MAGNETISM

δ at any Course = A + B Sin Co. + C Cos Co. +D Sin 2Co. + E Cos 2 Co.

H.S.I.

Caused by PERM B (PB) PERM C

Horizontal Soft Iron Caused by Force P CAUSED BY FORCE Q

Induced C (iC)

INDUCED B
Caused by V.S.I.
Caused by V.S.I

Caused due to b and d rods

Caused by b and d rods Caused due to C rod Caused due to e and a rods

Caused by f rod
Sign Convention
SIGN CONVENTION FOR COEFFICIENTS

+A -A

E W

B-
B+
W E E W

C+ C-
E W

W E

D+ D-
W E E W
E W W E

E E+ E- W
W W E E
E W
• Permanent Coefficient B:- PB
• Permanent Coefficient B (PB) is the maximum
value of semicircular deviation which varies as
Sin of Compass Co. and is caused by horizontal
fore and aft component of a ship’s permanent
magnetic field (+Force P)
• If the field is acting towards forward then PB is
positive. If PB is acting towards aft (-Force P)
PB is negative
Change of Deviation due to change of
course (PB+)
N (Dev = 0; DF=Max)

(Dev = E; DF= Increased

(Dev = W; DF= Increased

Dev=Max W DF = No Effect Dev =Max E; DF=No Effect

W E

(Dev =W’ly; DF=Max

Dev= E’ly; DF reduced

No Deviation; DF reduced (Max)

Change of Deviation due to change of
course (PB-)
N (Dev = 0; DF=Min H-P)

(Dev =W; DF= reduced

(Dev = E; DF=reduced

Dev=Max E DF = No Effect Dev =Max W; DF=No Effect

E W

(Dev =E’ly; DF=increased

Dev= W’ly; DF increased

S
No Deviation; DF Maximun (H+P)
 EFFECT OF Directive Force:
• With a +B the DF is increased on all Northerly headings and DF is
reduced on all S’ly headings. Max increase in North and Max
decrease in South. With –B the reverse happens.
• No change in DF occurs on headings where deviation is maximum
(E & W Headings)
• Equal and opposite changes in DF occurs on opposite compass
headings so that mean Directive force for all headings remain
unaffected.

(DF)N > DF (S) => P+ => PB+

(DF)N < DF(S) => P- => PB-
We have noticed that by comparing the DF of N and S heading we
can determine the sign of Force P and thus determine the deviation.
Effect of Change on Deviation due to
PB
2) H2 Z2

Magnetic Equator
1) H1 Z1

Considering a Co. of 090 (T) at place (H1 Z1)

 HIGHER LAT

LOWER LAT
H1

δ1 H2 δ2

F=P F=P
Here if H1 > H2, δ1 < δ2
"
δ PB !
#
$% '() *+.% -"
( )= X
$" '() *+ " -%
 Correction of PB

• Basic Principle: Like with Like. The purpose is to

ensure that the correction made holds good for
all latitudes and all courses. The logic being that
both PB δ and the correction provided by its
corrector should vary in the same manner so that
the deviation will remain corrected on all courses
and at all latitudes
• When the ship has + PB these magnets are placed
with their red ends forward and if the ship has a –
PB they are placed with their blue ends forward.
• These F & A magnets are usually bar magnets of circular 8”
length, 3/8” or 3/16” diameter.
• Slots are provided in the binnacle below the compass. They
are placed 2 in each row side by side at different levels.
They are held in position by the doors of the binnacle when
they are shut. They should not be nearer than twice their
own length from the needle system so that they produce a
uniform magnetic field around the compass.
• Correction of each coefficient is carried out with the ship
heading on a course on which that coefficient produces
maximum deviation. Since PB produces maximum deviation
when heading E or W, this correction is carried out with the
ship heading E or W.
 Permanent Coefficient C (PC)( Effect
of Force on compass)
• Coefficient C is the maximum value of semi-
circular deviation which varies as the cosine of
the compass co. and is caused by the horizontal
athwartship component of the ship’s magnetic
field at the compass position (Force Q)

• If the field is acting towards Stbdside i.e. (+ Force

Q) Permanent Coefficient C (PC) is +ve
• If the field is acting towards Port Side i.e. (-Force
Q). Permanent Coefficient C (PC) is –ve
A ship built on any Easterly heading will acquire a permanent red pole on the port side and a permanent
blue pole on the starboard side causing a field acting towards stbd. producing a +PC.
Similarly a ship built on any Westerly heading will acquire a blue pole on the port and ared pole on the
stbd. Side causing a field acting towards port producing a –Pc
δ Pc α Cos. Co.
 Effect of Change in Latitude
Effect of Change in Latitude

H1

H2

δ1 δ2

We can see when H is large the δ is small and when H is small δ is large. Hence
1
δα
H

!" $# %&' %&() %&"

!#
= $" x %&' %&() %&#
 Correction of Pc
• Similar magnets as used for PB i.e. 8” long, 3/8”
or 3/16” dia, situated not nearer than twice their
own length from the needle system are placed
with their axis athwartship and horizontal below
the compass card so as to produce a permanent
athwartship magnetic field equal to but opposite
in direction to the ship’s magnetic field. This
correction is made when heading N or S the
headings on which Pc produces maximum
deviation.
•
• Fourier Series Formula:
For Heeled /Listed vessel: A + B Sin Co. + C Cos Co. + D Sin
2Co. + E Cos 2Co. + HE

For Listed vessel,

• HE = δ heeled – δ upright.
• Heeling Error is the difference between that when the
ship is upright and that when heeled on the same
course.

• Total HE = PHE + iHE

Permanent Heeling Error is due to Force (R )
Cause of HE
• When a ship heels the compass being
gymbaled remains horizontal. A magnetic field
acting vertically at the compass position will
cause no deviation when the ship is upright.
But when the ship heels this field will cause a
deviation (Called Heeling Error)
Vessel Built in NH
• When vessel heels to Port, deviation is to
Starboard side. When vessel heels to stbd.,
Deviation is to Port side. PHE to high side is
caused when blue deck is below the compass.
PHE to low side is caused when Red deck
below the compass. Thus PHE to low side
occurs for v/l built in SH.
Vessel Built in SH
• While heading East – West the blue(or red)
pole acts exactly in line with the axis of the
needle and the needle does not experience
any deviating force
• It can be seen that as the angle of heel (i)
increases deviating force R Sin i increases
• Therefore PHE α Sin I for small angles PHE α i
Stbd Heel +ve, Port Heel -ve
 Effect of Latitude

The ability of the compass to point N/S or to be in the magnetic meridian depends on H
of the earth. The deviating force due to heeling is R Sin i.
H1

δ1
H2
δ2

Therefore when H is small the same ‘R Sin i ‘ will cause more deviation than when H is
large. In other words smaller the H, the greater the H/E.

!"#2 &2 '() '(2 "1

= X X
!"#1 &1 '() '(1 "2
 INDUCED HEELING ERROR

Induction by H
Induction by Z

K Rod e Rod Heeling g rod HE C rod HE

Heeling Error error

Heeling Error
to High Side in
N/H & Low
Side S/H
• k Rod heeling Error
• Unlike force R the strength of the blue pole and
its effect in producing Heeling Error is not
constant, as it will vary with Z the force which
magnetism in the k rod. Thus k rod Heeling Error
will vary directly as Z.
! "#$ %&' *+, -#./ -#' 0' 1' %)
• = x x x
( "#$ %&) *+, -#./ -#) 0) 1) %'
OR
! "#$ %&' *+, -#./ -#' 0' 234 50/'
• = x x
( "#$ %&) *+, -#./ -#) 0) 234 50/)
K rod
e Rod H/E
• When the ship is upright these HSI are only induced by H causing
Coefficient D. However when the ship heels the beams develop
vertical component which get induced by Z as well.
• In the NH the continuous athwartship beams (-e rod) will be
induced by Z with a blue pole at the top end and a red pole at the
bottom end causing a deviation to high side on both Port and Stbd
heels.
• In the SH the continuous athwartship beams (-e rod) will cause
deviation to low side on both Port and Starboard heels as their top
ends will be red and bottom ends blue due to induction by –Z.
! "#$ %&' )*+ ,#-. ,#' !' /01 2!.'
• = x x
! "#$ %&( )*+ ,#-. ,#( !( /01 2!.(
e Rod Heeling in NH
 HE Correction
Correction of Heeling Error
• 1. Both the components are (PHE & iHE) are
corrected by permanent magnets only.
• 2. Correction is carried out on heading E & W
(magnetic) on which HE is Nil.
• 3. The correction is carried in upright condition.
There is no need to heel or list a vessel for
correction.
• 4. Heeling Error reappears whenever there is a
change in magnetic latitude
 Vertical Force Instrument
• 1. Consists of magnetic needle mounted on a knife edge support.
• 2. Pivoted slightly a little above of its c.g. so that in the absence of
any magnetic field, it would lie horizontal.
• In the presence of any vertical magnetic field it will be tilted.
• In the NH the red end will be tilted downwards and in the SH the
red end will be tilted upwards.
• The needle is graduated uniformly on either side of the pivot and is
provided with sliding aluminium weight which can be moved till it
balances the effect of Z.
• At the either end of the needle and fixed to the case are two strips
of high conductivity copper shaped in such a way that it can be as
close as possible to the ends of the needle.
• These carry graduated scales and tend to damp the vibration of the
needle, by electromagnetic induction.
 USE OF VFI TO CORRECT H/E
• Place the instrument ashore where it is free from local
disturbing magnetic fields, at least 1 mtr above the ground.
• Make the needle horizontal with the aid of rider weight.
The dipping couple now has been nullified by the rider
weight acting at “n” divisions from the pivot.
• The instrument is taken on board and the tilt will occur due
to the effect of Z, R and k rod.
• The VFI needle can be made horizontal by placing vertical
heeling error corrector magnet eliminating Force R and k
rod.
• However since HE carried out when ship is upright, e rod
induction by Z is absent.
 USE OF VFI TO CORRECT H/E
• Unship the compass bowl. Place the VFI in the
position normally occupied by the compass
needle system with the red end pointing
North.
• Insert vertical magnets till such time the
needle of VFI becomes horizontal.
• It is to be remembered that HE holds good for
only that latitude in which the correction was
made.
 Theory of HE Correction
• Before proceeding to correct HE, the Flinders Bar and spheres
should be positioned correctly.
• The Flinders bar automatically eliminates c rod HE. The spheres
should be in position as they compensate partly for the k rod and e
rod fields causing HE.
• If entire HE is corrected with vertical magnets and the spheres are
placed later then we would be overcompensating for HE.
• Head the ship North or South and heel the ship. If the card deviates
to the high or low side then the heeling error due to blue or red
pole below the compass exists.
• This can be corrected by placing vertical magnets and adjusting
them till the compass card indicates the original heading.
• This method is not used as it is time consuming and cumbersome.
 Induced B
• Induced b is caused by a horizontal fore and
aft magnetic field at the compass due to
induced magnetism in the vertical soft iron,
ford or abaft of the compass. (ie due to c rod)
• Reverse polarity will occur once the vessel is in
the Southern Hemisphere. At magnetic
Equator there will be no induction in these
vertical soft iron as Z is nil.
 Effect of course
• The δ due to iB α Sin Comp Co.

Effect of Lat due to iB

• The vertical S.I. is induced by Z. Therefore as Z increases the amount of
induction also increases and thus the deviating force also increases.
Therefore iB δ α Z;

Like PB iB deviation α 1/H

!
Thus iB δ α ie δ α Tan Dip
"

#$ &'( )*$ !$ "% &'( )*$ +,( -'.$

= X X = X
#% &'( )*% !% "$ &'( )*% +,( -'.%
 Correction of Induced B
• The flinders bar is placed inside a brass case 610 mm in length attached to
the compass binnacle. The S.I. bars of dia 76 mm are supplied in the
following lengths:
• 305 mm (12”) – 1 bar; 152 mm ( 6”) – 1 bar; 76 mm (3”) – 1 bar; 38 mm
! #
(1 ”)-1 bar; 19mm ( )”- 2 bars. Making total length of 610 mm (24”).
" $
• If the length of the flinders bar used is large then the top of the flinders
bar should be slightly higher than the level of the compass card. This is
due to the fact that the induced pole is not exactly at the end of the bar
but at a distance of about 1/12th of its length from the end. In this case we
consider that the lower pole is too far from the compass card to have any
effect on it.

• If the length of the flinders bar is very short, the top of the bar is placed
slightly lower than the level of the card. This is because in this case both
induced poles of the bar will have an effect on the card and our intention
is to have the resultant field in a horizontal and fore and aft direction.
 INDUCED C
INDUCED C
• Caused by a horizontal athwartship magnetic
field at the compass due to induced
magnetism in the VSI to port or starboard of
the compass. In other words it is due to ‘f’
rod.
• In practice iC does not exist at a well placed
compass on a merchant ship.
• δ due to iC α cos comp co.
-iC
• Effect of Latitude on Deviation due to iC
• Since the induction in VSI is due to Z and as Z
increases the deviating force and deviation
will also increase. iC α Z; iC α 1/H
!" $" %# &'( )'"
• = X X
!# $# %" &'( &'#
•
!" *+, -./" &'( )'"
• = X
!# *+, -./ # &'( &'#
 Correction of iC
• Correction of Induced C with Flinders Bar depending
on the predominance of the ship’s V.S.I.
• In SH the red pole is on top (Stbd) and blue pole on
top (port). So horizontal field to port.
 Combined Correction of iB & iC
• 1. The induced C is not corrected separately with
flinders bar.
• 2. The same F/B which corrects iB is used to
correct iC
• 3. The angle made by flinders bar to F/A line of
the vessel is angle of slew.
• 4. The flinders bar is slewed at an angle to the F/A
line to nullify the resultant effect of the VSI on
F/A and Athwartship line.
• Angle of slew is denoted by “m”


iC
This resultant field should act at
Angle of Slew mᵒ the right angles to the compass
needles to produce max
deviation due to iB and iC
together
iB

!"
Tan m = !#; Maximum deviation produced iB and iC together !#$ +iC²
 Thumb rule of iB & iC corrections
• 1. Slew the FB clockwise by m from the position
in which it is correcting iB if iB and iC are of same
signs
• 2. Slew the FB anticlockwise by m from the
position in which it is correcting iB if IB and iC are
of different signs.
• 3. Head the vessel North (90-m) East or S(90-m)
W if iB and Ic are of same sign
• 4. Head v/l North (90-m) West or South (90-
m)East if iB and iC are of different signs
 Coefficient D
• Coefficient D is the maximum value of the quadrantal
deviation which varies as the sine of twice the compass
course and is caused by a horizontal field at the
compass position due to induced magnetism in
horizontal soft iron situated about a fore and aft line
through the compass.
• On most merchant ships the transverse beams (-e rods)
and F & A girders (-a rods) are the structures that
produce Coefficient D at the Compass
• Most Merchant ships have a +D at the compass
position as no. of transverse beams are much larger
than girders.
 DF due to coefficient D
+D is caused by athwartship CONTINUOUS soft
iron. DF is reduced on all headings except
NORTH and SOUTH. Therefore Mean DF at the
compass is reduced.
+D is caused by DIVIDED fore and aft Soft Iron.
The DF is increased on all headings except EAST
and WEST. Therefore Mean DF at the compass is
increased
Identification of D+: DF on N & S > DF on E & W
• - D caused by DIVIDED athwartship Soft iron.The
DF is increased on all headings except NORTH and
SOUTH. Therefore Mean DF at the compass
position is increased.
• -D caused by CONTINUOUS Fore and Aft soft iron.
The DF is reduced on all headings except EAST
and WEST. Therefore mean DF at the compass
position is reduced.
• Identification of -D: DF on East and West > DF on
North and South
Deviation due to change in Magnetic Latitude is NIL.
Deviation due to change of course δ due to D = D x Sin
2 Comp Co.
!" $%& " '()* '( "
=
!# $%& " +()* '(#
COEFFICIENT D =
! (& ,-.! (& $-/ ! (& $0. ! (& ,0
1
 Correction of Coefficient D
• Soft iron Spheres
• 8" to 10" dia and is hollow.
• Placed on brackets (non magnetic)bolted to the
binnacle on athwartship line
• Spheres at the bottom have a threaded stud and the
stud goes through the slit of the bracket and are made
fast using the nut. The bracket has a graduated scale
which gives distance from the compass.
• The spheres should not be placed closer to the
compass 1.25 times the length of the longest needle.
• The spheres act like +e rods and –a rods
 Advantages of spheres
• 1. Spheres are most uniform of all shapes that is why they
produce uniform field.
• 2. For a given volume, the sphere has a maximum effective
surface area.
• 3. Spheres can be placed in such away that their centres are
in same plane that of the compass.
• 4. By placing spheres we can increase or decrease the
effect.
• 5. In unlikely case if (-coefficient D) on board where spheres
are placed in fore and aft direction.
• 6. Spheres may be slewed to correct quadrantal deviation.
• 7. Spheres increase the mean directive force by placing
spheres in the athwartship
• On N/S heading the athwartship spheres
decrease DF
• On E/W heading they increase the DF
• However it should be noted that when on N and S
headings if the spheres are considered as bar
magnets, they are broadside on on to the
compass needle while on E or W headings the are
end on to the compass needle. Thus the E/W
heading increase the DF by 2 times the decrease
in DF they cause when heading North / South.
 Coefficient E
• Coefficient E is the maximum value of the quadrantal
deviation which varies as the cosine of twice the
compass course and is caused by a horizontal field at
the compass position due to induced magnetism in
horizontal S.I. situated symmetrically about a 45ᵒ line
through the compass position.
• Continuous S.I. from Port Bow to Starboard Quarter or
Divided S.I. from Stbd. Bow to Port Quarter cause E +.
Continuous S.I. from Stbd bow to Port Quarter or
Divided S.I. from Port bow to Starboard Quarter cause
E-
• In terms of rods +b and +d cause +E. –b and –d cause -E
• Deviation due to change of course δ due to E = E
x Cos 2 Comp Co.
!" $%& " $%'( $% "
• =
!# $%& " )%'( $%#

! %* +,! %* -. ! %* /, ! %* 0
• COEFFICIENT E =
1

• DF (SE & NW) > DF (NE & SW) = + E

• DF (SE & NW) < DF (NE & SW) = - E
• If a +E is present at compass, a –E can be
introduced by the spheres placed at an angle
45ᵒ(port bow and Stbd quarter) ( Note:
divided S.I. port bow to stabd quarter
produces a –E)
• If –E is present a + E is created by placing the
S.I. spheres on stbd bow and port quarter.
 Correcting D & E together.
• When both D & E are present, then the set of spheres are
to be slewed to some intermediate angle Mᵒ. Angle of slew
Mᵒis found
!
• Then 2M =
"
• The sphere are initially placed in the direction necessary to
correct the D of the ship. (Athwartships to correct +D and
F& A to correct –D). They are then slewed through angle M.
the direction of slew is obtained in a similar manner to that
of flinder’s bar. If both D and E are of the same signs slew
spheres clockwise and if they are of opposite signs slew
them anticlockwise.
• The Maximum deviation due to D & E together is obtained
as #$ + &²
 Retentive Error
• A vessel on a steady course for a considerable period of time
acquires certain amount of sub-permanent magnetism. Red pole
north of the compass and blue pole south of the compass. This
happens due to continuous vibration, pounding etc. Even when the
course of this vessel is altered these magnetism is retained and
finally decays over a period of few hours.
• This retained sub permanent magnetism causes an easterly
deviation on all courses to the left upto 180 degrees from the
original course and westerly deviation for all courses to the right
upto 180 degrees from the original course.
• Thus we can say that retentative error is semi circular. Compass
error should be frequently checked after a large alteration for the
next 6 hours as the retentative error gradually reduces over that
period.
 Gaussin Error
• When the vessel swings rapidly it cuts the lines of earth’s magnetic
field and produces an EMF and thus electric current is produced in
the ship’s hull. This current in accordance with Lenz law produces a
magnetic field of its own opposite to the ship’s swing. Due this
phenomena when the ship swings to starboard the compass
deviates to west and when the ship swings to port the compass will
deviate the east. The name of the deviation remains same provided
the direction of swing remains same. Thus rapid swing to starboard
will produce –A and –E while a rapid swing to port causes +A and
+E. This error is present only when the ship is swinging and ceases it
exist within couple of minutes after the vessel has settled on the
next course. Bearings observed while the vessel is swingig should
not be relied upon.