What is a perovskite?

A perovskite is a material that has the same crystal structure as the mineral calcium titanium oxide, the
first-discovered perovskite crystal.

Generally, perovskite compounds have a chemical formula ABX3, where 'A' and 'B' represent cations and
X is an anion that bonds to both. A large number of different elements can be combined together to
form perovskite structures. Using this compositional flexibility, scientists can design perovskite crystals
to have a wide variety of physical, optical, and electrical characteristics.

Perovskite crystals are found today in ultrasound machines, memory chips, and now - solar cells.

History
Silicon has been the primary. semiconductor material used in solar cells since the 1950s, as its
semiconducting properties align well with the spectrum of the sun's rays and it is relatively abundant
and stable. However, the large silicon crystals used in conventional solar panels require an expensive,
multi-step manufacturing process that utilizes a lot of energy. In the search for an alternative, scientists
have harnessed the tunability of perovskites to create semiconductors with similar properties to silicon.
Perovskite solar cells can be manufactured using simple, additive deposition techniques, like printing, for
a fraction of the cost and energy. Because of the compositional flexibility of perovskites.

In 2012, researchers first discovered how to make a stable, thin-film perovskite solar cell with light
photon-to-electron conversion efficiencies over 10%, using lead halide perovskites as the light absorbing
layer. Since then, the sunlight-to-electrical-power conversion efficiency of perovskite solar cells has
skyrocketed, with the laboratory record standing at 25.2%. Researchers are also combining perovskite
solar cells with conventional silicon solar cells - record efficiencies for these "perovskite on silicon"
tandem cells are currently 29.1% (surpassing the record of 27% for conventional silicon cells) and rising
rapidly. With this rapid surge in cell efficiency.
Perovskite solar cell device structure:

The device structure, related materials, and interfacial modification are key factors in performance of
solar cells.

Two typical structures can be constructed:

✓ Mesoscopic structure

✓ Planar structure.

Electron transport layer (ETL) is used to collect & transport the electrons.

Hole transporting layer (HTL) is used to collect & transport the holes.

Electron transport layer:

The basic function of the electron transport layer is to:

✓ Form an electron-selective contact with perovskite light absorbing layer.

✓ Improve the extraction efficiency of photo generated electrons.

✔Prevent the hole migrating to the counter electrode.

✓ Reduce the recombination of electrons and holes.

Properties required in selection of materials for electron transport layer (ETL):

High electron carrier mobility.

✓ Transparent in visible light.

✓ Band structure should match with the perovskite materials.

✔ Preparation of materials at feasible conditions and low temperature.

Properties of Perovsktie solar cell

The properties of perovskite materials such as high ion mobility, long carrier charge lifetime, and long
carrier charge diffusion length enable the materials to be utilized as a light absorbing layer in solar cells.
Perovskite solar cells have surprising intrinsic properties like excellent charge transport, dielectric
constants, and less exciton binding energy with high device performance. The power conversion
efficiency (PCE) of perovskite solar cells depends upon the specific functions of each layer composition
and architecture. The device architecture of PSCs can influence different parameters like open circuit
voltage, fill factor, short circuit current, and PCE of the device. The energy band gap, light absorption of
specific wavelength, performance, and stability can be varied/changed by regulating the positions of

different sites.

Organic-Inorganic Perovsktie
While the ABX, structure described above has fairly rigid structural constraints, one can explore
within a broader extended family of lower-dimensional perovskites, which thenallows for a
remarkable structural tunability, i.e., from the parent 3-D structure, based upon corner-shared
BX, octahedra, all the way down to isolated, zero-dimensional (0-D) BX octahedral clusters."
s.9,10 Note that the dimensionality discussed here refers to the connectivity of the corner-
sharing BX6 octahedra in the crystal structure, as conceptually excised from the 3-D parent
compound . As the perovskite structure is cut into slices, the size restrictions, as outlined by the
tolerance factor for the 3-D structures, are gradually lifted.

Synthesis Processes

Solution process:

The perovskite solar cells can be prepared quite easily by the solution process.

• A simple, low-cost technique like spin-coating can be employed.

• Fabrication of perovskite solar cell using spin coating can be done in two ways:

✓ One-step spin coating

✓ Two-step spin coating

• But the drawback in this solar cell processing is that the complete processing has to be carried
out in a glove box under a controlled atmosphere, without exposing the cell to moisture.

One-step spin coating:

In one-step synthesis of the perovskite light-absorbing layer, PbX, and MAX are dissolved in
solvents at a certain stoichiometric ratio to form a precursor solution.

• This solution is then directly spin-coated on a TiO, substrate and dried at a suitable
temperature and atmosphere.

The crystal quality and properties of the perovskite layer are closely related to the solvent used,
annealing temperature, and annealing time.

• The one-step deposition method is simple, but it is not easy to control the morphology and
size of the synthetic crystals.

ii. Two-step spin coating:

In this deposition procedure, PbI, is first spin coated on a TiO₂ layer from a solution under
appropriate conditions.

The yellow substrates are subsequently transformed into perovskite through dipping (spin
coating) in a solution of MAI (MA: CH₂NH₂ cations) in isopropanol.

After drying at a suitable temperature, the PbI, reacts with MAI and the perovskite layer is
synthesized.

The two-step method is beneficial to the fabrication of perovskite films under the relatively
high humidity (>60%).

II. Vapor deposition process:

i. Thermal evaporation:

a. Co-evaporation:

• The vapor-deposition synthesis method of the perovskite absorbing layer is generally carried
out under high-vacuum conditions.

PbX, and MAX are deposited simultaneously on the pre-coated TiO₂ substrate by thermal
evaporation from dual sources of PbX, and MAX.

MAPbX, is formed at a suitable temperature and atmosphere and then crystallized into a
perovskite film.

It requires high temperature to evaporate the solid Pbl, into vapor.

Ill. lnk jet printing technique

Inkjet solar cells are solar cells manufactured by low-cost, high tech methods that use an inkjet
printer to lay down the semiconductor material and the electrodes onto a solar cell substrate.

This approach is being developed independently at various locations including the University of
New South Wales,Oregon State University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Saule
Technologies. Since the appearance of perovskite solar cells, and their rapid growth in research
cell efficiency. there is a renewed interest in the development of inkjet printed solar cells, due
to their nature of being solution processable.
In general inkjet solar cells are made by using an inkjet printer to put down the semiconductor
material and electrodes onto a solar cell substrate. Both organic and inorganic solar cells can be
made using the inkjet method. Inkjet printed inorganic solar cells are mainly CIGS solar cells.
The organic solar cells are polymer solar cells. The inkjet printing of hybrid perovskite solar cells
is also possible. The most important component of the ink is the functional material: a metal
salt mixture (CIGS), a polymer fullerene blend (polymer solar cells) or a precursor of mixed
organic and inorganic salts (perovskite solar cells). These components are dissolved in an
appropriate solvent. Additional components might be added to affect the viscosity and the
surface tension of the ink for improved printability and wetting on the substrate. The ink is
contained in a cartridge from where it is transferred onto a substrate which can vary.

Advantages:
High efficiency, with an efficiency of 23.3% after only several years work.

✓ Facile low temperature solution-based fabrication method;

✓High absorption coefficient.

✓ High diffusion length, high charge-carrier mobility.

✓very high values of open-circuit voltages (Voc) typically obtained.

Disadvantages:
• Mass production of metal oxide-coated solar cells is expensive and difficult.
• Degradation of perovskite material will takes place when it is exposed to the outside
environment.

• Toxicity of Pb-based perovskite solar cell device.

Data shows efficiency of various Perovsktie solar cells:-

Conclusion
Nowadays, the performance of perovskite solar cells has made great progress. Many fabrication
technique and new perovskite compounds have been established to design high performance
solarcells.me.

• Although massive research is going on in the advancement of perovskite solar cells, significant
challenges remain.

Current Research
•Perovskite precursors are dissolved in a solvent called NMP and coated onto a substrate.

•Then substrate is bathed in diethyl ether (DEE).

•Another advantage is that the entire SSE crystallization process takes less than two. minutes.

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