Patrick Bouron

National school of Sciences

Geographical, Geographical Institute
National
Cartography
READING OF CHART
NATIONAL SCHOOL OF GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES.
6 and 8 avenue Blaise Pascal
77455 Marne the Valley Cedex 2
www.ensg.ign.fr
© IGN 2005

Contents
Introduction. ………………………………………………………. 7
Chapter I. Recalls on the systems of unit. ……………………. 11
Part A. measurements of angles. ……………………………………… 11
The radian. …………………………………………………. 11
The degree. …………………………………………………. 12
The rank. …………………………………………………. 12
Thousandths. ………………………………………………… 12
Part B. Table of equivalence. ……………………………………. 13
Part C. measurement of time. ………………………………………. 13
Part D. metric measurement. ………………………………………. .14
Part E. equivalence enters the distances and the angles. ………………. 15
Part F. equivalence enters time and the angles. …………………. .16
Part G. equivalence enters the distances and the hours (or angles)… 17
Part H. Some examples to be retained. ………………………………. 17
Chapter II. Geographical coordinates. …………………… 19
Part A. Méridiens and parallels. ……………………………………. 19
Part B. Coordinated geographical. ………………………………. 20
Longitude (lambda)…………………………………………… 20
Latitude (phi)………………………………………………. 21
Az azimuth. …………………………………………………. 21
Altitude Z.…………………………………………………. 22
Part C. Positioning geographical of France. …………………. 24
Chapter III. Cutting and classification of the charts
topographic. ………………………………………………. .25
Part A. Découpage of the topographic charts. ……………………… 25
Part B. Width and height of a sheet. ……………………………. 26
Part C. Name and classification of the charts. ……………………………. 27
Charts with 1:50 000. ………………………………………. 27
Charts with 1:25 000. ………………………………………. 27
The charts SIGNAL 25. …………………………………………. 27
Chapter IV. Systems and plane representations. ………………. 31
Part A. Généralités. ………………………………………………. 31
Part B. Examples of representations. ………………………………. 33
Representation of Mercator. …………………………………… 33
Representation conforms of Lambert. ……………………………. 34
Polar stereographic representation. …………………………. 34
Transverse representation of Mercator. …………………………. 35
Representation of Good. ……………………………………. 35
Sinusoidal representation of Sanson. …………………………… 35
Representation obliques of Lorgna. ………………………………. 36
Part C. System and ellipsoid of reference. …………………………. 36
System NTF (New Triangulation of France)………………. 37
System ED50 (European Datum 1950)………………………… 37
System WGS84 (GPS)……………………………………. 37
System RGF93. …………………………………………. 38
Part D. projection Lambert. ……………………………………… 38
Principle of the representation Lambert. ……………………………. 38
The Lambert zone. ……………………………………………. 40
The coordinates Lambert zone. ………………………………… 41
The coordinates Lambert carto. ………………………………… 42
Lambert 93. ……………………………………………… 43
Part E. representation UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator)……… 44
Principles of representation UTM. …………………………. 44
Spindles UTM. …………………………………………… 45
Coordinates UTM. ………………………………………. 46
Squarings UTM (hecto kilometric and derived)……………………. 47
Part F. Projection stereographic. ………………………………… 48
4 Cartography
Chapter V. coordinates in margin of charts IGN. ………… 51
Part A. Cartes 1: 25.000 and 1: 50.000. ……………………………… 51
Part B. Charts SIGNAL 25. ……………………………………………. 52
Part C. Charts with 1: 25.000 with overload GPS. ……………………. 53
Part D. Cartes with 1: 100.000 (green series or SIGNAL 100)………………. 54
Chapter VI. Measurements on the chart. ………………………………… 57
Part A. Mesure distances with a chart. ………………………. 57
Scale of a chart. …………………………………………. 57
Measurements of a distance on the chart. ……………………………… 58
Horizontal distance. …………………………………………. 61
Part B. Measurement of the punctual coordinates. ………………………… 61
Identification of the frame of reference. ………………………… 62
Geographical coordinates (longitude, latitude)……………………. 63
Cartesian coordinates. …………………………………… 65
Part C. Determination of a direction. ………………………………. 68
Layer. …………………………………………………. 68
Azimuth. ……………………………………………………. 68
Convergence of the meridian lines. …………………………………… 68
Part D. Détermination of the altitude of a point. ………………………. 69
Part E. Determination of the slope. …………………………………. .69
Part F. Manufacture of a profile longitudinally. ………………………………. 70
How to trace a profile?……………………………………. 70
The apparent level. …………………………………………. 72
Chapter VII. Orientation of the chart. ……………………………. 73
Part A. Orienter the chart in direction of north. ………………………. 73
Different the nords. …………………………………………. 73
Calculation of the magnetic variation. ……………………………. 74
To be directed with a compass. …………………………………. 75
To be directed with a watch. ……………………………………. 76
To be directed with pole star. …………………………………. 77
Part B. to be directed using a chart. ………………………………. 77
Using an alignment. ………………………………………. 78
Using a remote aiming. …………………………………… 78
Part C. To determine its position on a chart. ………………………. 79
Contents 5
Chapter VIII. Elements represented on a chart. …………. 81
Part A. Généralités. ………………………………………………. 81
Part B. the chart information source planimetric. ………………. 82
Roads and ways. …………………………………………… 82
Railroads. ……………………………………………… 84
Electric lines. …………………………………………… 85
Fences and limits. …………………………………………… 85
Vegetation and cultures. ………………………………………… 85
Various constructions. ………………………………………. 86
Administrative limits and notations. ……………………………… 87
Part C. Hydrography. ……………………………………………. 88
Sea, lake, pond. ……………………………………………… 88
River, river, brook. ………………………………………. 89
Source, puit, tower water. ……………………………………. 90
Part D. Toponymie. ………………………………………………. 91
Part E. the representation of the relief (orography)……………………… 93
Level lines. ………………………………………. 93
Shading. ………………………………………………. 94
Points with dimensions. ……………………………………………. 94
Other conventional signs of orography. ……………………… 95
Count of the illustrations. ……………………………………………. 97
Count of the diagrams. ………………………………………………. 99
Count of the tables. ………………………………………………… 101
6 Cartography
Preamble
Introduction
Many are those which ignore the charts of the National Geographical Institute and their utility. If they
omit to make use of it, it is very often because they never have learned how to exploit all the information of
them, thus depriving itself of the joys of discovered during their voyages and excursions or which they still
neglect one instrument of modern, essential work to solve some of their problems. It should be known that it is
infinitely easier to learn how to read a chart than to learn how to read a text. This document is designed for the
users of the charts of the IGN in order to provide them certain principles and definitions which will enable them
to use the chart more easily and to benefit the best from the information which appears in it. After having read it
document, the user, examining the chart of an attentive eye, will realize that, though detailed, it is far from
being confused; figuration of the relief, as well as the representation planimetric details by various symbols will
suggest to him, before even going on the ground, aspect and character of the area considered. In the same way,
when it can direct its chart correctly, locate and identify on this one each not ground and to determine altitude,
to use it of it to go in a direction data, it will regard it as the essential auxiliary of its walks or of its excursions.
A chart is an image reduced, conventional, of part of the surface of ground, which one can regard as
geometrically exact. To learn how to read and use this chart, it is to be able, before even going on the ground, to
imagine the aspect and the character of the area charted.
IMG. 1
Reduced image
All the charts are a reduction of part of the surface of the ground. Report/ratio of reduction is the
scale of the chart. In France, the charts of the National Geographical Institute cover the whole of
Metropolitan territory on scales active of the 1: 25.000 until the 1: 1.000.000.

Which chart to choose?

There exists a bond between the scale of the chart and its use: the hiker with foot will use the
chart to the 1: 25.000 very detailed whereas the motorist uses a chart to the 1: 250.000 or 1:
1.000.000.

IMG. 2
8 Cartography
Conventional image
The elements on the surface of the ground are very numerous, a simple reduction would have for
effect to make some disappear a certain number and to make the chart illegible. Elements of the
ground thus are generalized and represented on the chart by signs conventional. This
symbolization appears near the chart in the form of legend and varies according to the scale of
the chart.

IMG. 3
Geometrical image
Respective positions of the objects on the surface of the ground and their image on the chart are
bound by mathematical relations. This relation preserves the angles and deteriorates lengths and
surfaces. However deteriorations in question are unimportant because lower than the play of
paper and the precision of graphic measurements. The chart will make it possible its user to
define a point of the ground in a system of coordinates, to calculate distances, altitudes, and
slopes and to define directions.

CHAPTER 1
I

RECALLS ON SYSTEMS OF UNIT

According to the scale, the date and the country of edition of the chart, the units used can to
differ. Before “entering the sharp one” of the subject, this chapter proposes some recalls
concerning angular units, units of distance and some orders of magnitude which will allow to use
and interpret as well as possible the topographic chart.
Part A. Measurements of Angles
1. The radian
The mathematical unit of measurement of angle is the radian. The notation of the radian is “rad”.
A radian is the angle formed by an arc of circle equal to ray R. In a circumference, there are 2
 radians, with  = 3.14….

SCH. 1
2. The degree
The degree is the angular unit which divides a circumference into 360 degrees. Notation of the
degree is “°”.Calculations in degree is “painful”, because it acts like for the time being of a
systems exagesimal. The submultiples of the degree are:
 the sexagesimal minute, noted ““” such as 60” = 1°.
 the second, noted “''” such as 60 '' = 1 '. Thus 1° = 60 ' = 3.600 ''.
1° is also equal to 60 ' or 3.600 ''.

IMG. 4
Example
21°06' 34 '', 1035 (attention, the seconds are decimal).
One can convert this angle into decimal degree: one finds 21°, 1094732.
3. The rank
The rank or the gon is the angular unit which divides a circumference into 400 ranks. The rank is
noted “gr.”
It is a decimal unit whose submultiples are:
 the tenth of rank or the decigrade: 1 dgr = 0.1 gr.
 the hundredth of rank or the centigrade (cgr): 1 cg = 0.01 gr.
 the milligrade (mgr): 1 mgr = 0.001 gr.
 the decimilligrade (dmgr) or the hundredth of centigrade (DC): 1 dmgr = 1 DC = 0.0001 gr.
4. Thousandths
The thousandths is the unit of angle such as in a circumference there is
6.400 thousandth. The thousandths is not very different from 1/1 000 of radian and can be
regarded as being the angle under which one sees 1 meter at a distance from 1.000 Mr.
The notation of the thousandths is:

SCH. 2
PART B. TABLE OF EQUIVALENCE

IMG. 5
PART C. MEASUREMENT OF TIME
The diurnal rotation of the Earth around its axis seemed a long time sufficiently uniform to
define the measurement of time. Currently, the concept of time is based on an atomic definition
of particularly stable the “second” reproduced with assistance of atomic clock. It is from this
“second atomic” that are defined scales of time universal or legal rythmant our life.
 SCH. 3
PART D. METRIC MEASUREMENT
There were from time immemorial various units of length: the foot, the measuring apparatus, and
the inch. A certain number of these units are still of use (England and the United States), but
the legal international unit lengths are the meter. Nowadays, a meter corresponds to the distance
covered in the vacuum by the light during 1/299 792.458 of second. The original meter or
measures files dates from end of the XVIIIe century: at that time, the scientists calculate
dimensions of ground and define the meter as the ten millionth part of the quarter of the meridian
line terrestrial.

SCH. 4
Measurements of latitude in a meridian line make it possible to determine in manner approached
the value of the terrestrial ray.
 SCH. 5
Part E. Equivalence Enters the Distances and those Angles
Recall
We saw previously that the meter is defined like the ten millionth part of the quarter of the
terrestrial meridian line. The circumference of the ground being of approximately
40.000 km, 400 ranks thus represent 40.000 km. In the same way, 100 ranks or 90° along a
meridian line or the equator10.000 km represent.

SCH. 6
Recalls on the systems of unit 15
There also exists of other relations between measurements of angles and distances.
Example
The artillerists use as angular unit the thousandths, which represents one angle of 1 m with 1 km.
The sailors use the equivalent of an angle of 1 minute of arc (0° 1') which represent on the
surface of the ground a distance from 1.852 Mr. This units is more commonly called “Thousand
sailor” or “Thousand nautical”.
Caution
In the Commonwealth Countries the Thousand sailor is worth 1 853, 18 Mr.
Part F. equivalence enters time and the angles
It is known that the ground turns around the axis of the poles towards the east with one period of
24 hours. Thus, it is necessary 6 hours roughly so that a point, on the surface of the ground, turns
of an angle of 90 degrees (or 100 ranks) around the axis of the poles (parallel to the equator).
Therefore, in 1 hour of time, one traverses an angle of 90/6= 15 degrees or an angle of 100/6 =
16,667 ranks.
Example
If one calculates the difference in longitude between Nice and Ushant, one finds one angle of
13.8 gr., which corresponds to an jet lag of 0:49 mn 41 S.

SCH. 7
16 Cartography
Part G. Equivalence Enters the Distances and those Hours (Or Angles)
It was seen previously that the rotation of a terrestrial quarter of turn lasted 6 hours. However,
with the equator one knows that the circumference of the ground is worth 40.000 km roughly,
thus to traverse 10.000 km (a quarter of the circumference) it takes 6 hours of time(24 h/4).Thus
in 1 hour, one traverses 1.667 km. Thus at the equator our relative speed by report/ratio in the
center of the ground is of 1.667 km/h.

SCH. 8
Part H. Some Examples to be Retained
1 grade 100 km
1 degré 111 km 1’ 1,85 km (mille marin) 1’’ 30 m

1 heure 15° 1 667 km 1 minute 15’ 28 km 1 second 15’’ = 450 m

TAB. 1: At the equator

Chapter
ICCQQZI
GEOGRAPHICAL COORDINATES
PART A. MERIDIANS AND PARALLELS
Let us suppose that the ground is an ellipsoid turning around the axis of the poles.
That is to say:
 the center of the ellipsoid
 PP' the axis of the poles
 has a point located at the surface of the ellipsoid.
The plan passing by the point has containing the line (PP') (axis of the poles) Plan is called
Meridian line of the place. The intersection of this plan with the ellipsoid is an ellipse called
Meridian line of the place. The plan perpendicular to the axis of the poles passing by the point
has cut the ellipsoid according to a circle called Parallel of the place. The circle defined by the
intersection of the ellipsoid and a plan perpendicular to the axis poles passing by the center O of
the same ellipsoid defines Ecuador.

SCH. 9
PART B. COORDINATED GEOGRAPHICAL
The geographical coordinates of a point of terrestrial surface are its longitude and its latitude,
which makes it possible to define it exactly.
Longitude (lambda)
Longitude(  of a point is the angle formed by the meridian plan containing it not with a
meridian plan taken as origin. Longitude amounts from 0 to 180 degrees (or 0 to 200 ranks) in
the east and the west of meridian line origin. On the charts of France to the 1: 25.000, to the 1:
50.000 and to the 1: 100.000, longitudes are expressed in ranks and the meridian line origin is the
meridian line of Paris. On the charts with more small scales, they are expressed in degrees and
the meridian line origin is it meridian line of Greenwich or international meridian line.
The meridian line of Paris is located at the east of the international meridian line with 2°20' 14 `',
025 or2.596921297 gr.
20 Cartography
Latitude (phi)
The latitude ( D' a point is the angle formed by the normal with the busy ellipsoid by
this point and the plan of the equator.
 SCH. 10
It amounts from 0 to 90 degrees (or 0 to 100 ranks) in the north and the south of the equator.
Azimuth Az
The azimuth (noted Az) of a direction AB is the angle which form this direction with the
meridian line of the place, i.e. true north. The direction of the true north is characterized in the
northern hemisphere by star polar, which is almost aligned on the axis of the poles.

SCH. 11
Altitude Z
The ground is a surface “tormented” with large variations of relief. It is a question
of finding a surface which can be used as reference. One naturally chose average equipotential
 surface of the seas like origin of altitudes. While prolonging this surface under the continents,
one obtains the geoid.The altitude of a point is thus the vertical distance which separates this
point from one theoretical surface of reference, known as equipotential surface zero or
geoid.The origin of French leveling is given by the marigraph of Strong St Jean to Marseilles.
This system of altitude is named IGN69.By then using a level and test cards, one measures
altitudes of reference mark of leveling (300 000 in France). Altitudes of charts IGN result from
this network.

SCH. 12
Height observed by GPS
The height observed using a GPS is not an altitude in the system of French leveling (IGN69), but
a height above an ellipsoid of reference (GRS80).
Example
The height observed with a GPS, of one of the points of the terrace of observation national
school of geographical sciences, is of 161 Mr. the same point, determined by observations of
leveling and attached to the system of French leveling, has an altitude of 117 Mr. One thus notes
a difference of 44 m height, this variation corresponds to the local shift between the geoids and
the ellipsoid of reference of system GPS (GRS80).It should be noted that this difference is not
constant on the whole of the territory.
Notice
The sea charts do not have the same origin of altitudes (the “zero “corresponds to leaves of low
tide).
PART C. POSITIONING GEOGRAPHICAL OF FRANCE

SCH. 13

CHAPTER 3
CIIIC
CUTTING AND CLASSIFICATION OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
Part A. Cutting of the Topographic Charts
The cutting of the charts is a geographical cutting. Each sheet of the chart of France with
1:50.000 is limited by two meridian lines distant of 0.40 gr. and by two parallels separated by
0.20 gr.

SCH. 14
One passes easily from the cutting of the chart to 1: 50.000 with that of the chart with
1: 25.000, (blue series) published by folio (is and western). Charts with 1: 25.000 are thus limited
by two distant meridian lines of 0.20 gr. and by two parallels separated by 0.20 gr. At first sight,
the shape of a chart with 1: 50.000 or 1: 25.000 appears to be one rectangle. One will observe in
fact a light convergence of the meridian lines (form of trapezoid) and a light curve of the
parallels (circles), which can be highlighted by means of a rule.
Part B. Width and Height of a Sheet
It is known that an angle of 1 gr., on an arc of large terrestrial circle, corresponds to 100
km. It results from it that the “height” of a sheet with 1: 50.000 or of a sheet with 1: 25.000
corresponds to approximately 20 km.
On an arc of parallel an angle of 1 gr. of difference in longitude intercepts, with latitude
(, length a 100 km x cos (. It results from it that the width of a sheet has 1: 50.000 is 40 km
x cos ( of same width of a sheet with 1: 25.000 is 20 km x cos(
Example
With the average latitude of France, there is cos  0.7, so that the “width” of a sheet with 1:
50.000 located at this latitude is of approximately 40 X 0.7 = 28 km.
The surface of such a sheet thus corresponds to approximately 560 km2, so that it is necessary
nearly 1.100 sheets for the 1: 50.000 to cover the whole of the French territory (550 000 km2).
Part C. Name and Classification of the Charts
Charts with 1:50 000
Each sheet with 1: 50.000 is indicated by the name of the most important locality which is and
carries a number there to four digits. The first two figures correspond to “columns” of 0.40 gr. of
width; the two following figures correspond to “lines” of 0.20 gr. height.
Example
The name of the chart with 1: 50.000 container the town of Nantes east: 1223 NANTES
Charts with 1:25 000
Recall
We saw previously that a chart with 1: 25.000 (blue series) covers half of a sheet with 1: 50.000
(orange series). The classification of the charts with1: 25.000 is thus resulting from that of the
charts with 1: 50.000 to which is added letter E to indicate the part is or the letter O to indicate
the western part of the sheet to the 1: 50.000.The name of the locality, being reproduced on the
cover, indicates the locality more important which is there.
Example
Two charts with 1: 25.000 covering the same zone as the chart with 1: 50.000 of
Nantes (NANTES 12 23) are:
 12 23E NANTES
 12 23O SAINT-HERBLAIN.
The charts SIGNAL 25
The charts of the series SIGNAL 25 are charts on a 1 scale: 25.000 which replace, on certain
zones, charts of the blue series with 1: 25.000.The covered zones by these charts correspond to
the most attended areas (littoral, forest, mountain, park…). Their cutting is not, as for the charts
with1: 25.000 of the blue series, a geographical cutting of 0.2 gr. out of 0.2 gr. These charts
are larger than the charts with 1: 25.000 traditional (blue series) and covers one zone almost
being equivalent to that covered by the charts with 1: 50.000 (orange series).The number of the
charts signal 25 is composed of four digits and follow-up of two letters OT or AND.

IMG. 6: TABLE of ASSEMBLY 1: 100.000

IMG. 7: EXTRACT TABLE of ASSEMBLY 1: 25.000 AND SIGNAL 25
0
Chapter
IV
Systems and representations plane
Part A. Generalities
One of the problems arising from the establishment of a chart is the representation of one
portion of ellipsoid on a plan. For this purpose, a representation is generally used mathematics of
the terrestrial surface which one projects on a developable surface (cone or cylinder) or plane.
SCH. 15
One seeks to represent a point known in latitude and longitude by a point defined on a plan, in a
frame of reference (X, Y), easier for the user. One thus establishes mathematical functions such
as (X, Y) = F (, ), and obviously systems of representation which reduce the deformations
to the minimum of lengths, of angles or surfaces. There is infinity of systems of projection. None
of them preserves completely lengths (except in certain privileged places).
Among most usually employed, it there a: those which preserve the angles rigorously: they are
the representations in conformity
 those which preserve the report/ratio of surfaces at the detriment of the angles: they are the
equivalent representations. The choice of the system depends on surface to represent on the chart
and on sound use.
32 Cartography
SCH. 16
Part B. Examples of representations
Representation of Mercator
SCH. 17: CYLINDRICAL REPRESENTATION CONFORMS
Systems and plane representations 33
Representation conforms of Lambert
SCH. 18: CONICAL REPRESENTATION CONFORMS
Polar stereographic representation
SCH. 19: AZIMUTH REPRESENTATION CONFORMS
34 Cartography
Transverse representation of Mercator
SCH. 20: TRANSVERSE CYLINDRICAL REPRESENTATION
Representation of Good
SCH. 21: EQUIVALENT REPRESENTATION MÉRICONIQUE
Sinusoidal representation of Sanson
IMG. 8
Systems and plane representations 35
Representation oblique of Lorgna
SCH. 22: AZIMUTH REPRESENTATION OBLIQUES EQUIVALENT
Part C. System and ellipsoid of reference
To represent the ground one chooses a calculable surface first of all, i.e. one ellipsoid. Each
country can choose this surface so that it coincides as well as possible with surface to be charted.
There are thus several systems with several ellipsoids of cut and of center different.
SCH. 23
On the topographic charts, blue series, SIGNAL 25, orange series, two systems geodetic are
illustrated in the form of coordinates in the margin:
 French system NTF
 European system ED50 or world system WGS84.
36 Cartography
System NTF (New Triangulation of France)
The characteristics of this system are the following ones:
 not fundamental: cross of the Pantheon
 ellipsoidal: Clarke 1880 IGN
- half-large-axis: = 6.378 249,20 m have
- half-small-axis: B = 6.356 515,00 m
 representation planes associated: Lambert zone I, II, III, IV
 meridian origin: Paris.
System ED50 (European Datum 1950)
The characteristics of this system are the following ones:
 not fundamental: POTSDAM
 ellipsoidal: HAYFORD 1909
- flatness:
- half-large-axis: = 6.378 388,0 m have
 representation planes associated: Transverse Universal Mercator
 meridian origin: Greenwich.
System WGS84 (GPS)
System GPS still uses another frame of reference: this system is itWGS84 whose ellipsoid is the
GRS80. This system is used for the ephemerides broadcast system GPS.
The characteristics of Ellipsoid IAG-GRS80 are:
 flatness:
 half-large-axis: = 6.378.137 m has
 representation planes associated: Transverse Universal Mercator.
Caution
Coordinates UTM of system WGS84 are different from those from system ED50 insofar as the
ellipsoid is different.
Systems and plane representations 37
System RGF93
The French Geodetic Network is the successor of the New Triangulation
Frenchwoman (NTF). It is the national realization of a space frame of reference centimetric
adapted to modern technologies. It rests on the observation by GPS (in 1993) of 23 sites
constituting the Network of French Reference (RRF)
Caution
The associated ellipsoid is IAG-GRS80, with for origin of longitudes it meridian line of
Greenwich. The representation planes associated is Lambert 93.
Part D. projection Lambert
Principle of the representation Lambert
The Lambert representation is a representation in conformity, i.e. it preserves the angles at the
detriment of surfaces. It is a conical representation whose top of the cone is located on the axis of
the poles. That is to say O the selected center of projection (center of the zone to be represented).
One carries out projection on a cone circumscribed with the sphere. This cone is tangent with
sphere along the parallel passing by O (parallel origin), and the top S of this cone is located on
the axis of the PP poles’. That is to say a point of the sphere has, the position of this point
compared to the point O is defined by sizes X' and there' such as:
 X' = length of arc of parallel between the meridian line origin and the meridian line of has,
outdistance being counted on the parallel origin  0
 there' = arc of meridian line ranging between the parallel origin  0 and it of A.
One develops then the cone along his generator SO.
38 Cartography
SCH. 24
The point “”, defined on the sphere by X' and there', is represented within projection by the point
“has” whose coordinates are Xa and Ya.
 the meridian line passing by O is parallel to the y axis of projection.
 parallel passing It by O (parallel of contact) becomes a circle of center S and of ray R=SO.
 L' x axis of projection is parallel to the tangent out of O with this circle.
The meridian lines are transformed into convergent line beam in S and of constant angular
spacing. The parallels are transformed into concentric circles in S.
Systems and plane representations 39
IMG. 9
The Lambert zone
Charts of the National Geographical Institute on a 1 scale: 25.000, of1: 50.000 and of the 1:
100.000 are of conical representation in conformity “of Lambert”. So that the deterioration
lengths remain negligible, France was divided into4 zones:
 the zone Lambert I (or North) has as a parallel origin 55,00 gr.
 the zone Lambert II (or Centers) has as a parallel origin 52,00 gr.
 the zone Lambert III (or South) has as a parallel origin 49,00 gr.
the zone Lambert IV (or Corsica) has as a parallel origin 46,85 gr.
For the needs for data processing, one created a system covering wide Lambert II all France. The
meridian line origin of all these systems of representation is the meridian line of Paris.
40 Cartography
SCH. 25
The coordinates Lambert zone
In a conical representation conforms of the type Lambert, the use of the geographical coordinates
for the designation of the points of terrestrial surface is not very practical: indeed, the meridian
lines are represented by convergent lines and the parallels by arcs of circles. This is why one
superimposed on the system of the meridian lines and parallels a kilometric squaring which
makes it possible to indicate the points by theirs coordinates brought back to rectangular axes.
The y axis of the Lambert coordinates is to 600 km in the west of the meridian line of Paris
(Meridian line origin).Any point located at the East of the meridian line of Paris has an X-
coordinate higher than 600 km. intersections of the meridian line origin (meridian line of Paris)
and of the parallels origins (Parallels  0), previously definite, respectively for coorfonnées
600kmin X (or is) and 200 km in Y (or North).
Systems and plane representations 41
SCH. 26
The coordinates Lambert carto
The value of the ordinates can be preceded by the figures 1, 2, 3 or 4 which specify the zone in
which the chart is located. The frame of reference is then named Carto Lambert.
Ultimately, according to the zones Lambert, intersections of the meridian line origin and of
parallels origins are respectively relocated of:
 1 200 km in the Northern system Lambert
 2 200 km in the Lambert system Centers
 3 200 km in the system Southern Lambert
 4 200 km in the Corsica system Lambert
42 Cartography
SCH. 27
One has between each Lambert zone of a band of covering 100 km knowing that the latitudes
origins are spaced of 3 ranks is approximately 300 km indifference in latitude. Lambert II known
as “zone center” is also used to cover the two other zones; it is what one calls wide Lambert II.
On the charts, it is registered color blue.
Caution
We saw previously that Lambert II “carto” is normally characterized by a figure 2 (figure of the
thousands of km). But when one locate at more than 200 km in lower parts of 52 gr. in latitude
(parallel origin) it quantify thousands of km of Lambert II is then 1.
Example
The starter 1.950 km cannot be Lambert I because this one cannot be included/understood that
enters 1.000 and 1.400 at the most: actually one is located, in this precise case, to 250 km in the
south of parallel 52 gr.
Lambert 93
Since 1989, partial element with the deployment of system GPS, it had been noted one
increasingly important inadequacy of the geodetic network of use (the NTF: New French
Triangulation) with respect to the topographical surveys. Thus was decided choice of a new
geodetic system of centimetric exactitude called RGF93 (French Network Geodetic) from which
the setting in place began in 1993.Lambert 93 is the conical projection in conformity of Lambert
associated with geodetic system RGF93.
Systems and plane representations 43
SCH. 28
The y axis of the Lambert coordinates is to 700 km in the west of the meridian line 3° is of
Greenwich (prime meridian)
 the intersection of the meridian line origin and the parallel origin apour value 600 km in Y (or
North)
The parallels 49° and 44° are called parallel automécoïques or Parallel of preserved scale.
Part E. representation UTM (Mercator
Universal transverse)
This system, whose principle is due to the Gauss mathematician, spread after Second World
War.
Principles of representation UTM
This projection is obtained by projection of the sphere or the ellipsoid on one tangent cylinder
with this one along the meridian line origin, which one develops then.
 the meridian line origin of contact becomes on the chart an axis parallel with the y axis of
projection.
 L' equator, which is projected according to a line, becomes the x axis.
That is to say the point has sphere defined by coordinates X' and there' such as:
 X' = AA', distance from with the meridian line measured orthogonally with this meridian line
 Y' = MY', distance counted on the meridian line origin
44 Cartography
Has will be represented within projection by a point has coordinates X and there such that:
 X = F (X')
 there = there' +  there being calculated analytically so that projection is in conformity.
SCH. 29
Spindles UTM
This system counts 60 spindles of 6° of difference in longitude, numbered with to leave the
meridian line antipode of the international meridian line. The meridian line of Greenwich is thus
between spindles 30 and 31.The spindles which interest France are spindles 30.31 and 32 having
respectively for origin the meridian lines Western 3°, 3° Is, 9° Is meridian line international.
Systems and plane representations 45
SCH. 30
The system of representation calculated for one of the spindles is valid for all the others; the
system is thus quite universal.
Coordinates UTM
For system UTM, each meridian line origin for transformed the y axis of squaring number 500
km. In the northern hemisphere Y are counted starting from the equator. In France the spindles
“used” are spindles 30.31 and 32; the coordinates will be thus in X or E (Is) ranging between 0
and 1.000 km and in Y or NR (Northern) about5.000 km (distance which separate us from the
equator).
SCH. 31
46 Cartography
Notice
On charts IGN, the features of the Lambert squaring are rigorously rectilinear. On the other hand,
one would note by assembling several charts that it of it is nothing for squaring UTM. This one
was added on the bottom of chart bench of representation Lambert. One calls this type of
squaring a pseudo squaring. Currently not to overload the chart, the squaring is not traced, but
starters in margin and pilot wheels inside the chart allow if required to reconstitute it. The
starters of the squaring are carried all the km as well on the charts with1: 25.000, 1: 50.000 and
to 1: 100.000. Classification is kilometric to 1: 25.000 and to 1: 50.000, myriametric (every 10
km) to the 1: 100.000.
Squaring UTM (hecto kilometric and derived)
Spindles UTM of 6° of longitude are subdivided in equal bands of 8° of latitude. These zones
thus defined are indicated by letters.
Example
Paris is located in spindle 31 zones U and Monaco in spindle 32 zones T.
SCH. 32
Each one of these zones is then divided into squares of 100 km with dimensions. These squares
are identified by two letters.
Systems and plane representations 47
IMG. 10

Part F. Projection stereographic

This representation is chosen, in particular, to supplement representation UTMin the polar zones
that the latter does not make it possible to represent easily. This plane representation is obtained
very easily by projection of surface with to represent on a tangent level with the pole (center of
the representation), the point of view being the point diametrically opposed to the contact point
(opposite pole).
 the meridian lines are represented by convergent lines with the forming pole enters they of the
angles equal to the differences in longitude.
 the parallels are represented by concentric circles with the pole.
 L' deterioration lengths is very weak in the neighborhoods of the pole but increases quickly
while moving away from the pole. This deterioration lengths is constant it length of the same
parallel.
48 Cartography
SCH. 33
Systems and plane representations 49

Chapter
V
Coordinates in stroke of the charts IGN
Part A. 1: 25.000 and 1: 50.000 Maps
Two scales of latitude and longitude of the framework and two chiffraisons kilometric
correspond respectively:
 towards the interior with the latitudes and longitudes in ranks (longitudes referred to the
meridian line from Paris) brought back to the French geodetic system (NTF). The starters are
those kilometric squaring Lambert zone of the sheet (quantified in black) and
Wide Lambert zone II (quantified to blue);
 towards outside, with the latitudes and longitudes in degrees (longitudes referred to
international meridian line of Greenwich) brought back to the European geodetic system unified
(UTM); the starters are those of kilometric squaring UTM spindle sheet (quantified to black) and
adjacent spindle (quantified to blue);
SCH. 34
Part B. Charts SIGNAL 25
The scales of latitude and longitude on the charts SIGNAL 25 are a little different those of the
charts of the blue series or the series orange. But one finds there, in margin, the same
information.
Two scales of latitude and longitude of the framework and two chiffraisons kilometric
correspond respectively:
 towards the interior with the latitudes and longitudes in ranks (longitudes referred to the
meridian line from Paris) brought back to the French geodetic system. The starters are those of
kilometric squaring Lambert zone of the sheet (quantified in black) and Lambert zone II wide
(quantified to blue)
 towards outside, with the latitudes and longitudes in degrees (longitudes referred to
international meridian line) brought back to the unified European geodetic system; starters are
those of kilometric squaring UTM spindle of the sheet (quantified to black).
52 Cartography
SCH. 35
Part C. Charts with 1: 25.000 with overload GPS
Recently, charts to the 1: 25.000 and SIGNAL 25 are equipped with news indications of
coordinates. Indeed, as one can note it hereafter, both scales of latitude and longitude of the
framework and the two kilometric chiffraisons correspond respectively:
 towards the interior, with the latitudes and longitudes (longitudes referred to the meridian line
of Paris) paid to the French geodetic system; the starters are those of the squaring
Lambert zone II wide;
 towards outside, with the latitudes and longitudes in degrees (longitudes referred to
international meridian line, i.e. Greenwich) brought back to the geodetic system world WGS84
or RGF93; blue chiffraisons in italic compared to kilometric squaring are coordinates UTM
spindle 31 or 32 (UTM:Universal Transverse Mercator).
Coordinates in margin of charts IGN 53
IMG. 11
Part D. Cartes with 1: 100.000 (green series or SIGNAL
100)
No scale of latitude and longitude is represented in margin of the charts with1: 100.000, but there
exists all the same a geographical squaring of 0.2 gr. in latitude on 0.4 gr. in longitude. These
geographical coordinates are in ranks by report/ratio in Paris. This squaring corresponds, in fact,
with the cutting of the charts with1: 50.000.
54 Cartography
IMG. 12
Coordinates in margin of charts IGN 55

Chapter
VI
Measurements on the chart
Part A. Measure distances with a chart
Before leaving in excursion or for one day walk, it is interesting of to know the distance to be
traversed and to define stages adapted at the speed of walker.
A chart makes it possible to know the real distance starting from a measurement on the chart and
of the knowledge of its scale.
Scale of a chart
The scale of a chart is the constant report/ratio which exists between the lines of the chart and the
real dimensions of the ground represented.
Numerical scale
The scale is expressed by a 1/N fraction.
Example
The scale of 1:10 000 means that it is necessary to multiply by 10.000 the length measured on
the chart to obtain the real length.
Scale of plan 1 mm on the chart represents on the ground
1/1 000.000 1 km
1/25 000 25 m
1/20 000 20 m
1/10 000 10 m
1/5 000 5 m
500.0,5 m
. 2: ORDER OF MAGNITUDE
Graphic scale
The chart or the plan is accompanied by a chart of the scale which allows avoiding calculations.
The graphic scale is a line divided into equal parts, representing each one the selected unit.
SCH. 36
The use of this scale is very simple. One measures on the chart the sought distance by means of a
compass, of a band of paper or one ruler. One defers then this distance along the graphic scale to
obtain the actual value of outdistance.
Measurements of a distance on the chart
Rectilinear distance
The rectilinear distances are measured on the chart with one ruler ordinary; by multiplying the
reading made between two points by the figure which expresses the scale of chart, one obtains
the horizontal distance between these points:
58 Cartography
IMG. 13
Example
On a chart on a 1 scale: 25.000, two points distant from 7.00 cm are distant on the ground of: .00
cm X25 000 = 175.000 cm are 1.750 Mr.
If one does not have ruler, one mark on a paper tape, one pencil, a string, etc, ends length
measured on the chart and one defer on a graphic scale which is in the legend of the chart.
SCH. 37
Measurements on chart 59
Outdistance no rectilinear
For the no rectilinear distances, on a road or a sinuous path, one can to use a curvimeter. Without
instrument, one can make use of a string, a band of paper or of a grass bit which one adapts (by
folding them) to the broken line of which one wish to measure the length.
IMG. 14
SCH. 38
60 Cartography
Horizontal distance
Caution
The distances measured on a chart are roughly (with some centimeters near) of the horizontal
distances projected with the sea level.
Example
The distance measured on a chart with 1: 25.000 between Chamonix (station cable car) and the
top of the Needle of the South is of 4.600 Mr. Actually outdistance (according to the slope)
which separates these two points is of 5.400.
SCH. 39
Part B. Measurement of the punctual coordinates
The most precise process to indicate a detail of the chart consists in defining it by its Cartesian
coordinates or its geographical coordinates.
Measurements on chart 61
Identification of the frame of reference
Before determining the punctual coordinates, it is essential to identify well systems represented
in margin of the chart. These systems are generally defined in the legend of the chart.
IMG. 15
On the charts of the National Geographical Institute, one account for simultaneously two frames
of reference (see chapter Systems and Representations).Moreover, each system has two manners
of being expressed:
 in geographical coordinates on ellipsoid (longitude and latitude)
 in plane coordinates according to projection used (kilometers) what gives several types of
graduations of coordinates in the margin of the charts topographic.
62 Cartography
Thus for:
 the French system (NTF): geographical coordinates in ranks brought back to Meridian line of
Paris and coordinates Lambert in kilometers
 the European system (ED50): geographical coordinates in degrees brought back to Meridian
line of Greenwich and coordinates UTM in kilometers.
Compatibility with the GPS
Today the IGN publishes charts making it possible to read the coordinates directly in a frame of
reference GPS (WGS84). These charts are marked compatible “GPS”. The coordinates in
kilometers are also reported coordinates UTM but with system GPS (WGS84).
Geographical coordinates (longitude, latitude)
Longitude is represented by , the latitude by .
Recall
The interpolation of coordinates geographical ( has,  A) is a little delicate. In effect, we
saw previously that the geographical squaring is not orthonormé.
Measurements on chart 63
IMG. 16
Using the starters appearing in margins of the charts, it is possible to reconstitute it geographical
squaring (Degrees/Greenwich or Ranks/Paris).The geographical coordinates of a point will thus
be interpolated locally enters parallels and meridian lines while making, which one usually calls,
“a rule from three”.
Example
The coordinates of the point has will be thus:
 longitude = 0.10 gr. - (0.10 gr. X d1/d2)
 latitude = 54.30 gr. - (0.10 gr. X l1/l2)
The cutting of the charts of the IGN is a geographical cutting. The chart is delimited on the sides
by meridian lines and in top and bottom by parallels.
64 Cartography
SCH. 40
Also, it is possible using a square, to determine directly these coordinates. If the point which one
wishes to determine the coordinates is close to the edge of the chart, one perpendicularly projects
using a square the point in margin of the chart at the edges.
IMG. 17
Cartesian coordinates
To interpolate Cartesian coordinates, it is necessary that the chart comprises kilometric squaring
or at least starters allowing tracing it.
Measurements on chart 65
IMG. 18
Caution
In the majority of the cases, this squaring is not “vertical” because cutting topographic charts of
the IGN is a geographical cutting. The Cartesian coordinates E and NR are taken compared to
the south-western angle of square which contains the point to be defined. One states initially the
coordinates of the axes passing by the south-western angle of this square, to which one adds the
supplement converted into measure.
66 Cartography
SCH. 41
Example
If the scale is of 1: 25.000, then 1 mm on the chart represents 25 m on ground.
The coordinates are:
 E = 873.000 + (25 000 X 0.010) = 873.250 m
 NR = 2.265.000 + (25 000 X 0.018) = 2.265.450 m
IMG. 19
Measurements on chart 67
Part C. Determination of a direction
Layer
One calls layer of direction AB the angle which this direction forms with the y axis of the
squaring, this angle is competed 0 to 400 gr. in the direction of needles of a watch; it can also be
measured to the reporter on the chart.
Azimuth
One calls azimuth of direction AB the angle which forms this direction with direction of the true
north; it is also counted from 0 to 400 gr. or 0 with 360°in the direction of the needles of a
watch; it can be also measured to the reporter.
Convergence of the meridian lines
Convergence of the meridian lines is called or layer of has some, the angle that the meridian line
with the y axis of the squaring makes. This angle varies when one move in longitude and
changes direction when one passes from the west to the east of Meridian origin.
SCH. 42
The layer and the azimuth differ obviously from the convergence of the meridian lines.
Caution
According to whether one is in the west or the east of the meridian line of Paris, one withdraws
or one adds the convergence of the meridian lines to the layer to obtain the azimuth.
68 Cartography
Part D. Determination of the altitude of a point
Level lines and the points dimensioned, whose altitudes are defined by report/ratio with the
marigraph of Marseilles (system IGN69), make it possible to determine the altitude of a point per
approximation, the slope being locally supposed uniform. It is initially advisable to determine the
altitude of the curves which frame point A. The difference in altitude between the point has and
the level lines which frame it is proportional to the distance which separates it from these same
curves (a/b = c/d).
IMG. 20
Part E. Determination of the slope
The slope between two points of the ground is the relationship between the differences in altitude
and the horizontal distance separating these two points. It is generally expressed by a percentage,
a positive slope of 8% meaning uneven of 8 meters for a horizontal distance of 100 meters. One
thus determines altitudes of the two points, that is to say 84 and 113 meters, then difference in
these altitudes, is +29 meters; finally, the distance separating the two points, that is to say 410
meters: the slope is 29/410 X 100 = 7%. It is of course about a slope average between two points
considered.
Measurements on chart 69
SCH. 43
Part F. Manufacture of a profile longitudinally
The topographic charts can give place to cuts of ground, in which the scale of altitudes is
generally exaggerated. The concepts pointed out hereafter will help the card reader to analyze the
different ones the shapes of ground or knowledge if two places are visible between them.
How to trace a profile?
To place the lower edge of the sheet on the line of selected cut and to defer the points of
intersection with the level lines. To rise in these points the perpendiculars with base profile, and
to defer the corresponding heights by taking account of the scale altitudes. By uniting the points
thus determined, one obtains a cut of the ground in selected direction.
70 Cartography
IMG. 21
Measurements on chart 71
The apparent level
Caution
The process thus suggested does not take account of the sphericity of the ground and of
phenomena of refraction. The base of the profile is not a line. To correct the profile, it is
necessary to withdraw from the altitudes deferred on the cut the value level approximated by (D
being the distance in km between the starting point of the profile and the points deferred on the
profile).
SCH. 44
72 Cartography
Chapter
VII
Orientation of chart
Part A. Oriented the chart in direction of north
Different the north
To direct the chart amounts making coincide the direction of the north of the chart with direction
of north on the ground. On a chart, one distinguishes two north:
 true north:
It corresponds to the direction of the meridian lines. The topographic charts of the IGN are
delimited in the east and the west by meridian lines; the edge of the chart thus indicates it true
north
 Magnetic north:
It corresponds to the direction given by the compass. It is slightly different from true north; the
difference between the two is called the magnetic variation of which value can appear in margin
of the chart.
Caution
The values of the magnetic variation (noted ) vary from one chart to another and
evolve/move in time.
IMG. 22
In the legend of the chart a diagram giving is illustrated the value of the variation magnetic.
Calculation of the magnetic variation
To calculate the value of the magnetic variation  `at July 1st, 1998, it is enough to take the
value  given to January 1st, 1994, is 5.89 gr. and to correct it:
4.5 X 0.08 gr. is 0.36 gr.
The magnetic variation is thus:
 = 5.89 – 0.36 = 5.53 gr.
It indeed ran out 4 years and half between on January 1st, 1994 and on July 1st, 1998.
74 Cartography
SCH. 45
The angle of variation currently deferred in the legend is angle D. In older editions, one also
gave the value of the angle of variation paid to the squaring as well as the convergence of the
meridian lines. (see difference Layer/Azimuth Chapter V - “Determination of a direction”).
To be directed with a compass
To direct the chart roughly, one can simply align the needle of compass with the edge of the
chart. For a better precision, it is then necessary to superimpose the compass with the diagram of
magnetic variation and to make swivel the whole until coincidence of the needle north of the
compass with the Magnetic north of the diagram.
Orientation of chart 75
IMG. 23
To be directed with a watch
Without compass, one can find north roughly. By directing the small needle of its watch towards
the sun, the south will be located by bisectrix of the angle formed by the small needle and the
direction of 13:00 in winter and14:00 in summer. If your watch does not have needles, it is
enough for you to draw a dial and needles on a sheet of paper.
76 Cartography
SCH. 46
To be directed with pole star
The pole star does not deviate more than 1 degree from the direction of the North Pole, and its
position compared to the constellation of Large Ours is easily recognizable
the night, when time is clear. While deferring 5 times the distance enters the two stars  and
 of Large Ours, you will find Pole star.
SCH. 47
Part B. to be directed using a chart
It is also possible, when the neighborhoods allow it, to direct its chart grace with the natural
reference marks visible in the vicinity. “To direct the chart” consists in placing the lines of the
chart parallel to the corresponding lines of the ground.
Orientation of chart 77
Using an alignment
If one is located on a long alignment (it can act of a hedge, a wood edge or here to a portion of
road), it is enough to turn the chart in order to put in coincidence the chart with reality.
IMG. 24
Using a remote aiming
If his position is known, it is then enough to identify on the chart a visible known point on the
ground (bell-tower, tower water, top,). It is then necessary to make swivel the chart by aiming
this point. In order to avoid any misidentifying, it is preferable to control the orientation in
aiming another remarkable point.
78 Cartography
IMG. 25
Part C. To determine its position on a chart
Once the chart directed in direction of north, it is possible to determine its position. For that, it is
necessary for you to identify in the landscape at least two points represented on the chart. To
trace on the chart starting from these points the corresponding directions, the intersection of
these lines your position defines. A third point will enable you to check your position.
Orientation of chart 79
IMG. 26
80 Cartography
Chapter
VIII
Elements represented on one chart
The elements being on the surface of the ground are various and numerous. In function scale of
the chart, certain objects are drawn with their reduced dimension, others amplified or replaced by
conventional signs. The elements represented on the chart can be classified in four categories.
The planimetry, which corresponds to the representation of the details, in general built by the
man: transportation routes, buildings, limits and natures of the cultures and vegetation, limits
administrative, various details; the hydrography, which is relating to water; the orography, which
refers to appeared of the ground, represented in level lines; the toponymy, which relates to the
names.
Part A. Generalities
Planimetry itself and the names which are referred to it are illustrated in black; vegetation is
represented in green hydrography and corresponding toponymy (hydronomy) appear in blue. The
level lines are represented in bistreor out of orange; the same orange color and the yellow color
are useful on the 1: 25.000 with overload highway network. The majority of the planimetric
details can be represented by projection horizontal, reduced on the scale, their contours.
However, to be able to represent certain linear or specific details, one calls upon conventional
signs. For a way the two figurative features present a conventional interval function of its width,
which amplifies the real width notably, especially to small scales 1: 100.000, 1: 250.000. To
represent the details of weak surface, one use conventional signs as evocative as possible: a
circle for one turn, a cross for a martyrdom, a surmounted circle of a cross for a church or one
vault etc
To differentiate the types of vegetation, of cultures, watery surfaces, one uses maybe of the
screens of different densities, color green for the vegetation, blue for the watery zones, is regular
structures of circles or features called commonplaces.
Each chart is accompanied in its margin by an extract by the conventional signs to which it is
fundamental to refer as often as possible: it is the legend of chart.
Note:
Without in detail entering of the conventional signs used the charts topographic on various
scales, it appeared useful to us to give in following chapter devoted to planimetry (taken in the
broad sense term) some general principles which will facilitate the reading of the chart provided
indications are more especially valid for scales 1: 25.000, 1: 50.000 and 1: 100.000.
Part B. the chart information source planimetric Roads and ways
On the new editions with 1: 25.000 main roads classified with large circulation receive a dense
orange overload continues, the minor roads receive a yellow overload. Other ways of good or
bad viability do not comprise an overload of color. On the new editions with 1: 25.000 main
roads classified with large circulation receive a dense orange overload continues, the minor roads
receive a yellow overload. Other ways of good or bad viability do not comprise an overload of
color. On the charts with 1: the 100.000 roads of more than 7 m broad are illustrated by two
isolated features of 0,8 mm; the roads of less than 7 m broad are illustrated by two isolated
features of 0,4 Misters the classified main roads with great circulation receive a red or orange
overload. Minor roads constituting of the routes of connection receive a yellow overload. Along
this principal network and routes of connection, the distances are indicated in red figures of two
gauges. Others ways of good or bad viability do not comprise an overload of color. It is said that
a way is a fill when the road surface presents one
82 Cartography
Abrupt unevenness compared to the original ground located low. They are represented fill by a
series of black barbules being pressed on the feature of the way. It is said that a way is a cut
when the road surface presents an abrupt unevenness compared to the original ground located
higher. They are represented cuts by a sign of black slope, comprising a feature bordering the
ways, shifted in general compared to the real position top of the slope. The feature of the slope is
constant, curvilinear if the height of the slope is variable; barbules being pressed on the feature
of slope, a light interval being arranged between their base and the feature of the way; the height
barbules is function height of the various parts of the slope.
IMG. 27
The farm cart tracks and the forest thin layers are represented on the two scales by a continuous
black feature. However the attention of the card reader is drawn to fact that such a feature does
not guarantee a continuous viability. It often happens that a way of exploitation or a forest thin
layer is partially or even completely impracticable at the time of the use of the chart.
IMG. 28
Lines of cut, tailboards, as well as the important paths (in mountain in particular) are represented
by one tireté; this sign does not guarantee either only it layout corresponding of the ground is
practicable at the time of the use of the chart. The paths of great excursion are represented on the
editions with 1: 100.000tourist (green series) by one tireté red, the length of which is carried the
indication GR. followed by its number. On the charts with 1: 25.000 these same paths are
represented in red continuous feature.
Elements represented on a chart 83
Railroads
The railroads to normal way are represented by thick black features, on charts with 1: 100.000
the number of ways being indicated by small sticks transverse. In the recent editions with 1:
25.000 or 1: 50.000, lines electrified are differentiated from the other lines by the addition of a
silhouette of flash. The legend specifies the other conventional signs relating to the narrow gauge
railways, the ways given up, level crossings, superiors or inferiors, tunnels, ways of iron with
toothed rack etc
IMG. 29: RAILWAY DOUBLES BORDERED OF SLOPE
It is said that a passage is higher when the road or the way passes above railway; contrary, for the
underpass, the road passes under the railway.
IMG. 30
84 Cartography
Electric lines
The lines of transport of electrical energy are not illustrated by a black fine feature with an arrow
that when they have a voltage equal or higher than 63 Kv.
Fences and limits
One distinguishes the walls in black, the fences in black tiretés features, the dry ditches intiretés
blue, the hedges and lines of trees are represented by a green or milked feature black with black
spots, lifting of ground in bistre. Finally the limits of vegetation are appeared by a green feature
Vegetation and cultures
In general the vegetation is represented by a symbolic system overloaded of one weave green
color. On the charts with large scales the wood of conifers are distinguished from the leafy trees.
The undergrowth is represented by a green screen lighter than that of wood.
IMG. 31
Finally the orchards and the vines are illustrated by symbols or structures regular of circles or
features called commonplaces.
Elements represented on a chart 85
IMG. 32
Various constructions
Constructions are represented differently according to their size and their nature. Ordinary
buildings are represented on the basic chart with 1: 25.000 with, with interior, a black flat tint for
the low-size buildings, one woven for buildings of great dimension and buildings to be
announced, of the pilot wheels for markets and hangars. The light material buildings are simply
represented by their perimeter. These rules remain valid on scales 1: 50.000 and 1: 100.000, but
it is necessary off to take account of the generalization which intervenes between the charts with
1:25.000 and with1: 50.000 on the one hand, between the charts with 1: 50.000 and to 1: 100.000
in addition. It in result that on these scales a rectangle can account for the whole of two or three
close buildings, whereas those are distinct on scale 1: 25.000.
IMG. 33
Remarkable buildings: churches, cemeteries, town halls, monuments etc are represented by series
of silhouettes or conventional signs such an evocative that possible.
86 Cartography
IMG. 34
Administrative limits and notations
All administrative limits: state, departments, districts, communes are represented by features
dotted lines of black color defined in the legend.
IMG. 35
The prefectures, sub-prefectures, cantons, communes are indicated by a cartouche rectangular
placed in general beside the name of the agglomeration and container corresponding
abbreviation: P - SP - CT - C. Finally beside the name of each agglomeration its population in
thousands appears inhabitants:
Elements represented on a chart 87
Example
Préfailles a commune of 800 inhabitants (Saint-Nazaire/Pornic 1:25 000)
IMG. 36
The charts carry also the classification of the highways (A), of the trunk roads (NR),
departmental ways (D) with their numbers.
Part C. Hydrography
Hydrography is the whole of the elements concerning water and the flows. These elements are
generally represented with the blue color.
Sea, lake, pond
One differentiates by two tonalities from blue: on the one hand permanent water zones (blue
supported), in addition temporary or marshy water zones, in which several commonplaces
introduce an attenuated blue which contrasts with the sharp blue of the zones of permanent
water.
IMG. 37
In seaside, leaves it low tides or zero of the hydrographs are represented by a numbered
continuous blue feature (0), it separates a zone from water permanent, appeared by a supported
blue, and the zone of the estrange represented by a blue attenuated with various commonplaces
according to whether it is a question of sand, vase, gravel etc. The zone of the estrange is
traversed by curve 0 of the French general leveling, which corresponds at the average level from
the Mediterranean in Marseilles. Like the others level lines, curve 0 is illustrated in bistre.
88 Cartography
IMG. 38
River, river, brook
The rivers and rivers of a sufficient width are represented by a double feature with the interior
whose is printed a constant blue when they are permanent; a common places and or gravel when
they are temporary.
IMG. 39
The permanent rivers and the irrigation canals of insufficient width are represented by a
continuous feature, temporary rivers by a tireté feature.
Elements represented on a chart 89
IMG. 40
Source, puit, tower water
All the water towers are represented by a poached blue circle. Tanks visible are illustrated
according to their real form with a blue color with the interior one. Only the important sources
are represented by a blue circumference, accompanied by a feature marking the direction of flow.
One does not represent on the scale1: 50.000 and with stronger reason on scale 1: 100.000 that
wells, cisterns,feeding troughs, etc isolated and constituting an important benchmark; the
signconventional correspondent is a simple blue conference.
90 Cartography
IMG. 41
Part D. Toponymie
The collection of toponymy is the subject of multiple precautions at the time of the operations of
completely. The completor has the role of collecting a true toponymy cartographic, which often
remains by the use, much of toponyms interesting (in mountain for example) not being
reproduced on the land register. The not inhabited localities of the land register are seldom
reproduced on the charts in 1: 25.000 and1: 50.000, with stronger reason on the charts with 1:
100.000. Names collected on ground with C-Ws communication often divergent is examined by
the Commission of toponymy of the IGN, which chooses the most rational C-Communication;
this one is not sometimes not conforms to that related to the land register, which involves
observations of users. It is not convenient in toponymy to satisfy at the same time the scholars,
partisans of a C-W communication as close as possible to the etymology, and the inhabitants of
one commune accustomed to use a C-W communication which often underwent deformations
with the course of times. The names of commune have an official C-W communication defined
by the ministry for the Interior. The writings of the chart are in right characters for the inhabited
places, in characters
Elements represented on a chart 91
Leaning based for the forests and certain not inhabited localities, in leaning characters for
orography and hydrography. The gauge of all the writings is function of the importance of the
detail to be represented. The localities of more than 5.000 inhabitants are registered in capitals,
those of less 5.000 inhabitants in small letters.
On the majority of the sheets with 1: 25.000 and 1: 50.000, the hydronymy (together of the
names relating to hydrography) figure in blue or black.
When a commune does not have a chief town bearing its name, the name of the commune is
place “at disposal”, in order to cover as much as possible the territory of commune. On the chart
with 1: 100.000 (topographic series or tourist series), details with tourist characters are
accompanied by a toponym with bold characters. Certain details are accompanied by a
sufficiently explicit abbreviation in black leaning characters (blue for hydrography).The table of
the conventional signs of the chart with 1: 25.000, whose boards are reproduced in appendix,
comprise the various types of writings adopted, the list and significance of the abbreviations used
on the topographic charts.
IMG. 42
92 Cartography
Part E. the representation of the relief (orography)
Orography is the representation of the terrestrial relief. Several elements describe the shapes of
the ground: level lines, points with dimensions and shading.
Level lines
A level line is a feature representing the intersection of a horizontal plane with the surface of the
ground. It is the place of the points of equal altitude. To include/understand the representation of
the relief by the level lines, it is enough to imagine a mountain cut out in steps and to fly over it
by the thought.
SCH. 48
The curves are spaced of a difference in altitude which one names the equidistance. The value of
the equidistance is noted in the legend of the chart, it can vary from one chart with the other
according to the scale and of the relief charted. The level lines are represented by a fine feature
of browned color. All the five curves, one represents a “main” curve, milks some more
extremely. A curve mistress will be generally associated at an altitude indicated by directed
figures according to the slope (the base of the figures corresponds to the bottom of the ground).
IMG. 43
To distinguish the basins from the tops, one accompanies the basins by an arrow indicating the
bottom of the basin.
Elements represented on a chart 93
Shading
This technique is especially intended to raise the plastic value of some processes of
representation of the relief by an effect of illumination giving one impression of volume, from
where a better perception of the shapes of the ground.
IMG. 44
Points with dimensions
The points with dimensions occupy a great place in illustrated of the ground.
They must answer three requirements:
 to help with the reading of the level lines
 to define the parts not represented by the curves because of the equidistance (top, basin, break
of slope)
 to be used as starting point with altimetry operations on the ground (example: adjustment of an
altimeter).
94 Cartography
IMG. 45
Other conventional signs of orography
The level lines are sometimes insufficient to characterize the nature of some grounds, especially
in mountain. One then calls upon other artifices:
 of illustrated of rock in the effect as light as possible not to mask them too much level lines
 the very gullied grounds (badlands) are highlighted by sowings of points bistres, as for the
dunes and the zones of sand
 the level lines of the glaciers are represented in blue; one makes an effort to also represent the
falls and the moraines by parallel series of points.
IMG. 46
Elements represented on a chart 95

Count of the illustrations

Img.1 p. 8;
Img.2 p. 8;
Img.3 p. 9;
Img.4 p. 12;
Img.5 p. 13;
Img.6 Table of assembly 1: 100.000 - p. 28;
Img.7 Extracts table from assembly 1: 25.000 and SIGNAL 25 - p. 29;
Img.8 p. 35;
Img.9 p. 40;
Img.10 p. 48;
Img.11 p. 54;
Img.12 p. 55;
Img.13 p. 59;
Img.14 p. 60;
Img.15 p. 62;
Img.16 p. 64;
Img.17 p. 65;
Img.18 p. 66;
Img.19 p. 67;
Img.20 p. 69;
Img.21 p. 71;
Img.22 p. 74;
Img.23 p. 76;
Img.24 p. 78;
Img.25 p. 79;
Img.26 p. 80;
Img.27 p. 83;
Img.28 p. 83;
Img.29 Railway doubles bordered of slope - p. 84;
Img.30 p. 84;
Img.31 p. 85;
Img.32 p. 86;
Img.33 p. 86;
Img.34 p. 87;
Img.35 p. 87;
Img.36 p. 88;
Img.37 p. 88;
Img.38 p. 89;
Img.39 p. 89;
Img.40 p. 90;
Img.41 p. 91;
Img.42 p. 92;
Img.43 p. 93;
Img.44 p. 94,95;
Img.45 p. 94,95;
Img.46 p. 95;
98 Cartography
Count of the diagrams
Sch.1 p. 11;
Sch.2 p. 13;
Sch.3 p. 13;
Sch.4 p. 14;
Sch.5 p. 15;
Sch.6 p. 15;
Sch.7 p. 16;
Sch.8 p. 17;
Sch.9 p. 20;
Sch.10 p. 21;
Sch.11 p. 22;
Sch.12 p. 23;
Sch.13 p. 24;
Sch.14 p. 26;
Sch.15 p. 32;
Sch.16 p. 33;
Sch.17 cylindrical Representation in conformity - p. 33;
Sch.18 conical Representation in conformity - p. 34;
Sch.19 azimuth Representation in conformity - p. 34;
Sch.20 transverse cylindrical Representation - p. 35;
Sch.21 equivalent mericonic Representation - p. 35;
Sch.22 Représentation azimuth obliques equivalent - p. 36;
Sch.23 p. 36;
Sch.24 p. 39;
Sch.25 p. 41;
Sch.26 p. 42;
Sch.27 p. 43;
Sch.28 p. 44;
Sch.29 p. 45;
Sch.30 p. 46;
Sch.31 p. 46;
Sch.32 p. 47;
Sch.33 p. 49;
Sch.34 p. 52;
Sch.35 p. 53;
Sch.36 p. 58;
Sch.37 p. 59;
Sch.38 p. 60;
Sch.39 p. 61;
Sch.40 p. 65;
Sch.41 p. 67;
Sch.42 p. 68;
Sch.43 p. 70;
Sch.44 p. 72;
Sch.45 p. 75;
Sch.46 p. 77;
Sch.47 p. 77;
Sch.48 p. 93;
100 Cartography
Count of the tables
Tab.1 At the equator - p. 17;
Tab.2 Order of magnitude - p.;