
Nations) estimates that the global loss of productive land through erosion is 5-7
million ha/year. Soil erosion also results in water loss as water percolation gets
reduced, induces frequent flood and drought, and soil nutrient is also lost. The
eroded soil generally ends up in the waterways, clogging them, silting up lakes and
estuaries. Often the soil is rich in added nutrients - leading to toxic algal blooms in
water bodies.
Causes Of Soil Erosion

Wind and water are the main physical agents of soil erosion. The amount of soil they
can carry away is influenced by two related factors:
1. Speed - The faster it moves, the more soil it can erode. On farmed slopes steps like
terracing and contour farming are helpful in cutting the speed of water flow down
the slope.
2. Plant cover - Plants protect the soil and in their absence wind and water can do
much more damage. Therefore conserving soil is all about maintaining adequate
vegetation cover.
The biotic agents in erosion are excessive grazing, mining, deforestation. Due to
these processes the top soil is disturbed or rendered devoid of vegetation cover
which in turn exposes the land to the physical forces of wind and water.
Natural factors causing erosion

1.Heavy rains on weak soil: Rain drops loosen soil particles which get transported
downhill by water
2.Steep slopes: water flows faster; soil creeps, slips or slumps downhill.
3.Rainfall: Erosion increases with unexpected rapidity with severe rainstorms
4.Drought: Water dries up and the dry soil is blown off more easily by the winds.
Soil biota dies. A sudden rain causes enormous damage and especially more when
vegetation cover is depleted due to the drought.
5.Changing winds: areas previously sheltered, become exposed.
Human-induced factors
1.Change of land (deforestation): The land loses its cover, then its soil biota, porosity
and moisture.
2.Intensive farming: Excessive fertilizer and irrigation damage the land, often
permanently.
3.Housing development: Soil is bared; massive earthworks are done to landscape
the area and all this leaves soil unprotected.
4.Road construction: When roads are cut, massive earthworks leave scars behind.
Not enough attention is paid to rainwater flow and maintenance of road sides.
5.Grassland cultivation and overgrazing are also major causes of human induced soil
erosion as the soil loses its proper vegetation cover. Cattle and sheep industries
contribute to large levels of soil erosion. Cattle and sheep compact the soil which
then does not hold seed and so does not favour vegetation growth, making the soil
susceptible to erosion during heavy rains
Types of soil erosion

 Water induced soil erosion is of the following types
Sheet Erosion- When there is uniform removal of a thin layer of soil usually by run
off, from a large surface area, it is called sheet erosion.
Rill Erosion- When there is rainfall and rapidly running water produces finger-
shaped grooves or rills over the area it is called rill erosion
Gully Erosion- When the rainfall is very heavy, deeper cavities or gullies are formed
which may be U or V shaped
Slip Erosion- The soil layer slips due to heavy rainfall on slopes of hills and
mountains.
Stream bank erosion- During the rainy season, the fast running streams take a turn
in some other direction cutting the soil and making caves in the banks.
 Wind induced soil erosion shows three types of soil movement

Saltation- Due to the stormy wind the soil particles of 1- 1.5mm diameter move up
in a vertical direction
Suspension-The fine soil particles less than 1mm diameter which are suspended in
the air are carried in that manner to distant places
Surface creep- Here larger particles (5-10 mm diameter) creep over the soil surface
along with wind
Desertification
Desertification is often considered the greatest threat to the planet. Over one third
of the world's land surface (38 percent) is threatened with desertification, according
to a new study published in the International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment in
2010
Desertification is the process in which the productive potential of arid or semiarid

land falls by 10% or more as a result of poor land-management, human and climatic
factors. Moderate desertification is 10-25% drop in productivity, severe
desertification causes 25-50% drop while very severe desertification causes more
than 50% drop in productivity often creating huge gullies and sand dunes.
Desertification occurs mainly in semi-arid areas (average annual rainfall less than
600 mm) bordering on deserts. In the Sahel, (the semi-arid area south of the Sahara
Desert), for example, the desert moved 100 km southwards between 1950 and
1975. Also the Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts are about a million years old, yet
they have become more barren during the last 100 years. Desertification is
therefore not the literal invasion of desert into a non desert area rather it includes
degradation of the ecosystems within as well as outside the natural deserts. . It
involves conversion of rangelands and irrigated or even rain-fed croplands to desert
like conditions in which agricultural productivity decreases.
What Causes Desertification?

1. Overgrazing is the major cause of desertification worldwide. Plants of semi-arid
areas are adapted to being eaten by sparsely scattered, large, grazing mammals
which move in response to the patchy rainfall common to these regions. In modern
times, the use of fences has prevented domestic and wild animals from moving in
response to food availability, and overgrazing has often resulted. The use of
boreholes and windmills also allows livestock to stay all-year round in areas
formerly grazed only during the rains when seasonal pans held water. Where not
correctly planned and managed, provision of drinking water has contributed to the
massive advance of deserts in recent years as animals gather around waterholes and
overgraze the area.
2. Destruction of vegetation in arid regions, often for fuelwood which invariably

exceeds the rate of its regeneration.
3.Incorrect irrigation practices in arid areas can cause salinization, (the build up of
salts in the soil) which can prevent plant growth.
4.When the practices described above coincide with drought, the rate of
desertification increases dramatically.
5.Increasing human population and poverty contribute to desertification as poor
people may be forced to overuse their environment in the short term, without the
ability to plan for the long term effects of their actions. Where livestock has a social
importance beyond food, people might be reluctant to reduce their stock numbers.
6. Deforestation leads to surface water runoff, preventing its percolation and

therefore depletion of groundwater due to its low replenishment. This is a major
cause of desertification.
7. Excessive mining and quarrying activities etc lead to loss of fertile soil and
vegetal cover in healthy areas within moderate drylands.
8.Overfarming - Overworking the land eventually drains the soil of its nutrients,
leaving it unable to produce crops;
The Effects Of Desertification

Desertification is self-reinforcing, i.e. once the process has started, conditions are set
for continual deterioration.
1.Desertification reduces the ability of land to support life, affecting wild species,
domestic animals, agricultural crops and people.
2. The reduction in plant cover that accompanies desertification leads to
accelerated soil erosion by wind and water. South Africa losing approximately
300-400 million tonnes of topsoil every year. As vegetation cover and soil layer are
reduced, rain drop impact and run-off increases.
3.Water is lost off the land instead of soaking into the soil to provide moisture for
plants. Even long-lived plants that would normally survive droughts die.
4. A reduction in plant cover also results in a reduction in the quantity of humus
and plant nutrients in the soil, and plant production drops further. As protective
plant cover disappears, floods become more frequent and more severe.
How Widespread Is Desertification?

The area at risk to desertification is thus large and likely to increase.
About one third of the world's land surface is arid or semi-arid. It is predicted that
global warming will increase the area of desert climates by 17% in the next century.
Worldwide, desertification is making approximately 12 million hectares useless for
cultivation every year. This is equal to 10% of the total area of South Africa.
Desertification currently affects about 1/4 of Earth's land area. Amongst the most
badly affected areas are the sub Saharan Africa (about half of southern Africa is
semi-arid and thus at risk of desertification), the Middle East, Western Asia, parts of
central and South America, Australia and the western half of US.
The Fight against Desertification and Land Degradation.

The Desertification has come to note in about the last 30 years or so. The fight
against desertification has turned serious with steps like the North American launch
of the UN Decade for Deserts and the Fight against Desertification, on 11 and 12
November 2010, in Colorado. Some practices in curbing desertification include
enclosure of overgrazed areas for a duration for development of vegetation cover.
Stress on proper irrigation practices to prevent issues like salinization. . Mulching
(layer of straw etc over soil to reduce evaporation lossess) and reseeding is also
suggested although these are expensive. The realistic large scale approach is good
land management
The problems of desertification, landslide and soil erosion can be prevented from
further aggravation by proper survey of every region before landuse planning and
supporting vegetation cover wherever the soil is healthy.
Self Assessment Question
14. Loss of productive land per year due to erosion is ……………………..
15. Desertification is making ……………. of land useless for cultivation per year
worldwide.
Role of an Individual in Conservation of Natural Resources
Conservation means using the resources in a wise manner so that besides meeting
the present requirement it also takes care of the future generations. Conservation
measures have been underway at National and International levels but unless the
individual cooperates nothing substantial can be achieved. If each individual of the
nearing 7 billion population of the world starts conserving natural resources in the
best way possible definitely much can be achieved.
Conserving Energy
1. Turn off unneeded lights, fans etc even when leaving a room for a short time.
2. Set your refrigerator temperature at 36 to 38 and your freezer at 0 to 5 . Use a
microwave whenever you can instead of a conventional oven or stove.
3. When using an oven, minimize door opening while it is in use; it reduces oven
temperature by 25 to 30 every time you open the door.
4. Clean the lint filter in your dryer after every load so that it uses less energy or use
natural sources as sunlight to dry clothes whenever possible.
5. Unplug seldom used appliances.
6. Use compact fluorescent light bulbs to save money and energy.
7. Plant trees to shade your home. Shade outside air conditioning units by trees or
other means. All this will cut energy needs
8. Use Public transport or car pooling whenever possible.
9. Cooperate in recycling and reuse of paper, metal and glass.
10. For every one degree rise in temperature setting of AC, 3-5% energy is saved, so
whenever possible increase the thermostat setting
Conserve Water
1. Check and fix any water leaks.
2. Install water-saving devices on your faucets and toilets.
3. Don't wash dishes with the water running continuously.
4. Wash and dry only full loads of laundry and dishes.
5. Avoid shower or install a low-flow shower head.
6. Replace old toilets with new ones that use a lot less water (not more than 6 litres
per flush).
7. Turn off washing machine's water supply to prevent leaks, check and correct
water leaks as a pin hole sized leak will lead to the wastage of 640 litres of water
per month.
8. Water plants in the evenings when evaporation losses are minimum
9. Agriculturists should use drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation wherever possible to
increase irrigation efficiency.
10. Build rain water harvesting
11. Reuse the soapy water of washing from clothes to clean the driveway,
courtyards etc.
Apart from these, reducing wastes by reusing plastic covers, or returning it to

shopkeepers after use, using cloth napkins instead of paper napkins, planting
saplings, avoiding the cutting of trees, being a responsible citizen and teaming up
with NGO’s protesting against environmentally unhealthy practices (like the cutting
of trees to widen roads) etc if done by every individual will make an enormous
contribution towards conservation of natural resources.
Equitable use of Resources for sustainable life style.
There is a limited capacity of the planet to meet the increasing demand for
resources and to absorb the emissions and waste resulting from their use and there
is evidence that the existing demand exceeds the carrying capacity of the
environment in several cases.
The two basic causes of unsustainabilty are over population in poor countries who
have under consumption of resources and over consumption of resources by the
rich countries, which generate wastes. In order to achieve sustainable life styles it is
desirable to achieve a more balanced and equitable distribution of global resources
and income to meet everyone’s basic needs. That is the rich countries will have to
lower down their consumption levels while the bare minimum needs of the poor
have to be fulfilled by providing them resources via the government initiatives.
With growth of economy, resource consumption increases, however small the

population. But even though some relative decoupling of growth and resource
consumption is emerging, there is still an absolute increase of environmental
pressure. With the growing trend towards a globalised economy, competition for
resources is likely to increase progressively over time. This brings a consequential
risk of geopolitical instability as competing interests seek to take advantage of key
global resources. Growth is required in poor countries as it provides more
employment and removal of poverty and so growth cannot be stopped. So the
solution lies in reaching a global consensus for more balanced distribution of the
basic resources like safe drinking water, food, fuel etc. so that the poor in the less
developed countries are able to live a reasonable decent life and there should be an
upper limit to the per capita resource consumption of the more developed
countries.
In short we have to remember and follow the wisdom of the words of A. Einstein in
this regard. “The world will not evolve past its current state of crisis by using the
same thinking that created the situation”
2.4 Summary
> All the six major natural resources are under stress mainly due to
overexploitation, consumerism, and overpopulation.
> Sustainable resource use by equitable or balanced distribution of basic resources
should be practiced to prevent resource depletion and mismanagement

1. Identify a resource mismanagement or depletion in your region and how it can be
avoided as per what you have learnt.
2. What are the various implications of overutilization of groundwater and how
should it be avoided?
3. What have you understood about water resources as a cause of conflict?
4. Explain the environmental effects of the efforts to increase food crop production?
What according to you could be the feasible solutions to reduce these negative
environmental effects?
5. Write an opinion on nuclear power as a requirement in India.
6. Among all the resource linked issues studied so far what according to you is the
major global issue? Defend your choice and suggest your solutions.
7. What are the land linked issues and how can each issue be avoided or overcome?
2.6 Answers
1. Because of exotic trees in Bangalore, the bird population is less and hence
pests are more in the fields (refer 2.3.1 Introduction)
2. Withdrawal of ground water more than its recharge rate.
3. Afforestation and reforestation of catchment of rivers
4. Education to encourage appropriate land use
5. Failure causes comparatively much less damage
6. Aggressive search, mining of minerals causing damage to environment.
7. E.g. Acid Mine Drinage
8. Contamination of water bodies with tailings that are toxic for thousands of
years
9. Mine land Reclamation
10. Biomagnification
11. E.g. Capitalism because it leads to wastage and inaccessibility of available
food resources
12. Thermal, Hydro, Renewable, Nuclear
13. E.g. Solar because of more sunny days per year
14. 5-7 million hec (FAO)
15. 12 million hec
Terminal Questions
1. Refer 2.3.6
2. Refer 2.3.2 a
3. Refer 2.3.2 e
4. Refer 2.3.4, World Food Problems 3
5. Refer 2.3.5, Issues with Nuclear Energy to form an opinion
6. Refer 2.3, e.g. depleting energy resources
7. Refer 2.3.6
References
http://www.indianetzone.com/4/dams_india.htm
http://groundwater.sdsu.edu
http://www.cawater-info.net/bk/water_law/pdf/wolf_e.pdf
http://india.gov.in/sectors/water_resources/river_water.php
http://www.miracosta.edu/home/MEggers/MRE%20Mineral%20ResourcesCh13.p
df
http://www.libraryindex.com/pages/1166/Depletion-Conservation-Natural-
Resources-MINERALS-OIL.html#ixzz18idMO6zv
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/dec/05/nuclear-greenpolitics
http://www.massline.org/Politics/ScottH/HungerExceeds1Billion-090619.pdf)
http://www.fao.org/docrep/u8480e/u8480e07.htm
http://teachingcompany.12.forumer.com/a/18-the-human-ecology-of-
biomagnification_post2654.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources_and_consumption
http://solarenergyrenewableenergy.info/status-of-solar-energy-in-inida-2010-the-
solarity/
http://www.gizmag.com/go/8032/
India Energy Data, Statistics and Analysis - Oil, Gas, Electricity ...
http://www.eia.gov/countries/cab.cfm?fips=IN
http://www.indianuclearenergy.net/introduction.htm
http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/envfacts/facts/desertification.htm
http://www.seql.org/100ways.cfm
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2011/12/report-
projects-massive-solar-growth-in-india
Environmental consciousness urban planning, Tracts for the times/ 2, MN Buch,
Orient Longman Ltd 1993
Our Environment , Laeeq Futehally, 1988, National Book Trust, India
Module 4
BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION
Structure
Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Biodiversity loss concerns
4.3 Value of Biodiversity
4.4 Biodiversity at Global, National and Local levels
4.5 India as a mega diversity nation
4.6 Biogeographical Regions of India
4.7 Biodiversity hotspots
4.8 Endemism in India
4.9 Endangered species of India
4.10 The Convention on Biological Diversity
Objectives
> understand biodiversity and its importance
> understand the biodiversity of our country in detail and learn about the endemic and endangered
species in our country.
4.1 Introduction
The following quote by Baba Dioum is the objective of any chapter on biodiversity
"In the end, we will only conserve what we love.

We will only love what we understand.
We will only understand what we are taught."
Biodiversity is the variety of all forms of life, from genes to species, through to the broad scale of
ecosystems. The term was coined as the compact form of “biological diversity” in 1985. It has developed a
broad meaning and also refers to the interrelatedness of genes, species, and ecosystems and in turn,
their interactions with the environment.
Three levels of biodiversity are commonly discussed—genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.
Genetic diversity is all the different genes contained in all the living species including individual plants,
animals, fungi, and microorganisms.
Species diversity is all the different species, as well as the differences within and between different
species. Roughly 1.4 million species are known to science, but because many species are undescribed, an
estimated 10-30 million species likely exist at present.
Ecosystem diversity is all the different habitats, biological communities and ecological processes, as well
as variation within individual ecosystems.
4.2 Biodiversity Loss Concerns

Biodiversity found on Earth today is the result of 3.5 billion years of evolution. In the geological history there
has been not only evolution but also diversification and extinctions. Extinction is a natural event which from
a geological perspective can be said to be routine. Most species that lived have gone extinct. The average
rate over the past 200 million years (my) is 1-2 species per year, and 3-4 families per my. The average
duration of a species is 2-10 million years (based on last 200 million years). There have also been
occasional episodes of mass extinction, when many taxa representing a wide array of life forms have gone
extinct in the same blink of geological time. In spite of several extinctions, the Earth supports more
biodiversity today than in any other period in history. The question then is why the fear of biodiversity loss?
Higher rate of extinction: The story of extinction due to human action started 1.65 million years ago,
during the ice age, by hunting the wooly mammoth. Since then it has continued and gained great speed. In
the modern era, due to human actions, species and ecosystems are threatened with destruction to an
extent rarely seen in earth history. Species are becoming extinct at the fastest rate known in geological
history , and most of these extinctions are tied to human activity. Roughly about 400 years for the extinction
of one mammal and 200 years for the extinction of a bird is needed. But about 78 animals became extinct
during the first 75 years of the 20th century. Some conservation organizations estimate species are heading
towards extinction at a rate of about one every 20 minutes (Source: Conservation International).
Experts calculate that between 0.01 and 0.1 per cent of all species will continue to become extinct each
year, unless proper conservation measures are taken. That is if there are 100 million species on Earth
as some estimates suggest, then between 10,000 and 100,000 species are becoming extinct each
year. One figure frequently cited is that the rapid loss of species we are seeing today is estimated to be
between 1,000 and 10,000 times higher than the natural extinction rate which was 1-2 species per year
(Source: IUCN)
More than one third of species assessed in a 2009 major international biodiversity study, are threatened
with extinction that is of the 47,677 species in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species of 2009, 17,291
are deemed to be at serious risk. The list reveals that 21 per cent of all known mammals, 30 per cent of
all known amphibians, 12 per cent of all known birds, 28 per cent of reptiles, 37 per cent of freshwater
fishes, 70 per cent of plants and 35 per cent of invertebrates assessed so far, are under threat. Never
in the history of earth have so many species been threatened, in so short a time and due to anthropogenic
causes.
Importance of Biodiversity: Comparatively speaking just as it is important to recognize the importance of
all sorts of different skills in different individuals for the healthy progress of a community or nation, it is
important to respect the variety in terms of species and ecosystems for the health of the world. Speaking
with respect to mankind; since it cannot be said which genes or species are going to prove beneficial to us,
it is best to assure the persistence of as many genes and species as possible, that is it is important to
preserve the diversity in all forms. For example very recently a tropical seaweed is being studied for
antimalarial drugs as a group of chemical compounds that the sea weed uses to ward off fungal attacks
may have promising antimalarial properties for humans. This is important as the malarial parasite has
become resistant to most drugs, even the latest called artemisinin and due to this resistance to drugs more
than a million people are dying each year of malaria
Biodiversity in terms of species and ecosystems provide clean, consistent water flows, protection from
floods and storms and a stable climate. The loss of biodiversity is dangerous and its consequences are
immediate. It could mean unclean water due to lack of organic waste decomposing species, less food for
our survival, like less fish. It could also mean a lack of forest resources such as plants for medicine, fewer
opportunities for livelihoods, for better health, education, and a better life. In the long term, it also means
less income overall and especially for forest dependant communities, which are often already amongst the
poorest on Earth
Cultural diversity and biodiversity are intimately related to each other. If we lose one, we risk losing the
other. The diversity of societies, cultures and languages that has developed throughout human history is
intimately related to biodiversity and its use. For example there are primitive tribes still existing deep in the
Amazon forests who have never had any significant contact with the rest of humanity. Their ariel
photographs and clips are now available (allowed only from an ariel distance of 1 km). The tribe’s survival
is in serious jeopardy as influxes of illegal loggers invade the Peru side of the border. Many NGO’s have
been campaigning to prevent this invasion. There is interest to preserve them as they represent as said by
a BBC report, the last free people, the example that life can be lived differently. If illegal logging and mining
activities advance towards them, then their uniqueness will be lost.
Importance of diversity
The following are excerpts from a letter Chief Seattle, Head of the Suquamish and other Indian tribes of
Washington’s Puget Sound, wrote in 1851, responding to a treaty under which native Indians were to
sell two million acres of land for $150,000. Seattle’s letter to US President Franklin Pierce is considered
one of the most beautiful and profound environmental statements ever made
“We will consider your offer to buy our land. If we decide to accept, I will make one condition- the White
Man must treat the beasts of this land as his brothers. I am savage and do not understand any other
way…
I have seen a thousand rotting buffaloes on the prairie, left by the White Man who shot them from a
passing train. I am savage and do not understand how the smoking iron horse can be made more
important than the buffalo that we kill only to stay alive…
What is man without the beast?/ if all the beasts were gone, man would die from a great loneliness of
the spirit.
For whatever happens to the beasts, soon happens to man.
All things are connected...”
What are the main causes of biodiversity loss?
There are many threats and challenges to our natural world and as a consequence of these multiple forces,
many scientists fear that by the end of next century, perhaps 25% of existing species will be lost. These
threats include:
Habitat loss and destruction: This is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity. Habitat loss is directly
linked to human induced pressures on land. If a house in bulldozed, the members are killed or wounded
and those surviving have to look for new habitation in which they may or may not succeed. That is the
damage happening in the wild as forest lands are taken over by man and is therefore the greatest threat to
biodiversity.
Alterations in ecosystem composition: Variety of species and their interactions with their ecosystems is
critical for not only saving the species, but also for their successful future evolution. In the event of
alterations, either within species groups, or within the environment, entire ecosystems can begin to change.
Alterations to ecosystems are a critical factor contributing to species and habitat loss.
Invasive alien species: The introduction of exotic species that replace local and native species is cited as
the second largest cause of biodiversity loss. Alien invasive species replace, and often result in the
extinction of native species. The spread of non-native species threatens many local species with extinction,
and pushes the world's biota toward a more homogeneous and widely distributed sub-set of survivors. The
annual economic damage caused by invasive plant and animal species is estimated to be in the region of
US$ 1.4 trillion.
Over-exploitation: Over-hunting, over-fishing or over-collecting of a species can quickly lead to its decline.
Changing consumption patterns of humans is often cited as the key reason for this unsustainable
exploitation of natural resources. E.g. Box turtles in the US illegally collected and exported as pets are very
slow to reproduce and poaching has resulted in their decline.
Pollution and contamination: Biological systems respond slowly to changes in their surrounding
environment and so pollution and contamination cause irreversible damage to species and varieties as
species cannot immediately adapt. High level of DDT in birds affects their ability to reproduce as it leads to
thinning of egg shells.
Global climate change: Both climate variability and climate change cause biodiversity loss. Species and
populations may be lost permanently, if they are not provided with enough time to adapt to changing
climatic conditions. For example Monarch butterfly could lose their wintering habitats in the mountains of
Mexico. Climate change threatens to force species and ecosystems to migrate towards higher latitudes,
with no guarantee of suitable habitat or access routes
What are the solutions?
a. The most important solution is conservation of wildlife. There are two major methods
In Situ Conservation Methods
In-situ conservation, is the conservation of species in their natural habitats and is considered the most
appropriate way of conserving biodiversity. It involves conserving the areas where populations of species
exist naturally and is an underlying condition for the conservation of biodiversity. That's why protected
areas form a central element of any national strategy is to conserve biodiversity. These methods include
the following:-
Biosphere reserves- These conserve some representative ecosystems as a whole. In India there are 18
biosphere reserves. e.g. Nanda Devi (U.P) and Manas (Assam)
National Park- It is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its environment. It is also
open to tourists. Within a Biosphere reserve there may be one or more national parks. e.g. Nilgiri Biosphere
Reserve (covering areas of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu) has two National Parks viz. Bandipur and
Nagarhole National Park. Recently (Feb 2011) a deer was photographed in Nagarhole eating a plastic
cover. It reflects the negligent attitudes of tourists and officials alike and is a big blot on conservation
efforts. There are 100 National Parks in the country and each National Park usually aims at conservation of
some particular species of wildlife along with others. For example, Elephant in Bandipur (Karnataka), Tiger
in Kanha (M.P.) etc.
Wildlife Sanctuaries-These are protected areas for wildlife where hunting and capturing of wildlife is
prohibited but unlike National Parks, private ownership rights and forestry operations are permitted to an
extent that they do not affect the wildlife adversely. There are 523 wildlife sanctuaries in the country e.g.
Ghana Bird Sanctuary, Rajasthan(for 300 species of birds), Hazaribagh Sanctuary in Bihar for Tiger and
Leopard. There are also gene sanctuaries for plants, like for pitcher plant in Northeast India.
Projects- For the protection and conservation of certain animals there have been specific projects, like in
India there have been, project tiger, Gir Lion Project, Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Elephant, Snow
Leopard Project etc. The Global Tiger Recovery Programme, a worldwide plan to bring the species back
from the brink of extinction which was forged in November 2010 at an international tiger conservation
meeting in St. Petersburg, Russia organized by Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin. It marks the first
formalized international initiative to save the tiger from extinction. Key NGOs and global partners in the
GTRP(The Global Tiger Recovery Programme), include the World Bank's Global Tiger Initiative, the Global
Tiger Forum, WWF (World Wildlife Fund), WCS (Wildlife Conservation Society), the Smithsonian Institute,
the Wildlife Trade Network TRAFFIC, CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species)
and the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW).
Project Tiger- Numbering more than 100,000 at the turn of the last century, tigers have lost more than 97
percent of their population and 94 percent of their home range in just 100 years. Various pressures in the
later part of the last century led to the progressive decline of wilderness, resulting in the disturbance of
viable tiger habitats. At the IUCN General Assembly meeting in Delhi, in 1969, serious concern was voiced
about the threat to several species of wildlife and the shrinkage of wilderness in the country. In 1970, a
national ban on tiger hunting was imposed . Subsequently, the first ever all India tiger census was
conducted in 1972 which revealed the existence of only 1827 tigers. In the same year, the Wildlife
Protection Act came into force. A 'Task Force' was then set up to formulate a project for tiger conservation
with an ecological approach. The project was launched in 1973, and various tiger reserves were created in
the country on a 'core-buffer' strategy. The core areas were freed from all sorts of human activities and the
buffer areas were subjected to 'conservation oriented land use'. The project aims at tiger conservation in
specially constituted 'tiger reserves', which are representative of various bio-geographical regions falling
within our country. It strives to maintain a viable tiger population in the natural environment. Initially, 9 tiger
reserves were established in different States during the period 1973-74, by pooling the resources available
with the Central and State Governments. Now there are 39 tiger reserves.
Ex Situ Conservation Methods

Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components of biological diversity outside their natural habitats.
This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated species, and draws on a
diverse body of techniques and facilities. Some of these include:
1.Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, sperm and ova banks, field banks;
2.In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections;
3.Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants, with possible reintroduction into the wild;
and
4.Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria, and botanic gardens for research and public awareness.
Ex-situ conservation measures can be complementary to in-situ methods as they provide

an "insurance policy" against extinction. These measures also have a valuable role to play in recovery
programmes for endangered species. The Kew Seed Bank in England has 1.5 per cent of the world's flora
- about 4,000 species - on deposit.
There are 120 botanical gardens in India. We have the following important gene bank facilities (a) National
Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources(NBPGR), New Delhi. Here cryopreservation of seeds, pollen etc is
done by using liquid Nitrogen at -196 degree centigrade. (b) National Bureau of Animal Genetic
Resources(NBAGR) at Karnal, Haryana preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals. (c) National
Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) for the conservation of varieties by tissue culture.
b. Other initiatives aimed at promoting beneficial conservation of biodiversity in countries around the world
include:
There are Multilateral Environmental Agreements related to biodiversity such as: The Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), The Convention on International trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITIES), The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
and The World Heritage Convention. These are agreements to facilitate steps for conservation all over the
world. Focus on their implementation are an important measure in which all signatory countries participate.
Increasing “Communication, Education and Public Awareness” (CEPA) programmes related to biodiversity
with an aim to relate biodiversity to people and their livelihoods. These include identifying and creating
opportunities for rural enterprises based on biodiversity such as eco-tourism, bio-prospecting to benefit
local communities, the environment, species and their habitats.
Promoting an increase in the number, size, and connectivity of protected areas, both on land and at sea is
another important initiative that governments need to take so that increase in wildlife is supported by
increase in habitat and does not result in man wildlife conflicts which could dampen the conservation
campaigns. The year 2010 was the International Year of Biodiversity which aimed at focusing intensively on
biodiversity conservation. By the end of the year in October at the meeting of the Convention on Biological
Diversity that took place in Nagoya, Japan, governments agreed to increase the extent of land-based
protected areas and national parks to 17 per cent of the Earth's surface, up from around 12.5 per cent now,
and to extend marine protected areas to 10 per cent, up from under one per cent currently.
4.3 Value of Biodiversity

It is important to understand how Biodiversity is valuable to us from as many perspectives as possible so
that we develop the understanding and initiative to preserve it.
Biophilic Value Wilson's I984 book Biophilia brought the idea that love of nature may have been hardwired
into our genes by natural selection. A monotonous environment produces wave patterns contributing to
fatigue and so biotic as well as cultural diversity, from the neurological point of view, may well be
fundamental to the general health. In a nutshell, Wilson's biophilia hypothesis presents love of nature as a
universal biological adaptation of humans, selected during the course of evolution.
Transformative Value Contact with biodiversity can be the occasion to reconsider our shallow,
consumptive preferences and make us adopt values that are objectively better. This reflection and
realization that proximity to nature brings forth is called transformative value.
Intrinsic Value Humans have no right to destroy biodiversity. This is an assertion which may be justifiable
from certain religious standpoints. If God or sacred process created the natural world alongside humans,
then all creatures are imbued with sacredness: all have intrinsic value. This is fundamentally a religious
argument. There is no scientific way to 'prove' that nonhuman organisms (or for that matter, human
organisms) have a right to exist.
Spiritual Value Biologists find spiritual value in biodiversity precisely because of, not despite, their science.
People turn to spirituality, when confronted with vast unknowns that defy logical explanation. In an analog
to traditional religions, biodiversity's spiritual power is linked to our lack of knowledge of it. Since some
biologists spend their professional lives surrounded by biodiversity, its unfathomable complexity and its
sublime beauty, all combine with feelings of humiliating ignorance to infuse spiritual feelings. The more they
learn, the more awe they feel; and the unknowns, the gaps that the world of science can't fill, leave further
room for values and spirituality and aesthetics to rush in.
Aesthetic Value Biodiversity's spiritual value is similarly inseparable from its aesthetic value. What gives
pleasure is beautiful. What makes us feel transcendent we find beautiful. The more beautiful we find it, the
more it moves us spiritually, the more we appreciate it.
Scientific Value The most obvious value biologists might promote for biodiversity is that it has value for
science. As the raw material for biological study, biodiversity is essential for the scientific endeavor to
continue unhindered.
Ecological Value We may value biodiversity because we value the continued healthy functioning of
ecosystems as such, regardless of any services biodiversity performs for us. More often, however, humans
benefit from such ecosystem services, like protection from floods, providing clean water etc. It's folly for us
to act in ways that are adversely affecting the ability of ecosystems to provide these services that we're
dependent on. But we're doing that more and more as we pollute and destroy habitats, or alter habitats in
one fashion or another. We're changing the environment faster than our ability to understand the
consequences of how we're changing it.
Economic Value There are direct and indirect benefits of biodiversity. The indirect benefits include the free
ecosystem services provided by biodiversity which save us billions of dollars annually. To lose them might
bankrupt us, not only ecologically, but economically. These include stability of biosphere, nutrient cycling,
gene flow, water purification etc. We can also extract from nature materials and services that directly
augment human wealth and well-being. Tropics are the major biodiversity centres, gradually decreasing
towards the poles. Direct benefits the tropics have provided involve basically food, fodder, fuel, fibre,
medicine etc. These include corn, rice, coffee, orchids, tea, chocolate, morphine, tobacco, cocaine, dahlias,
cotton, bamboo, pepper, honey bees, vanilla, milk, peppers, cinnamon, dates, quinine, rubber, bananas,
mahogany, pineapples, sorghum, coconuts, nuts, pumpkins, beans, cane sugar, molasses etc. Quinine the
cure for malaria is obtained from Cinchona tree. Some of these products have consumptive use values
where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed directly e.g. fuel, food, drugs etc.
Productive use values are the commercially usable values where the product is marketed and sold, like
lumber, silk , wool. In fact instead of more of lumber, if the wildlands are mined for genetic material, the
economic benefits could be even greater, where discovered species could provide medicine, and new raw
material for industries etc. Biodiversity, is thus our most valuable but least appreciated resource, that needs
to be looked from the perspective of extracting knowledge and diversity benefits to be most useful.
Social Value These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho spiritual
aspects of the people e.g. many plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like Tulsi, Peepal,
Lotus, Bael etc.
Option Values These are the potentials of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be explored
like the potential cure of AIDS or cancer existing within the depths of a marine ecosystem, or a tropical
rainforest. It also includes value in terms of option to visit biodiverse areas.
4.4 Biodiversity at Global, National and Local levels

Global Biodiversity-It can be studied basically under two head of Terrestrial Biodiversity and Marine (or
aquatic ) Biodiversity.
Terrestrial Biodiversity- This can be best described as biomes which are the largest ecological units present
in different geographic areas and are named based on the dominant vegetation e.g tall grass prairies,
tropical rainforests, desert etc. The variety of species in these biomes has developed over time in highly
specialized niches and that makes them more vulnerable to extinction when their natural home or niche is
destroyed. Among all the biomes the Tropical rainforests are richest and many cures and potential cures to
diseases like malaria, cancer, AIDS have come from this storehouse. But hardly around 3% of the species
is known. Extinction is an irreversible process and we become poorer in diversity by around 0.1% every
year(100,000species), where natural extinction rate is only 1 species per year. Given this scenario imagine
how many potential benefits we are losing forever, every year!
Marine Diversity- Sea is the cradle of every known animal phylum. Out of the 35 existing phyla of
multicellular animals, 34 are marine and 16 of these are exclusively marine. But ironically this diversity is
very less explored and described though marine diversity is much higher than terrestrial biodiversity!
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) notes that
 75% of genetic diversity of agricultural crops has been lost

 75% of the world’s fisheries is fully or over exploited
 Up to 70% of the world’s known species risk extinction if the global temperatures rise by more than
3.5°C
 1/3rd of reef-building corals around the world are threatened with extinction
 Every second a parcel of rainforest the size of a football field disappears

National Biodiversity- Compared to Global diversity, India ranks 10th among the countries that are rich in
flora, 11th in terms of number of endemic species of higher vertebrates and 6 th among the centers of
diversity and origin of agricultural crops. Since India has a variety of climates, it houses an immense variety
of species too becoming one of the 12 mega diversity nations. Apart from the wild diversity, the
domesticated diversity is also important and it is not just accidental nor purely natural as it is the outcome
of thousands of years of deliberate selection, cross breeding and other manipulations that farmers have
tried out leading to the diversification of a single species collected from the wild in the past into thousands
of varieties. India has among the world’s largest diversity of domesticated animals, with some 26 breeds of
cattle, 40 of sheep and 20 of goats etc. Scientists have discovered that migratory pastorals in Rajasthan
had selected and helped develop a new breed of sheep called Dheri in response to the increasing drought
incidence and declining pasture availability. Many tribal villages in the hills of north east India have been
known to grow over 20 rice varieties within a single year in their terraced fields. A village in Nagaland was
found to have 70 varieties and in another region of Koraput district in Orissa scientists identified over 1500
varieties. The system of Baranaja in Garhwal that is sowing a mixture of 12 types of grains in a single plot
of land was a useful way of retaining soil moisture and constant supply of food as the different crops are
harvested at different times. Diversification provides safeguard against unpredictable issues like drought,
pest infestation etc as some varieties of crops withstand where others succumb. Dependence on single
high yielding varieties and hybrid breeds has destroyed the hard work of our farmers; the domesticated
diversity of our country has brought in more risks to farming with dependence on single varieties.
Regional or Local Biodiversity- At local level the habitat is more or less homogenous and so species
diversity is low and as the region considered increases, more heterogeneous habitats are considered and
the diversity of the species increases. Therefore regional diversity needs to be considered on four counts
1. Point richness-The number of species that can be found at a single point in a given space.
2. Alpha richness-The number of species found in a small homogenous area.
3. Beta richness-The rate of change in species composition across different habitats.
4. Gamma richness-The rate of change across large landscape gradients( taken on different contour
lines of a slope).
1. The total number of species at risk according to IUCN Red list of Threatened species 2009, is
…………………………..
2. The most appropriate way of conserving biodiversity is ………………………
3. Gene bank is an example of ………………………conservation measure.
4. India ranks ……………………….globally among the centres of diversity and origin of

agricultural crops
5. The rate of change in species composition across different habitats is considered under
…………….. richness of regional diversity.
6. Which according to you is the most important value of biodiversity and why?
4.5 India as a Mega-Diversity Nation

Biodiversity rich countries are called mega-diversity countries. In biodiversity, this concept emphasis more
on regions with species richness, threatened species and endemic species. It is mainly located in the afro-
tropical, Eurasian, and the Indo-Malayan bio-geographic realms. Mega-diversity nations are Mexico,
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Zaire, Madagascar, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia and India. This
India is among the twelve biodiverse nations of the world and this is owing to many factors. India has
different types of regions and climates and ecosystems which favours its positioning as a Megadiversity
Nation. The main features that allot India this status are
a) Endemism-India shows a good number of endemic species, that is, the species restricted to only a
particular area. Western Ghats are the site of maximum endemism. About 62% of amphibians and
50% of lizards are endemic.
b) Centre of Origin-A large number of species are known to have originated in India. Around 5000
species of flowering plants, 166 species of crop plants, 320 species of wild relatives of cultivated
crops have originated from India.
c) Marine Diversity-More than 340 species of corals of the world are found here. There is a rich
diversity of mollusks crustaceans, mangroves and sea grasses in the various marine ecosystems
across the 7,500km long coastline of the country.
4.6 Bio-geographical Regions of India

Biogeography deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals. Communities of plants and
animals in different geographical areas of the world differ widely from each other. Biogeography is divided
into two branches: i] Phyto-geography and ii] Zoo-geography.
Phyto-geography (plant geography) deals with origin, distribution and environmental interrelationships of
plants. Zoogeography deals with the migration and distribution of animals.
From the stand point of biodiversity, India is given the status of a “Mega-diversity” nation. There are 10
biogeographic zones which are distinguished clearly in India. They are as follows—
1 Trans Himalayan zone
2 Himalayan zone
3 Desert zone
4 Semiarid zone
5 Western ghat zone
6 Deccan plateau zone
7 Gangetic plain zone
8 North east zone
9 Islands present near the shore line
10 Coastal zone
1 Trans Himalayan zone:

This is the northern most area of the country around Himalayas. This zone is not related to mountains but it
is the area present surrounding the mountains. This region shows 1. Irregular vegetation, 2. it has the
richest wild sheep producing quality wool and also a goat community which is qualitatively and
quantitatively superior in the world. 3. Snow leopard is a special animal observable in this zone. 4.
Migratory birds like black neck crane are seen here. The great Indian bustard which is an endangered
variety is also seen in the grasslands west to this zone. It comprises 5.7 % of the country’s landmass.
2. Himalayan zone:
This is a hilly region with good flora and fauna, exhibiting maximum biodiversity. There are national parks in
this zone. It comprises 7.2 % of the country’s landmass.
3. Desert zone:
This is a part of Rajasthan state, from where, the great desert of western India namely ‘Thar desert’ begins.
It also comprises the salty desert of Gujarat apart from the sand desert of Rajasthan, 6.9% of the country’s
landmass. Desert zone has areas like Jaisalmir surrounded by sand dunes.
4. Semi arid zone:
It begins in Rajasthan and extends up to some parts in the state of Punjab and Haryana. This zone exisits
between the desert and the Deccan plateau, including the Aravalli hill range and comprises 15.6 % of the
country’s landmass. In this area, ground water and surface water is much less. Dry xerophytic vegetation is
predominant, fauna is also minimum.
5. Western ghats:
It represents the mountainous western zone of south peninsular India having rich flora and fauna with
tropical rain forests extending from Konkan region of Maharashtra up to the western part of Kerala
generally called Malabaar coast of Arabian Sea. It occupies 5.8% of the landmass.
Wild relatives of cultivated plants like banana, mango, citrus, black pepper are found abundantly in this
part.
6. Deccan Plateau zone:
This is the central table land of South India with rich flora and fauna. But some areas represent semiarid
type of vegetation. Rainfall occurs mainly by the south west monsoon and so limited number of dense
forests is present in Deccan. Deccan plateau is represented in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Kerala and occupies 42% of the landmass.
7.Gangetic plain:
Defined by the Ganges river system, these plains are relatively homogenous. It occupies 11% of the
country’s landmass.
8. North-East India:
These are the plains and non-Himalayan hill ranges of northeastern part of India with a wide variation of
vegetation. It occupies 5.2% of the country’s landmass.
9. Islands:
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, with a highly diverse set of biomes constitute
0.03% of the country’s landmass.
10. Coasts:
A large coastline distributed both to the west and east, with distinct differences between the two;
Lakshadeep islands are included in this with the percent area being negligible.
4.7 Biodiversity hotspots

Biodiversity is not distributed uniformly over the earth. Some areas, particularly along the tropics, are rich in
species. Many species in these areas are threatened with extinction. However, the fund for conservation is
rather limited and hence it is important to fix priority areas of conservation. In 1988 British
ecologist, Norman Myres forwarded a concept called hotspots to identify the most major criteria for
designating an area as hotspot. These are: (i) richness in endemic species, and (ii) impact by human
activities. Endemic species are those restricted to certain localized areas of the earth and rarely found
outside of it. Plant diversity is the biological basis for hotspot designation. To qualify as a hotspot, a region
must support 1,500 endemic plant species, 0.5 percent of the global total. To qualify as a hotspot, a region
must also have lost more than 70 percent of its original habitat, that is, it retains only 30% or less of its
original primary vegetation. Existing primary vegetation is the basis for assessing human impact in a region.
Identification of hotspot helps pin point priority areas for conservation.
According to the classification of Norman Myres' there are 25 hotspots scattered in different parts of the
world. Even though the 25 biodiversity hotspots together represent only1.4 percent of the earth's land area,
they contain 44 percent of all plant species and 35 percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species in the world.
Each of these hotspots is under severe pressure due to anthropogenic interventions and has already lost at
least 70 percent of its original natural vegetation. The potential anthropogenic activities in hotspots place
the natural values at risk, and it is likely this risk will increase in the future in the absence of active
conservation and management. Eight of the hottest hot-spots recognized currently are Madagascar,
Philippines, Sundaland, Brazil Atlantic Coast, Caribbean Basin, Indo Burma, Western Ghats, Eastern Arc
and coastal forests of Tanzania/Kenya. Because the natural values of hotspots are largely intact,
undertaking action now to maintain these values will contribute to the efforts in biodiversity conservation.
India is part of two hotspots- Indo-Burma (earlier Eastern Himalayas ) and Western Ghats and Sri
Lanka . Of late, conservationists named nine new 'Biodiversity Hotspots', making the total to 34, which also
include the Himalayas .
The Western Ghats: These are also known as the Sahyadri Hills. It is a mountain chain running from the
north to the South and is isolated by the Arabian Sea to the West, the arid Deccan Plateau to the East, and
the Vindhya-Satpura ranges to the North. The vegetation types are: scrub jungles and grasslands at low
altitudes, dry and moist deciduous forests, montane grasslands and sholas, and the tropical evergreen and
semi evergreen forests. Complex topography, high rainfall and relative inaccessibility have helped the
region retain its biodiversity. Of the 15,000 flowering plant species in India , there are an estimated 4,780
species in the Western Ghats region. There is also a great diversity of traditional crop plants and an equal
diversity of animal life. A large number of amphibians, freshwater fishes and invertebrate groups are
endemic to Western Ghats .
Eastern Himalayas: The Indo-Burma hotspot encompasses 2,373,000square km of tropical Asia east of
the Ganges-Brahmaputra lowlands. Indo-Burma has immense biological treasure. New large mammal
species keep getting discovered; the large antlered muntjac, the Annamite muntjac, the grey-shanked
douc, the Annamite striped rabbit, the leaf deer, and the saola. This hotspot also holds remarkable
endemism in freshwater turtle species most of which are threatened with extinction due to over harvesting
and habitat loss. Bird life is also very diverse, having almost 1300 different bird species, including the
threatened white-eared night-heron, the grey-crowned crocias, and the orange necked partridge.
4.8 Endemism in India
The Indian Subcontinent is home to 49,219 species of plants, 350 species of mammals, 1,330 species of
birds, 275 species of snakes, 408 other reptile species, 197 species of amphibians, 2,456 species of fishes,
700 species of ants, 1442 species of spiders.
Endemic animals and birds are species that are found only locally and are found no where else in the
world. The endemism of Indian biodiversity is highly determined primarily in the North-East, , North-West
Himalaya , Western Ghats and the Andaman and Nicobar islands.
 Of the 49,219 plant species, 5,150 are endemic and distributed into 141 genera under 47 families
corresponding to about 30% of the world's recorded flora, which means 30% of the world's
recorded flora is endemic to India. Of these endemic species, 3,500 are found in the Himalayas
and adjoining regions and 1,600 in the Western Ghats alone.
 About 62% of the known amphibian species is endemic with the majority occurring in the Western
Ghats.
 Nearly 50% of the lizards of India is endemic with a high degree of endemicity in the Western
Ghats.
 There are 42 species of Endemic birds in India out of which 35 are found in Western Ghats.
 Some Endemic mammals are Lion-tailed macaque(Macaca silenus) Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecus
johni) Brown palm civet (Paradoxurus jerdoni) Nilgir tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius)
4. 9 Endangered species of India

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) publishes the Red Data
Book of threatened species (species threatened with extinction) which includes the list of endangered
species of plants and animals of all countries. It is done to understand the species at risk of extinction,
provide awareness of the degree of threat, and plan conservation strategies. As mentioned earlier there are
47,677 species in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species of 2009 of which 17,291 are at serious risk,
which is more than 1/3 rd of the assessed species. Also as per the IUCN report 2009, the total endangered
species in India are 687, of which mammals are 96, birds 75, reptiles 25, amphibians 65, fish 64, mollusk 2,
other invertebrates 113, plants 247. In India recently Karnataka Forest department prepared its own list of
endangered species to identify which species of Karnataka are reduced to a critical level. This is important
to make conservation priorities and plan specific conservation methods suited to endangered species of the
region. Red list was initiated in 1963 and has eight categories of species. The basic four are as follows
A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level or whose habitats
have been drastically reduced and if such a species is not protected and conserved, it is in immediate
danger of extinction.
A specie is said to be in vulnerable category if its population is facing continuous decline due to
overexploitation or habitat destruction. Such species are still abundant, but under a serious threat of
becoming endangered if causal factors are not checked.
Species which are not endangered or vulnerable at present, but are at a risk are categorized as rare
species. These are usually endemic.
A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch e.g. Dodo, passenger
pigeon. Extinction is an irreversible process. Nothing can be done about India’s loss of the magnificient
Cheetah except look up pictures and regret that a wonderful and competent creation of nature can never
be seen again only due to the ruthlessness of man. Stand in any vegetated area and look around and you
would have to be immensely lucky to chance sighting any bird of colourful plumages as they have either
been already traded to rarity or extinction for their pretty feathers, taking away the little joys of sighting
beautiful birds.
Critically Endangered
• Jenkin's Shrew (Crocidura jenkensii). (Endemic to India.)
• Malabar Large-spotted Civet (Viverra civettina).
• Himalayan Wolf (Canis himalayensis) (Endemic to India and Nepal.)
• Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamayopterus biswasi). (Endemic to India.)
• Pygmy Hog (Sus salvanius).
• Salim Ali's Fruit Bat (Latidens salimalii). (Endemic to India.)
• Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis).
• Wroughton's Free-tailed Bat (Otomops wroughtoni). (Endemic to India.)
• Indian Vulture
Some of the Endangered species
• Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica)

• Asiatic Wild Dog/ Dhole (Cuon alpinus)
• Asiatic Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus)
• Desert Cat (Felis libyca ornata)
• Great Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)
• Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus)
• Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock)
• Flamingo
Feb 19 2011 Report regarding a species of frog considered extinct
Researchers have rediscovered frog species including one last seen in India more than a century ago,
potentially offering clues on why they have survived a global crisis killing amphibians. Scientists
estimate that more than 30 percent of amphibians are facing extinction due to a mysterious fungus that
has spread in the world. (study led by IUCN and Conservation International) In India researchers found
five species in the biologically diverse Western Ghats region, one of them the florescent Chalazodes
Bubble-nest Frog which is a florescent green frog which has black pupils with golden patches, it had last
been seen in 1874 that is 136 years ago. It is believed to live by day inside reeds.
142 flora fauna species in Karnataka state face extinction,
Feb7, 2011, Bangalore Mirror.
The IUCN prepares a nationwide survey but it is difficult to find out what species are disappearing from
the state forests. So the forest department sounded a red alert compiling a red list of plants and animals
facing extinction in the state. It was concluded from the study that in the last 10 years, 39 species of
flora have either become extinct or are facing the threat of extinction.
A forest official said, “It is helpful to have a ready list of what we might lose in the days to come. Using
the list, we can prepare an action plan and focus our conservation activities”. The forest minister has
directed officials to publish the red list in their jurisdictional areas and take adequate measures to
protect and conserve such species. Some of the species that are included in the red list are –the
Malabar Civet, Indian Vulture, wild areca nut and gurjan balsam.
4.10 The Convention on Biological Diversity

On 29 dec, 1993, there came to force an international treaty of far reaching significance for the future of
humanity’s troubled relationship with the earth: the Convention on Biological Diversity. What makes this
treaty significant is that it deals not only with conservation aspects but also with the realms of national and
international politics as this is a field that significantly influences biodiversity conservation. The interests in
money making reflected in intellectual property rights which sometimes is even claimed for species has
negative effects on biodiversity conservation efforts.
Three areas of thrust are: the conservation of Biological Diversity, the sustainable use of biological
resources and the equitable sharing of the benefits of such use. The third aspect reflects that the financial
and technological benefits of any species should be shared and not monopolized in a way negatively
affecting the aims and efforts of biodiversity conservation.
Case Study
Tigers Safety in India: Source WWF and The Times of India
There are only 13 countries that still have tigers. They live in increasingly isolated pockets of land in Asia
and the Russian Far East in Indonesia, Malaysia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, China and Russia.India has half of the world’s remaining wild tigers.
The Indian Government released new tiger population numbers on March 28, 2011 for the first time since
2007, indicating that numbers have increased. The figures were presented at the International Tiger
Conservation Conference, a three day meeting (March 28-30), held in New Delhi. The count was conducted
by India's National Tiger Conservation Authority with key partners, including WWF, in the largest tiger
population survey ever undertaken. The techniques and the methodology used by experts of WII on the
tiger census, like camera traps, remained the same this time also as they were in the last census of 2006-
07 with the only difference that this time the Wild life Institute of India has used the help of NGOs like World
Wide Fund, Wildlife Trust of India and Aaranyak which provided the logistics for the census.
The government estimated current tiger numbers in India at 1,706, up from 1,411 during the last count
in 2007. However, the 1,706 figure includes an additional tiger reserve in the count, the Sundarbans, that
contained 70 tigers. This area was not counted in 2007. Therefore, when comparing the previous survey
with the current one, the official estimate stands at 1,636 when leaving out the Sundarbans, or an increase
of 225. Therefore though there have been depressing reports of further decline over the past years, it is
obvious that if tiger have been lost at certain reserves they have also been added in other places.
India’s tiger population is on the rise but their habitat is shrinking. Uttarakhand -225(up47 from 2006),
Uttar Pradesh- 120 (up 13), MP 257-(down 43), Tamilnadu-163(up87) The main growth in tiger numbers
between the last two census have taken place in well protected tiger reserves which are close to their
holding capacity . Several areas in India, including those that are not Tiger Reserves and outside national
parks, were intensively surveyed for the first time. The Moyar Valley and Sigur Plateau in Southwest India's
Western Ghats Complex, that has been a focus of recent WWF conservation efforts, was found to contain
more than 50 tigers. Similarly, the Ramnagar Forest Reserve outside Corbett National Park showed a good
number of tigers.
This means that tigers are increasingly moving closer to human population, increasing the chances of
man wildlife conflict. All national parks are close to their holding capacity like Ranthambore,
Bandhavgarh, Kaziranga and the adjacent forests of Bandipur-Nagarhole-Mudumalai-Wayanad, which the
latest count shows is the single biggest tiger habitat in the world and contains an estimated 382 big cats.
Rising numbers usually goes hand in hand with an increase in their territory. In the past , tigers have moved
from one source population to the other through ‘corridors’ –wild patches that link one tiger forest with
another.. Without the corridors there would be increase in inbreeding which weakens the predator strain.
But development projects and growth pressures are increasingly snapping down these links, for instance
the link between Ranthambore and Sariska has degraded. Bandhavgarh, a national park rich with high
density of tigers has no corridors for the predators to move out. With some effort it can be linked to Sanjay-
Dogri and to Palamau in Jharkhand. Therefore the current scenario is that, a lot has now to be done to
make space for the growing tiger numbers and also to avoid man wildlife conflict.
Summary
> Biodiversity refers to the number and variety of species, of ecosystems, and of the genetic variation
contained within species.
>India is among the twelve biodiverse nations of the world and it is part of two biodiversity hotspots
> Biodiversity is threatened by the sum of all human activities. It is useful to group threats into the
categories of over-hunting, habitat destruction, invasion of non-native species, pollution, and climate
change.
> Unless we counter these threats that we impose on biodiversity we would be loosing our
advantages. The convention of Biological Diversity is one of many efforts globally to conserve
biodiversity.
Terminal Questions
1. Explain biodiversity, its importance and threats to it.
2. What is national biodiversity?
3. Write a note on conservation of biodiversity. Include the status of protection of Tigers in the country.
4. Prepare a list of the most relevant and latest statistal information related to biodiversity.
5. What are the reasons that India is considered among the mega diverse countries?
6. Write briefly about the biodiversity hotspots in India
7. Write briefly about the Convention on Biological Diversity and on Endemism in India
Answers
1. 47,677
2. In situ methods
3. Ex situ
4. 6th
5. Beta
6. E.g. ecological value as biodiversity loss would be the loss of valuable ecosystem
services.
Terminal Questions

3. Refer in section 4.2 (What are the solutions) and Case sudy
4. Refer all sections
References
Understanding Biodiversity, by Ashish Kothari, Orient Longman,1997
http://www.unep.org/iyb/about_iyb.asp
http://www.scribd.com/doc/41279963/Biodiversity
http://www.dhushara.com/book/diversit/restor/takacs.htm
http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/biodiversity/biodiversity.html
http://indiasendangered.blogspot.com/2010/03/indias-endangered-species.html
http://www.jamaicachm.org.jm/BHS/conservation.htm
http://www.wildindia.org/wiki/Endemic
http://www.kerenvis.nic.in/isbeid/biodiversity.htm
http://www.conservation.org/where/priority_areas/hotspots/asia-pacific/Indo-Burma/Pages/default.aspx
Module 5
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Structure
Learning Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Air Pollution
5.3 Water Pollution
5.4 Soil Pollution
5.5 Noise Pollution
5.8 Nuclear Hazards (Radioactive Pollution)
5.9 Solid Waste Management
5.10 Role of an Individual in Prevention of Pollution
5.11 Disaster Management
5.12 Pollution Case Studies
5.13 Summary
5.14 Questions
5.15 Answers
Objectives
> Understand the causes, effects and control measures of various types of pollution
> Learn about various, pollution linked disasters.
> Learn about disaster management.
5.1 Introduction
There's so much pollution in the air now that if it weren't for our lungs there'd be
no place to put it all. ~Robert Orben
This statement speaks volumes not only about air pollution, but also about all forms
of pollution. As the environment we pollute is connected to our being; it is entering and
polluting us too. But the problem is that progress can often not be backtracked and ‘not
polluting’ does not seem to be an option. We can only understand the pollution we are
creating and do what is possible to keep it to the minimum possible.
"That the situation appears hopeless should not prevent us from doing our best."
-Aldo Leopold
Environmental pollution is any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological

characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can cause
harmful effects on various forms of life or property. Since all of us contribute to pollution
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directly or indirectly, we must study all kinds of pollution in detail and discuss the means of
controlling and preventing it.
The Materials or factors that cause adverse effect on the natural quality of any
component of the environment are called pollutants. Pollutants present a serious long-term
global problem that affects more or less every country and, therefore, can only be solved by
a coordinated set of actions and unwavering commitment of nations to international
environmental agreements. In order to develop and implement an effective international
policy for pollutants’ management, it is important, among other factors, to understand
pollutants and their decomposition mechanisms.
Classification of pollutants:
The pollutants can be classified:-
a. based on their natural disposal, they can be biodegradable or non biodegradable

Pollutants that are easily decomposable by natural processes (used up or broken
down to harmless products by microbes, insects etc) are called biodegradable like domestic
sewage but these cause pollution when their production exceeds the capacity of the
environment to degrade them. Microbial and mechanical treatments in sewage treatment
plants are the option to control this pollution.
The pollutants are either not degraded (cannot be converted to harmless products
through natural activities) or degraded very slowly by natural biological processes like tin
and aluminium cans, glass, plastic and radioactive materials. These pollutants accumulate on
the earth (like plastics) as well as can be biologically magnified (like DDT). These have to be
either minimized or recycled
b. based on their existence in nature they can be qualitative or quantitative

The pollutants that are not natural but are added to the environment by the activity
of man like pesticides, insecticides are called qualitative pollutants. The natural components
present in nature when concentrated in excess of a threshold value in the environment are
called quantitative pollutants like CO, CO2 and nitrogen oxides.
c. based on the persisting form after release to environment they can be primary or
secondary
The pollutants persisting in the environment in the form they are passed into it are
called primary pollutants, e.g. DDT
The pollutants which are formed by the reaction amongst primary pollutants are
called secondary pollutants, e.g. peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN) are formed by the reaction
between nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to understand
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pollution and its management, it is important to study pollution as different types, which can
be air, water, land, thermal, noise, and radioactive pollution.
5.2 Air Pollution

Air pollution can be defined as 'the change of composition of air by the addition of
harmful substances like the industrial and automobile gases and particulate matter.' Human
activities can release substances into the air, some of which can cause problems for humans,
plants, and animals. Humans probably first experienced the harm from air pollution when
they built fire in poorly ventilated caves. Since then we have gone on to pollute more of the
earth's surface. Until recently, environmental pollution problems have been local and minor
because of the Earth's own ability to absorb and purify minor quantities of pollutants. The
industrialization of society, the introduction of motorized vehicles, and the explosion of the
population, are factors contributing toward the growing air pollution problem. At this time
it is urgent that we find methods to clean up the air.
In India, about 100 million tons of pollutants are being added to the atmosphere
annually. This figure is likely to go up in future. The primary air pollutants found in most
urban areas are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, hydrocarbons, and
particulate matter (both solid and liquid). These pollutants are dispersed throughout the
world's atmosphere in concentrations high enough to gradually cause serious health
problems. Serious health problems can occur quickly when air pollutants are concentrated,
such as when massive injections of sulphur dioxide and suspended particulate matter are
emitted by a large volcanic eruption. Polluted air is harmful to man and the biosphere on the
whole as well. This problem needs to be tackled urgently.
Sources of Air Pollution

Most of the sources of air pollution are related to man's activities as a result of the
modern lifestyle. The two main sources of pollutants in urban areas are transportation
(predominantly automobiles) and fuel combustion in stationary sources, including
residential, commercial, and industrial heating and cooling and coal-burning power plants.
Motor vehicles produce high levels of carbon monoxides (CO) and a major source of
hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Whereas, fuel combustion in stationary
sources is the dominant source of sulphur dioxide(SO2). Added to this are also natural causes
like the volcanoes, anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, atmospheric reactions, etc.
a. Natural Sources- Volcanic eruptions release oxides of nitrogen that pollute the
atmosphere. Decomposition of organic matter under anaerobic conditions produces
methane which on being oxidized in the atmosphere produces carbon monoxide.
Decomposition of this matter also produces foul smelling gases.
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Photochemical oxidation of marine organic matter and biological oxidation by marine
organisms produce lot of carbon monoxide on the surface of the oceans which enters the
atmosphere.
b. Man Made Sources-

Burning of Fossil Fuels-Fossil fuels include petroleum and coal. Burning of coal
produces a lot of smoke and dust whereas burning of petrol mainly produces sulphur
dioxide. In addition to these, the pollutants include Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide
(CO2), nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, particulate matter and traces of metals.
Automobiles-Petrol on combustion produces carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides, aldehydes, sulphur compounds, organic acids and ammonia and carbon
particles. Incomplete combustion of petrol produces a hydrocarbon, 3, 4 benzpyrene. There
is more pollution during acceleration and deceleration than during constant speed.
Industries-These include
a) Fertiliser Plants-They produce oxides, sulphur, nitrogen, hydrocarbons, particulate
matter and fluorine.
b) Thermal Plants-Since they are coal based the pollutants are fly ash, soot and sulphur
dioxide.
c) Textile Industries-They produce cotton dust, nitrogen oxides, chlorine, naphtha
vapors, and smoke along with sulphur dioxide.
d) Steel Plants-They produce carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide,
phenol, fluorine, cyanide, particulate matter, etc.
Major Pollutants
There are six main categories of air pollutants:
 oxides of carbon
 sulphur dioxide
 oxides of nitrogen
 hydrocarbon
 inorganic particulate matter and aerosols
 organic particulate matter
Main types of pollution can also be covered under two main groups.
1. Particulate pollution -One type of air pollution is the release of particles into the air
from burning fuel for energy. Diesel smoke is a good example of this particulate matter. The
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particles are very small pieces of matter measuring about 2.5 microns or about .0001 inches.
The exhaust from burning fuels in automobiles (can release lead which is harmful to nervous
system), homes (cement, asbestos), and industries (pulverized fly ash from thermal plants)
is a major source of pollution in the air. Burning of wood and charcoal (coal dust) in fireplaces
and barbeques can release significant quantities of soot into the air. These particles can in
general impair plant growth by causing damage to tissues and in human; it can basically
affect lungs which could lead to allergies or even cancer.
2. Noxious Gases pollution-Another type of pollution is the release of noxious gases, such
as sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and chemical vapors. These can take
part in further chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere, forming smog and acid
rain.
a. Carbon monoxide (CO) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Pollution from Carbon Monoxide occurs primarily from emissions produced by fossil
fuel powered engines. The incomplete reaction of air with fuel produces the colorless,
odorless and highly toxic gas. This happens when there is insufficient oxygen gas present
when the fuel is burned, which in turn happens in vehicles which are not well maintained
and are inefficient. The main issue with Carbon Monoxide is its ill effects on health. It is
capable of binding the chemicals in our blood, called haemoglobin. It does so far more
effectively than oxygen and also stays bound to the haemoglobin for far longer than oxygen
does. The effect of this is that the blood is starved of oxygen, which then affects the rest of
the body. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the major pollutants in the atmosphere and is
released from engines burning fossil fuels (efficiently). Major sources of CO2 are therefore
fossil fuels’ burning and deforestation. The concentrations of CO2 in the air around 1860
before the effects of industrialization were felt, is assumed to have been about 290 parts per
million (ppm). In the hundred years and more since then, the concentration has increased
by about 30 to 35 ppm that is by 10 percent. Industrial countries account for 65% of CO2
emissions, the United States and Soviet Union responsible for 50%. Less developed countries
(LDCs), with 80% of the world's population, are responsible for 35% of CO2 emissions but
may contribute 50% by 2020. "Carbon dioxide emissions are increasing by 4% a year"(2007
stats).
The ocean waters contain about sixty times more CO2 than the atmosphere. If the
equilibrium is disturbed by externally increasing the concentration of CO2 in the air, then the
oceans would absorb more and more CO2.
If the oceans can no longer keep pace, then more CO2 will remain into the atmosphere.
As water warms, its ability to absorb CO2 is reduced.
5
N0X - nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
The source of NO2 is burning of biomass and fossil fuels. It is important in the
formation of both acid precipitation and photochemical smog (ozone). It also has a role in
reducing stratospheric ozone. Around 30 to 50 million tons of these gases are produced per
year from human activities, while naturally around 10 to 20 million tons per year. Average
residence time in the atmosphere is days.
N2O - nitrous oxide

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is also a natural component of the Earth's atmosphere as the
other nitrogen gases. It is produced by both natural and human-related sources. Primary
human-related sources of N2O are nitrogen based fertilizers, deforestation, biomass burning,
animal manure management, sewage treatment, combustion of fossil fuel and nitric acid
production. Nitrous oxide is produced naturally from a wide variety of biological sources in
soil and water, particularly microbial action in wet tropical forests.
Human inputs are 6 million tons per year, and 19 million tons per year by nature.
Residence time in the atmosphere is about 170 years. It is an important contributor in the
greenhouse effect and causes nitrogen loading.
Sulphur oxides
sulphur dioxide is produced by combustion of sulphur -containing fuels, such as coal
and fuel oils, and also, in the process of producing sulphuric acid and in metallurgical process
involving ores that contain sulphur. Sulphur oxides can injure man, plants and materials. At
sufficiently high concentrations, sulphur dioxide irritates the upper respiratory tract of
human beings because potential effect of sulphur dioxide is to make breathing more difficult
by causing the finer air tubes of the lung to constrict. Power plants and factories emit the
sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs (also known as Freon) are non-toxic, non-flammable
and non-carcinogenic. They contain fluorine atoms, carbon atoms and chlorine atoms. The 5
main CFCs include CFC-11 (trichlorofluoromethane - CFCl3), CFC-12(dichloro-
difluoromethane - CF2Cl2), CFC-113 (trichloro-trifluoroethane -C2F3Cl3), CFC-114 (dichloro-
tetrfluoroethane - C2F4Cl2), and CFC-115 (chloropentafluoroethane - C2F5Cl).
CFCs are widely used as coolants in refrigeration and air conditioners, as solvents in
cleaners, particularly for electronic circuit boards, as blowing agents in the production of
foam (for example fire extinguishers), and as propellants in aerosols. Indeed, much of the
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modern lifestyle of the second half of the 20th century has been made possible by the use of
CFCs.
Man-made CFCs however, are the main cause of stratospheric ozone depletion. CFCs
have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100 years, and consequently one free
chlorine atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of damage, destroying ozone molecules for a
long time. Although emissions of CFCs around the developed world have largely ceased due
to international control agreements, the damage to the stratospheric ozone layer will
continue well into the 21st century.
Hydrocarbons- Hydrocarbons (HC) are released into the atmosphere as a result of
incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, as well as fuel evaporation. According to the EPA, 47%
of hydrocarbon emissions in the atmosphere can be attributed to on-road and off-road
vehicles. The strong odor associated with diesel emissions is due to the presence of
hydrocarbons.
When hydrocarbons combine with NOx and sunlight, ozone is formed. This is a
serious form of air pollution and a key component of smog. The brown haze of smog that
plagues many urban areas causes irritation and damage to eyes, skin and lungs. It dries out
the protective membranes of the nose and throat, interfering with the body’s ability to fight
infection. Some hydrocarbons are also considered toxic, causing serious health problems
such as cancer or death.
3. Indoor pollution-Pollution also needs to be considered inside our homes, offices,
and schools as many people spend large portion of time indoors - as much as 80-90% of their
lives. We work, study, eat, drink and sleep in enclosed environments where air circulation
may be restricted. Some experts feel that more people suffer from the effects of indoor air
pollution than outdoor pollution as pollution exposure at home and work is often found to
be greater than outdoors.
There are many sources of indoor air pollution. Tobacco smoke, cooking and heating
appliances, and vapors from building materials, paints, furniture, etc. cause pollution inside
buildings. Radon is a natural radioactive gas released from the earth, and it can be found
concentrated in basements. Radon can be emitted from building materials like bricks,
concrete, tiles etc. which are derived from soil containing radium.
Consequences of outdoor pollution: These include smog, acid rain, the greenhouse
effect, and ozone layer hole. Each of these problems has serious implications for our health
and well-being as well as for the whole environment.
Smog is a type of large-scale outdoor pollution. It is caused by chemical reactions between
pollutants derived from different sources, primarily automobile exhaust and industrial
emissions.
Smog is the term for smoke or other atmospheric pollutants combined with fog in an
unhealthy or irritating mixture. It is a malady of the cities due to its pollution causing
activities. For each city, the exact causes of pollution may be different. Depending on the
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geographical location, temperature, wind and weather factors, pollution is dispersed
differently. However, sometimes dispersion does not happen and the pollution can build up
to dangerous levels. Gases, smoke and particles are lifted up and are generally blown away
from the center of its origin. But due to meteorological factor, topography etc. the discharged
material may not go further away but circulate in limited area for a longer period. A
temperature inversion occurs when air close to the earth is cooler than the air above it.
Under these conditions the pollution cannot rise and be dispersed (as warmer air rises). This
pollution combines with the fog and when it stays trapped for long it can cause deaths. Apart
from inversions, cities surrounded by mountains also experience trapping of pollution.
Acid rain is another major consequence of outdoor air pollution. When a pollutant,
such as sulphuric acid combines with droplets of water in the air, the water (or snow) can
become acidified. Much of the SO2 emissions are released by tall smoke stakes, enabling the
emissions to travel long distances. As emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide from
stationary sources are transported long distances by winds, they form secondary pollutants
such as nitrogen dioxide, nitric acid vapor, and droplets containing solutions of sulphuric
acid, sulphate, and nitrate salts. These chemicals descend to the earth's surface in wet form
as rain or snow and in dry form as gases fog, dew, or solid particles. This is known as acid
deposition or acid rain. The effects of acid rain on the environment can be very serious. It
damages plants by destroying their leaves, it poisons the soil, and it changes the chemistry
of lakes and streams. Damage due to acid rain kills trees and harms animals, fish, and other
wildlife.
Greenhouse Effect, also referred to as global warming, is generally believed to come

from the buildup of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is produced when
fuels are burned. Plants convert carbon dioxide back to oxygen, but the release of carbon
dioxide from human activities is higher than that of the world's vegetation can process. The
situation is made worse since many of the earth's forests are being removed, and plant life is
being damaged by acid rain. Thus, the amount of carbon dioxide in the air is continuously
increasing. This buildup acts like a blanket and traps heat close to the surface of our earth.
Changes of even a few degrees to climate of the different parts of the world will affect all
ecosystems and life and puts forth the possibility that the polar ice caps may melt. (One of
the consequences of polar ice cap melting would be a rise in global sea level, resulting in
widespread coastal flooding.) CO2 is a good transmitter of sunlight, but partially restricts
infrared radiation going back from the earth into space.
This produces the so-called greenhouse effect that prevents a drastic cooling of the
Earth during the night. Increasing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere reinforces this effect
and is expected to result in a warming of the Earth's surface. Currently carbon dioxide is
responsible for 57% of the global warming trend.
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Ozone depletion is another result of pollution. Chemicals released by our activities
affect the stratosphere, one of the atmospheric layers surrounding earth. The ozone layer in
the stratosphere protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Release
of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) from aerosol cans, cooling systems and refrigerator
equipment removes some of the ozone, causing "holes"; to open up in this layer and allowing
the radiation to reach the earth. Ultraviolet radiation is known to cause skin cancer and has
damaging effects on plants and wildlife. CFCs are lowering the average concentration of
ozone in the stratosphere. Since 1978 the use of CFCs in aerosol cans has been banned in the
United States, Canada, and most Scandinavian countries. Aerosols are still the largest use,
accounting for 25% of global CFC use. Spray cans, discarded or leaking refrigeration and air
conditioning equipment, and the burning plastic foam products release the CFCs into the
atmosphere. Depending on the type, CFCs stay in the atmosphere from 22 to 111 years.
Chlorofluorocarbons move up to the stratosphere gradually over several decades. Under
high energy ultra violet (UV) radiation, they break down and release chlorine atoms, which
speed up the breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen gas (O2). Chlorofluorocarbons are also
greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming.
Photochemical air pollution is also commonly referred to as "smog". Smog, a

contraction of the words smoke and fog, has been caused throughout recorded history by
water condensing on smoke particles, usually from burning coal. With the introduction of
petroleum to replace coal economies in countries, photochemical smog has become
predominant in many cities, which are located in sunny, warm, and dry climates with many
motor vehicles. The worst episodes of photochemical smog tend to occur in summer.
Photochemical smog is a unique type of air pollution which is caused by reactions between
sunlight and pollutants like hydrocarbons and nitrogen dioxide. Photochemical smog is often
invisible, but it can be extremely harmful, leading to irritations of the respiratory tract and
eyes. In regions of the world with high concentrations of photochemical smog, elevated rates
of death and respiratory illnesses have been observed.
Heat Island effect The unrelenting heat even in night times is often the bane of high rise
buildings. The bricks and concrete of cities absorb heat during day time which radiate slowly
during night creating heat island effect as the heat cannot move out easily because of high
rise buildings.
Harmful Effects of the Pollutants in Air

Years of exposure to air pollution adversely affects the natural defenses of the
respiratory system of humans and so can result in lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis
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and emphysema (damage to air sacs leading to loss of lung elasticity and acute shortness of
breath.
Suspended particulate matter can cause damage to lung tissues and diseases like
asthma, bronchitis and cancer especially when they bring with them cancer causing or toxic
pollutants attached on their surface.
Sulphur dioxide causes constriction of respiratory passage and can cause bronchitis
like condition. With suspended particles they form acid sulphate particles which can go deep
into the lungs and affect them severely.
Nitrogen oxides can irritate lungs and cause conditions like chronic bronchitis and
emphysema. The ability of CO to bind so strongly to the haemoglobin means that even when
CO is in low concentrations it can rapidly build up in the blood. Initial symptoms of mild
poisoning include headaches and dizziness due to lack of oxygen to the brain.
Hydrocarbons can be carcinogenis, can cause acute respiratory symptoms,
headaches, reduced cardiovascular function brain damage. It is also a precursor to ground-
level ozone and a major component of smog
PAN - peroxylacetyl –nitrate formed by photochemical reactions of hydrocarbons and
nitrogen oxides can cause irritation of eye, throat and respiratory tract, damage to clothes,
paint and rubber articles, damage to leaves and stomatal tissue in plants. Air pollutants enter
plants through stomata, destroy chlorophyll and affect photosynthesis. Pollutants such as sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone and peroxyacl nitrates (PANs) cause direct damage to leaves of crop
plants and trees when they enter leaf pores (stomates).
Long exposure to pollutants can erode waxy coating of the leaves called cuticle.
(Cuticle prevents excessive water loss and damage from diseases, pests, droughts and frost)
Particulates deposited on the leaves can form encrustations and plug the stomata. The
damage can result in the death of the plant.
Damage to leaf structure in this manner therefore causes necrosis (dead areas of leaf),
chlorosis (loss or reduction of chlorophyll causing yellowing of leaf), epinasty (downward
curling of leaf), and abscission (dropping of leaves).
Acid rains affect aquatic life. Some of the freshwater lakes have experienced total fish
death
Particulates are corrosive and can damage exposed surfaces. Ozone in the
atmosphere can cause cracking of rubber. Oxides of nitrogen can also cause fading of cotton
and rayon fibres.
Presence of SO2 and moisture can accelerate corrosion of metallic surfaces. SO2 can
affect fabric, leather, paint, paper, marble and limestone.
It causes yellowing and reduced storage time for paper, yellowing and damage to
limestone and marble, damage to leather, increased rate of corrosion of iron, steel, zinc and
aluminium.
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Control of Air pollution
Air pollution control is neither simple nor can it be controlled totally. Problems
associated with air pollution control are high cost, banning of any industry would affect other
industries etc. Setting air quality standards and enforcing laws for maintenance of these
standards is essential. Other measures include-
1. Environment impact assessment studies before citing industries thereby assuring
proper pollution control measures and so remove or minimize possible damages.
2. Using low sulphur coal in industries or removing sulphur from coal by washing or
with the help of bacteria)
3. Gaseous effluent matter can be removed by (a) combustion like flame combustion
where organic pollutants are converted into water vapour and less harmful products
like CO2. (b) Absorption where gaseous effluent is passed through suitable liquid
absorbent (scrubbers) which removes or modifies one or more of the pollutants
present. (c) Adsorption where gases are passed through porous solid adsorbent
which adsorb the organic and inorganic constituents in it.
4. Particulates from stack exhaust gases can be removed by employing electrostatic
precipitators, bag house filters, settling chambers, cyclone separators, wet collectors
or scrubbers etc.
5. Chimneys should be high so that pollutants are carried by winds for dispersal and not
trapped at lower levels.
6. Use of unleaded petrol and controlling over use of fuel. Use of alternate sources of
energy like solar power etc wherever possible and feasible.
7. By planting more trees we provide a natural sink for pollutants like CO2 and make
available more of the life giving oxygen in our surrounding.
8. We can contribute to reducing the amount of Carbon Monoxide in the atmosphere by
making sure that our vehicles are regularly serviced, ensuring they are running as
efficiently as possible. Replacement of more polluting old vehicles. New vehicle of
maruti called Essex 3 has an alarm system that tells when it is time for servicing and
thus helps avoid pollution. Not using a car or car pooling whenever possible will
further reduce pollution. Lawn mowers and other devices with small petrol engines
are also excessive polluters and avoiding their use will also help cut carbon monoxide
levels. Slow and cooler burning of fuels to reduce NOx emission (Honda Technology).
We can also minimize pollution by driving at a constant moderate speed as there is
more pollution during acceleration and deceleration than during constant speed.
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1. The natural components present in nature when concentrated in excess of a
threshold value in the environment are called …………………. pollutants like CO, CO2
and nitrogen oxides.
2. What are any two significantly damaging consequences of outdoor pollution?
3. ……………….is a natural radioactive gas emitted from building materials like bricks,
concrete, and tiles etc. which are derived from soil containing radium.
Water pollution
Comprising over 70% of the Earth’s surface, water is undoubtedly the most precious
natural resource that exists on our planet without which life on Earth would be non-
existent. Although we recognize this fact, we still disregard it by polluting our rivers, lakes,
and oceans. Subsequently, we are slowly but surely harming our planet to the point where
organisms are dying at a very alarming rate and our drinking water has become greatly
affected. In order to combat water pollution, we must understand the problems and become
part of the solution.
Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition
of large amounts of materials to the water. When it is unfit for its intended use, water is
considered to be polluted. In other words, any change in the physical, chemical and biological
properties of water that has a harmful effect on living things is water pollution. It is the
second most important environmental issue next to air pollution.
Sources of Water pollution

Depending upon the origin, sources of water pollution are classified basically as point
source and non-point source. Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances are
emitted directly into a body of water. The Exxon Valdez oil spill best illustrates point source
water pollution. A non point source delivers pollutants indirectly through environmental
changes. An example of this type of water pollution is when fertilizer from a field is carried
into a stream by rain, in the form of run-off which in turn effects aquatic life. In essence if the
pollution comes from a single source, such as an oil spill, it is called point-source pollution.
If the pollution comes from many sources, it is called non point-source pollution. The
technology exists for point sources of pollution to be monitored and regulated, Non point
sources are much more difficult to control.
Pollution arising from nonpoint sources accounts for a majority of the contaminants
in streams and lakes.
Leaching is another manner of pollution that can also be considered separately as
the source of ground water pollution. Leaching can be of pesticides, fertilizers etc or from
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leaking septic tanks etc. Most types of pollution affect the immediate area surrounding the
source. Sometimes the pollution may affect the environment hundreds of miles away from
the source, such as nuclear waste, this is called transboundary pollution.
Causes of Pollution
Domestic Sewage: Domestic sewage is wastewater generated from the household
activities. It contains organic and inorganic materials such as phosphates and nitrates.
Organic materials are food and vegetable waste, whereas inorganic materials come from
soaps and detergents.
Organic Materials: Usually people dump the household wastes in the nearby water
source. Pollution in the form of organic material enters waterways in many different forms
as sewage, as leaves and grass clippings, or as runoff from livestock feedlots and
pastures. Sewage contain nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates. When natural bacteria
and protozoan in the water break down this organic material, they begin to use up the oxygen
dissolved in the water. The amount of organic wastes that can be degraded by the water
bodies is measured in terms of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD). BOD is the amount of
oxygen needed by microorganisms to decompose the organic waste present in the sewage.
The higher the amount of BOD, the more water is polluted with organic waste. Many types
of fish and bottom-dwelling animals cannot survive when levels of dissolved oxygen drop
below two to five parts per million. When this occurs, it kills aquatic organisms in large
numbers which leads to disruptions in the food chain.
Inorganic materials: Soaps and detergents enrich the water bodies with phosphates.
These phosphates often lead to algal bloom and eutrophication, which is most common in
stagnant water bodies such as ponds and lakes. Algal bloom and eutrophication lead to the
suffocation of fish and other organism in a water body.
Industrial Effluents: Wastewater from the manufacturing and processing industries
causes water pollution. The industrial effluents contain organic pollutants and other toxic
chemicals. Some of the pollutants from industrial source include lead, mercury, asbestos,
nitrates, phosphates, oils, etc. Wastewater from food and chemical processing industries
contribute more to water pollution than the other industries such as distilleries, leather
processing industries and thermal power plants. Also dye industries generate wastewater
which changes the water quality especially water color. Since the water color is changed,
there is alteration in the light penetration and hence it disturbs the aquatic plants and
animals. Many of the big industries have come up with wastewater treatment plants.
However, it is not the case with small-scale industries.
Let’s take the example of Minamata disease in which more than 1,784 people died and
many more suffered due to consumption of fish, bio accumulated with methyl mercury. It
was caused by release of methyl mercury from Chisso Corporation’s chemical factory. The
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disease continued to affect animals and humans for over 30 years, from 1932 to 1968. It is
really very difficult to clear up the mess that industries create in water.
Agricultural Waste: Agricultural waste includes manure, slurries and runoffs. Most of the
agricultural farms use chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The runoffs from these agricultural
fields cause water pollution to the nearby water sources such as rivers, streams and lakes.
The seepage of fertilizers and pesticides causes groundwater pollution, which is commonly
known as leaching. Although the quantity of agricultural waste is low, the effects are highly
significant. It causes nutrient and organic pollution to both water and soil. Nutrient pollution
causes an increase in the nitrates and phosphates in the water bodies, which leads to
eutrophication. That is, in excess levels, nutrients over stimulate the growth of aquatic plants
and algae. Excessive growth of these types of organisms consequently clogs the waterways,
use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose, and block light to deeper waters. This, in turn,
proves very harmful to aquatic organisms as it affects the respiration ability of fish and other
invertebrates that time in water.
Oil pollution: Oil leaked or spilled from oil tanker and offshore oil rigs float over the
sea water polluting the water and thereby causing damage to marine ecosystem.
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Silting: Pollution is also caused when silt and other suspended solids, such as soil,
wash off plowed fields, construction and logging sites, urban areas, and eroded river banks
when it rains. . When these sediments enter various bodies of water, fish respiration
becomes impaired, plant productivity and water depth if become reduced, and aquatic
organisms and their environments become suffocated.
Harmful Effects of Water Pollution

Water pollution may not damage our health immediately but can be harmful after
long term exposure. Different forms of pollutants affect the health of animals in different
ways:
 Heavy metals from industrial processes can accumulate in nearby lakes and rivers.
These are toxic to marine life such as fish and shellfish, and subsequently to the
humans who eat them. Heavy metals can lead to slow development and result in birth
defects, some are carcinogenic.
 Toxic compounds are often present in Industrial effluents that damage the health of
aquatic animals and those who eat them.
Some of the toxins in industrial waste may only have a mild effect whereas
others can be fatal. They can cause immune suppression, reproductive failure or
acute poisoning.
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 Eutrofication is harmful for aquatic life as it depletes oxygen content. Organic
matter and nutrients cause an increase in aerobic algae and depletes oxygen from the
water column. This causes the suffocation of fish and other aquatic organisms.
 Sulfate particles from acid rain can harm the health of marine life in the rivers and
lakes it contaminates, the water bodies and can result in mortality.
 Suspended particles in freshwater reduces the quality of drinking water for humans
and the aquatic environment for marine life. Suspended particles can often reduce the
amount of sunlight penetrating the water, disrupting the growth of photosynthetic
plants and micro-organisms.
 Pathogens are another type of pollution that proves very harmful to both aquatic and
terrestrial life. They can cause many infections and illnesses like typhoid, dysentery,
skin diseases and even minor respiratory diseases. Pathogens include such
organisms as bacteria, viruses, and protozoan. These pollutants enter waterways
through untreated sewage, storm drains, septic tanks, runoff from farms, and
particularly boats that dump sewage. Microbial water pollution is a major problem in
the developing world, with diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever being the
primary cause of infant mortality.
 Mercury pollution is one of the major concerns in areas where large number of paper
industries are situated. Paper industries use fungicides and algicides which contain
mercury compounds. Methyl-mercury is a highly persistent pollution that
accumulates in the food chain.
 Reduction in Marine produce as most of the water pollution in rivers finally finds its
way into the seas which alters marine ecosystem and kills sea animals. The countries
dependent upon marine products are adversely affected. Oil pollution in sea brings
further cooling effect in polar region.
 Bio magnification of chemicals such as arsenic, mercury, lead enter aquatic animals
through the food chain get magnified as they finally reach the top most consumer
which is man and cause diseases.
 Corrosion of machines and weakening of their joints takes place if polluted water is
used in industries. Thus it is not even suitable for industrial use as gases and acids
present in water attack machines and cause several complications resulting in drop
of efficiency.
 Biological and genetic effect Some chemicals in water from industrial effluents
induce mutagenic, tertogenic or carcinogenic effects on man and animals. The effect
may be delayed for years or a generation. Mutation is not only caused by ionizing
radiation but by way of these chemicals too.
Control of water pollution
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For the control of water pollution, the right approach has to be selected, for example
often a great deal of time and money is wasted in building effluent treatment plants and
systems where a change of process or raw material would have ensured the problem is
removed with minimum costs, without affecting the quality of the product. Whereas
purification of waste water creates sludge, incineration of chemical wastes creates toxic
gases as well as particulate matter. This is an environmental paradox where pollution
removal generates residues which require more resources to dispose and disposal again
causes pollution.
Wastewater from point sources should compulsorily be treated to reduce total solids,
nitrates phosphates, oil, grease, toxic metals etc before releasing them. Solid wastes may be
removed before water is tipped into river or sea. The solid waste can be converted into
sludge which can be used as fertilizer or even for making cardboard by using waste
cardboard machine which solves the environmental paradox causing zero pollution and even
achieving economic benefits from waste. Industrial water can be made less polluted before
discharge by biological treatment using water hyacinth which has remarkable capacity to
accumulate poisonous metals including radioactive substances. It can filter out heavy metals
like mercury and lead along with nickel as well as other toxic substances found in industrial
waste waters. Certain strains of bacteria can reduce the oil spill effect and can use up
cyanides and heavy metals.
Oxidation and stabilization ponds can be used, where domestic or industrial wastes
are stored in large, well defined shallow ponds and kept in it for a few days. Because of the
presence of sufficient sunlight and organic nutrients in waste, a healthy bloom of algae
flourishes (which absorbs toxic substances), along with colonies of bacteria which digest the
organic waste and render it harmless.
There could also be a linking of several different industrial, agricultural and urban
activities where the waste of one industry becomes the raw material for another. Treatment
of sewage yields irrigation water that contains all the essential nutrients to be a good
fertilizer. Zinc can be extracted from wastewater of rayon manufacturing and lignosulfonate
from paper and pulp wastewater. Treated sewage can also be used for air conditioning
purpose.
Techniques like adsorption; electro dialysis, ion exchange and reverse osmosis etc
can be used for the removal of biological, chemical and radioactive water pollutants.
Phosphorous from sewage that enhances eutrophication can be removed by electrolysis.
Hydrogen gas liberated during electrolysis makes the phosphate and sludge to float on the
surface as scum, which can be scraped off from the top layer.
Some experiments have concluded that a combination of sunlight and a catalyst such
as titanium dioxide could dissociate chemical toxicants of water. Such photolytic reactions
can kill pesticides (DDT, PCB’s), explosive solvents, dioxins and cyanides.
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Many researchers have been done on water purification systems in order to have safe
drinking water like incorporating steps of biological treatment and disinfection.
Ozone wastewater treatment is a method that is increasing in popularity but ozone
treatment can sometimes produce by-products such as bromate that can harm human
health if they are not controlled. Therefore prevention of water pollution is more important
approach than purification.
1. Reducing the amount of water use by improving housekeeping, turning off the water tap
when not needed etc… can help conserve water as well as save money. This not only helps
prevent water shortages but also reduces the amount of contaminated water that needs
treatment.
2. Prevention of water pollution includes using eco-friendly household products such as non-
phosphate or low-phosphate detergents and other toiletries, disposing the household wastes
in proper sites far off from the water sources.
3. Taking care not to overuse pesticides and fertilizers. This will prevent runoffs of the
material into nearby water sources. Also supplementing with compost and planting nitrogen
fixing plants to minimize the need of fertilizers.
4. Planting more trees can also prevent water pollution by reducing soil erosion and water
runoff.
5. Not throwing litter into rivers, lakes or oceans and helping clean up any litter that is seen
on beaches or in rivers and lakes(like plastic bottles) and putting it in a nearby dustbin.
6. Educating people about water pollution is an important way of preventing water pollution.
5.4 Soil Pollution

Soil pollution can be described as the contamination of soil of a particular region and
results from the addition and build up of toxic and harmful chemicals, salts, microorganisms
and radioactive elements to the soil layer. The most common soil pollutants are
hydrocarbons, heavy metals (cadmium, lead, chromium, copper, zinc, mercury and arsenic),
herbicides, pesticides, oils, tars, PCBs and dioxins. Following World War-II and Vietnam,
scientists discovered high incidences of mutation, miscarriage, mental defects, cancer and
sickness in areas where nuclear warheads had been dropped. Food shortages also alerted
officials that something was seriously wrong with the local soil. DDT and Dioxin were two of
the worst pollutants from the war aftermath of war.
Causes of soil pollution

Soil pollution mainly is a result of penetration of harmful pesticides and insecticides,
which on one hand serve whatever their main purpose is, but on the other hand, bring about
deterioration in the soil quality, thus making it contaminated and unfit for use. Pesticides
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applied to plants can also seep into the ground, leaving lasting effects. Heavy metals can
arrive in the soil by using polluted water to irrigate crops and by using mineral fertilizers.
Unfavorable and harmful irrigation practices could lead to water logging or soil salinisation.
Industry is to blame for some of the biggest soil-pollution disasters. Industrial
wastes, such as harmful gases and chemicals, agricultural pesticides, fertilizers and
insecticides are the most important causes of soil pollution. Heavy metals come from iron,
steel, power and chemical manufacturing plants that recklessly use the Earth as a dumping
ground for their refuse. Plants that burn their waste on-site are guilty of releasing heavy
metals into the atmosphere, which come to settle in the soil, thus leaving behind lasting
effects for years to come. Even companies that try to dispose of their waste properly
contribute to the problem when faulty landfills and bursting underground bins leach
undesirable toxins into the soil.
Mining leaves a tremendous impact on the surrounding communities. The 2001 West
Virginia Geological and Economic Survey found that people living near mines have a 70
percent higher risk of kidney disease, 64 percent higher risk for chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease and a 30 percent higher risk of high blood pressure
Soil pollution can also result from many seemingly minor activities and experiments done by
mankind. The intensity of all these causes on a local or regional level might appear very small.
However, as these practices are evident almost everywhere in the world, thinking globally,
these are significant polluters.
 Improper septic system and management and maintenance of the same.
 Leakages from sanitary sewage, seepage from landfill, rupture of underground
storage tanks.
 Acid rains, when fumes released from industries get mixed with rains. Contaminated
water reaches and percolates into the soil affecting it adversely.
 Fuel leakages from automobiles, that gets washed away due to rain and seep into the
nearby soil.
 Unhealthy waste management techniques, which are characterized by release of
sewage into the large dumping grounds and nearby streams or rivers.
 Improper land use allocations and ignorance towards soil management and related
systems.
Effects of Soil Pollution

The effects of pollution on soil are quite alarming and can cause huge disturbances in
the ecological balance and health of living creatures on earth. Some of the most serious soil
pollution effects are mentioned below.
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 Various chemicals like acids, alkalies, pesticides, insecticides, weedicides, heavy
metals etc in the industrial discharge affect soil fertility by causing change in the
physical chemical and biological properties of the soil and therefore cause decrease
in the soil productivity.
 The entire ecosystem changes when new materials are added to the soil, as
microorganisms die off or move away from contaminants. Persistent pollutants in soil
adversely affect the beneficial (non target) soil fauna and flora resulting in
disturbance in the balance of flora and fauna residing in the soil and leading to loss of
soil health and the natural nutrients present in soil. Also as plants would not thrive in
such a soil, it would further result in soil erosion.
 Predators who feed off the microorganisms and worms in the polluted soil are also
affected. Researchers found that some species of birds -- like the Peregrine Falcon,
the Brown Pelican and the Bald Eagle became prey to DDT poisoning, which caused
egg shells of future generations to thin. Mother birds would arrive home to omelets
in their nests, as the thin shells could not support the weight of the incubating
offspring. Mortality rates of predatory birds increased, nearly sending the birds to
extinction.
 Increase in salinity of the soil, which therefore makes it unfit for vegetation, thus
making it useless and barren.
 Generally crops cannot grow and flourish in a polluted soil and if some crops manage
to grow, then those would be poisonous enough to cause serious health problems in
people consuming them. Chemicals can sometimes be absorbed into food like lettuce
and be ingested. Other times, the pollutants simply kill the plants, which created
widespread crop destruction and famine in many parts of the world.
 Creation of toxic dust like of lead is another potential effect of soil pollution.
 Foul smell due to industrial chemicals and gases might result in headaches, fatigue,
nausea, etc. in many people.
 People living near polluted land have higher incidences of migraines, nausea, fatigue,
and miscarriage along with skin disorders. Long-term health effects of pollution
include cancer, leukemia, reproductive disorders, kidney and liver damage, as well as
central nervous system failure. Children often suffer from developmental problems
and weakened immune systems.
 Soil pollutants would bring in alteration in the soil structure, which would lead to
death of many essential organisms in it. This would also affect the larger predators
and compel them to move to other places, once they lose their food supply.
 Radioactive fallout on vegetation is a source of radio-isotopes which enter the food
chain in the grazing animals. Some of these radio isotopes replace essential elements
in the body and cause abnormalities e.g.strontium-90 instead of calcium gets
deposited in the bones and tissues. The bones become brittle and prone to fracture.
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Radioisotopes which attach with clay become a source of radiations in the
environment.
 Sewage sludge has pathogenic bacteria, viruses and intestinal worms which may
cause various types of diseases. Decomposing organic matter in soil also produces
toxic vapors.
 If nothing is done to clean up soil pollution, water supplies could become
contaminated, threatening the human species.
Control of Soil Pollution

Bio-fertilization and manures should be used instead of their chemical alternatives.
Bio fertilization is a process in which certain microorganisms are used to increase the
fertility and growth capacity of soil. The process reduces the need for pesticides and
fungicides. Manure and compost, meanwhile, are always considered preferable to fertilizers.
Cropping techniques (mixed cropping, crop rotation) should be improved to prevent
growth of weeds to avoid weedicides. Crop rotation or mixed cropping can also improve the
fertility of the land.
Materials such as glass containers, plastic bags, paper, cloth etc. can be reused at
domestic levels rather than being disposed, reducing solid waste pollution.
Recycling and recovery is another way to reduce and control soil pollution. Recycling
paper, plastics, glass and other materials reduces the volume of refuse in landfills, another
common cause of soil pollution. Recovery of one ton of paper can save 17 trees.
Solid wastes should be properly collected and disposed off by appropriate method
Designated pits should be used for the dumping of soil wastes. These wastes should be
treated chemically and biologically to make them less toxic and hazardous. Biological
treatment involves the use of anaerobic microorganisms, such as methanogens and
acetogens, which help break down the soil wastes into a less toxic and biodegradable form.
Control of land loss and soil erosion can be attempted through restoring forest and
grass cover thus avoiding wastelands, soil erosion and floods.
Enacting tougher legislation to stop illegal dumping, like a larger fine or even
imprisonment as is prevalent already in some states in the United States of America like
Texas (five years in jail and a fine of $100,000 for soil pollution)
Over the years, stronger and more indestructible bins were created to store
hazardous materials to avoid pollution due to their bursting underground. Researchers
continue to look for ways to improve manufacturing, packaging and agricultural processes
to avoid the need for toxic byproducts. Till a substitute is found for plastic covers, minimizing
its use or returning used covers to shopkeepers for reuse are the little things we can do
Gardens should be situated away from old painted buildings and roadways to avoid
poisoning by lead. Outer leaves of lettuce should be discarded and all vegetables should be
washed before eating. Consumers can also make a concerted effort to buy organic foods
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which will bring a pressure by creating a market demand that chemical pesticides aren't used
on their foods.
Treatment of soil
The conventional methods of treatment of soil pollution are very time-consuming
and very costly which could involve excavating the soil to dispose it off elsewhere. This is
essential for toxic disasters in highly populated places. Soils can be aerated, heated up in a
process called thermal remediation, contained with pavement or caps, extracted with an
active electromechanical system or propagating the soil with microbes that will digest
organic pollutants. Other new processes are being developed to combat the problem in a
natural, less laborious way. By studying plants that grew naturally in toxic mines, it was
discovered that certain plants loved to eat heavy metals like arsenic, bronze, lead, zinc, cobalt
and cadmium. The contaminants can then be retrieved from the plant's leaves and used in
industrial materials.
Case Studies of Soil Pollution

Love Canal is the most famous case study of soil pollution. In the snowy winter of
1976, chemical waste began to seep above ground in school playgrounds and communities
in Niagara Falls, New York. The area suffered high incidences of stillborn births,
miscarriages and birth defects. Officials soon realized that there were over 400 toxic
substances in the air, water and soil -- many of them cancerous. As it turned out, the area
had been used as a chemical dumping ground for more than 22,000 tons of toxic waste at
the turn-of-the-century, when no one was aware of the hazardous impact it could have
decades later. The chemical wastes were of Hooker Chemicals and Plastic Corporation
sealed in steel drums and dumped underground of the Love Canal between 1942-1953
following which the site was covered with clay and top soil and sold to the city board of
education which built the school. This tragedy highlights the dangers of underground
dumping.
Another case of soil pollution is Ethiopia. The worst area is in Somalia's Ayaha valley near
Hargeysa. To boost their economy, many farmers began using chemical fertilizers and
pesticides to increase productivity without understanding the full ramifications. Over
their war-torn years, metal drums holding 14,200 liters of chemicals like fenitrothion,
malathion, diazionon and durban were punctured. As a result, land pollution has caused
widespread famine and sickness.
In the year 2006, it was estimated that in China, 12 million tons of grain is polluted
each year by heavy metals that had found their way into soil. About 10 million hectares of
arable land in China was roughly estimated as having been polluted."
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4……………. pollution in rivers is one of the major concerns in areas where large number
of paper industries are situated.
5. Soil pollution mainly is a result of penetration of harmful.................................
5.5 Noise Pollution

The word noise is derived from the Latin term nausea. It has been defined as
unwanted sound, a potential hazard to health and communication dumped into the
environment with regard to the adverse effect it may have on unwilling ears. Noise is defined
as unwanted sound. Sound, which pleases the listeners, is music and that which causes pain
and annoyance is noise. At times, what is music for some can be noise for others. Section 2
(a) of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 includes noise in the definition
of ‘air pollutant’. According to it air pollution means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
including noise present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be
injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or environment.
Measurement
A decibel is the standard for the measurement of noise. The zero on a decibel scale is
at the threshold of hearing, the lowest sound pressure that can be heard, at 20 db is whisper,
40 db the noise in a quiet office, 60 db is normal conversation, 80 db is the level at which
sound becomes physically painful. The Noise quantum of some of the cities in our country
indicate their pitch in decibel in the nosiest areas of corresponding cities, e.g. Delhi- 80 db,
Kolkata - 87,Bombay-85, Chennai-89 db etc.
Sources of Noise Pollution

Noise pollution like other pollutants is also a byproduct of industrialization,
urbanizations and modern civilization. Broadly speaking, the noise pollution has two
sources, i.e. industrial and non- industrial sources. The industrial source includes the noise
from various industries and big machines working at a very high speed and high noise
intensity. Non- industrial source of noise includes the noise created by transport/vehicular
traffic and the neighborhood noise. Noise pollution can also be divided in two different
categories, namely, natural and manmade. Most leading noise sources will fall into the man
made category like roads traffic, aircraft, railroads, construction, celebrations, industry,
noise in buildings, and consumer products. Natural sources of sound including thunder, rain
wind etc are mostly tolerable and only occasionally loud. More over they are not too often or
lasting.
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1. Road Traffic Noise:-In the city, the main sources of traffic noise are the motors and
exhaust system of autos, smaller trucks, buses, and motorcycles. This type of noise can be
augmented by narrow streets and tall buildings, which produce a canyon in which traffic
noise reverberates.
2. Air Craft Noise:- Now-a-days , the problem of low flying military aircraft has added a new
dimension to community annoyance, especially in areas near to the defense stations and
airports Aircraft operations over national parks, wilderness areas , and other areas
previously unaffected by aircraft noise has claimed national attention over recent years.
3. Noise from railroads:-The noise from locomotive engines, horns and whistles, and
switching and shunting operation in rail yards can impact neighboring communities and
railroad workers. For example, rail car retarders can produce a high frequency screech that
can reach peak levels of 120 dB at a distance of 100 feet, which at the railroad worker’s ear
is as high as 138, or 140 dB.
4. Construction Noise:-The noise from the construction of highways, city streets, and
buildings is a major contributor to the urban scene. Construction noise sources include
pneumatic hammers, air compressors, bulldozers, loaders, dump trucks (and their back-up
signals), and pavement breakers.
5. Noise in Industry:-Although industrial noise is one of the less prevalent community noise
problems, neighbors of noisy manufacturing plants can be disturbed by sources such as fans,
motors, and compressors outside the building’s Interior noise can also be transmitted to the
community through open windows and doors, and even through building walls. These
interior noise sources have significant impacts on industrial workers, among whom noise-
induced hearing loss is unfortunately common.
6. Noise in building:-Internal building noise from plumbing, boilers, generators, air

conditioners, and fans, can be audible and annoying. Improperly insulated walls and ceilings
can reveal the sound of-amplified music, voices, footfalls and noisy activities from
neighboring units. External noise from emergency vehicles, traffic, refuse collection, and
other city noises can be a problem for urban residents, especially when windows are open
or insufficiently glazed.
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7. Noise from Consumer products:-Certain household equipment, such as vacuum cleaners
and some kitchen appliances have been and continue to be noisemakers, although their
contribution to the daily noise dose is usually not very large.
8. Festivities: - Loudspeakers used during functions and celebrations can be a major source
of noise and disturbance.
Harmful Effects on humans, animals and property

Noise definitely is a part of life but the last century it has been so intense and
pervasive that it definitely cannot be ignored and requires to be controlled. Often neglected,
noise induces a severe impact on humans and on living organisms and property. Some of the
adverse effects are summarized below.
Annoyance: It creates annoyance to the receptors due to sound level fluctuations. The
aperiodic sound due to its irregular occurrences causes displeasure to hearing and causes
annoyance.
Physiological effects: The physiological features like breathing amplitude, blood pressure,
heart-beat rate, pulse rate, blood cholesterol are affected.
Loss of hearing: Long exposure to high sound levels cause loss of hearing. This is mostly
unnoticed, but has an adverse impact on hearing function. Mechanics, locomotive drivers,
telephone operators etc can have impaired hearing as a result of noise at the place of work.
Continued exposure to noise level above 80 to 100 db is unsafe. Loud noise causes temporary
or permanent deafness.
Human performance: The working performance of workers/human will be affected as

experiments reveal that noise does lead to reduction in efficiency. In big cities, mostly all the
offices are on main road. The noise of traffic or the loud speakers of different types of horns
divert the attention of the people working in offices.
Fatigue: Because of Noise Pollution, people cannot concentrate on their work. Thus they
have to give more time for completing the work and they feel fatigue or tiredness.
Nervous system: It causes pain, ringing in the ears, feeling of tiredness, thereby affecting
the functioning of human system.
Sleeplessness: It affects the sleeping there by inducing the people to become restless and
lose concentration and presence of mind during their activities.
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Abortion: There should be calm atmosphere during the pregnancy. Sudden noise can cause
abortion in females.
Poor quality of Crops: Now it is known that plants are similar to human beings regarding
sensitivity. Peaceful environment leads to better growth in the same control environment.
Effect on Animals: Noise pollution can damage the nervous system of animal. Animal can
also become more dangerous when subjected to excess of noise.
Damage of material: Loud noise is very dangerous to buildings, bridges and monuments. It
creates waves which strike the walls and puts the building in danger and monuments may
crack. The buildings and materials may not only get damaged by exposure to infrasonic /
ultrasonic waves but may even collapse.
Noise Control at Source: The noise pollution can be controlled at the source of generation
itself by employing techniques like-
Reducing the noise levels from the domestic sectors: The domestic noise coming from
radio, tape recorders, television sets, mixers, washing machines, cooking works can be
minimized by their selective and judicious operation. By usage of carpets or any absorbing
material, the noise generated from falling of items in house can be minimized.
Maintenance of automobiles, machines: Regular servicing and tuning of vehicles will

reduce the noise levels.. Fixing of silencers to automobiles, two wheelers etc., will reduce the
noise levels.
Proper lubrication and maintenance of machines, vehicles etc. will reduce noise
levels. For example, it is a common experience that, many parts of a vehicle will become loose
while on a rugged path of journey. If these loose parts are not properly fitted, they will
generate noise and cause annoyance to the driver/passenger.
Similarly is the case of machines. Proper handling and regular maintenance is essential not
only for noise control but also to improve the life of machine..
Control over vibrations: The vibrations of materials may be controlled using proper
foundations, rubber padding etc. to reduce the noise levels caused by vibrations.
Prohibition on usage of loud speakers: By not permitting the usage of loudspeakers in the
habitant zones except for important meetings / functions. Now-a-days, the urban
Administration of the metro cities in India is becoming stringent on usage of Loudspeakers.
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For celebrations and festivals there is a restriction of timing too as loud noises are not
allowed after 10 pm.
Selection of machinery: Optimum selection of machinery tools or equipment reduces

excess noise levels. For example selection of chairs or selection of certain
machinery/equipment which generate less noise (Sound) due to its superior technology
etc… is also an important factor in noise minimization strategy. The best remedy for
automobiles, machinery and aircrafts is better engineering.
Legal Control
(a) Constitution of India (Right to Life): Article 21 of the Constitution guarantees life and
personal liberty to all persons. It is well settled by repeated pronouncements of the Supreme
Court that right to life enshrined in Article 21 is not of mere survival or existence. It
guarantees a right of persons to life with human dignity. Anyone who wishes to live in peace,
comfort and quiet within his house has a right to prevent the noise as pollutant reaching him.
5.8 Nuclear hazards (Radioactive pollution)

Radioactive materials are a major source of environmental pollution. Radioactive
pollution is unseen and invisible, its nature of contamination and effects are quite different
from other kinds of pollution. In this atomic age of nuclear energy generation, the amount of
radioactivity has increased manifold. Nuclear energy has been recognized as a clean energy
because it doesn’t release pollutants such as CO2 to the atmosphere after its reaction that
could damage our environment. It's also known that nuclear energy has reduced the amount
of greenhouse gas emission, reducing emissions of CO2 for about 500 million metric tons of
carbon.
Despite the advantage of nuclear as a clean energy, the big concern is the waste
resulted from nuclear reaction, which is a form of pollution, called radioactivity.
Radioactivity is a form of energy that travels through space. Some elements in this world are
naturally radioactive while some others are made to be. Radioactivity is emitted when a
radioactive element becomes unstable and begins to decay in the attempt to regain their
molecular stability. When an element decays, it emits energy and small particles. If it’s still
radioactive, it will repeat the process, until it finally regains its molecular stability and stops
decaying. The time that it takes for half way of decaying process is called half-life, and this
differs for each radioactive element. It possibly takes up to 4.5 billion years (Uranium 238)
and as short as 8 days (Iodine 131).
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This process constantly remains, not considering external factors such as pressure or
temperature. This process is expressed in units called becquerels. One becquerel is equal to
one disintegration of nuclei per second.
There are commonly three types of radiation, namely:
 Alpha particles (protons) can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin and so
cannot penetrate to internal organs.
These are fast moving positively charged particles which lack penetration
power but have more energy than beta, and are therefore more dangerous when they
enter the body by inhalation or through food
 Beta particles (electrons) can penetrate through skin to reach internal organs, while
can be blocked by some pieces of glass and metal. These are high speed negatively
charged electrons.
 Gamma rays (short-wave electromagnetic wave) can penetrate human skin easily
and damage cells on its way through, reaching far, and can only be blocked by a very
thick, strong, massive piece of concrete.
X-rays are also ionizing radiation, virtually identical to gamma rays, but not nuclear
in origin. Cosmic radiation consists of very energetic particles, mostly protons, which
bombard the Earth from outer space.
Neutrons are mostly released by nuclear fission (the splitting of atoms in a nuclear
reactor), and hence are seldom encountered outside the core of a nuclear reactor. Thus they
are not normally a problem outside nuclear plants. Fast neutrons can be very destructive to
human tissue.
Nuclear energy is the energy that occurs as a result of nuclear reactions (fission,
fusion) there are definitely benefits to nuclear energy.
 Nuclear medicine uses radiation to provide diagnostic information about the
functioning of a person's specific organs. The most common radioisotope used in
diagnosis is technetium-99, with some 30 million procedures per year, accounting for
80% of all nuclear medicine procedures worldwide.
 Radiotherapy can be used to treat some medical conditions, especially cancer, using
radiation to weaken or destroy particular targeted cells.
 Approximately 17% of the electrical energy generated in the world comes from
nuclear power plants.
However, on the other hand, the radioactive wastes from nuclear energy have caused,
and continue to cause, serious environmental damage. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the
nucleus of the atom; the resulting energy can be used for a variety of purposes. . The 40's was
the era where the first nuclear bomb was being developed, and that's why it's called the
nuclear era.
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However, nuclear energy dates back to early 20th Century 1900, and after the first
controlled fission of an atom was carried out in Germany in 1938. The world's first
electricity-generating reactor was constructed in the United States in 1951 and the Soviet
Union built its first reactor in 1954.
However nuclear era had reached its greatest peak in the world war, by showing its
massive ability of destroying things.
The United States was the first country to develop the atomic bomb, which was
subsequently dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It is impossible to
forget the devastation that nuclear bombs caused in the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Sources of radiation
Radiation can arise from human activities or from natural sources. Radiation that
goes inside our bodies causes what we refer to as internal exposure. The exposure that is
referred to as external comes from sources outside the body, such as radiation from sunlight
and man-made and naturally occurring radioactive materials.
Most radiation exposure is from natural sources. Small quantities of radioactive
materials occur naturally in the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat, and in
our own bodies. Natural sources include: radioactivity in rocks and soil of the Earth's crust;
radon, a radioactive gas given out by many volcanic rocks and uranium ore; and cosmic
radiation. The human environment has always been radioactive and accounts for up to 85%
of the annual human radiation dose.
Radiation arising from human activities typically accounts for up to 15% of the
public's exposure every year. This radiation is no different from natural radiation except that
it can be controlled. X-rays and other medical procedures account for most exposure from
this quarter. Less than 1% of exposure is due to the fallout from past testing of nuclear
weapons or the generation of electricity in nuclear, as well as coal and geothermal, power
plants.
Backscatter X-ray scanners being introduced for airport security gives exposure of
up to 5 microsieverts (μSv). Aircrew can receive up to, about 5 mSv/yr from their hours in
the air, while frequent flyers can score a similar increment. In the UK, the National Radiation
Protection Board's 1999 survey showed that on average, nuclear power workers received a
lower annual radiation dose than flight crew, and frequent flyers in 250 hours would receive
1 mSv.
There is minimal radiation received from nuclear power production under normal
circumstances. The maximum annual dose allowed for radiation workers is 20 mSv/yr,
though in practice, doses are usually kept well below this level. In comparison, the average
dose received by the public from nuclear power is 0.0002 mSv/yr, which is of the order of
10,000 times smaller than the total yearly dose received by the public from background
radiation.
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Medicine
Food/ Drink/ 14%
Water
11% Nuclear
Industry
1%
Buildings/soil
18%
Radon
42%
Cosmic
14%
Fig 5.1 Percentage representation of Sources of Radiation, Natural and from human
activities (source: World Nuclear Association)
Accidents- Several serious accidents have caused worldwide concern about safety
and disposal of radioactive wastes. The risk of a serious malfunction such as at Chernobyl,
Three Mile Island and Fukushima Daiichi (recent plant damage after earthquake and tsunami
in Japan) is not trivial. The degree and the kind of damage from nuclear accidents vary with
the kind of radiation, the amount of radiation, the duration of exposure, and the types of cells
irradiated. Accidents are rated according to the level of damage it can do to people. The
recent disaster in Japan that caused radioactive release was of level 7, equal to that of
Chernobyl which had released 5.2 million tera becquerals (TBq). (Radiation is measured in
becquerals, tera meaning a million).
Level 7 is the highest level possible defined as releasing tens of thousands of TBq and
it means a major release of radioactive material with widespread health and environmental
effects requiring implementation of planned and extended control measures. Level 5 is at
par with “three mile island” which means of a level where some lives can be lost by the
amount of radiation released.
Extraction and disposal of nuclear fuel- The use of nuclear power is supposed to
reduce CO2 production; however there are environmental consequences to the use of nuclear
power including CO2 production! In order to appreciate the consequences of using nuclear
fuels to generate energy it is important to understand how the fuel is processed. Low-grade
uranium ore, which contains 0.2% uranium by weight, is obtained by surface or
underground mining.
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When a mine is opened a large amount of land is cleared for the mine and access
roads, resulting in deforestation and a decrease in biodiversity. Whilst in operation the mine
produces large amounts of CO2 as the mining process is energy intensive. The major impact
on the local environment though, comes from a radioactive by product know as tailings that
could leach down to groundwater. This can cause groundwater to become slightly
contaminated and so affect local animals and plants. (For example Rum Jungle was a
Uranium mine in northern Australia that caused similar issues of groundwater pollution).
After it is mined the ore goes through a milling process where it is crushed and
treated with a solvent to concentrate the uranium and produces 'yellow cake'. It is necessary
to increase the amount of U-235 by enrichment, although it is a difficult and expensive
process. The enrichment process increases the U-235 content from 0.7 to 3%. Fuel
fabrication then converts the enriched material into a powder, which is compacted into
pellets. These pellets are sealed in metal fuel rods about 4 m in length, which are then loaded
into the reactor. As fission occurs, the concentration of U-235 atoms decreases. After about
three years, a fuel rod does not have enough radioactive material to sustain a chain reaction
and the spent fuel rods must be replaced by new ones. However, these spent rods are still
very radioactive, containing about 1% U-235 and 1% plutonium. These rods are a major
source of radioactive waste material produced by a nuclear reactor. The storage and
treatment of nuclear waste after electricity production can also have impacts on the
environment. Although it is normally safely stored underground leakages can occur. Since
1952 low level treated nuclear waste has been released into the Irish Sea from Sellafield
power station. This has lead to it being known as the most radioactive sea in the world. The
environmental impacts include increased contamination in marine animals and plants,
leading in a few cases to mutations and discoloration of species
Initially, it was thought that spent fuel rods could be reprocessed, not only to provide
new fuel but also to reduce the amount of nuclear waste. However, the cost of producing fuel
rods by reprocessing was found to be greater than the cost of producing fuel rods from ore.
Presently, India does operate reprocessing plants to reprocess spent fuel as an alternative to
storing them as nuclear waste. At each step in the cycle, there is a danger of exposure to
harmful radiation and poses several attendant health and environmental concerns.
Cell phone Radiation
Ongoing research studies are yet to prove conclusively that cell radiation is life-
threatening. It’s equally true that this lack of certainty has been abused in India as a license
for rampant cell-technology “penetration” and for lax policy-making as well.
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The Indian government two years ago (in 2008) accepted a set of outdated and dubious
norms formulated by the International Commission for Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection
(ICNIRP), supposedly to limit such emissions. The very act of enforcing the ICNIRP norms
— most notably, the alarmingly high cell-tower radiation limit of 9.2 watts/sq meter for
the GSM 1800 band — serves to implicitly legitimize that limit, however unsound and
therefore its basis is unacceptable. Most environmentally-progressive countries (in
Europe, for instance) have rejected the norms outright as being dangerously lenient. Even
China has opted for a stringent radiation limit of 0.1 w/sq m. This reveals the utter
callousness with which our government has ignored a key tenet of international
environmental law — the Precautionary Principle — which is the starting point for the
National Environment Policy approved by the UPA in 2006.
Effects of Radioactive Pollution

The amount of injury caused by a radioactive isotope depends on its physical half-life,
and on how quickly it is absorbed and then excreted by an organism. Radiation can affect the
body in a number of ways, and the adverse health consequences of exposure may not be seen
for many years. These adverse health effects can range from mild effects, such as skin
reddening, to serious effects such as cancer and death, depending on the amount of radiation
absorbed by the body (the dose), the type of radiation, the route of exposure, and the length
of time a person is exposed. Exposure to very large doses of radiation may cause death within
a few days or months. Exposure to lower doses of radiation may lead to an increased risk of
developing cancer or other adverse health effects.
Radioactivity is toxic because it forms ions when it reacts with biological molecules.
These ions can form free radicals, which damage proteins, membranes, and nucleic acids.
Most studies of the harmful effects of radiation have been performed on single-celled
organisms. Obviously, the situation is more complex in humans and other multi cellular
organisms, because a single cell damaged by radiation may indirectly affect other cells in the
individual. The most sensitive regions of the human body appear to be those which have
many actively dividing cells, such as the skin, gonads, intestine, and tissues that grow blood
cells (spleen, bone marrow, lymph organs). Somatic (cell) damage includes burns,
miscarriages, eye cataract and cancer of bone, thyroid, breast, lungs and skin.
Radiation can cause mutations, which are changes in the genetic makeup of the cells
or in other words can be said as genetic damage. Radioactivity can damage DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) by destroying individual bases (particularly thymine), by breaking
single strands, by breaking double strands, by cross-linking different DNA strands, and by
cross-linking DNA and proteins. Mutations can occur in the ovaries or the testes leading to
the formation of mutated eggs or sperms, which in turn can lead to abnormal offspring.
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Mutations can also occur in the tissues of the body and may manifest themselves as
abnormal tissue growths known as cancer. Damage to DNA, that is genetic damage can
therefore lead to, birth defects, cancers and even death.
Control of Radioactive Pollution

Radiation Pollution Control can be done at various levels, including the handling
and treatment of radiation waste, the control and mitigation of nuclear accidents, as well as
the control and minimization of personal exposure to radiation at an individual level.
In general it includes the stoppage of leakage from the radioactive materials
including the nuclear reactors, industries and laboratories. The disposal of radioactive
material must be safe and secure. They must be stored in the safe places and must be changed
into harmless form. The wastes with a very low radiation must be put into the sewage. The
nuclear power plants must follow all the safe instructions. The protective garments must be
worn by the workers who work in the nuclear plants. The natural radiation must be at the
permissible limits and they must not cross it.
Treatment of radiation waste cannot be done through degradation by chemical or
biological processes. Additionally, many radioactive materials have very long half-times
(time necessary for half of the material to degrade or transform into non-radioactive
materials) and thus radiation waste may pose a risk for many years after it was produced.
Basically, there are only few options for radiation waste treatment involving:
Containment of the waste in radiation-shielded containers is usually buried under
ground. Highly insulated concrete sealed drums containing radioactive wastes are also
buried at least 1000 fathoms deep into the sea.
Isolation of radiation waste in remote locations such as remote caves or abandoned
mines - which may also involve the use of some kind of barriers (shields),
When the first two alternatives are not possible, the waste may be diluted till
background values are achieved (like by mixing them with glass, concrete etc in a
complicated way in which they become unleachable or unabsorbable).
Heat and Radiation Pollution – basically radiation is a method of heat transfer.
While radiation may be generated in any condition, the heat increases the amount of
radiation and thus may increase the health risk. For example, radiation is concentrated in
the ash due to burning processes. Also, the higher the heat, the higher the energy of radiation
produced (e.g., UV rays are produced by hot bodies such as the sun). This is why radiation
waste should be stored in cold places, away from any heating source.
Law Enforcement for Radiation Pollution Control – Environmental standards
designed to protect human health from radiation should be issued in all countries
At individual levels, there are measures you may take to prevent and/or
reduce radiation pollution that may affect you and your family.
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Here are some examples:
First, testing of your home for radon may be done by each person using inexpensive
testing kits or by specialized consulting services. If radiation seems to be an issue (a higher
than background value of radon in home is found), a preferred radon reduction technique
is the installation of a special system called active soil depressurization (ASD). This
system contains a vent pipe with an inline centrifugal fan that operates continuously to vent
radon and other intruding gases from beneath the house. Thus, the system may be efficient
to block the intrusion into homes not only of radon, but also of other toxic chemicals (non-
radioactive) that may get from the subsurface into indoor breathing air. Choosing an
appropriate location for your home, away from the main radiation pollution sources. Also,
unless absolutely necessary, X-ray scans should not be frequently taken.
8. Which is the most dangerous form of marine pollution?
9. Radiation can cause ………………………….and ……………………………….damage.
CASE STUDY -Chernobyl Disaster
An incident which changed people's attitudes towards nuclear power plants was
the Chernobyl Disaster that occurred in 1986. Chernobyl is a small city in Ukraine, near
the border with Belarus, north of Kiev. At 1.00 am April 25, 1986, a test to measure the
amount of electricity that the still-spinning turbine would produce if steam were shut off
was being conducted at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Station-4. There were serious safety
violations during the test. During the test, excess heat was produced (in 4.5 seconds the
energy level of the reactor increased two thousand times!). This heat could not be
controlled and so pressure in the reactor increased until it exploded releasing a poisonous
nuclear cloud. It released thirty to forty times the radioactivity of the atomic bombs
dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
There were of course immediate fatalities, but the long-term consequences were
devastating. Thirty- one lives were lost immediately, 116,000 people were evacuated, of
whom 24,000 had received high doses of radiation. Radiation fallout contaminated soil
and also leaked into local rivers and lakes contaminating water supplies. Animals in the
area around the power station died from radiation sickness and severe mutations have
occurred. 4km2 of trees downwind from the reactor turned red and died from the
radiation, other fauna in the area were also discolored.
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Ranking as one of the greatest industrial accidents of all time, the Chernobyl'
disaster and its impact on the course of Soviet events can scarcely be exaggerated. No one
can predict what will finally be the exact number of human victims. Hundreds of thousands
of Ukrainians, Russians, and Belorussians had to abandon entire cities and settlements
within the thirty-kilometer zone of extreme contamination. It is estimated that some 3
million people, more than 2 million in Belarus alone, are still living in contaminated areas.
It is also estimated that 40 percent of Chernobyl is still uninhabitable due to radiation
contamination that is ten times the normal level in some places.
Even today many people suffer from illnesses they feel are related to their
exposure to the fallout from Chernobyl. It caused a sevenfold increase in birth defects, a
marked increase in cancer that was passed down to future generations, livestock death
and mutation and tainted agriculture. In 1996, ten years after the accident, it was clear
that one of the long-term effects was the increased frequency of thyroid cancer in children.
There was also a spurt in genetic anomalies as doctors began observing clusters of children
born displaying monodactyly (fingers fused together to form a paddle) and polydactyly
(more than 5 digits on the hands and feet). A similar phenomenon has also been observed
in the villages and towns around the Kalpakkam Nuclear Station, south of Chennai, in a
study by Dr. Pugazhendi.
5.9 Solid Waste Management

Human and animal activities generate different kinds of wastes. These wastes are
generally in solid form, and may cause pollution of land, water, and air unless treated and
disposed off. The process of collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal can be
grouped under solid waste management. The increase in the quantity of solid waste is due
to overpopulation, affluence, and technological advancement and is the major issue
regarding solid wastes. If the waste generation is not controlled it would be difficult to
manage the mounting heaps of filth. In European and American cities several graveyards of
abandoned automobiles can be seen. In New York City where 12-thousand tons of garbage
is generated every day. India produces 42.0 million tons of municipal solid waste annually at
present.
The stench, the ugly sight of garbage on roads and over flowing from drains is
common in many parts of India and is disgusting until you become conditioned and then
blind to it. Indian cities are under a serious threat of being overwhelmed by the garbage
generated everyday by their citizens. Landfill is the only way of waste disposal by Indian
municipalities. And all the waste is dumped on abandoned land without any treatment or
planning. So if cities exhaust a land, they just find another one to dump garbage on.
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The Energy Research Institute estimates that 1400 sq. km. of land would be required
by 2047 for municipal waste! The cities which had the luxury of a river flowing through them,
strangled them by dumping their wastes into them. Yamuna, flowing through Delhi, has
practically no living creatures in it.
The World Bank estimates that India's per capita waste generated in urban areas will
grow from 0.2- 0.6 kg to 1 kg per head per day by 2030, when the population would be 600
million. Limited by a small budget marked for waste disposal; make city’s Urban Local Bodies
(ULBs) ill-equipped to operate an efficient waste collection, storage, and treatment and
disposal system. So currently 90% of urban waste generated is dumped on low lying land in
environmentally unsound methods. With land being a scarce commodity this practice is
clearly unsustainable and unsafe for human health and environment. The local municipal
bodies need to strategize for managing the rapidly growing amount of waste generated daily.
Today they manage to collect only about 50% of the waste, while the rest continues to collect
in urban areas.
Sources
The main sources for solid wastes are domestic, commercial, industrial, municipal,
biomedical along with agricultural and slaughter house wastes.
The composition of a city waste is as follows:
- Paper, wood, cardboard 53 percent.
- Garbage (domestic waste) 22 percent.
- Ceramics, glass, crockery 10 percent.
- Metals 8 percent.
- Rubber, plastics, discarded textiles 7 percent.
Effects of Waste Pollution

If solid wastes are not collected and allowed to accumulate, they may create
unsanitary conditions. This may lead to epidemic outbreaks. Many diseases like cholera,
diarrhea, dysentery, plague, jaundice, or gastro-intestinal diseases may spread and cause
loss of human lives. In addition, improper handling of the solid wastes is a health hazard for
the workers who come in direct contact with the waste.
If the solid wastes are not treated properly, decomposition and putrefaction may take
place, causing land and water pollution when the waste products percolate down into the
underground water resources.
The organic solid waste during decomposition may generate obnoxious odors and
waste strewn across slums etc cause unaesthetic, unhygienic and unhealthy surroundings.
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Industrial Solid Wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which
when spread on land as waste cause changes in physico-chemical and biological
characteristics thereby affecting productivity of soils. Toxic substances may leach or
percolate to contaminate the ground water.
Control Measures
The main purpose of solid waste management is to minimize the adverse effects on
the environment. The steps involved in general are:
- Collection of solid wastes.
- Disposal of solid wastes.
- Management and Utilization of wastes.
Collection of solid wastes:

Collection of waste includes gathering the waste, transporting it to a centralized
location, and then moving it to the site of disposal.
The collected waste is then separated into hazardous and non-hazardous materials.
There are a number of waste separation technologies available such as air stripping, stream
stripping, carbon absorption, precipitation, manual separation. Transfer of wastes is very
crucial for proper waste collection as it requires a fleet of vehicles. Only rich countries are
able to provide this because of which in poor countries due to lack of vehicles wastes in many
areas go uncollected.
Disposal of solid wastes

Before the final disposal of the solid wastes, it is processed to recover the usable
resources and to improve the efficiency of the solid waste disposal system. The main
processing technologies are compaction, incineration, and landfill.
Utilization and management of wastes

Solid wastes can be managed to make waste disposal more effective, for which the
three R’s’ are stressed-Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. Reduction of waste generation can be
done by reducing the need to hoard for useless things which finally end up unused in waste
bin. Avoid using disposable plastic cups and plates. Reuse can be in short stated as ‘Best out
of Wastes’. Many uses are possible from things that seem waste. Making flower vase from old
bottles, pen stands from Bislery bottles. The villagers and poor are best at reusing and are
known to make rubber rings from discarded cycle tubes etc.
The solid wastes can also be properly utilized by composting, energy generation etc
which provide benefits such as conservation of natural resources, economic development,
employment opportunities, control of air pollution.
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Composting
In composting earthworms, insects, bacteria etc breakdown the garbage (organic
substances like vegetables, plant leaves, human waste etc.) and turn it into a healthy soil
called compost which is good for restoring organic content of agricultural soils and also
enhances pest resistance of the crops. Composting had been proposed as a viable solution
for India based on the typical composition of waste generated in India, but poor yields
coupled with requirements for large land to dispose the rejects, resulted in many failed
projects. Community based compost pits should be developed to make this option work out
as has been successfully tried out by the NGO ‘Waste Concern’ in Dhaka.
Waste to Energy (WtE) Plants:

Another method to utilize wastes that are being considered, are waste-to-energy
(WtE) plants. These plants will reduce the physical size of waste to be disposed and also
generate electricity to supply to the grid. According to the 10th National Plan from 2002-03
to 2005-06, estimated capacity of WtE projects is 2100 MW, but currently 34.5 MW of grid
connected WtE projects exist.
The amount and characteristics of non-recyclables in Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)
dictate the technology for WtE. Indian MSW composition contains higher biodegradables
than in the developed nations, and also a lower calorific value due to higher moisture
content. WtE seems to be most qualified solution to waste treatment because it reduces
volume of waste in landfill to 60%-90% and also decreases the amount of greenhouse gas
emissions from landfills.
1. Incineration: Incineration is the combustion of organic material such as waste, and it can
be done with energy recovery which is the most common WtE implementation. Modern
incinerators reduce the volume of the original waste by 95-96 %, depending upon
composition and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recycling.
Almost all the operating incineration plants take a feedstock of industrial or agricultural
wastes. (Incineration without energy and materials recovery is being increasingly banned in
OECD countries).
Incineration of urban wastes in India have been largely unsuccessful because of the
nature of the wastes and highly polluting because of the lack of regulation in attaining
emission standards in air control
2. Gasification: Gasification is a process that converts carbonaceous materials (like

biomass) into carbon monoxide and hydrogen by reacting with the raw material, such as
house waste, or compost at high temperatures with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or
steam. The resulting gas mixture is called synthesis gas (syngas) and is itself a fuel.
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Gasification is a method for extracting energy from many different types of organic materials.
Gasification occurs at greater than 700°C which differentiates it from anaerobic digestion.
Its advantage is that almost any organic material even plastic can be used as feedstock, which
decreases the need for segregating waste. It has tremendous potential to be used as a way to
utilize urban waste.
3. Anaerobic digestion: Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which

microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. It is most
widely used to treat waste water sludges and organic waste. It produces three principal
products: biogas, water and digestate. The biogas is about 50-75% methane and rest is
mostly CO2. The released CO2 is not considered to increase atmospheric CO2 concentrations
because it comes from an organic source with a short carbon cycle. The water needs further
treatment before usage. The digestate can be used as a soil fertilizer with high organic
content. Its advantage is that establishing a plant requires low investment and such plants
have been promoted by the Indian government as one of the most useful methods of cheap
electricity generation.
4. Landfill gas power: Large municipal or industrial landfills produce gas that can be tapped
to generate electricity. Microorganisms that live in organic materials such as food wastes or
paper cause these materials to decompose. This produces landfill gas, typically comprised of
roughly 60 percent methane and 40 percent carbon dioxide (or "CO2"). Landfill gas is
collected from landfills by drilling "wells" into the landfills, and collecting the gases through
pipes. Once the landfill gas is processed, it can be combined with natural gas and used as fuel
(for combustion turbines etc) Landfill gas may also be used in fuel cell technologies, which
use chemical reactions to create electricity, and are much more efficient than combustion
turbines. Landfill gas if not used will emerge as methane and CO2 into the atmosphere which
is undesirable. Specially designed landfill sites are needed to tap the gas. Currently none exist
in India, but construction is not very high capital intensive. Existing landfill sites in developed
world show that profitability is low but this has to be carried at government initiative as it is
a possible source of decreasing carbon emissions and producing electricity.
Past experiences with WtE (Think About it website) :
Several small decentralized projects utilizing industrial waste have been successful in
generating energy for local captive usage. But experience with generating energy from
MSW has been unsatisfactory so far. Projects setup in Timarpur (Delhi) and Lucknow shut
down due to mismatch of wastes received and plant design and lack of accountability of
Urban Local Bodies to segregate the wastes and provide it. The Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF)
plants set up in Hyderabad and Vijayawada still operate, but at a fraction of their installed
capacities of 6 MW each. To overcome the low calorific values of Municipal Solid Waste
(MSW) received they supplement the feedstock with agricultural waste. But these plants
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remain underutilized due to desired amount of MSW not being received. Major issues have
been quality and amount of wastes received due to lack of a strategy in waste disposal and
poor administration of local bodies. But in the past couple of years there has been
increasing initiative by the government of India to restart the WtE market. So there is some
momentum at the center to find solutions to the growing problem of disposing waste, but
the local bodies are not adequately equipped to locally solve the issues. Additionally
project developers need to understand local wastes carefully before introducing a
technology that was previously successful in a different country. In 2007 the Supreme
Court allowed the GOI to subsidize five commercially run WtE plants on a pilot basis and
take a decision on future of WtE on the basis of these pilot operations. In 2008 three MSW
processing plants with power plants were awarded to private players. Special Purpose
Vehicles (SPVs) which undertook waste characterization, plant design, technology
selection, engineering and finalizing all contracts were transferred to successful bidders
following a competitive bidding system. The Twelfth Finance Commission has
recommended states to provide grants to support collection, segregation and
transportation of MSW under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission to
boost waste management in 63 big cities of the country. The GOI has also promised a
subsidy of USD 30m (INR 150 crore) for MSW projects according to project type and scope.
World’s first carbon-trading scheme based on compost
Every day 3,500 tons of garbage is produced in Dhaka. Dhaka simply does not have the
resources to gather and dispose of all that waste. Most of it is left on the streets or in open
trash sites.
The NGO ‘Waste Concern” developed community-based composting (CBC), in which

residents put their food scraps into big composting barrels. The chest-high metal barrels
sit on concrete bases and can hold up to 400 pounds of waste. Specially drilled holes
encourage aerobic decomposition. The barrels are shared among three to seven families,
and each family is held accountable for the barrel’s contents. They also share in the profits:
7% (taka) per kilogram (about 5 cents per pound). Barrel composting is extremely simple.
People can simply sweep up their waste and dump it into the barrel. There is no need to
do anything else; the design takes care of all composting needs. CBC is successful and the
program is being replicated in 26 other cities in Bangladesh as well as in other developing
nations.
After perfecting the community-based composting model, Waste Concern turned its
attention to the many tons of organic waste generated by Dhaka’s business sector, notably
its many produce markets. WC took advantage of the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) to create the world’s first carbon-trading scheme based on compost.
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After the waste is trucked in, it is spread out in open-air bins, monitored carefully,
and becomes saleable compost in a little over a month.
That works out to 233 tons of finished, dry compost every day with a retail value of
nearly $14,000. Composting, works well in a nation like Bangladesh because of the tropical
climate and high percentage of organic waste in the trash stream.
Organic waste buried in a landfill can generate greenhouse gases but when the
organic waste is composted in the open air, these gases are not made. The fact of this
negative generation amounts to carbon credits, which can be traded on overseas markets
for $20 per ton. “From one ton of organic waste half a ton of greenhouse gas can be
reduced. When it reaches full capacity, this CDM project will reduce CO2 emissions by
127,750 tons per year. The carbon credits will be worth $2.5 million. It is therefore really
important to translate wastes into resources because that will help achieve sustainable
development in the years ahead for all nations
5.10 Role of an Individual in Prevention of Pollution

Pollution prevention is the reduction or elimination of wastes and pollutants at their
sources. For all the pollution that is avoided in the first place, there is that much less pollution
to manage, treats, disposes of, or cleans up. Regulations and measures that focus on the end
of the pipe or the top of the stack do little to prevent pollution or avert future impacts —
often, they just cause the pollution to be shifted from one environmental medium (air, water,
or land) to another. Therefore, pollution prevention represents a challenge that is open to all
members of society, at all levels of activity and decision making. The role of education is
crucial: pollution prevention requires having the skills, creativity, and mindset to holistically
identify options for improvement and innovation. Individuals often think there is little they
can do to combat a global problem like pollution. However, the role of individuals in the
prevention of pollution has a great impact on the overall picture. When every individual does
their part it can add up quickly.
The move towards the use of hybrid vehicles and alternative gasoline may have been
prompted more by the price of fuel than the concern over pollution, but this trend has greatly
helped reduce vehicle emissions which can cause pollution of the air, water and soil.
Any little effort an individual takes to stop polluting is helpful. Not littering, not
dumping waste in unauthorized areas and buying energy efficient appliances, taking steps
to reduce energy consumption, are all examples of how an individual can help in the
prevention of pollution.
Planting pest resistant crops can reduce or eliminate the need for chemical pesticides,
thereby reducing the water, air, and soil pollution
In office settings, simple steps such as making double-sided copies and printing drafts
on the back sides of discarded paper can substantially reduce the consumption and disposal
of paper products.
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In the home, minimizing the use of toxic household chemicals such as drain cleaners
and herbicides will reduce the amount of hazardous chemicals that eventually end up in the
environment. Opt for phosphate free detergent and shampoo.
Using rechargeable batteries will reduce metal pollution. Implementing better
housekeeping practices to minimize leaks and fugitive releases from manufacturing
processes using products with eco mark (eco friendly products), and encouraging organic
farming by buying organic foods.
Not using polystyrene cups that have CFC molecules in them, being environmentally
aware and so discouraging products with CFC or any product or device that is
environmentally harmful in any way by not buying them. For example: not purchasing juice
from vendors who sell in disposable plastic glasses and instead opt for those who sell in
reusable glasses. Co operating in segregating wastes and thus aid in proper disposal using
cloth carry bags for general purchases.
In clearing an area for building a home or any structure or pavement, save as many
trees as possible. The role of the individual is to keep in mind the impact of everything he
uses, or does as it applies to the environment. The individual should be aware of how his
activities will affect demand, manufacturers, future generations and the environment and
ecosystem as a whole. The range of pollution prevention is constrained only by the limits to
our imagination and ingenuity, and the strength of our commitment to improve our
relationship with the environment opportunities.
Role of an Individual in terms of Cooperation
The Karnataka State Pollution Control Board (KSPCB) has directed 64 registered
manufacturers to halt producing bags less than 40 microns thick. The board’s move
follows a notification from the Ministry of Environment and Forests to implement the
Plastic Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011 to ban bags below 40 microns.
Now, there is no other option but to stop manufacture of all thin plastic bags as it is a
gazette notification. Violators can be taken to court. Around 14% of total garbage
generated is plastic, amounting to 35 to 40 tons per day. Plastics below 40 micron cannot
be recycled and is causing a lot of horrors clogging pipes and choking landfills. Multiplied
packing of different daily items for an enormous population has multiplied the plastic load
on land and is a scary problem which the ban can alleviate but only with the part of
participation of people. In Bangalore, the ban is in effect from 15th march 2011
Some points covered by the centre's notification.
• Plastic carry bags shall either be white or only with those pigments and colorants which
are in conformity with the bar prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
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• Plastic carry bags shall not be less than 40 microns in thickness. Under the earlier rules,
the minimum thickness was 20 microns.
• No carry bags shall be made available free of cost to consumers. The municipal authority
may determine the minimum price for plastic carry bags.
There is also a ban on sachets of gutka or tobacco packets. As per the notification, the main
implementing authority, the Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) is supposed to
ensure safe collection, storage, segregation, transportation, processing and disposal of
plastic waste, and setting up of collection centers for such waste which involve
manufacturers. More importantly, no carry bags shall be made available free of cost to
consumers. BBMP may determine the minimum price for plastic carry bags. BBMP has
announced plans to setup waste segregation and plastic collection centers in wards. Two
to four rupees is being charged for 40 micron covers.
The garbage in houses/ commercial establishments should be segregated at source, at the

place where it is generated. If the garbage is not segregated and disposed completely and
scientifically, it has an adverse effect on the environment. There has to be rigorous
monitoring to get the latest rules implemented strictly. Manufacture and Usage Rules,
1999, which banned plastic bags below 20 micron thickness, were not implemented in to
These thin bags are still sold across the city in ‘kirana’ stores, vegetable shops and meat
stores. There has been a considerable extent of non cooperation among the public to the
inconvenience of segregating wastes. Customers were also found insisting on carry bags
and on not paying for the plastic bags. Also on the flip side, there is no penalty for thin
plastic bags users in the new rules, which weakens management of plastic waste as it a
great deal up to public willingness and cooperation. This is where comes the role of an
individual to take up the discomforts and willingly help relieving the choking load of
plastics from land. To segregate waste diligently and to carry always a cloth bag in vehicle
or hand bag to prevent having to ask for plastic covers. Little discomforts on our part
would amount to great service to our land. But even months later plastic bags are still
abound. It was found that people could not give up their habits and shopkeepers
eventually again started giving complementary plastic covers the only difference that
these are thicker. But it does not solve the original problem of plastics strewn everywhere
and their eventual clogging of drains in the monsoon. Biodegradable bags or cloth bags
will take a long time to set in, where perseverance by shopkeepers and willingness of
customers could have made the change happen sooner.
5.11 Disaster Management

Disaster management is a process or strategy that is implemented when any type of
catastrophic event takes place. Sometimes referred to as disaster recovery management, the
process may be initiated when anything threatens to disrupt normal operations or puts the
lives of human beings at risk.
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Governments of all levels as well as many businesses create some sort of disaster plan
that make it possible to overcome the catastrophe and return to normal function as quickly
as possible.
Various disasters like earthquake, landslides, volcanic eruptions, fires, flood and
cyclones are natural hazards that kill thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of
habitat and property each year. The rapid growth of the world's population and its increased
concentration often in hazardous environment has escalated both the frequency and severity
of natural disasters. With the tropical climate and unstable land forms, coupled with
deforestation, unplanned growth leading to proliferation of non-engineered constructions
make the disaster-prone areas mere vulnerable. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural
disaster. Among various natural hazards, earthquakes, landslides, floods and cyclones are
the major disasters adversely affecting very large areas and population in the Indian sub-
continent. These natural disasters are of (i) geophysical origin such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, landslides and (ii) climatic origin such as drought, flood, cyclone, locust, forest
fire. Though natural phenomenon is not within our control but the efforts could be made to
avoid its disastrous impact on life and property. Rising frequency, amplitude and number of
natural disasters and attendant problem coupled with loss of human lives prompted the
General Assembly of the United Nations to proclaim 1990s as the International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). It established the disaster management related
traditions and by spreading public awareness the IDNDR provided required stimulus for
disaster reduction
The disaster mitigation works mainly address the following: (i) minimize the
potential risks by developing disaster early warning strategies, (ii) prepare and implement
developmental plans to provide resilience to such disasters, (iii) mobilize resources
including communication and tele medicinal services and (iv)to help in rehabilitation and
post-disaster reduction. Disaster management on the other hand involves: (i) pre-disaster
planning, preparedness, monitoring including relief management capability. (ii) Prediction
and early warning. (iii) Damage assessment and relief management. Disaster reduction is a
systematic work which involves different regions, different professions and different
scientific fields, and has become an important measure for human, society and nature’s
sustainable development.
Some Important Aspects for Effective Disaster Management Plan

In all types of disasters there are basic three phases to disaster management, i.e.
preparedness, prevention and relief. Creating an effective disaster management plan is often
easier said than done. As many nations have learned, what were thought to be
comprehensive emergency plans, turned out to be partially effective at their best.
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This has especially come to light after the recent earthquake in Japan which led to
Tsunami and which further led to a nuclear disaster at Fukusima Daichi Nuclear plant where
the Disaster Management Plans fell short. In recent years, many government
agencies stretching from the local to the national level have taken steps to revisit the
structure of their disaster plans and run computer simulations to identify weaknesses in the
plans, and refine them so they can operate with more speed and efficiency. Some important
aspects of disaster management plan are as follows:-
Defining and Identifying potential Disasters- One of the essential elements

of disaster management involves defining the types of catastrophes that could possibly
disrupt the day to day operation of a city, town, business, or country. Identifying those
potential disasters makes it possible to create contingency plans, assemble supplies, and
create procedures that can be initiated when and if a given disaster does come to pass. A
truly comprehensive disaster management plan will encompass a wide range of possibilities
that can easily be adapted in the event one disaster sets off a chain reaction of other types of
disasters in its wake.
Multi Layered Plan- Because of the need to continue functioning in emergency

situations, disaster management plans are often multi-layered and can address such issues
as floods, hurricanes, fires, bombings, and even mass failures of utilities or the rapid spread
of disease. The disaster plan addresses important matters as evacuating people from an
impacted region, arranging temporary housing, food, and medical care. The plan could also
work toward containing and possibly neutralizing the root causes of the disaster if at all
possible.
Creating Awareness- In areas prone to disasters or people working in industries or
people living in vicinity of facilities like nuclear reactors require that disaster management
exercises be necessarily conducted with mock drills on what should be done in case of a
disaster. One of the effective activities to increase consciousness of people about the safety
of community is making and providing a map to indicate locations of essential facilities or
dangers in the community in case of earthquake or other disasters requiring evacuation.
Alternative Communication- Since many disasters can cause communication
networks to fail, a competent disaster plan will include the quick setup of alternative
communication capabilities that do not rely on the various switches, towers and hubs that
are usually part of telephone and cellular communication networks. Often making use of
short-wave transmissions that are supported with satellite technology, the communication
flow can continue from the area impacted by the disaster to other points from where aid can
be extended when and as possible.
Disaster Kit- As part of the crisis management component of a disaster plan, some
type of disaster kit may also be developed.
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The kit may include food and clothing for people who are evacuated from an area that
has experienced flooding or extensive damage from a hurricane or tornado. Kits may also
include basic medication to help with headaches, fevers, and other minor ailments. In some
cases, the kits may include items such as sleeping bags or other necessities that will help
displaced persons to cope with the after effects of the disaster.
Space Technology- Space technology plays a crucial role in efficient mitigation of

disasters. While communication satellites help in disaster warning, relief mobilization and
tele medicinal support, earth observation satellites provide required database for pre-
disaster preparedness programmes, disaster response, monitoring activities and post-
disaster damage assessment, and reconstruction, and rehabilitation. With a constellation of
both INSAT and IRS series of satellites, India has developed an operational mechanism for
disaster warning especially cyclone and drought, and their monitoring and mitigation.
However, prediction of certain events likes earthquake, volcanic eruption and flood is still at
experimental level. Developments in space-based earth observation and weather watch
capabilities in future may help refining existing models/approaches for prediction of such
events and their management.
Defining and Understanding Some Natural Disasters and their Management

Earthquakes, Volcanoes, floods and landslides are normal and natural events but they
can be disastrous in their impacts when they affect Human settlements:
Cyclone
An atmospheric system characterized by the rapid inward circulation of air masses
about a low-pressure center, usually accompanied by stormy, often destructive weather.
Cyclones circulate counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere. They move like a spinning top at the speed of 10-30km per hour. They
can last for a week or so and have a diameter varying between 100 to 1500 Km.
The intense tropical storms are known in different part of the world by different
names. In the Pacific Ocean, they are called 'typhoons', in the Indian ocean they are called
'cyclones' and over North Atlantic, they are called 'hurricane'. Among various natural
calamities, tropical cyclones are known to claim a higher share of deaths and destruction
world over. More storms occur in the Bay of Bengal and when the storm surge and normal
high tide coincide the devastation is more as sea water with combined force rushes inland
and inundates the low lying areas.
Control- There exist a very efficient cyclone warning system in India which is comparable to
the best known in the world.
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The approach essentially involves the prediction of the track and intensity of the
cyclone using conventional as well as satellite and radar-based techniques. Some
management measures include planting more trees on the coastal belt, construction of dams,
dykes, embankments, storm shelter, wind breaks, proper drainage and wide roads for quick
evacuation.
Cyclone Management with Earth Observation Satellite Data
The most striking advantage of the earth observation satellite data has been demonstrated
during the recent Orissa super-cyclone event. A severe cyclonic storm with a wind speed
about 260 km ph hit the Orissa coast at Paradip on 29-Oct-99 causing extensive damage to
human life, property, live stock and public utilities. The National Remote Sensing Agency
acted promptly and provided spatial extent of inundated areas using pre-cyclone IRS LISS-
III data collected on 11th October, 1999 and Radarsat Synthetic Aperture Radar(SAR) data
of 2nd November, 1999 since cloud -free optical sensor data over the cyclone-hit area were
not available. This proved very helpful in making relief available in the areas identified.
Floods
Flood is the rising of a body of water like river and it’s overflowing into normally dry
land. India is the worst flood-affected country in the world after Bangladesh and accounts
for one-fifth of the global death count due to floods. About 40 million hectares or nearly
1/8th of India's geographical area is flood-prone (20% of the land being of UP). An estimated
8 million hectares of land are affected annually. The cropped area affected annually ranges
from 3.5 million ha during normal floods to 10 million ha during worst flood. Therefore flood
control measures are imperative.
Control- Flood Disaster Impact Minimization is done by flood forecasts issued
currently by Central Water Commission using conventional rainfall runoff models with an
accuracy of around 65% to 70% with a warning time of six to twelve hours.
Flood control measures consists mainly of construction of new embankments, check
dams on small streams drainage channels and afforestation i.e. providing ground cover on
water courses.. What needs to be done is to restore wetlands and floodplains should be used
for wildlife habitats, parks etc rather than housing.
Earthquake An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor, or temblor) is the result
of a sudden release of energy or strain that has built up in the Earth's crust that creates
seismic waves. Most zones of maximum earthquake intensity and frequency occur at the
boundaries between the moving plates that form the crust of the earth. Major earthquakes
also occur within the interior of crustal plates such as those in China, Russia and the south-
east United States.
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India is highly vulnerable to earthquakes, with more than 60% of the land being
prone to tremors of Richter Intensity 7.0 and greater, that can cause structural damage.
Earthquakes continue to cause large-scale human fatalities, most of which are due to collapse
of man-made structures. Earthquake generated water waves called tsunamis can severely
affect coastal areas as was again seen on March 11, 2011 in Japan. These giant waves can
move at a speed up to 1000 Km/hr or even faster. While approaching the sea shore they may
often reach 15m or sometimes up to 65m or more in height and cause massive devastation
in coastal areas. The largest earthquake ever recorded was of magnitude 9.5 on Richter scale,
affecting 90,000 square miles and killing 6000 people. On the other hand the earthquake in
Bhuj Gujarat on 26th Jan 2001 of 7.9 magnitude earthquake killed 20,000 to 30,000 people.
Control- Recent earthquakes have revealed the under-preparedness of the country

in facing its impacts. Earthquakes are recorded with a seismometer, also known as a
seismograph. A considerable research has been carried out to predict earthquakes using
conventional technologies, but the results to date are inconclusive. Since short- or mid-term
prediction of earthquakes is difficult, seismic safety of built environments that will ensure
that structures do not collapse forms an important cornerstone of earthquake disaster
mitigation efforts. The structures are to be heavily reinforced, weak spots are strategically
placed in the building that can absorb vibrations from the rest of the building, pads or floats
are placed beneath the building on which it can shift harmlessly during ground motion.
Wooden houses are preferred in earthquake prone areas as in Japan.
Anthropogenic activities that can enhance the frequency of earthquakes should be

avoided like impounding of huge dams is sensitive areas like Koyna dam which is supposed
to have increased the earthquake frequency in the area. Underground Nuclear Testing is
another suspect and it should be avoided. Deep well disposal of liquid wastes should also be
avoided and alternative strategies for disposal should be identified. Seismic risk analysis
based on historic earthquakes and the presence of active faults is an established method for
locating and designing dams, power plants and other projects in seismically active areas.
Current trends in Earthquake Monitoring

Very recently the space geodetic techniques and high resolution aerial and satellite
data have been used for earthquake prediction. Space geodetic technique with Global
Positioning System (GPS) helps in measuring the surface deformations and monitoring
accelerated crustal deformations prior to earth quakes with required
accuracy. Earthquake risk assessment involves identification of seismic zones through
collection of data which calls for considerable amount of extrapolation and interpolation
on the basis of available data. There is also a tendency for earthquake to occur in "gaps"
which are in places along an earthquake belt where strong earthquake had not previously
been observed. The knowledge of trends in time or in space helps in defining the source
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regions of future shocks. Space techniques have overcome the limitations of ground
geodetic surveys/measurements and have become an essential tool to assess the
movement/displacements along fault/plate boundaries to even millimeter level accuracy.
IIT Bombay actively participates in the national programme on GPS for earthquake
hazard assessment launched by the Department of Science and Technology (DST),
Government of India after the Latur earthquake. DST funded projects have been taken up
to study crustal deformation in the Koyna region of Maharashtra through extensive GPS
networks. A permanent GPS station has also been set up at the Institute. A GPS laboratory
has been set up in the Civil Engineering Dept with facilities like GPS receivers and GPS data
processing software packages.
The GPS Network in Gujarat- The IIT Bombay team has established a GPS station
network at 12 locations in the State of Gujarat for carrying out observations using
geodectic dual-frequency GPS receivers. The stations monitor deformations of the
epicentral region from an outside reference point, so as to assess future crustal
movements in the region.
Landslides
A landslide is the movement of a mass of rock, earth or debris down a slope. It can be
defined as a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement, such
as rock falls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows, which can occur in offshore,
coastal and onshore environments. Although the action of gravity is the primary driving
force for a landslide to occur, there are other contributing factors affecting the original slope
stability. Water and vegetation influence landslides. Chemical action of water gradually
causes chemical weathering of rocks making them prone to landslides. Vegetation
consolidates the slope material, provides cohesion by its root system and also retards the
flow of water and its erosion capacity. Clearing vegetation therefore is a major cause to
landslides. Other anthropogenic activities such as adding excessive weight above the slope,
digging at mid-slope or at the foot of the slope, can also increase the possibilities of
landslides.
Control- Aerial photographs and large-scale satellite images have been used to locate
the areas with the incidence of landslide. A number of studies have been carried out in India
using satellite data and aerial photographs to develop appropriate methodologies for terrain
classification and preparation of maps showing landslide hazards in the Garhwal Himalayan
region, Nilagiri hills in South India and in Sikkim forest area. Landslides can also be
minimized by stabilization of slopes by providing adequate drainage to surface and
subsurface water example by altering the slope into contours and terraces.
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Slope stabilization netting systems are also commonly installed in areas where soil
erosion, rock & debris flow, and slope failure are common occurrences. Woven wire rope
and ring net protection systems are now used compared to the rigid steel wire meshes as
they are more adaptable and topographically conforming. Land stabilization can also be
achieved by planting certain grasses like vetver (khus khus grass). Concrete support can also
be provided at the base of slope.
Vetiver Grass Technology (VGT)
It is cheap, replicable, sustainable and fully effective in stopping erosive

degradation and increasing crop yield. Commonly called as Khus grass, it has been used
for soil and water conservation in agricultural lands for many years but its related impact
on land stabilization, soil erosion and sediment control only started in the late 1980s
following its promotion by the World Bank. When planted, the grass quickly forms a dense,
permanent hedge which will reduce water flow velocity. Its strong fibrous root system
penetrates and binds the soil to a depth of 3 meters and can withstand the effects of
tunneling and cracking. It is perennial and requires minimal maintenance. It will not
compete with the crop plants it is used to protect. It has stiff and erect stems which can
stand up to relatively deep water flow. Its sharp leaves and aromatic roots repel rodents,
snakes and similar pests. When applied correctly, the technology is very effective on
slopes. A well established grass hedge will slow down rainfall run off, spreading it out
evenly, and will trap runoff sediments to create natural terraces. Once established, it is
generally unpalatable to livestock. It can withstand drought, flood and long periods of
water logging. It will grow in all types of soil and is highly tolerant to toxic levels in the soil
Disaster Management Plan Failure in Japan, March 2011
The magnitude 9.0 earthquake on March 11, 2011, which occurred near the
northeast coast of Honshu, Japan was the fourth largest in the world since 1900 and the
largest in Japan since modern instrumental recordings began 130 years ago. It led to a
tsunami which was at least 23 meters (76 feet) high according to a Japanese study. It
devastated northeastern Japan. It led to a third, connected catastrophe — a nuclear
disaster at Fukushima reactor 4— as the tsunami waters inundated and made useless the
backup power source which had to operate to pump water for cooling of the fuel rods after
the reactor was shut down due to the earthquake. Since the rods could not be cooled
radiation leak and release could not be averted as attempts to quell the overheating plant
with water bombs from helicopters failed and despite the army pelting the site with water
cannon, radiation levels rose higher and the nuclear disaster reached level five which is as
bad as three mile Island disaster. Situation became so bad that high level of radioactivity
has also been found in the ground water near the reactor. Radioactive water from the
runoff from the water pelted on the plant made it too dangerous to go near the reactors
and so halted repair work being done to restore power to the coolant pumping system
knocked out by the tsunami. Now the one option considered seems to be of burying the
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reactor at Fukushima under concrete which was done for Chernobyl the level seven and
biggest nuclear disaster till date. A month after the disaster Fukushima was declared a
level seven at par with Chernobyl. Now evacuation plans are for beyond the 20 km radius
evacuation zone around the plant which was already in place.
Japan is very used to large earthquakes and is one of the best-prepared countries
in the world to deal with such events. From a disaster management perspective, Japan's
Fire and Disaster Management Authority plans for much larger earthquakes – events with
a magnitude of nine or more but all plans fell short.
Even though seismologists know Japan is at risk from even larger earthquakes than
the one on Friday the 11th, it has still exceeded Japan's response capability. While Japan
has the world's most sophisticated tsunami early warning system, the warnings could not
be given soon enough for many people to evacuate. Japan also has built massive physical
infrastructure designed to protect coastal communities, yet those protective measures
were in many cases overwhelmed and useless.
Finally for a Disaster Management Plan it was not considered into account that the
probability of an earthquake followed by a tsunami followed by a nuclear accident though
very low was not zero. The Fukushima nuclear power plant’s risk-management plans had
to be made accordingly and there should have been a plan C for cooling the fuel rods in
case of failure of the backup.
The safety systems of the plant had not been upgraded sufficiently to take account
of current knowledge and standards. Not only did it suffer physical damage from the
earthquake, but also its back-up power sources failed. There was no solid plan B or plan C.
Ideally it should have safely generated electricity and contributing to the recovery if it had
been prepared enough.
Post-disaster responsibilities of search and rescue, provision of emergency shelter,

food, water and medicines are a long term process. Engineers have to check the structural
integrity of every building to determine which is safe to reoccupy and which must be
knocked down which will take time. Getting essential services and infrastructure repaired
and rebuilt will take longer still. With devastation over such a wide area, reconstruction of
towns and recovery to a more normal life will take years. The region around the plant that
has been evacuated is lost to man for years to come. The psychological impacts to all
mankind are immense.
This event shows us that current disaster science and management are failing. If
they failed in Japan — one of the world's most technologically advanced countries, it is
time to ask some hard questions about disaster science and the management plans based
on this science.
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In India the Tsunami in 2004 came close to Kalpakkam Atomic Power plant, Tamil
nadu but though the waves reached the pumping station of the plant, it fortunately did not
do any damage. But are we prepared for an emergency in case of damage? The question
again on all minds that is causing discomfort is that if a technologically advanced country
like Japan couldn’t manage a disaster then how prepared could our country be. March 20,
2011 Times of India reported an article which made aware the state of disaster
preparedness of our own Nuclear plants. Tarapur Atomic Power plant in Maharashtra has
special reason to pay attention to the Japanese crisis as two of its reactors are similar to
Fukushima but villagers are clueless about disaster preparedness. According to the
villagers it has been years since they were asked to take part in an evacuation
exercise. They are clueless about what to do to save themselves if a radiation leak occurs.
Villagers admit to receiving random visits from doctors and district officials and random
collection of food and water samples, villagers are not informed if it is part of an emergency
drill. Training for radiation emergency preparedness seems to be given to police and
district officials but not to village representatives. According to the villagers they would
have known almost nothing about emergency drills being undertaken like the last offsite
emergency exercise which was conducted on June 7th, 2009 if they had not filed a right to
information application.
5.12 Pollution Case Studies.

Biggest Oil Spills-British Petroleum (BP) oil spill and Exxon Valdez oil spill.
BP's Deepwater Horizon rig exploded on April 20, 2010, killing 11 people and
spewing oil from the underwater well that rose to the surface. It also created a plume of air
pollution downwind of the spill which flowed for three months in 2010. On July 15, the leak
was stopped by capping the gushing wellhead after it had released about 4.9 million barrels
(205.8 million gallons) of crude oil. On September 19, the relief well process (well dug to
remove pressure from the oil reservoir and the leak to finally be able to cap the well
permanently) was successfully completed, “The relief well being drilled intersected the
blown-out well Thursday, September 16, and crews started pumping in cement on Friday,
September 17 to permanently plug it and declared the well was "effectively dead”
History repeats itself. A blowout at the Ixtoc 1 offshore oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico in
June 1979 took 9 months to contain. It was an exploratory rig, 200 feet under water, whereas
the BP rig was 5000 feet under water. Ultimately, 71,500 barrels (11,000 m3) of oil impacted
162 miles (260 km) of U.S. beaches, and over 10,000 cubic yards (8,000 m3) of oiled material
were removed. An average of approximately 10,000 to 30,000 barrels (2,000 to 5,000 m3)
per day were discharged into the Gulf and no measures to cap the rig worked until it was
finally capped on 23 March 1980, nearly 10 months later by constructing relief well.
Technology to cap leak hasn’t improved in 31 years.
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In similarity to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill 31 years later, the list of methods
attempted to remediate the leak included lowering a cap over the well, plugging the leak with
mud and "junk", use of huge quantities of dispersants, and spending months attempting to
drill relief wells.
The Gulf of Mexico still harbored 15,700 species of sea life before the BP disaster
despite the oil exploration activities and damages in the past. The oil, coupled with the
dispersants designed to break it up are harmful to the phytoplankton and zooplankton.
Sperm whales and sea turtles found in the gulf are expected to be affected. Entire generations
of shrimp, crab, oysters, and other commercially important marine life may be wiped out and
take years to recover. Despite the Gulf’s warm waters and indigenous population of oil-eating
microbes, the impacts of this oil spill are likely to be felt for a long time especially if a
hurricane blows the oil deep into Gulf Coast wetlands, the marsh areas that are nurseries for
a lot of these species. To understand the devastation possibilities of the BP oil spill, it is
important to review how the Exxon oil spill affected Prince William Sound in 21 years from
the midnight of March 24, 1989 when the Exxon Valdez oil tanker ran aground on Bligh Reef
in Alaska's Prince William Sound spilling eleven million gallons of oil, to today—21 years
later. In an NBC News report on June 11, 2010, scientists claimed that the amount of oil that
was being spilled in the Gulf of Mexico was the equivalent of "one Exxon Valdez spills
everyone to 10 days." The impacts of Exon Valdez spill are still seen twenty-one years later
As many as half a million birds had died. Over 30,000 carcasses of 90 species of birds were
plucked from the beaches, but this was only a fraction of the actual mortality, and harm to
birds from chronic effects and decreased reproduction continues today. But the most serious
damage was to their critical spawning and rearing habitats. Salmon spawn in the intertidal
zone, herring in the sub-tidal zone etc. Twenty years after the oil spill, the ecosystem is still
suffering. The Office of Technology Assessment estimated beach cleanup and oil skinning
recovered only 3-4 percent of the Exxon Valdez oil, and studies by government scientists
estimated that only 14 percent of the oil was removed during cleanup operations. It turns
out that oil often got trapped in semi-enclosed bays for weeks, going up and down with the
tide and some of it being pulled down into the sediment below the seabed. Substantial
contamination of mussel beds persists, and this un weathered oil is a continuing source of
toxic hydrocarbons. Sea otters, river otters, Barrow's golden eyes and harlequin ducks have
showed evidence of continued hydrocarbon exposure.
The Exxon oil spill resulted in profound physiological effects to fish and wildlife.
These included reproductive failure, genetic damage, curved spines, lowered growth and
body weights, altered feeding habits, reduced egg volume, liver damage, eye tumors and
debilitating brain lesions.
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In its 20th anniversary Status Report, the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council lists
only 10 of the 31 injured resources and services they monitor as "recovered" (which includes
bald eagles and river otters). Ten more including killer whales and sea otters are listed as
"recovering." Populations of Pacific herring and pigeon guillemots are listed as "not
recovering."
Wildlife population decline continue for harbor seal, killer whales, harlequin ducks,
common loon, pigeon guillemot, and pelagic red-faced cormorants and double-crested
cormorants. The most important species that is still experiencing significant problems is
Pacific herring, an ecologically and commercially important species in Prince William Sound.
They are central to the marine food web, providing food to marine mammals, birds,
invertebrates and other fish. They are a critical source of food for over 40 predators including
seabirds, harbor seals etc and their depressed population is having severe impacts up the
food chain. Herring are also commercially fished for food, bait, sac-roe and spawn on kelp.
Due to the decreased population, the herring fishery in Prince William Sound had been
closed for 13 of the 19 years since the spill and remains closed today. Prince William Sound
will not be considered recovered until the herring are recovered.
Human services that depend on natural resources were also injured by the spill.
These services are each categorized as "recovering" until the resources they depend on are
fully recovered: commercial fishing, passive use, recreation and tourism, and subsistence.
According to the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council, the Exxon Valdez oil is decreasing at
a rate of 0-4 percent per year and at this rate, the remaining oil will take decades and possibly
centuries to disappear entirely. The BP oil spill is many times more than from the Exon
Valdez which was the biggest disaster till BP happened and the effects can be imagined as of
now from what we know of Prince William Sound.
Worst Industrial Disaster- Bhopal Gas Leak
Around midnight on Dec. 2, 1984, an accident at a Union Carbide (UCC) pesticide plant
in Bhopal, India, resulted in 45 tons of poisonous methyl isocyanate(MIC) escaping from the
facility. Accidental entry of water in the MIC tank resulted in overheating of the reaction
mixture and explosion as the cooling system failed. Thousands died within hours. More
followed over subsequent months — more than 15,000 in all.
The initial effects of exposure were coughing, vomiting, severe eye irritation and a
feeling of suffocation. People awakened by these symptoms fled away from the plant. Those
who ran inhaled more than those who had a vehicle to ride. Owing to their height, children
and other people of shorter stature inhaled higher concentrations. Many people were
trampled trying to escape.
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Many of those who survived suffered blindness, organ failure and other awful bodily
malfunctions. Other reported symptoms are respiratory difficulties, immune and
neurological disorders, cardiac failure secondary to lung injury, female reproductive
difficulties and birth defects among children born to affected women. A shockingly higher
number of children in the area have been born of birth defects. It is estimated that 100,000
to 200,000 people have permanent injuries. In total, about half a million people were affected
in some way.
Contamination at the site and surrounding area was not caused by the gas leakage.
The area around the plant was used as a dumping ground for hazardous chemicals, including
benzene hexachloride and mercury held in open containers or loose on the ground.
Chemicals abandoned at the plant continue to leak and pollute the groundwater. A sample of
drinking water from a well near the site had levels of contamination 500 times higher than
the maximum limits recommended by the World Health Organization By 1982 tube wells in
the vicinity of the UCC factory had to be abandoned. In 1991 the municipal authorities
declared water from over 100 tube wells to be unfit for drinking. Activists have demanded
that the company clean up this toxic waste, and have pressed the government of India to
demand more money from them.
In 1989, Union Carbide paid out about half a billion dollars to victims (470 million
dollars), an amount the afflicted say is not enough to deal with the decades-long
consequences. In June 2010, seven former employees of the Union Carbide subsidiary, all
Indian nationals and many in their 70s, were convicted of causing death by negligence and
each sentenced to a mere two years imprisonment and fined Rs. 1 lakh. All were released on
bail shortly after the verdict. Critics of the clean-up undertaken by Carbide, such as the
International Campaign for Justice in Bhopal, claim that several internal studies by the
corporation, which showed severe contamination, were not made public and the Indian
authorities were also refused access. .
It is now a common knowledge that. Bhopal gas tragedy is a result of gross corporate
negligence on the part of Union Carbide Company. This tragedy could have been averted if
the company had spent $1 million on safety improvement. They stored dangerous materials
in bulk without adequate security, they had no systems in place to warn local community
about gas leaks and they had no emergency plans if some disasters occurred. This was at a
time when they had all safety measures and emergency plans in place at the factory site in
the United States. The old imperialist attitude of considering lives of people in weaker
countries to be of less value was very much evident in the actions of the Union Carbide
Company. But the government of India secured a safe passage for Mr. Anderson to leave the
country and from then onwards he has been declared an absconder by the Indian judiciary.
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Government of India is also accused of being appallingly negligent in the way they
joined with Union Carbide in contravening rules and regulations. The government gave
permission to start the factory at a densely populated area even when they knew that it
handled poisonous gases and did nothing to make sure that safety measures are followed by
the Company. Even after the tragedy struck, the Indian government did little in providing
comfort to the victims of the tragedy. The compensation that was promised to the victims
hasn’t been given till now. There have been no efforts in fixing the accountability of the
disaster to Union Carbide and to make them pay for the destruction caused. Adequate
measures to address the long term impacts of the gas leak, including cleaning up the site,
remediation of the factory, regular supply of safe water and economic rehabilitation, haven’t
been done till now. Bhopal remains not only the worst industrial disaster ever but also the
worst humanitarian disaster where the afflicted people and the land were denied justice.
The eye opening Disaster- London Smog:

London Smog and its resulting death toll made people aware of the seriousness of air
pollution. The London smog disaster resulted in the introduction of the first Clean Air Acts
in 1956 and thus is the disaster that opened eyes to the ill effects of industrialization and
pollution.
The December 1952 episode of heavy smog in London lasted until March 1953. The
weather in Greater London had been unusually cold for several weeks which caused
additional coal combustion and many people travelled only by car. Households were burning
more coal than usual to keep warm. The smoke from approximately one million coal-fired
stoves, in addition to the emissions from local industry, was released into the atmosphere.
This in turn caused the occurrence of a combination of black soot, sticky particles of tar and
gaseous sulphur dioxide which combined with the moisture of the fog to form the heaviest
winter smog episode known to men. Light winds and a high moisture content created ideal
conditions for smog formation. The smoke and fumes from the heavy coal combustion settled
close to the ground and due to a temperature inversion, remained motionless and created
dense smog.
Increases in smoke and sulphur emissions from the combustion of coal had been
occurring since the Industrial Revolution and the British were familiar with these types of
smog events. However, while the area had experienced heavy smog in the past, no event had
caused such problems as the weather event in December, 1952. Temperature inversions are
uncommon but occur more frequently on cold winter nights because the ground cools and
water vapor precipitates on low-level dust particles, forming a mist. This caused the thick,
smoke-polluted air to be trapped under the inversion. A temperature inversion occurs when
the air closer to the ground is cooler than the air above it.
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This cool air is denser than the warmer air above it and does not rise, , but remains
trapped under the inversion, close to the ground. After nightfall, the fog thickened and
reduced visibility to only a few meters. The following 114 hours in London experienced
visibility less than 500 meters with 48 hours below 50 meters visibility. Heathrow Airport
had visibility levels below 10 meters for nearly 48 hours following the morning of December
6. The city was brought to a practical standstill with road, rail, and air transport unable to
operate because of the impaired visibility.
Temperature inversions are often reversed in the morning when radiation from the
sun warms the ground below the mist. However, on the morning of December 6 the
concentrations of smoke were still extremely high, and water vapor continued to condense
around the black soot and tar particles. The sun’s radiation was unable to break through the
dense smog. This caused the static layer of cooler, polluted air to remain trapped in the lower
atmosphere.
Measurements suggested that the concentration of particulate matter in the air had
reached 56 times its normal level. Sulphur dioxide concentrations increased to seven times
its peak level at 700 parts per billion (ppb). The smoke particles trapped in the fog gave it a
yellow-black color. Sulphur dioxide reacted with substances in foggy droplets to form
sulphuric acid, adding acid rain to the process.
By night of December 5 the smog was so dense that visibility dropped to only a few
meters. Smog even easily entered buildings, causing cinemas, theatres and stores to be
closed. Transport became largely impossible. Motor vehicles were abandoned, trains were
disrupted and airports were also closed. The fog lasted for 5 days, from December 5 to 10,
until winds dispersed the dense air mass and transported the pollution through the Thames
Estuary and into the North Sea.
The implications of the fog were not immediately clear. It was not until the deaths
peaked on the 8th and 9th of December at 900 per day that the people knew something was
wrong. In some parts of the city the rate of death even increased to nine times the normal
number. Until spring the rate of death remained high at almost a thousand more deaths per
week than expected in a normal winter.
During the smog and for two weeks following, approximately 4,000 people were
killed. Some reports indicate that rate of death remained above-normal for the entire winter
and it is now thought that approximately 12,000 deaths can be tied to the smog, mainly
children, elderly people and people suffering from chronic respiratory or cardiac disease.
The death toll could be thousands higher if it were known how many died from
complications of smog-related illnesses in the following months and years.
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The number of deaths during the smog disaster was three or four times that on a
normal day. They were due to lung disease, tuberculosis and heart failure. Mortality from
bronchitis and pneumonia increased more than sevenfold. Most deaths occurred because of
breathing in acid aerosols, which irritates or inflames the bronchial tubes. Only two-thirds
of the original 4,000 dead were over 65 years of age. Deaths in the middle-age range of 45 to
64 years experienced death rates three times greater than normal during the event. Infants
were also highly-susceptible to the pollution-laden smog and infant mortality doubled
during the week of December 5, 1952.
Peaks of smoke and sulphur dioxide were in line with peaks in deaths. Non-fatal
health effects from the smog included short-term chest pains, lung inflammation and
diminished breathing ability, damaged respiratory cells, permanent lung damage, and
increased incidence of asthma attacks. It is also thought that the smog could have increased
the population’s risk of cancer.
The smog-related deaths spurred the British government to take action and clean up
the nation’s air. Society was becoming aware of the connection between fuel combustion,
atmospheric pollution, and damages to public health. The 1956 Clean Air Act gave local
governments the authority to provide funds to households to convert their coal-fired heaters
for use of cleaner sources of energy such as gas, oil, smokeless coal, or electricity. The 1968
Clean Air Act was aimed at industry and introduced the use of taller chimneys which allowed
the pollution from coal combustion to be released higher into the atmosphere so, as it may
be alleviate the immediate pollution impacts of coal combustion.
Summary
>The enormity of the problem of pollution calls for stringent measures at global level and
awareness and participation at the individual level for its control and minimization
>The various pollution disasters have had a wide spectrum of consequences and loss in
terms of life and land and precious water.
>Use of Nuclear energy for power production and its implications is an evil in the energy
deficient world call for proper safety measures and disaster preparedness at all levels.
>The rapid growth of the world's population and its increased concentration often in
hazardous environment has escalated both the frequency and severity of natural disasters
which calls for better disaster preparedness to minimize losses.
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Terminal Questions
1. What have you understood about air pollution? Explain in terms of its causes,
consequences and effects
2. What is water pollution? Explain the causes of water pollution.
3. Write a note on Soil Pollution.
4. Is Thermal Pollution significant in terms of water pollution? Explain.
5. What is radioactive pollution and what are its control measures?
6. Research and give your personal perspective to any pollution disaster that you find grave.
7. What do you think are the reasons of the often observed failure of disaster management
plans?
8. How is waste management important? Elaborate your personal waste management and
that of your neighborhood and municipality.
Answers
1. Quantitative
2. Smog and Acid rain
3. Radon
4. Mercury
5. pesticides and insecticides
6. A decibel is the standard for the measurement of noise.
7. Soil erosion can cause river and lake beds to rise, creating shallower pools of water
which heat more quickly.
8. Oil because its effects are both damaging and permanent
9. Somatic damage and genetic damage
Terminal Questions
1-5 Answers in respective topic heads of Air, Water, Soil, Thermal, Radiocative
Pollution.
6. Refer Case Studies
7. Refer text box Disaster Management Plan Failure in Japan, March 2011
References
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http://healthandenergy.com/air_pollution_causes.htm
http://www.dbw.ca.gov/Pubs/Pollute/old.HTM
http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/marine/articles/37397.aspx
http://e360.yale.edu/content/feature.msp?id=2284
http://www.environmentandpeople.org/NuclearHazards.html
http://www.all-recycling-facts.com/soil-pollution.html
http://climatechange.thinkaboutit.eu/think4/post/indias_garbage/
http://www.brighthub.com/environment/science-environmental/articles/88021.aspx
http://www.fyse.org/2009/04/garbage-turns-into-gold-in-bangladesh/
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-disaster-management.htm
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Thermal_pollution
http://www.english-magazine.org/index.php/sci-tech/913-science-article.html
http://www.english-magazine.org/index.php/sci-tech/913-science-article.html
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Environmental Issues
Man has the ability of transforming his surroundings. While doing so he can develop
and enhance the quality of life for his fellow human beings. But, when heedlessly applied the
same creativity has caused harm to the environment. One can observe this destruction in
every field. He polluted the water; he polluted the air, caused harm to the living beings on
earth, land and in the sky. Because of his actions the ecological balance is disturbed. The
actions of man have hence caused harm to the physical, social and mental health of his fellow
human beings. Natural resources are drained, global climate is changing, rain has turned
acidic, ozone layer is depleted, promotion of consumerism is causing excessive wastage and
over exploitation of resources, nuclear dangers loom large and nuclear and industrial
disasters have caused havoc one time too often.
a. Climate Change and Global Warming

The weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period (not less
than 30 years) is called climate. Global warming due to anthropogenic factors is causing
climate change.
Climate change is not a new phenomenon. The Earth’s climate has always been
changing, going from ice age to tropical greenhouse and back again. The Sahara was once a
blooming savannah with large lakes, Antarctica was a tropical paradise, and southern Africa
was covered by glaciers. But the current era of anthropogenic global warming is not just
another chapter in the book of Earth’s climate history as this time it’s different from the past
causes of climate change.
Climate Change
In the past, climate change was caused by subtle shifts in the Earth’s angle and orbit
around the sun and the location of the continents, all of which affects the amount of solar
energy absorbed on Earth. Emissions from cars, factories, and burning forests are changing
the Earth’s atmosphere adding CO2 and other greenhouse gases making the atmosphere now
trap more of the sun’s energy, which leads to rising temperatures. The problem therefore is
that high CO2 related warming has not been known in the earth’s history of climate. Human
greenhouse gas emissions are producing a warming not seen for some 125,000 years as per
Paleoclimatologists.
Paleoclimatologists are scientists who study ancient climate. Reliable temperature
records only date back to the late nineteenth century. Everything beyond the last 150 years
is based on deduction and deciphering proxy data that is of tree rings, ice cores, ocean
sediments, corals, or cave stalagmites. Tiny bubbles of air locked in ice samples (so-called ice
cores) contain a record of every stable molecule in the ancient air: nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, argon, methane. These records help us to understand the atmospheric composition
of ancient times. The oldest ice collected from a core in Antarctica contains 800,000 years of
ice while Greenland ice sheet records date back more than 100,000 years of composition.
But the fact that brings concern is that there are no ice core samples with levels of CO2 as
high as they are today!
Causes- Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, like CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and
nitrous oxide. The concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 36% and 148%
respectively since 1750. These levels are much higher than at any time during the last
800,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores. (Less
direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values higher than this were last seen about 20
million years ago.)
Fossil fuel burning has produced about three-quarters of the increase in CO2 from human
activity over the past 20 years. The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land-
use, particularly deforestation.
Effects- Sudden climate change due to anthropogenic activities has no precedence in

earth’s climatic history. High greenhouse gases is also against earths atmospheric nature and
so effects from this manner of climate change can’t be predicted and could be very sudden,
damaging and unpleasant. Stable climates have resulted in the current distribution of
wildlife and area specific agriculture and hence even slight changes in climate may disturb
agriculture and hence yields, which lead to food problems and require migration of wildlife
to suitable climates. So going by the precautionary principle, CO2 emissions must be reduced
to manageable levels and we have to go back to the slow, natural climate change that unfolds
over thousands of years.
Global Warming
Global warming is the term used for the rise in temperature of the Earth above its
usual average temperature because of the trapping of sun’s heat and light in the earth’s
atmosphere by an excess of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrous oxide,
and methane).
The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared
radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface.
It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively
by Svante Arrhenius in 1896. The Earth is compared by scientists to a greenhouse that is
constructed in cold countries as the effect is similar. A greenhouse is a glass covered
enclosure that provides a warm moist atmosphere to grow plants. Glass allows the short
wave radiations of the sun to come in but the earth radiates it back in the form of long waves
which are not allowed to escape by the glass and hence the greenhouse is heated up. This
effect is called greenhouse effect. The earth’s atmospheric gases like CO2, methane act like
the glass of the greenhouse. Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas, followed by
carbon dioxide and other trace gases.
The greenhouse effect makes the earth appropriate for people to live on. Without the
atmosphere to hold the radiated heat, the earth would be freezing. As per the rate of emission
from the earth, the average temperature of the earth should be -20o C but the measured
average temperature of the Earth is +15oC. This is achieved by the composition of our
atmosphere contributing to the greenhouse effect. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases
have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C (59 °F).
Causes
The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36–70 percent of
the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26 percent; methane (CH4),
which causes 4–9 percent; and ozone (O3), which causes 3–7 percent. (Apart from these,
Nitrous Oxide and CFC are also considered greenhouse gases) Clouds also affect the radiation
balance, but they are composed of liquid water or ice and so have different effects on
radiation compared to water vapor. With excessive greenhouse gasses in the air, the earth’s
atmosphere traps too much heat and the earth will get too hot. Humans have caused this
excess in the past 50 years by
1. Burning large quantities of fossil fuels (Oil and Gas, Coal, Natural Gas) for vehicles,
machinery, energy etc (CO2 and N2O). The U.S. transportation sector emits more CO2 than all
but three other countries' emissions from all sources combined.
2. Agricultural practices (CH4 and N2O), Methane release (CH4), is caused by emissions from
landfills, livestock, rice farming (which uses methane-emitting bacteria), septic processes,
and fertilizers.
3. Introduction of new chemicals with little foresight about their possible consequences
(like CFCs which is a greenhouse gas with a much higher potential to enhance the greenhouse
effect than CO2).
4. Land clearing or deforestation is also a major cause of global warming. Currently,
humans are emitting around 29 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere every
year. Around 43% remains in the atmosphere.
The rest is absorbed by vegetation and the oceans. These are called sinks of CO2. With
deforestation the CO2 removal from atmosphere decreases, thus reduction of sinks is another
cause of increase in Global temperatures. The United Nations Food & Agriculture
Organization (FAO) observed in 2006: "Most people assume that global warming is caused
by burning oil and gas. But in fact between 25 and 30 percent of the greenhouse gases
released into the atmosphere each year – 1.6 billion tons – is caused by deforestation... Trees
are 50 percent carbon. When they are felled or burned, the C02 they store escapes back into
the air.”According to per Science News Daily (2008), "Decreasing forest cover, almost
exclusively from deforestation in tropical countries, was responsible for an estimated 1.5
billion tons of emissions to the atmosphere above what was gained through new plantings."
Measuring Global Warming

Temperature is believed to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand
years before 1850. Average (Earth) temperatures have climbed 0.8 degree Celsius (1.4
degrees Fahrenheit) around the world since 1880, much of this in recent decades, according
to NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies. The scientific consensus on climatic changes
related to global warming is also that the average temperature of the Earth has risen
between 0.4 and 0.8 °C over the past 100 years. Scientists from the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate carrying out global warming research have recently predicted that average global
temperatures could increase between 1.4 and 5.8 °C by the year 2100.
The most common measure of global warming is the trend in globally averaged
temperature near the Earth's surface. Temperatures in the lower troposphere have
increased between 0.13 and 0.22 °C (0.22 and 0.4 °F) per decade since 1979, according to
satellite temperature measurements. The urban heat island effect is estimated to account for
about 0.002 °C of warming per decade since 1900. Seven of the eight warmest years on
record have occurred since 2001 and the 10 warmest years have all occurred since 1995.
Levels of Green House Gases- The total amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is
increasing dramatically. The world's most current data for atmospheric CO2 is
from measurements at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii. These high-precision
measurements were started by Dave Keeling in March 1958. The monthly average
concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is published by the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) within a week after each month ends.
Current CO2 levels are the highest in 15 million years. There are other gases capable
of contributing to the global warming like methane, nitrous oxide etc. The GWP (global
warming potential) for methane over 100 years is 25 and for nitrous oxide 298. This means
that emissions of 1 million metric tons of methane and nitrous oxide respectively is
equivalent to emissions of 25 and 298 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide.
The upper safety limit for atmospheric CO2 is 350 parts per million (ppm).
Atmospheric CO2 levels have stayed higher than 350 ppm since early 1988. The levels have
been- at 388.76 ppm-March 2009, at 391.01 ppm-March 2010 and now 392.40 ppm-March
2011. Models suggest that by the year 2100, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 could
range between 541 and 970 ppm. This is an increase of 90-250% above the concentration in
the year 1750. Fossil fuel reserves are sufficient to reach these levels and continue emissions
past 2100 if coal, oil sands or methane clathrates are extensively exploited.
Effects
Warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe,
though the nature of these regional changes is uncertain. Changes resulting from global
warming may include rising sea levels due to the melting of the polar ice caps, change in the
amount and pattern of precipitation as well as altered weather patterns like an increase in
occurrence and severity of storms and other severe weather events, probably even
expansion of subtropical deserts. Other effects could be extinctions of species due to shifting
isotherms, and changes in agricultural yields.
 Sea Level Rise- Rising sea levels lead to flooding and displacement and death of
possibly millions of people. Increasing temperatures result rise in sea level by two
ways; firstly by the thermal expansion of water and secondly through the addition of
water to the oceans from the melting of mountain glaciers, ice caps and ice sheets.
Global mean sea level has been rising at an average rate of 1.7 mm/year (plus or
minus 0.5mm) over the past 100 years, which is significantly larger than the rate
averaged over the last several thousand years. Models of glacier mass balance (the
difference between melting and accumulation of snow and ice on a glacier) give a
theoretical maximum value for rise in sea level in the current century of 0.8 to
2 meters. One meter rise of sea level will inundate low lying areas of Cities like
Shanghai, Venice. Cairo, Bangkok, Sydney. In India Lakshadweep and Mumbai may be
vulnerable. The Deltas of Ganges, Mississippi, Nile, the Mekong, and the Yangtzee
would be affected. Rise in water could adversely affect spawning grounds,
agricultural lowlands and corals.
 Glaciers and mountain snows are rapidly melting—for example, Montana's

Glacier National Park now has only 27 glaciers, versus 150 in 1910. Ice caps and
glaciers serve as sunlight reflectors, bouncing high-temperature sun rays back into
space and away from Earth.
When these natural structures have diminished greatly or vanished, Earth will
be further warmed as the darker oceans absorb heat of the sun. Also fresh-water polar
ice caps melting into salt-water oceans alter the ocean gulf-stream patterns that
regulate temperatures. This process leads to major temperature-pattern changes
around Earth.
 "Arctic ice is rapidly disappearing- Warming is expected to be strongest in the
Arctic and would be associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and
sea ice and the region may have its first completely ice-free summer by 2040 or
earlier. Polar bears and indigenous cultures are already suffering from the sea-ice
loss. The changing landscapes and higher temperatures in Polar Regions will
endanger countless animal and plant species, and irretrievably alter the balance of
the ecosystem.
 Droughts and heat waves - Although some areas of Earth will become wetter due to
global warming, other areas will suffer serious droughts and heat waves. Africa will
receive the worst of it, with more severe droughts also expected in Europe.
 Hurricane intensity and frequency - Researchers at Florida State University
analyzed satellite-derived data of tropical storms since 1981 and found that the
maximum wind speeds of the strongest storms have increased significantly in the
years since, and this is believed to be due to rising ocean temperature due to global
warming. The number of Category 4 and 5 hurricanes has almost doubled in the last
30 years."
 The effects of Global Warning on Mankind - The direct effects global warming on
mankind of include; Homeless refugees displaced by flooding, hurricanes and
drought. Increased hunger due to food shortages because of loss of farmable land,
Spread of diseases, such as malaria and Lyme disease, due to the migration of disease-
carrying insects with warmer, wetter weather in the northern hemisphere. Economic
hardships caused by catastrophic conditions, such as those in the aftermath of
Hurricane Katrina. War and conflicts over shrinking resources.
Control of Climate Change and Global warming

Solutions to slowing or stopping global warming and climate change lie in mankind's
ability to slow and stop activities that inject greenhouse gases into Earth's atmosphere.
Hence it is vital to bring in changes through Global and local initiatives.
Control at the Global level

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC) is
an international environmental treaty produced at the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED), held in Rio de Janeiro from June 3 to 14, 1992,
signed by 154 nations on June 12th.
The objective of the treaty is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
systems of climate. According to terms of the UNFCCC, having received over 50 countries'
instruments of ratification, it entered into force on March 21, 1994. It committed the
signatories' governments to reduce atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases. As of
may 2011, UNFCCC has 194 parties. One of its first tasks was to establish national
greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals, which were
used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for the commitment of industrialized countries to
GHG reductions. UNFCCC, through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion on
various strategies for stabilizing the emissions of greenhouse gases of the
developed/industrialized countries which were listed and identified in Annex I of the
UNFCCC and thereafter referred to as "Annex I" countries. The treaty itself set no mandatory
limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement
mechanisms and hence was not legally binding. Instead, the treaty provides updates (called
"protocols") that would set mandatory emission limits. The parties of the convention have
met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing
with climate change. In 1997, in the third COP, the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and
established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse
gas emissions. COP 3 or the World summit on global warming was held in Kyoto Japan (Kyoto
Summit) in December 1997. It adopted the Kyoto Protocol, which outlined the greenhouse
gas emissions reduction obligation for Annex I countries, along with what came to be known
as Kyoto mechanisms such as emissions trading, clean development mechanism and joint
implementation. Most industrialized countries and some central European economies in
transition (all defined as Annex B countries) agreed to legally binding reductions in
greenhouse gas emissions of an average of 6 to 8% below 1990 levels between the years
2008–2012, defined as the first emissions budget period. It was signed by 169 countries and
approved by their governments (ratified) by 1998. The United States was required to reduce
its total emissions an average of 7% below 1990 levels; however Congress did not ratify the
treaty after Clinton signed it. The Bush administration later explicitly rejected the protocol
in 2001.
As of November 2009, 187 states had signed and ratified the protocol. Proposed
responses to global warming include mitigation to reduce emissions, adaptation to the
effects of global warming, and geoengineering to remove greenhouse gases from the
atmosphere.
Important Aspects of the UNFCCC treaty

Benchmarking- In the context of the UNFCCC, benchmarking is the setting of emission
reduction commitments measured against a particular base year. The only quantified target
was for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the
year 2000.
Precautionary principle- change in climate causes damages that are uncertain. However,
following the precautionary principle (One of the 26 principles for guiding national and
international action which was adopted in the 1972,Stockholm Conference), uncertainty is
not a reason for inaction, and this is acknowledged in Article 3.3 of the UNFCCC In decision
making, the precautionary principle is considered when possibly dangerous, irreversible, or
catastrophic events are identified, but scientific evaluation of the potential damage is not
sufficiently certain The precautionary principle implies an emphasis on the need to prevent
such adverse effects.
Conferences of the Parties

Since the UNFCCC entered into force, the parties have been meeting annually in Conferences
of the Parties (COP). From 2005 the Conferences have met in conjunction with Meetings of
Parties of the Kyoto Protocol (MOP), and parties of the Convention who are not parties of the
Protocol can participate in Protocol-related meetings as observers. There have been 17 COP
and 7 MOP till 2011.
Some important discussions and decisions at some of the COP are as follows
2005 – COP 11/MOP 1, Montreal, Canada

It was the first Meeting of the Parties (MOP-1) to the Kyoto Protocol since their initial meeting
in Kyoto in 1997. The Montreal Action Plan is an agreement of the conference to "extend
the life of the Kyoto Protocol beyond its 2012 expiration date and negotiate deeper cuts in
greenhouse-gas emissions."
2002 – COP 8, New Delhi, India

It adopted the Delhi Ministerial Declaration that, amongst others, called for efforts by
developed countries to transfer technology to developing countries to minimize the impact
of climate change.
2000 – COP 6, The Hague, Netherlands. In this meeting here was a major controversy over
the United States' proposal to allow credit for carbon "sinks" in forests and agricultural lands,
satisfying a major proportion of the U.S. emissions reductions in this way.
There were also disagreements over consequences for non-compliance by countries

that did not meet their emission reduction targets; and there were difficulties in resolving
how developing countries could obtain financial assistance to deal with adverse effects of
climate change and meet their obligations to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. As a result
COP 6 negotiations were on hold in this meeting and resumed July 17–27, 2001, in Bonn,
Germany, This meeting took place after George W. Bush had rejected the Kyoto Protocol in
March 2001 and America participated as observer. Agreement was reached on most of the
major political issues. The agreements included:
1. Flexible Mechanisms: The "flexibility" mechanisms (which the United States had
strongly favored) when the Protocol was initially put together), includes emissions
trading; Joint Implementation (JI); and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
which allow industrialized countries to fund emissions reduction activities in
developing countries as an alternative to domestic emission reductions. Operational
rules for these were given in the Marrakech Accords COP 7, 2001 Marrakech,
Morocco.
2. Carbon sinks: It was agreed that credit would be granted for broad activities that
absorb carbon from the atmosphere or store it, including forest and cropland
management, and re-vegetation.
About Flexible Mechanisms- These mechanisms enable Parties to achieve emission

reductions or to remove carbon from the atmosphere cost-effectively in other countries. This
mechanism takes advantage of the fact that the cost of limiting emissions varies considerably
from region to region but the benefit for the atmosphere is the same, wherever the action is
taken. The three mechanisms involved under this are described below.
1. Emissions trading in theory, intends that those who can reduce emissions most cheaply
will do so, achieving the pollution reduction at the lowest cost. It is a market-based approach,
a form of carbon pricing used to control pollution by providing economic incentives for
achieving reductions in the emissions of pollutants. A central authority (usually a
governmental body) sets a limit or cap on the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted. The
limit or cap is sold to firms in the form of emissions permits which represent the right to
emit or discharge a specific volume of the specified pollutant.
Firms are required to hold a number of permits (or carbon credits) equivalent to their
emissions. The total number of permits cannot exceed the cap, limiting total emissions to
that level. Firms that need to increase their emission permits must buy permits from those
who require fewer permits. The transfer of permits is referred to as a trade. In effect, the
buyer is paying a charge for polluting, while the seller is being rewarded for having reduced
emissions.
2. Clean Development Mechanism- The CDM is similar except that instead of firms, it is
designed to start off developing countries (non-Annex I countries) on a path towards less
pollution, with industrialized countries paying for these reductions. The economic basis for
including developing countries in efforts to reduce emissions is that emission cuts are
thought to be less expensive in developing countries than developed. The CDM is one of the
Protocol's "project-based" mechanisms; in that the CDM is designed to promote projects that
reduce emissions. It allows the Annex I countries to meet part of their caps using credits
called "Certified Emission Reductions"(CER) from CDM emission reduction projects in
developing countries. CERs are commonly known as carbon credits, where each unit is
equivalent to the reduction of one metric ton of CO2 or its equivalent. If a project is registered
and implemented, the CDM Executive Board issues these credits, , to project participants
based on the monitored difference between the baseline and the actual emissions, From the
viewpoint of bringing about a global reduction in emissions, emissions from developing
countries are projected to increase substantially over this century. Infrastructure decisions
made in developing countries could therefore have a very large influence on future efforts to
limit total global emissions.
3. Joint Implementation- Any Annex I country can invest in emission reduction projects
(referred to as "Joint Implementation Projects") in any other Annex I country as an
alternative to reducing emissions domestically. In this way countries can lower the costs of
complying with their Kyoto targets by investing in greenhouse gas reductions in Annex I
country where reductions are cheaper, and then applying the credit for those reductions
towards their commitment goal. Most JI projects are expected to take place in so-called
"economies in transition. Currently Russia and Ukraine are stated to host the greatest
number of JI projects. Unlike the case of the Clean Development Mechanism, the JI has caused
less concern of spurious emission reductions, as the JI, unlike the CDM, takes place in
countries (Annex I or developed countries) which have an emission reduction requirement.
Emission reductions are awarded credits called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs), where one
ERU represents an emission reduction equaling one ton of CO2 equivalent.
Control at the individual level

Recycle paper, plastic, newspaper, glass and aluminum cans. By recycling half of your
household waste, you can save 2,400 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.
CFLs last 10 times longer than incandescent bulbs, use two-thirds less energy, and give off
70 percent less heat. Avoid products that come with excess packaging, especially molded
plastic and other packaging that can't be recycled. If you reduce your household garbage by
10 percent, you can save 1,200 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.
Plant a tree as a single tree will absorb approximately one ton of carbon dioxide during its
lifetime. Also stopping the deforestation is the fastest and cheapest solution to climate
change. Minimize the need for driving and while driving, make sure the vehicle is running
efficiently. For example, keeping the tires properly inflated can improve the fuel mileage by
more than 3 percent. Every gallon of gas that is saved also keeps 20 pounds of carbon dioxide
out of the atmosphere.
Solutions to reduce reliance on vehicles that burn fossil fuels include:
 Taking mass public transportation whenever possible, rather than use of individual
cars
 Alternative fuels, rather than fossil fuels, in vehicles,
 Hybrid vehicles, which are vehicles that combine two types of power, typically
internal combustion engines , which burns fossil fuels, and electrical power, and
 Vehicles that achieve high miles per gallon of gas consumed.
Control at regional level
A system of enforcement and incentives initiated by governments that prevents mindless
deforestation should be introduced.
As per the accessibility of alternate energy sources, regions should aim at reducing reliance
on fossil fuels to produce energy and warmth. Alternative energy sources include:
 Solar power, which is usually generated by solar panels or a solar tower
 Wind power, which is usually generated by groups of wind turbines
 Biomass energy, which is derived from "lumber mill wastes, urban wood waste, forest
and agricultural residues and other feed stocks" as well as waste from factories and
landfills.
 Geothermal energy, which is derived from steam and hot water found deep beneath
the Earths surface
b. Ozone Depletion
Ozone is present in the stratosphere. It is a form of oxygen with three atoms in a molecule
instead of the normal two. Stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 km of the earth’s atmosphere.
The ozone in the stratosphere is present in its top end for 24 kms that is it extends from 16
km to 40 km of the stratosphere above the Earth.
Its concentration is about 100 ppm and this equilibrium concentration is maintained
by the continuous formation and destruction of ozone due to the UV radiations. It is
continuously formed in the stratosphere by the absorption of UV radiation less than 242nm
which break up O2 into O which in turn reacts with molecular oxygen again to form O3. This
ozone formed absorbs UV radiations between 200 to 320nm and in the process is again
continuously converted back to molecular oxygen.
The ozone layer protects us from deadly amounts of UV-B radiation. The fact that the
ozone layer was being depleted was discovered in the mid-1980s. The layer is 5 mm thick
most of the time and the two poles show thinning for a brief period down to 1 mm of
thickness. The amount of atmospheric ozone is measured by “Dobson spectrometer” and is
expressed in Dobson units (DU). One DU is equivalent to 0.01mm thickness of pure ozone at
the density it would possess if it were brought to ground level pressure that is at 1atm
pressure. Average concentrations of ozone over tropics is 250 DU, over temperate latitude it
is 350 DU, over the sub polar regions it is 450 DU.
 There is a common misconception that the “ozone hole” is really a hole in the ozone
layer. The "ozone hole" is not really a hole, but rather a region above Antarctica where
the ozone layer — the 15-mile-thick blanket of O3 molecules that acts as our planet's
natural sunscreen — is very, very thin. When the "ozone hole" occurs, the ozone in
the lower stratosphere is destroyed. The upper stratosphere is less affected, so that
the amount of ozone over the continent decreases by 50 percent or even more. The
ozone does not disappear through the layer, nor is there a uniform 'thinning' of the
ozone layer. The "hole" is a depression.
 CFCs are well mixed globally in the troposphere and the stratosphere. The reason for
occurrence of the ozone hole above Antarctica is not because there are more CFCs
concentrated but because the low temperatures help form polar stratospheric clouds.
In fact, there are also findings of significant and localized "ozone holes" above other
Causes
The main cause of ozone depletion is the release of CFCs, (e.g. CFC-12),
chlorofluorocarbons. Other causes being halos (used in fire extinguishers), carbon
tetrachloride (used as a dry cleaning solvent and as a refrigerant) and methyl chloroform
(used as an industrial solvent ,degreaser, a coolant etc) CFC was discovered in the 1930s by
American chemist Thomas Midgley, CFCs came to be used in refrigerators, home insulation,
plastic foam, and throwaway food containers. Refrigerators used rather dangerous gasses
that were deadly if they leaked. In 1930, Midgley was commissioned by General Motors to
see if he could produce a better alternative to these deadly gasses. It needed to be stable,
non-flammable, non-corrosive and safe to breathe.
He devised a compound made from chlorine, fluorine and carbon – it was called
Freon, a type of chlorofluorocarbon, or CFC. It was only around fifty years later, that the real
dangers of CFCs were discovered, caused in the stratosphere. In 1974, Sherwood Rowland
and Mario Molina followed the path of CFCs. Their research proved that CFCs were entering
the atmosphere, and they concluded that 99% of all CFC molecules would end up in the
stratosphere as they are stable and hence not broken down in the lower atmosphere.
Only in 1984, when the ozone layer hole was discovered over Antarctica, was the
proof truly conclusive. Dr. Joe C. Farman and his colleagues in the British Antarctic survey
had been recording ozone levels over the Antarctic region since 1957. During September to
November, that is spring season each year, ozone depletion was observed. The British
scientists shocked the world when they revealed on May 16th, 1985- 25 years ago- that
aerosol chemicals, among other factors, had torn a hole in the ozone layer over the South
Pole. They had noted steep decline from mid 1970’s with record low concentration later
noted of 90 DU in early October of 1993.
About Thomas Midgley
In 1921, when working for General Motors, Midgley discovered that by adding lead to
petrol he was able to prevent a problem known as ”knocking’. Actually – surprisingly –
the dangers of tetra-ethyl lead were well known at the time of discovery, yet this did not
seem to sway the production of it. In fact, Midgley took it upon himself to hold a
demonstration where he illustrated just how harmless he believed lead to be. He did this
by pouring tetra-ethyl lead over his hands and then holding a cup of it under his nose and
inhaling it for sixty seconds. Whilst performing this deadly demonstration he was
assuring reporters of how he could repeat this practice daily without harm. He did this
whilst knowing full-well the dangers of lead poisoning due to having been over-exposed
to the substance a few months previous to the demonstration. Midgely not only invented
How is ozone depleted?
The overall cause of ozone depletion is the presence of chlorine-containing source
gases (primarily CFCs and related halocarbons). In the presence of UV light, these gases
dissociate, releasing chlorine atoms, which then go on to catalyze ozone destruction. The
breakdown products of anthropogenic chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are turned into
aggressive, ozone destroying substances during exposure to extremely cold conditions.
The advantage of CFCs being stable and uncreative in the lower atmosphere proved a
disadvantage in the long run as most of the CFC ever produced would reach the stratosphere
where they would be dissociated by UV light, releasing Cl atoms. These chlorine atoms
removed from the CFC, attracts one of the three oxygen atoms in the ozone molecule, thus
removing O3 and producing O2.
Cl + O3 -> ClO + O2
The chlorine monoxide then reacts with atomic oxygen to produce molecular oxygen and
atomic chlorine. The regenerated chlorine atom is then free to initiate a new cycle.
ClO + O -> Cl + O2
The process continues, and a single chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 molecules of
ozone.
The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion can take place in the gas phase, but it is dramatically
enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs).These polar stratospheric
clouds form during winter, in the extreme cold when temperatures drop below -78°C. Polar
winters are dark, consisting of 3 months without solar radiation (sunlight). Not only lack of
sunlight contributes to a decrease in temperature but also the polar vortex formed by the
winds blowing in circular pattern over the earth’s poles, traps and chills air which converts
water droplets into ice. Temperatures hover around or below -80 °. These low temperatures
form cloud particles and are composed of either nitric acid or ice. Both provide surfaces for
chemical reactions that lead to ozone destruction. CFC’s get collected on the surface of these
ice crystals and destroy ozone much faster.
Chemical reactions that convert innocuous reservoir gases (e.g. hydrochloric acid)
into active ozone depleting gases take place on the clouds particles. The result is rapid
destruction of ozone if sunlight is present. In Antarctica the so-called ozone hole is an
annually recurring winter/spring phenomenon due to the existence of extremely low
temperatures in the stratosphere. In the Arctic the meteorological conditions vary much
more from one year to the next and the temperatures are always warmer than over
Antarctica.
Hence, some Arctic winters experience almost no ozone loss, whereas cold
stratospheric temperatures in the Arctic lasting beyond the polar night can occasionally lead
to substantial ozone loss.
The role of sunlight in ozone depletion is the reason why the Antarctic ozone
depletion is greatest during spring. During winter, even though PSCs are at their most
abundant, there is no light over the pole to drive the chemical reactions. During the spring,
however, the sun comes out, providing energy to drive photochemical reactions, and melt
the polar stratospheric clouds, releasing the trapped compounds.
Scientists have also pointed to a connection between ozone loss and climate change. Global
warming may in fact be increasing the ozone depletion increasing greenhouse gas
concentrations retain the Earth’s thermal radiation at lower layers of the atmosphere, thus
heating up these layers. Less of the heat radiation reaches the stratosphere, intensifying the
cooling effect there.” This cooling takes place in the ozone layer and can contribute to larger
ozone depletion.
Record stratospheric ozone loss in the arctic in spring of 2011
GENEVA 5 APRIL 2011 (WMO) — Depletion of the ozone layer- the shield that protects life
on Earth from harmful levels of ultraviolet rays - has reached an unprecedented level over
the Arctic 2011 spring because of the continuing presence of ozone-depleting substances
in the atmosphere and a very cold winter in the stratosphere. The record loss is despite the
international agreement which has been very successful in cutting production and
consumption of ozone destroying chemicals. Observations from the ground and from
The dramatic reduction in CFC over the last 20 years is an environmental success but
it is found that nitrous oxide commonly called laughing gas (emitted by supersonic aircrafts,
during combustion of fossil fuel and use of nitrogen fertilizers), has replaced CFCs as the
potent destroyer of ozone. By comparing the ozone depletion potential (weighted
anthropogenic emissions of N2O with those of other ozone-depleting substances), it can be
shown that N2O emission currently is the single most important ozone-depleting emission
and is expected to remain the largest throughout the 21st century. N2O is unregulated by the
Montreal Protocol. Limiting future N2O emissions would enhance the recovery of the ozone
layer from its depleted state and would also reduce the anthropogenic influence in changing
of the climate system as nitrous oxide is a green house gas as well.
Effects:
Energy from the sun reaches the earth as visible, infrared, and ultraviolet rays
1. Ultraviolet A(UVA) is made up of wavelengths 320 to 400 nanometers (nm) in length.
2. Ultraviolet B (UVB) wavelengths are 290 to 320 nm.
3. Ultraviolet C (UVC) wavelengths are 100 to 280 nm.
Only UVA and UVB ultraviolet rays reach the earth's surface. The earth's atmosphere absorbs
UVC wavelengths. Even minor problems of ozone depletion can have major effects. Every
time even a small amount of the ozone layer is lost, more ultraviolet light from the sun can
reach the Earth. Every time 1% of the ozone layer is depleted, 2% more UV-B (290-320nm)
is able to reach the surface of the planet.
UV-A increases the damaging effects of UV-B, including skin cancer and cataracts. UV-B
increase is one of the most harmful consequences of ozone depletion because it affects DNA
and can result in skin cancer (basal cell and squamous cell carcinoma) which cause
disfigurement. Thus UV-B rays cause a much greater risk of skin cancer than UVA, however,
UVA rays cause aging, wrinkling, and loss of elasticity.
UV rays are easily absorbed by lens and cornea of the eye and would result in increase
in incidence of cataracts. Increased UV radiation can cause significant damage, particularly
to small animals and plants. Unlike humans they cannot avoid the noon time sun either.
Phytoplankton, fish eggs, and young plants with developing leaves are particularly
susceptible to damage from overexposure to UV. The most basic microscopic organisms such
as plankton may not be able to survive as they are sensitive to UV exposure thus affecting
marine food chain. It would mean that all of the other animals that are above plankton in the
food chain would also die out. Other ecosystems such as forests and deserts will also be
harmed. Ecosystem degradations could have an effect of increasing infectious diseases like
malaria (as per some researches)
The planet's climate is also noted to be affected by the levels of the ozone
layer. Increases in solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical
cycles, thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically-important trace
gases e.g., carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulfide (COS) and possibly
other gases, including ozone. These potential changes would contribute to biosphere-
atmosphere feedbacks that attenuate or reinforce the atmospheric buildup of these gases.
Thus wind patterns could change, resulting in climatic changes throughout the world. Yield
of vital crops like corn, rice, soya bean, cotton, bean, pea, sorghum and wheat could decrease
as a result of all the disruptive changes. The difficulty with the CFC problem is that there are
already great quantities of CFCs in the environment.
CFCs would remain in the stratosphere for another 100 years even if none were ever
produced again. But since the banning of CFC in 1989 under Montreal protocol, atmospheric
levels of ozone-depleting chemicals have reached their lowest levels since peaking in the
1990s, and the hole has begun to shrink.
Control
The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to the
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an international treaty adopted
under the UN umbrella designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of
numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened
for signature on September 16, 1987, and entered into force on January 1, 1989, followed by
a first meeting in Helsinki, May 1989. Since then, it has undergone seven revisions, in 1990
(London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997
(Montreal), and 1999 (Beijing). The treaty has been amended to ban CFC production after
1995 in the developed countries, and later in developing countries. If the international
agreement is adhered to, the ozone layer is expected to recover by 2050. Due to its
widespread adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional
international co-operation, and as per Kofi Annan (7th secretary general of UN) quoted as
saying that "perhaps the single most successful international agreement to date". It has been
ratified by 196 states.
The signatory states accept a series of stepped limits on CFC use and production, including:
 from 1991 to 1992 its levels of consumption and production of the controlled
substances in Group I of Annex A do not exceed 150 percent of its calculated
levels of production and consumption of those substances in 1986;
 from 1994 its calculated level of consumption and production of the controlled
substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed, annually, twenty-five
percent of its calculated level of consumption and production in 1986.
 From 1996 its calculated level of consumption and production of the
controlled substances in Group I of Annex A does not exceed zero.
There is a slower phase-out (to zero by 2010) of other substances (halon 1211, 1301, 2402;
CFCs 13, 111, 112, etc) and some chemicals get individual attention (Carbon tetrachloride;
1, 1, 1-trichloroethane). The phasing-out of the less active HCFCs started only in 1996 and
will go on until a complete phasing-out is achieved in 2030.
Because of the long atmospheric lifetimes of these compounds it will take several
decades before their concentrations are back down to pre-1980 levels, the target agreed in
the Montreal Protocol. Until that time the fate of the Arctic ozone layer essentially depends
on the temperature in the stratosphere at an altitude of around 20 km and is thus linked to
the earth’s climate.
Thanks to the Montreal Protocol the ozone layer outside the polar regions is projected
to recover to its pre 1980 levels around 2030-2040 according to the WMO/UNEP Scientific
Assessment of Ozone Depletion. In contrast, the springtime ozone layer over the Antarctic is
expected to recover around 2045-60, and in the Arctic it will probably recover one or two
decades earlier.
In the Montreal Protocol, 30 nations worldwide agreed to reduce usage of CFCs and
encouraged other countries to do so as well. Work on alternatives for chlorofluorocarbons
in refrigerants (like HCFC) began in the late 1970s after the first warnings of damage to
stratospheric ozone were published. The hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are less stable
in the lower atmosphere, enabling them to break down before reaching the ozone layer.
Nevertheless, a significant fraction of the HCFCs do break down in the stratosphere and they
have contributed to more chlorine buildup there than originally predicted. Later alternatives
lacking the chlorine, the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) have even shorter lifetimes in the lower
atmosphere. One of these compounds, HFC-134a, is now used in place of CFC-12 in
automobile air conditioners. Hydrocarbon refrigerants (a propane/isobutane blend) are also
used extensively in mobile air conditioning systems in Australia, the USA and many other
countries, as they have excellent thermodynamic properties and perform particularly well
in high ambient temperatures. One of the natural refrigerants (along with Ammonia and
Carbon Dioxide), hydrocarbons have negligible environmental impacts and are also used
worldwide in domestic and commercial refrigeration applications, and are becoming
available in new split system air conditioners. Various other solvents and methods have
replaced the use of CFCs in laboratory analytics.
What individuals could do

The UV Index provides a daily forecast of the expected risk of overexposure to the
sun. The Index predicts UV intensity levels on a scale of 0 to 10+, where 0 indicates a minimal
risk of overexposure and 10+ means a very high risk. It can be referred to daily and
depending on the risks, the protections like sunscreens or hat can be taken or the noon times
could be avoided for outdoor activities.
Be aware of the Ozone depleting substances that might be used in products used and avoid
them. If not possible to avoid, limit the usage and replacement rate that is don’t discard the
product too quickly to buy another of the same kind.
c. Acid Rain
Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic .There are
many forms of acid rain that are seen around the world. In parts of the world where there is
wet weather, there is acid rain, acid snow, and acid fog. In parts of the world where there is
dry weather, there is acid gas and acid dust.
Causes
Acid rain is mainly caused by Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen oxides and Sulphur dioxides
etc in the air resulting in the formation of carbonic acids, nitric acid, sulphuric acids besides
some other organic acids on reaction with the atmospheric moisture. Damage from acid rain
is widespread in North America, Europe, Japan, China and South-east Asia. In the US, coal-
burning power plants contribute to about 70% of sulfur dioxide. In Canada, oil refining, metal
smelting and other industrial activities account for 61% of the sulphur dioxide pollution.
Motor vehicle exhaust fumes are the main source of nitrogen oxides. The acids in acid rain
chemically react with any object they come into contact with. Industries and automobiles are
the main cause of the pollutants that result into acid rain.
Effects
Acid rain that falls or flows as ground water to reach rivers, lakes arid wetlands
causes the water in them to become acidic. This affects plant and animal life in aquatic
ecosystems. Fishes are sensitive to pH levels of water. Fresh water has pH close to neutral.
Clams and mayflies have a high rate of mortality when water has a pH of 6.0. Frogs can
tolerate more acidic water, although with the decline in supply of mayflies, frog populations
may also decline. Land animals that are dependent on aquatic organisms are also affected.
Acid rain dissolves and washes away nutrients in the soil, which are needed by plants.
It can also dissolve naturally occurring toxic substances like aluminum and mercury, freeing
them to pollute water or poison plants.
Acid rain falling on slopes dissolves metals like aluminium in the soil as it flows down
into the lakes. Aluminium irritates fish gills, forms mucus and suffocates the fish. It displaces
the calcium in the bodies of birds with aluminium which reduces the thickness of egg shells
and hence causes reproductive failure.
Acid rain indirectly affects plants by removing nutrients from the soil in which they
grow. It affects trees more directly by creating holes in the waxy coating of leaves, causing
brown dead spots which affect the plant's photosynthesis. Such trees are also more
vulnerable to insect infestations, drought and cold. Spruce and fir forests at higher elevations
seem to be most at risk. Farm crops are less affected by acid rain than forest.
The acidified water containing toxic metals are absorbed into fruits, vegetables; sea
food etc and these are magnified in humans and animals that eat them. Acid, along with other
chemicals in the air, produces urban smog, which causes respiratory problems.
They can corrode stone statues like happened to Parthenon Greece and Italy and
buildings of marbles like Taj Mahal. Crystals of calcium and magnesium sulfate are formed
as a result of corrosion due to acid rain. It could leach out leaving the structure damaged.
In 1967 the bridge over Ohio collapsed killing 46 people and cause was traced to
corrosion by acid rain. Billions of dollars are spent in repairing the damage to buildings in
Europe annually.
It can damage metals and car finishes. Rain of 2.4pH (as acidic as viniger) was
recorded during storms in new England USA with one instance of yellow color leaching out
of the green paint on a car leaving blue spots.
Control Measures for Acid Rain

Cutting down the sources is the major measure to control acid rain. Improvement in
technologies and switching to clean combustion technologies are highly essential. Coal with
lower sulphur content is desirable to use in thermal plants. Replacement of coal by natural
gas would also reduce the problem substantially. Installing scrubbers to reduce smoke stack
emissions, though expensive, would be economical compared to the losses due to damage
done to lakes, forests, monuments, food production and so on.
Conventions in this regard are the Convention on Long Range Transboundary Air
Pollution, Nov.1979. Also Sulphur Protocol, Helsinki, July 1985, which aimed to reduce
annual emission of sulphur by atleast 30% from 1980 level at the latest by 1993.
The US EPA initiated Acid Rain Program is viewed around the world as a prototype
for tackling environmental issues. It has allowance trading system which capitalizes on the
power of the marketplace to reduce SO2 emissions in the most cost-effective manner
possible. An allowance authorizes a utility or industrial source to emit one ton of SO2 during
a given year or any year thereafter. At the end of each year, the source must hold an amount
of allowances at least equal to its annual emissions, i.e., a source that emits 5,000 tons of SO2
must hold at least 5,000 allowances that are usable in that year.
However, regardless of how many allowances a source holds, it is never entitled to
exceed the limits set under Title I of the Act to protect public health. If the sources’ emissions
do not exceed its allowances, the remaining allowances are carried forward, or banked for
future use. If a source's emissions exceed its allowances, the source must pay a penalty and
surrender allowances for the following year to EPA as excess emission offsets. The
continuous emissions monitoring and reporting systems provide the accurate accounting of
emissions necessary to make the program work, and the excess emissions penalties provide
strong incentives for self-enforcement. Each of these separate components contributes to the
effective working of an integrated program that lets market incentives do the work to
achieve cost-effective emissions reductions. The General Accounting Office recently
confirmed the benefits of this approach, projecting that the allowance trading system could
save as much as $3 billion per year—over 50 percent—compared with a command and
control approach typical of previous environmental protection programs.
Control at Individual level

Measures include shifting to more efficient vehicles that could lead to control of large
quantity of the nitrogen oxides emissions, acidified lakes and streams can be regained by
liming by the addition of limestone (calcite), primarily calcium carbonate (CaCO3), to
neutralize acid waters and soils and buffer them.
Nuclear accidents and Holocaust

The nuclear power plant design strategy for preventing accidents and mitigating their
potential effects is string. If something fails, there is a back-up system to limit the harm done;
if that system also fails there is another back-up system for it etc… Of course it is possible
that each system in this series of back-ups might fail one after the other, but the probability
for that is exceedingly small. Risks from reactor accidents are estimated by the rapidly
developing science of "probabilistic risk analysis" (PRA). A PRA must be done separately for
each power plant (at a cost of $5 million) but typical results are: A fuel melt-down might be
expected once in 20,000 years of reactor operation. In 2 out of 3 melt-downs there would be
no deaths, in 1 out of 5 there would be over 1000 deaths, and in 1 out of 100,000 there would
be 50,000 deaths. The average for all meltdowns would be 400 deaths.
Nuclear holocaust refers to the possibility of nearly complete annihilation of human

civilization by nuclear warfare. "Holocaust" is commonly defined as great destruction
resulting in the extensive loss of life, especially by fire. Under the scenario of a nuclear
holocaust, all or most of the Earth is made uninhabitable by nuclear weapons in future world
wars.
The first, and to date only, nuclear war was World War II: near the end of the war,
the United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. At the time of
those bombings, the United States was the only country to possess atomic weapons. After
World War II, nuclear weapons were also developed by the United Kingdom, France,
the Soviet Union, and the People's Republic of China, which contributed to the state of
conflict and tension that became known as the Cold War. In the 1970s, India and
1990s, Pakistan, countries openly hostile to each other, developed nuclear
weapons. Israel, North Korea, and South Africa are also believed to have developed nuclear
weapons, although South Africa subsequently abandoned them.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the resultant end of the Cold War,
the threat of a major nuclear war between the superpowers was generally thought to have
receded. Since then, concern over nuclear weapons has shifted to the prevention of localized
nuclear conflicts resulting from nuclear proliferation (spread of nuclear weapons), and the
threat of nuclear terrorism (the threat of its use in terrorism).
Nuclear holocaust could result in an end to human life, or at least to modern
civilization on Earth due to the immediate effects of nuclear fallout, the loss of much modern
technology due to electromagnetic pulses, or nuclear winter and resulting extinctions.
Nuclear Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a nuclear explosion, so called
because it "falls out" of the atmosphere after the explosion. It commonly refers to
the radioactive dust created when a nuclear weapon explodes. This radioactive dust,
consisting of hot particles, is a kind of radioactive contamination. It can lead to the
contamination of ground and the animal food chain.
An electromagnetic pulse (sometimes abbreviated EMP) is a burst of
electromagnetic radiation that results from the detonation of a nuclear weapon and/or a
suddenly fluctuating magnetic field. The resulting rapidly changing electric fields or
magnetic fields may couple with electrical/electronic systems to produce damaging current
and voltage surges. The high altitude nuclear tests of 1962 by US increased awareness of
EMP. In July 1962, a 1.44 megaton (6.0 PJ) United States nuclear test in space, 400 kilometres
(250 mi) above the mid-Pacific Ocean, called the Starfish Prime test, demonstrated to nuclear
scientists that the magnitude and effects of a high altitude nuclear explosion were much
larger than had been previously calculated. Starfish Prime also made those effects known to
the public by causing electrical damage in Hawaii, about 1,445 kilometres (898 mi) away
from the detonation point, knocking out about 300 streetlights, setting off numerous burglar
alarms and damaging a telephone company microwave link.
The nuclear winter scenario predicts that the huge fires caused by nuclear explosions (from
burning urban areas) would loft massive amounts of dense smoke from the fires, into the
upper troposphere / stratosphere. At 10-15 kilometers (6–9 miles) above the Earth's
surface, the absorption of sunlight would further heat the smoke, lifting some, or all of it, into
the stratosphere, to where the smoke would persist for years, with no rain to wash it out.
This aerosol of particles would block out much of the sun's light from reaching the surface,
causing surface temperatures to drop drastically.
Resettlement and Rehabilitation Issues.
Planned development immediately after independence, specially the growth of core
sectors like power, mining, heavy industry and irrigation, displaced a large number of
people. Conservative estimates put this figure to be between 30 to 50 million persons. Only
about 25 per cent of this number was resettled and the rest either died or took the road to
poverty. All this took place in the name of national interests. In the era of new economic
policy of liberalization and globalization, the entry of private sector in the arena of
development has increased the demand for land. This simply means more displacement and
resultant uprooting and forced dislocation in livelihoods and lifestyles of those displaced.
Development projects come into existence after a fairly long period of planning and
awareness of displacement caused by such projects already exists among those who initiate
the projects. The tragedy is that despite this prior knowledge of the extent of displacement,
those in charge for development projects pay little attention to the processes of resettlement
and rehabilitation of displaced people. Development projects instead focus on economic
efficiency and not on those who stand to lose all that they have, their land means of livelihood
and stable patterns of social and cultural life. The natives affected are often the poorest of
poor tribal people and they often stand to lose a lot more than the perceived gains to the
nation from most of the projects.
Development projects that displace people involuntarily give rise to a lot of issues.
There is of course emotional and psychological trauma caused by forcibly removing people
from their homeland where their families have lived for centuries. Also resettlement
requires alternate land but in our overpopulated country, there is no arable high quality land
easily available. Thus, most project-affected people are usually given unusable wasteland.
Rehabilitation involves more than just giving land but in most cases, even this basic aspect
is not adequately done. Rather than communal resettlement, individual based resettlement
it leads to break up of families.
The result is in general severe economic, social, and environmental problems:

production systems are dismantled; productive assets and traditional income sources are
lost; people are relocated to environments where their productive skills may be less
applicable and the competition for resources greater; community structures and social
networks are weakened; kin groups are dispersed; and cultural identity like folk songs
dances disappear; traditional authority and indigenous knowledge about the flora fauna etc
is lost; the potential for mutual help are diminished. Involuntary resettlement may cause
severe long-term hardship, impoverishment, and environmental damage unless appropriate
measures are carefully planned and carried out.
The Land Acquisition Act 1894 empowers the Indian Government to serve notice to
people to vacate land under section 16 of the Act. Following are cases of social impact of
development projects of the government like dams and of conservation measures like
creation of National Parks and reserves (where the declared core area is prevented from
accessibility to the local dwellers, who always had access)
1. Hirakud Dam displaced more than 20,000 people of 250 villages.
2. Bhakra Nanagal Dam was constructed in 1950’s and even half of the displaced have
not yet been rehabilitated.
3. Tehri Dam on Bhagirathi in UP is being constructed, despite the years of protest by
Chipko Movement under Sundarlal Bahuguna and it would eventually displace
10,000 people of nearly 100 villages.
4. Sardar Sarovar Project on Narmada and its tributaries is of 30 big dams and 3000
small dams which would eventually affect three lakh people of 573 villages that will
be submerged. The lost area would be almost equal to the area that would benefit in
terms of irrigation. The greatest battle to save their own precious land has been
carried out by the tribal people of the Narmada River.
5. Jharia Coal Mines have frequent underground fires since 1976 which pushes to the
need for relocation of 0.3 million people. The firefighting has already been an expense
in crores and relocation expenses would be more and seems impossible. Advanced
fire fighting may prevent the need for displacement.
6. Valmiki Tiger Reserve in Bihar, West Champaran District led to people of 142 villages
loosing their ancestral rights to collect firewood fodder and were not provided
alternate job opportunities which led to illegal logging and poaching.
7. Wayanad Wildlife sanctuary required the displacement of more than 50, 000 families.
Until 2003 only 843 families could get land. The tribes in retaliation encroached forest
and this led to violent encounters with forest officials which caused deaths and
injuries.
The right to habitation is a basic human right under article 25(1) of the United
Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights.
In India there is still a need for a comprehensive rehabilitation policy. There are
positive trends like in Karnataka; the Belligere Ranganatha Temple Sanctuary will have
tigers living with tribes. The programme of relocation, involving a package of 10 lakh is
purely voluntary and there is no force as those who don’t want to move can stay. (June-
5-2011, Times city. Times of India)

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Module 1

ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE- A MULTIDISCIPLINARY SUBJECT

1.2 What exactly is environment?

Environment in one word means surroundings (obviously of organisms)

1.3 Key terms related to environment.

1.4 Is Environment a Multidisciplinary subject?

Physical sciences Physical

Fig 1.1 Diagrammatic representation of the Multidisciplinary nature of

1.5 Need for Public Awareness

In reality, environment consciousness is more difficult to incorporate in the psyche of people

Environment study necessarily requires developing awareness of what is going on in the

1.8 Terminal Questions

Our Environment , Laeeq Futehally, 1988, National Book Trust, India

3.2 Concept of Ecosystem

Ecosystems have become particularly important politically, since the Convention on

3.3 Structure and function of Ecosystem

A. Structure of ecosystems – This can be summarized in four ways

a. Trophic levels - Ecosystems have a basic structure according to how different

Primary producers are autotrophic organisms(primarily green plants) capable of

c. Trophic relationships - Ecosystems also have a basic structure according to trophic

Human agricultural ecosystems are good examples of simple, unstable ecosystems.

d. Ecological Pyramids- Another way to summarize the structure of trophic of ecosystems

Fig 3.2. b. Pyramid of Numbers for forests

Fig 3.2.c Pyramid of Biomass for pond

B. Functions of Ecosystem- Interactions between ecosystem components involve two

There are two important energy flow models.

Fig3.5: Generalised Y shaped Enegy Flow Model (Universal Model)

3.4 Ecological Succession

Does ecological succession ever stop?

Significance of Biotic succession

To understand Succession it would be interesting to study two types of succession,

Self Assessment Questions

3.5 Major Types of Ecosystem

Three types of grasslands are found to occur in different climatic regions

Desert Ecosystem: Animals

Desert Ecosystem: Plants

3.7 Terminal Questions

Self Assessment Questions

1. Trophic levels, Trophic relationships, Ecological pyramids

1. Refer in section 3.3

A substance in nature becomes a resource when it is being utilized. Thus

Classification of resources can be done in three major ways.

1. Exhaustible and Inexhaustible resources

Renewable : soil(Biotic +Abiotic)

Non renewable: minerals(Abiotic)

Inexhaustible : sunlight, air/wind (Abiotic).

Fig 2.1 Diagrammatical depiction of the classification of resources to

2.3 Major Natural Resources

The major natural resources are:-

A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominantly of trees, shrubs

We should recognize the importance for forest conservation as the damage

1. The eupatorium is an escapee from South America. It is a man high bushy

2. Another exotic problem but of a different kind is the eucalyptus which is

Forest Conservation measures

The public agitation against the construction of a hydroelectric project in Silent

2.3.2 Water Resources

a. Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

b. Sustaining the water resource

So it becomes important that shallow groundwater flow systems be distinguished

Excessive pumping can lead to groundwater depletion, where groundwater is

The natural balance between freshwater and saltwater in coastal aquifers is

Increasing cattle population leads to overgrazing which exceeds the rate of