RF DESIGN RF receiver mixers In the first of three articles explaining rf mixers, Joe Carr looks at their operation and demonstrates the basic single-ended diode- mixing configuration. inet circuits are uiod extensively in radio fre sncy electronics Applications include He- quency uanslators ~ in radio receivers ~ demod- lnons Himiters attenuators. phase detectors ane frequency doublers Linear combiner uo el Fe Detecting receiver radiation: There is 2 number of possibly apocryphal legends from World War t of receiver local-oscillator radiation back through the antenna circuit being responsible for an enemy detecting the location af the receiver, so this celfect is rather important ‘One such legend is from British airborne radar history. According to one source of doubtful authority, German submarines sailing on the surface learned to listen for Beautighter centimetic radars using a receiver that was poorly suppressed ‘The aircrews then learned that they could locate the submarine with just the radar’ receiver tuned a listen for the submarine receiver's local oscillator. Anyone with first hand knowledge of this matter lease let me know. Fig, 1a) The hasic linear mixer is actually a summer; b) is the Tinear mixers symbol 220 There isa numberof different approaches to mixor design Each ofthese approaches has advantages and lisadvantag and these taciors are critical to the selection process Linear versus non-linear mixers ‘The word ‘mixer’ is used to denote both Finest and now ln cer circuits. And this situation is unfortunate because only the non-linear is appropriate forthe rf mixer applications listed above ‘So what's the difference? The basie linear mixer is actu- ally @ summer ciseuit, as shown in Fig. Ya) Its schematic symbel is shown in Fig 1b) Some sort of combiner is nocd fed. In the ease shown, the combiner is-a resistor network ‘There is no interaction between the two input signals, Fy and Fs They will share the same pathway atthe ouipat but oth etwite do not affect each other This is the action one expects of microphone and other audio mixers I you examine the output of the summer on a specteum analyser Fig. 2, you will see the spikes representing the tvo Frequencies, and nothing else other than noise ‘The now-linear mixer is shown in Fig. 3a), and the eieuit symbol in Fig. 3b) While the linear mixer isa summer. the non-linear mixer is a muhiplier In this particular case, the nov-linea element {sa simple diode, such as a IN4L48 or similar devices Mixing action Gecurs when the non-fineat device, such as diode D;, exhibits impedance changes over cyclic excu sions of the input signals. Tn order 10 achieve switehing sction oe signal must be considerably higher than the othor {tis commonly assumed thas a 2038 or more difference is necessary ‘Whenever a non-linear element i aed (othe signal path ‘numberof new frequencies will be generated only one Frequency is presont. then we would sill expect to see its harmonies. For example. F, and nF where mis an integer But when two ot mote frequencies ate present a aumber of ‘ther products are also present The output frequency spec fou from & non-linear mixes, $F = mh 40k, o ELECTRONICS WORLD March 1999where Fa is the outpat frequency for a specie (mn) pait, 1; and F are the applied frequencies and m and are inte: gers or7or0, ie 0 1.2,3 “There will be a unigue set of trequencies generated for each (mn) ondored pait These new frequencies ar catted ‘mixer products et intermodulation products Figure 4 shows how the outpat would look on a spectrum azalyser The ‘niginal signals F; and Fare present. slong with an atray of nines prociets arrayed al Frequencies away tom F and Fa “The implication of equation (1) is that there willbe a large numberof tn) requeney products inthe outpat spectrum NNot all of them willbe useful for any specific purpose, and may well cause adverse effects, 'So why do we need mixers? There are other ways to yen crate various frequencies, so why 2 frequency translator such tava heterodyne mixer? Te prineipal answer is thatthe mixer will nse the ‘aqueney, and in the process transfer the modulation ofthe “final signal, So, when an amplitude-modulated signal is received, and then translated to a different frequency inthe receiver, the modulation chatactetistics of the AM signal Convey to the new frequency essendally undistorted, Those fof you who know that there is no such thing as a “distor~ tionless" eitouit please cefrain from snickeriag, Perhaps the ost common use for mixers, in this regard. is in radio receivers ‘The receiver mixer The vast majority of radio receivers made since the late ‘oventies have been supetheterodynes The process of het- crodyning isthe translation of one frequency to another by the use of a mixer sad local oscillator, or LO. Fig. Sa) “The antenna picks up & iadio signal of trequency Fe and snixes it witha local oscillator signal Fy This pretaces 2 fnumbet of new frequencies in the spectrum defined by equa tion (1), but those of principal interes ae the eases where Gna)-(LI). ie the sum and diference frequencies FaptFio and Fre-Fio ‘Rn intermediae-troquency filter wil select one of these second-order products, and the other is rejected Why wot ‘elver designets use this approach? ‘he prinepal reason is that itis very much easier to design the receiver using this ipproach It is much easict to provide the gain and selectivity filtering needed to make the reeiv- fer work properly at a single Irequency “This frequency regariess of whether the sum or difference producti wed, is called the intermediate Frequency, or IF- or Fie. The high fain stages, and the burlpass tiltering, are al provided in the IF stages ‘At onetime, it was universally the practice to selet the iference frequency, but today the sui frequency is often selected. It ie quite common w flad high-frequency short- ‘ave receivers witha dual conversion scheme in which Fey is first up-converted tothe sum frequency, and then 2 nes mixer dawn-convertsitto-a lower second intermediate fre- quency Tn the remainder of this atticle, Fy and fF will be expressed much ofthe time as Fg and Fug in view of the Feuziver boing the most coramon use for mixer devices “The sum or difference second-order products are selected for the IF, but the olter frequencies don't simply evaporate ‘They ean cause serious problems But move of that later ‘mple diode mixer gute 5b) shows a block diagram circuit fr a simple form RF DESIGN of mixer Although not rerttly practical in most cases, the circuit has been popular in a numberof receivers inthe high tht and microwave regions since World Wat It The two input signals are the 1 and local oseiltator The coscilatar signal is at a very much higher level than the rf Signal It fs ased to switch the diode in and out of vondue tion, providing the non-linearity that mixer action equites. ‘There are three filters shown in this circuit, The rf and local oscillator filters are used for limiting the frequencies that canbe applied to the mixer Tn the case ofthe rf por it is other cao signals on the band that are being suppressed, Fig. 2 Spectrom display of the ‘output of a linear mixer, ‘| —— demonstrating the summing effect. Linear combines Foe : ouput Fro bai Fig. 3) Unive the linear mixer, which is essentially a summer, 7 ouput the nonsinenr miver is . a multipierb) is the ‘non-inene miver’s symbol Fig. 4 Spectrum display ofthe output ofa nonlineat mixer ‘March 1999 ELECTRONICS WORLDRF DESIGN nena Fig. 5a} Block ‘agram of Re i a superhetorodyne fer tae fer for receiver b) basic “ingle ended Ly Be Lo Be: | of rr empitr } — foernecatr tnbalanced mixer revit: l Leal “co sctator araiies ar finer ee ee rE cunt a Double-balanced mixers. Bots Fg ond Fp ate suppressed Fe Lo inthe output The single-balanced mixer wl also suppress ae aad feupat even onder local-oscillatr and of harmonics, 2Fo, 2Fat. jg Ao. 4F es, Fo, OF 86) High porto-prtsolation is tomo BY provided Spurious responses Fe Fe The IF section of receiver will use one ofthe second-adet Fig 6. tage product in order to convert Fg 10 Fy. Weal, he veceiv esuency tor er would only zespond to the single tedio frequency tht ise meets the need Unfortunately, reality someties rudely injection mixer lntervene, and certain spurious responses might be noted Image responte ‘A spurious response ina superhetercdyn receiver ay ‘due to the response 10 any foquency ote hin the desired Fr, an fact that to which strong enough to be eat inthe recsiver inp Most ‘requenies pear of these “spurs are actualy mixer responses, although over ‘thy the ‘ loading the famplifs can case sone esponses a vel cera forthe | Thee esposes mayo yo be alee by = ‘intermediate x rmixefitering ofthe ef signal Canciate spr frequencies frequency. 2 ontntoio won include any tha saisty the following equation, | | 5, tas a Fre Fo Forsch ™ Image In the case of the loca oscillator itis oscillator noise and harmonics that are suppressed The f filter also serves to reduce any oscillator energy that ‘may be transmitted back towards th rf input. Take a look at the panel entitled, ‘Detecting receiver radiation” for more on this ‘The question of ‘balance’ One ofthe ways of classifying miners is whether or not hey ace unbalanced, single balanced or double balanced Although there ae interesting aspects of each of these cat~ egories, the important aspect for the moment is how they affect the output spectrum Unbalanced mixers. Both Fxg and Fo appear in the output spectrum, and there may be poor LO-RF and RF-LO port isolation ‘Their principal stration is low cost Single-balanced mixers. Either Fg or Fp is suppressed in the output spectrom, but not both In other words, if Figs is suppressed, Fo will be presen, and vice versa ‘The single balanced mixer wil also supprese even order local-scillator harmonies, 2F 0, 4Froy 6Fig, ete High LO-RF isolation is provided, but LO-IF isolation must be provided by externa filtering The image response of a mixes is due to the fact that wo Frequencies satsty th oiteria for Fi, Figure 6 shows how the image response woiks. The lie- quency that satisfies the image cttetls depends on whether the local oscillator is high-side injected. in which case Fo>Fig, oF low-side injected. when FoF. In the high-side injection case (m.n)=(11) shown in Fig 6 the image appears at Far+2F. If low-side injection, (an)=(L.1), is used, then the image is at Fge2Fig. The image always appears on the opposite side of the LO trom the RF, so will be FygtFie for high-side injection and Fug-Fig fr low-side injection, Consider an actual example based on aa AM brondeast bana receiver. The IF is 455kH2, and the receiver i tuned to Fp of 1000kH2 The usual procedure on AM broadeast-band receivers is high-side injection, s, Fo=FaptF yp=1000KH2+455kH2=1455kK2 The image frequency appears at, Fgg#2F y= 1 O00KHz1(2(45SkH2)=19 10KH2 ‘Any signal on or near 1910kE that makes ito the mixer rt inpat port will be converted to 45SkH2 along with the desired signals ELECTRONICS WORLD March 1999Fe jg fe | | | sen atl ge! Sara {eee eee Far FrrsO5Fe Flo Far t2Fie 7 Another set of mages oceurs when (ona) is (2-2) the low sie or (-2,2) forthe high side ~ so-called ‘alfAF response. ‘The problem is complicatod by the fact that it i not just actual signals preseat atthe image frequency, but noise as ‘well ‘The noise applied Wo the mixer input is essentially dow bled ifthe receiver has any significant response a the image Frequency Pre-mixer fitting is noodod to reduce the noise. Receiver designers also specify high intermediate frequencies in order to move the image out of the passband ofthe f pre-filter [Hall-IF. Another set of images occurs when (mn i 2:2) for lowside or (-2,2) tor high side This image is called the half IF image, and is illustiated in Fig, 7. An interesting aspect of the hal TF image is that itis ereated by internally generated harmonies of both Far and Fo. For out AM roadeast-band receiver where Fas=1000KH2, Fo= 1450kHz and Fje=450KHz, then the hal-IF frequency is 1000+(45002)=1222 SkHtz 1 feedthrough If signal Irom outside passes through the ‘xe to the IF amplifies, and happens to be on a frequency jual t0 Fp then it will be accepted as a valid input signal by the IF amplifier The mixer RF-IF pot isolation is ext cal inthis respect High-order spurs ‘Thus far we have considered only the case where a single radio frequency is applied to the mixer But what happens ‘when two radio frequencies - Fry and Fara ~ are applied simultaneously? This isthe actual situation in most practical receivers ‘Ther i a large number of higher order respons- es ie where m and are both greater than 1 defined by i geen Pain the worst case is usualy the 2Fgey-'gen and 2Faea—Fest ‘hind-order products because they fall lose to Fars and Fey land may be within the device passband. ‘Although any of th spurs may prove difficult to handle in some extreme cases, the principal problems occur with the third-order difference products of two rf signals applied to the ef port of the mixer. 2Fary—Fae2 and 2F pF Figure 8 illustrates ths effost for our AM broadcast band- receiver, Suppose two signals appear at the mixer input Fy=1000KH7 and Fge2=1020KI1z. This combination is Shy likely in the erowded AM bioadcast band? ‘he third-order products of these tvo signals hitting the March 1999 ELECTRONICS WORLD RF DESIGN Thid-order Third-order lim product, im product ww ae ae — | | i t 2FrerFore Fret Fase 2FaeoFret ‘s80K-tz 1000KHE 1oa0KH2 — 1O40KHZ | Fe Fe | Fe | Fie | Fe | Pie rr [" ( | eee tnt Lam Fo Po Bho mixer are 980KH2 and 1040KH, and appeat close (0 Fxg; Fig. 9. Noise land Fay If the pre-mnixer filter selectivity is not suficiealy stance harrow to suppress the unwanted radio frequency, then the qeteriorates if receiver may respond to the third-order products as well 2s Jocaboscillator the desired signal harmonics are present LO harmonic spars. Ifthe harmonics ofthe local osilla- tor ae strony enough to drive mixer action, then signal clus- tered wt 2F. fiom each significant harmonic wil also cause mixing Figure 9 shows this effec ‘The passband of the pre- mixer fier is shown a6 dotted fine curves at Fyp2Fie 2F voter and 3F,o=Fip LO noise spurs. All oscillators have noise cose tothe LO frequency The noise may be due to power supply avise modulating the LO, of it may be random phase noise about the LO In either case, the nose close tothe LO, and within the limits imposed by the IF filter, willbe pessed through the mixer to the OF ammpitier, . What's next? In part two ofthis three-part series on rf mixers, Joe looks at inter- ‘modulation distortion, third-order intercept point, mixer losses, noise figure and noise balance, and gots into actual circuits by considering the single-ended unbalanced active mixer circuit 223