PATHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF SPECIFIC PARTS

Affections of the skin

The skin is the largest organ in the body. It comprises three main layers: the epidermis, the dermis
and the subcutaneous layer. Normally, pathological changes in the skin of food animals are of no
importance to the meat inspector. However, lesions on the skin of pigs are, exception to this rule,
as the skin is consumed together with the meat. The lesions are quite easily recognized on the
skin of pigs during ante mortem and postmortem examinations. The lesions which in the live
animals are red change to brownish colour during scalding as the haemoglobin is converted to
methaemoglobin.
The common skin lesions worth noting:
a. Vesicle - lesion consisting of a thin layer of surface epithelium distended by serous fluid
(blister) e.g. FMD, vesicular stomatitis, swine vesicular disease etc.
b. Papule - a small solid elevation or nodule on the surface of the skin with no visible fluid e.g.
various insect bites.
c. Pustule- a round swelling or elevation on the skin, which contain pus. (Pimple) e.g. Orf
(contagious ecthyma) and sheep and goat pox
d. Scab- dry crust formed over a wound or vesicle.
PIG
The skin of pigs is the one most commonly affected by skin conditions. These include:
ERYTHEMA
This is commonly seen in diseases like Swine Fever, Swine Erysipelas, Pig Paratyphoid, Transit
Erythema and Sun Burns.
Erythema is a general term used in connection with Red colouration of the skin whether it is
focal or diffuse. The redness is due to dilatation and profuse filling with blood of the
superficial capillaries in the skin, and it is the first stage of inflammation of the skin.
The erythema may be a primary condition as seen in chemical irritations of the skin, sunburn,
or following rubbing against objects in order to relieve itchiness. Transit erythema develops
during transportation as a result of friction between the skin of the pig and the floor of the lorry,
often complicated by irritation from urine or disinfectant chemicals present on the floor.
Secondary erythema may develop due to infectious diseases such as Swine fever, Pig
paratyphoid and Swine erysipelas. The septicemic form of swine erysipelas is characterized by
red irregular rashes which differ from the diamond shaped red distinct spots seen in the mild
form of the disease. Secondary erythema may also develop following consumption of certain
foods.
JUDGEMENT

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The primary erythema can be judged on its merits.
Secondary erythema will be judged according to the severity of the disease which is responsible
for the skin lesions. Most of the diseases are often accompanied by septicemia and other
systemic signs thus call for total condemnation.
WOUNDS
Wounds can result from many varied causes, but mostly they are of an external origin. In cases
of photosensitivity, wounds develop as a result of the eating of various plants and chemicals
(photosensitizers) which are then able to obtain energy for skin damage by absorbing the sunlight
through the skin. The lesions of photodynamic dermatitis occur only in those parts of the skin
exposed to the sunlight, and only in the non- pigmented areas.
The most decisive point in connection with wounds is whether they show signs of acute
inflammation or not. Wounds that are infected and inflamed will show signs of increased
exudation of a thin sero-haemorrhagic fluid, possibly mixed with fibrinous clots. The tissue in
the wound is often necrotic and discolored; the surroundings of the wound are swollen due to
edema. Fever and other systemic changes may complicate this kind of wound, and pyemia may
develop as a result of such wound. A wound which is completely fresh or separated from healthy
tissue by the formation of healing tissue can be considered as a local condition.
JUDGEMENT
Infected wounds complicated with fever, pyemia or other systemic reactions: Total
condemnation
Infected wound without complications: the meat can be passed after bacteriological examination
and trimming of the affected parts.
Fresh wounds and localized old affections: the carcass can be passed after trimming.
VESICLES
Various diseases cause formation of vesicles on various parts of the body. These diseases
include: FMD, Swine vesicular disease and vesicular exanthema. Vesicles of varying size found
on the skin of the feet, snout and lips should be suspected to be FMD or vesicular exanthema. A
laboratory diagnosis is necessary for confirmation.

Judgment
Depend on the cause and severity.

ABSCESSES
Abscesses may be found on any part of the surface, but the places where they are most frequently
encountered are on the neck, at the place of castration, tip of the tail and in the region of the
umbilicus. The bacteria most commonly causing formation of abscesses are
Streptococcus,Staphylococcus and Corynbacteria pyogenes

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JUDGEMENT
In cases with metastasis- Pyemia: Total condemnation.
In cases with an old encapsulated single abscess, the affected part is trimmed off and the carcass
judged on its merits.

ACTINOMYCOSIS (SOW’S UDDER)

In the sow, actinomycosis is usually caused by Actinomyces bovis, which gains entrance through
the bites on the teats caused by suckling piglets. The affected parts of the udder become partially
or totally converted into hard fibrous tissue embedded with round thick walled abscesses
containing a granular (sulphur granules) pus. Finally the udder becomes indurate and the milk
secretion ceases.

JUDGEMENT
The udder and the draining lymphnodes are condemned and the carcass judged on its merit.

RINGWORM
The causal agents are often species of the fungus Trichophyton. The lesions are circumscribed
slightly elevated hairless patches with a rough surface. As the lesions expand concentrically the
center of the lesions may heal.
JUDGEMENT
Affected parts are trimmed off and the carcass passed.
SARCOPTIC MANGE
This is caused by the mite sarcoptes scabei var. suis. The presence of the mites in the skin results
in an inflammation and the affected area becomes swollen, hyperaemic; gradually the exudation
dries up and forms scurf and scabs. There is intensive itch and the animals scratch and rub
themselves damaging the skin further.In serious chronic cases, the animals become emaciated,
and the skin wrinkled and thrown into folds.
JUDGEMENT
Well-nourished carcasses can be released after trimming. Emaciated animals should be totally
condemned.

JAUNDICE
A yellowish coloration of the skin in pigs would indicate that the animal is suffering from a
disease where one of the symptoms is jaundice.

CATTLE
Skin lesions in cattle are only of important if they are a result of systemic disease or if they cause
systemic changes. The commonly seen lesions include:

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 a) VESICLES
Vesicles containing a clear yellow fluid develop during an infection with FMD virus, and may be
seen on the muzzle (nose, snout), lips, feet and teats. In case of vesicular stomatitis (VS) the
lesions occur on the muzzle, lips, tongue, ears, sheath, udder, ventral abdomen, and/or coronary
bands.

b) WOUNDS
An example of an infected wound is the condition known as foot rot in which the bacteria
fusiformis necrophorus gain entrance through damage of skin or horn on the skin. Pus formation
and necrosis are the two main features of this inflammation. The same condition may be found in
sheep and goats.

JUDGEMENT
Rejection of the affected feet. The carcass is judged on its merit.

c) TUMOURS
Tumors in the skin of cattle are often referred to as warts or papillomatosis. Affected animals
may show a few or numerous papillomas which are often pendulous. Head and belly are the
commonly affected areas of the animal.

JUDGEMENT
As they are removed together with the skin without leaving any signs on the carcass, tumors of
the skin are of no importance.

d) RINGWORM
This is an infectious skin disease caused by Trichophyton verrucosum, a spore forming fungi.
The spores can remain alive for years in a dry environment. It can affect all animals, but
especially young ones because they have no immunity against it. It is worse in animals with poor
nutrition, another disease, or a damp environment. It appears as grey hairless circles (that is why
it is called “ring” worm) of varying size. It is commonly found on the face and neck, but can be
anywhere on the body. It is usually not itchy and has little effect on the animal, although it looks
bad. It is spread by contact with infected animals or equipment. The center of the lesion may
show healing and re growth of the hairs. This disease is transmissible to man.

JUDGEMENT
It is of no importance, as the lesions are only on the skin.

e) WARBLE FLY (LARVAE OF HYPODERMA LINEATUM AND BOVIS).

The warble-fly larvae which are found in nodules on the back of cattle produce inflammatory
changes in the sub-cutis (licked back).

JUDGEMENT

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Local condemnation of affected tissue

f) SUBCUTANEOUS SWELLINGS
If a swelling is encountered during ante mortem inspection it could either be an abscess or a case
of blackleg. In case of an abscess the swelling will be of a relatively limited size and it will be
fluctuating. The swelling seen in black leg is extensive and crepitating and it is accompanied by
systemic changes in the animal.

Judgement
Most of the abscesses are local in nature thus local condemnation. Black quarter is systemic and
need total condemnation.

g) BRUISING
Bruising is characterized by haemorrhages of varying size and infiltration of the subcutaneous
tissue with sero-haemorrhagic exudates but the skin is intact. It is a common damage that occurs
during transport of animals.

JUDGEMENT
In severe cases, total condemnation; in slight cases the affected area should be trimmed off and
draining lymph nodes should be removed.

SHEEP AND GOATS

1. Parasitic diseases
SHEEP MANGE OR PSOROPTES MANGE
This is a highly contagious disease among sheep caused by a lymph-sucking mite, psoroptes
communis ovis living on the surface of the skin. A small papule develops at the place where the
mite has been sucking. The papule becomes covered with serum exudates. The lesions are very
itchy and the animal rubs against objects scratches and bites the areas affected. The wool
becomes loose and falls off.
JUDGEMENT:
Total condemnation in case of fever or emaciation. In other cases the carcass is judged on its
merits

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AFFECTIONS OF HEAD AND TONGUE
CATTLE
EROSIONS, ULCERS AND VESICLES
Erosion is an epithelial defect of the mucus membrane only; while an ulcer is a defect which
penetrates the mucus membrane and affects the underlying tissues as well, erosions often
develop into an ulcer during the course of a disease.
Erosions and ulcers frequently occur as localized affections following any kind of trauma to the
mucus membranes (stiff straws etc). The significance of these lesions are just to ensure that they
are not part of any systemic diseases such as Rinderpest, Malignant Catarrhal Fever (MCF)
and virus Diarrhea all of which are characterized by the presence of erosions and ulcers. It
should be borne in mind however that these diseases cannot be obtained from ante and
postmortem signs only. Therefore, specimens should be forwarded to a laboratory for
confirmation of the diagnosis.
In case raw bleeding ulcers are present, FMD could be suspected as the vesicles formed in the
first stage of the disease burst and leave ulcers. Lesions found on feet and teats plus a lab
examination have to be considered for final examination.
Ulcers or/ulcerative swellings with necrotic tissue and membranes surrounding and covering the
lesions are present in calf diphtheria.
LOCALISED SWELLINGS OF THE HEAD
Swellings are mainly found in places such as the tongue, masseter muscle, lower jaw and throat
region. In the case where masseter muscles are swollen, Actinobacillosis could be the cause. One
or several abscess like nodules (sulphur granules) with very thick fibrous capsules are seen on
the lateral surfaces and dorsum of the tongue. Some nodules may erode through the tongue
forming ulcers. In chronic cases, there is deposition of fibrous tissue causing thickening and
hardening of the tongue. The lymph nodes of the head, the gums, soft palate and the muzzle are
often affected
A swelling on the lower jaw could be actinomycosis in which the bone becomes spongy and
thickened and the affected areas become encapsulated by a very thick fibrous capsule.
The presence of an abscess will appear as a swelling on any part of the head.
Swellings appearing in the head region could also be due to enlargement of the LNS and as such
be part of a systemic disease of the animal e.g ECF

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CYSTICERCOSIS
Cysticercus bovis may be found in the masticator muscles and the tongue.
JUDGEMENT
Grossly affected carcasses: total condemnation, slightly affected carcasses are conditionally
passed. (Caracas where only the head, tongue and viscera are infested is considered to be slightly
infected and is conditionally passed.)
SARCOSPORIDIOSIS
Calcified Sarcocysts may be found in the tongue and muscles of the larynx. This will necessitate
only local condemnation.
MELANOSIS
Melanin is a dark pigment of protein nature which is normally present in varying amounts in
skin, hair, horns etc. In cases where he deposits of melanin become extensive and present in
abnormal places it is termed melanosis. In the head melanosis may be seen on the tongue, on the
bones and on the meninges. It may also be found in the liver, lungs, kidneys heart and muscles.
JUDGEMENT
From an aesthetic point of view the affected parts are unfit for human consumption and should
be rejected.
XANTHOSIS
In old bovines and/or bovines suffering from a chronic wasting disease such as Tuberculosis,
Pericarditis etc, a deposit of brownish-yellow pigment may be found in various places such as
the tongue, the masseter muscles and the heart. This condition is called xanthosis.
JUDGEMENT
If any chronic disease is the cause of the discoloration this disease should be the basis for the
judgment. If it is a local condition the affected parts should be condemned and the carcass can be
passed.
SHEEP AND GOATS
1. Vesicles and ulcers
a) FMD
b) Contagious pustular dermatitis (orf)
c) Sheep pox
d) Blue tongue
2. Parasitic diseases
a) Oestrusovis

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 b) Coenuruscerebralis
VESICLES AND ULCERS
In FMD, Orf (contagious pustular dermatitis) and sheep pox vesicles develop as initial lesions,
especially in the head and other parts not covered with wool. It should be remembered that in
FMD in sheep lesions in the feet are more than lesions in the mouth. Judgment for FMD-Total
condemnation
The vesicles which appear in Orf rapidly change into pustules which burst within few days and
form a dry firmly attached scab. If this is forcefully removed, a raw bleeding ulcer is left in the
skin. Lesions are often confined to lips and muzzle. The disease is communicable to man.
Judgment for ORF: It may be regarded as local condition with condemnation of affected parts.
However, cases accompanied by fever necessitate total condemnation.
In an outbreak of sheep pox red papules appear on the areas which are devoid of wool these
change into large vesicles which have a depressed centre (umblicated vesicles). When they burst,
a dry necrotic scab is formed. Among other signs fever and nasal discharge may be seen.
Judgment for sheep pox: Total condemnation in acute cases. In the recovery period the carcass
is judged on its merits.
OESTRUS OVIS
Oestrus ovis larvae are deposited in the nostrils of sheep and invade the nasal cavity where a
chronic catarrhal inflammation develops. Heavy infestation is associated with muco-purulent
nasal discharge, sneezing, tossing the head and eventually signs of brain disturbance and or
emaciation.
JUDGEMENT
Condemnation of affected heads; the carcass is judged on its merits.
GID (STURDY OR TURN SICKNESS)
Migration of coenurus cerebralis larvae and/or the development of the coenurus cerebralis in the
brain tissue of an animal cause gid. It is only recognizable during ante-mortem inspection, as the
head is not normally split during post-mortem inspection.
The migration of the larvae reveals signs of an acute meningo-encephalitis but only in few of the
affected animals. When the cysts develop and become a space occupying lesion, a pressure
atrophy of the brain will follow resulting in various signs of brain disturbances.
JUDGEMENT
In cases without signs of emaciation the head should be condemned and the carcass passed. If the
carcass is emaciated: total condemnation.

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PIGS
1. TUBERCULOSIS
In pigs it is not unusual to see TB in the LNS in the head as a result of an infection via the
tonsils. Such an infection via the tonsils will, as previously described, often result in generalized
TB in pigs.
2. CORNYBACTERIUM EQUI INFECTION IN THE SUBMANDIBULAR LNS
These bacteria cause a kind of necrosis in the sub-mandibular LNS which appear as small
yellowish necrotic foci surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. The importance of these
lesions is that they may be confused with TB lesions and as the judgment is quite different in the
two cases, the main difference should be kept in mind. The corynebacterium equi lesions are
easily enucleated from their capsule while the TB lesions are very firmly attached to the
surrounding tissue. Another difference is the shape of the bacteria: both of them are acid fast, but
while mycobacterium TB is a long slender rod shape bacterium, the c.equi is an ovoid short rod
shaped bacterium.
Judgement: It is a local condition hence local rejection of the affected LNS
3. THROAT ANTHRAX
The infection with bacillus anthracis in pigs is often localized to the throat region and or
intestines. The pigs acquire the infection from consuming infected food. Edematous swellings in
the affected area make it difficult for the animal to swallow and breathe properly. If the intestines
are affected, diarrhea is present. Upon incision of the affected part, a blood stained and
gelatinous exudate is observed. The draining LNS are enlarged and contain similar exudates.
Death may occur due to a release of toxins from dead bacilli.
A chronic localized form of anthrax may be the result of an infection if the pig survives, and the
lesions consist of encapsulated red necrotic areas in the LNS of the head and neck and /or the
mesentery.
Judgment: Total condemnation and destruction.
4. ABSCESSES
In the retropharyngeal and sub-maxillary regions and lymph nodes, abscesses may be found
caused by various bacteria which may gain entry either from outside through wounds or from the
inside through the mouth and nasal cavities. Cases of abscesses should always be subjected to
further inspection and examination for pyaemia.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if there is pyemia or emaciation; otherwise local condemnation.

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 5. ATROPHIC RHINITIS
This is a Chronic infection in pigs the cause which is still unknown. Ante mortem signs and
symptoms which may be present in various degrees are those of rhinitis with sneezing, dyspnea,
and discharge from the nose and eyes. Postmortem signs will be a partly or total atrophy of the
turbinate bones with some inflammation and necrosis of the mucus membranes. Due to lack of
effective filtration of respirated air, secondary pneumonia is often found in animals suffering
from atrophic rhinitis.
Judgement: In the absence of systemic changes, the affection may be regarded as a local one
with condemnation of the head only.
6. CYSTICERCOSIS-
Cysticercosis cellulosae is frequently found in the tongue and masticatory muscles of pigs in
countries where this parasite is commonly found.

AFFECTIONS OF THE STOMACH(S) AND INTESTINES

CATTLE
ACTINOBACILLOSIS
This is a chronic infection caused by Actinobacillus lignieresi, which gain entry through lesions
in the mucous membrane. Actinobacillosis in the mouth may occasionally spread via the
esophagus to the wall of the fore-stomach resulting in marked development of fibrous tissue and
nodules with a center of pus.

JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if accompanied by emaciation, otherwise local condemnation of the affected
parts and their draining lymph nodes.
TUBERCULOSIS
Intestinal TB is usually a primary infection in young calves which have been fed on milk
containing tubercle bacilli, or a secondary infection in adults where it develops as a result of
swallowing tubercle bacilli with the expectorate from open lung tuberculosis. It may also occur
as part of the generalized disease following hematogenous spread. Lesions are commonly seen in
the retropharyngeal or mesenteric lymph nodes. Occasionally, nodules are seen on the mucosa,
which sometimes may erode forming ulcerations. Acute caseous enteritis may occur as a
breakdown form which mainly involves the mesenteric LNS.

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Judgment
In the active form of the disease (exudation, hyperemia and hemorrhages)- total condemnation.
=hematogenous.
In the chronic form accompanied by emaciation- total condemnation
In the inactive form-local condemnation of the affected parts

ENTERITIS
The term enteritis applies generally to inflammation of any part of the intestines, and if the
stomach is also involved the inflammation is referred to as gastro-enteritis. Enteritis is often
caused by infection by micro-organisms or parasites or it is of dietary origin.
Enteritis can be either: Acute enteritis or chronic enteritis
The main symptom in all cases of enteritis is diarrhea.
Acute Enteritis may vary in severity. The less severe form (catarrhal enteritis), which is not
accompanied by fever and other signs of systemic affections, is usually of dietary origin and does
not affect the marketability of the carcass. The severe forms (haemorrhagic and diphtheric
enteritis) which are often caused by infection with salmonella or coli bacteria are accompanied
by fever and signs of intoxication (swollen spleen and degeneration of organs) and there may
even be septicaemia and will therefore result in total condemnation.
Chronic enteritis is very often due to parasitic infestation in the digestive system with such
parasites as Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Ostertagia and Oesophagostomum.
Another example of chronic enteritis is Johne’s disease in which the following PM signs can be
seen:
o Diffuse hypertrophy in the jejunum, ileum, colon, cecum and rectum
o The mucous membrane is folded into thick transverse folds with hyperaemia of the crest.
o The mesenteric LNS are enlarged and pale.

JUDGEMENT
Acute enteritis with fever and signs of intoxication: total condemnation.
Chronic enteritis with emaciation or abnormal odour: total condemnation.
In other cases which are not accompanied by systemic affections the intestines are rejected and
the carcass passed.

 TRAUMATIC RETICULITIS (LOCAL PERITONITIS)

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Various forms of foreign bodies may be swallowed by cattle.
The pointed ones may penetrate the wall of the reticulum and affect surrounding organs. Along
the route of penetration, bacteria start an inflammation which may include the diaphragm, liver,
spleen and it may even spread to the lungs and the pericardium. The inflammation may be
localized and will then result in abscess formation around the foreign body, or the penetration of
the reticulum may lead to a diffuse peritonitis.
JUDGEMENT
In the cases with fever, pyaemia or emaciation total condemnation. Old chronic abscesses with
formation of fibrous tissue necessitate only local condemnation provided the carcass is in good
condition.

 PARASITIC DISEASES

A part from the blood sucking roundworms which cause enteritis, anaemia and emaciation the
following two parasitic infections leave quite characteristic post-mortem lesions in the intestines;
o PIMPLY GUT (NODULAR INTESTINAL WORM DISEASE)

This is caused by roundworm Oesophagustomum radiatum which lives in the lumen of both the
small and the large intestines. The migration of the larvae in the gut wall gives rise to nodules of
a greyish-white colour which vary in size from pinheads to peas. A transverse section of the
nodule will show a content of a caseous matter with a greenish colour. In the younger nodules
larvae may be found.
JUDGEMENT
The intestines with pimply gut are not to be used for consumption or as sausage casings and
should be rejected either wholly or in part depending on the extent of the lesions.
o LINGUATULA SERRATA IN THE MESENTERIC LYMPH NODES

This is an arthropod parasite. The definite hosts are carnivorous animals where the parasites live
in the nasal cavity. Herbivorous animals are the intermediate hosts and the larvae may be
discovered in the mesenteric lymphnodes where lesions appear as pea sized soft nodules of
brownish-greenish colour. They are usually found in the periphery of the node. The encapsulated
larvae often undergo caseation and calcification. The content can easily be removed from the
capsule.
JUDGEMENT
Affected nodes should be condemned.
SHEEP AND GOATS
ENTERITIS

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As for cattle, a rich variety of causal agents can cause enteritis in sheep and goats. The acute
types are as described for cattle while the chronic forms, which differ from those of cattle, will
be described briefly.
In the cases of Johne’s disease in sheep a few differences from the affection in cattle should be
noticed. The severe diarrhoea is absent. The thickening of the intestinal mucosa is often without
corrugations. Necrotic caseous or calcified nodules may be seen in the intestinal wall and in the
mesenteric LNS.
The chronic enteritis caused by parasitic infestation with parasites such as Haemonchus,
Ostertagia and Trichostrongylus (HOT) are more common in small stock than in cattle and
young lambs especially may be severely affected.
Complication which could influence the judgment could be fever, emaciation and edema.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation in cases accompanied by fever, emaciation and oedema.in other cases the
intestines are rejected and carcass judged on merits.

PIGS
TUBERCULOSIS
Infection in pigs can be caused by either the bovine or avian type of mycobacterium tuberculosis.
The avian type is however, most commonly involved as it is free living in the environment. The
main route of infection is alimentary by ingestion of contaminated food. Medial retropharyngeal
infection, often incomplete primary complex then follows, when the infection gains entry
through the gut wall. The mesenteric lymph nodes are also affected. The lesions appear as small
nodules in the mesenteric lymph nodes and sometimes those of the neck. Intestinal TB in pigs is
often a local condition. There are usually no clinical signs thus lesions are seen at slaughter
Judgment:
Where the lymph nodes of the neck are involved, the head is condemned. Otherwise, the
condition is often local in nature thus the affected intestines are rejected and carcass judged on its
merit. In case of progressing disease or generalization, total condemnation is done.

ENTERITIS
The acute infective types of enteritis are often caused by clostridium and coli types of bacteria. A
special manifestation of E.coli is the condition known as gut edema. Ante mortem signs are
edema of the eyelids, ears and other parts of the face. Nervous signs and diarrhea may be present.

13
Postmortem signs will be concentrated in the walls of the stomach and the intestines and in the
mesentery where edema and emphysema will be present.
Chronic enteritis with necrotic lesions appearing as streaks or button ulcers can be seen in pig
parathyroid and chronic swine fever respectively.
Heavy infestations with parasites such as hyostrongylus rubidus and Ascaris suum may also
result in a chronic gastro-enteritis.
JUDEGEMENT;
Total condemnation in acute cases where fever, toxemia or septicemia are present. In other
cases, judge the carcass on its merits and reject the affected parts.
AFFECTIONS OF THE LIVER
CATTLE
The liver is a valuable guide in connection with acute infectious diseases because it is one of the
first organs to show macroscopic toxic changes and if the animal survives it is the last organ to
return to normality.

DEGENERATIVE CHANGES AND HAEMORRHAGES

The liver will at postmortem inspection appear enlarged and so will the portal lymph nodes. The
enlargement can be recognized by rounded edges of the organ and the bulging of the cut surface.
The color of the organ becomes dull and grayish and the consistency softer than normal. The
liver is said to be friable and have a parboiled appearance.
Petechial hemorrhages may at the same time be scattered on the surface of the liver and in the
liver itself. Originally the degenerative changes start as an acute hepatitis which is normally
present during systemic diseases. As a complication to this a peri-hepatitis with deposit of fibrin
on the liver surface if often encountered.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if it is part of systemic disease, otherwise local condemnation
FATTY INFILTRATION OF THE LIVER
Fatty change may be physiological or pathological. During prolonged cases of fatty infiltration of
the liver, the degeneration of the liver tissue may change into pathological fatty change. It is
usually difficult to differentiate between the two types by examination of the liver only, thus
differentiation must be based on the presence or absence of other pathological changes in the live
animal and the carcass.

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Postmortem examination will show an enlarged liver with a uniform light yellow colour and a
consistency like soft dough (parboiled appearance). In cases where no pathological factors can
explain the fatty changes it must be regarded as physiological.
JUDGEMENT;
Total condemnation where pathological fatty change is part of systemic disease. Physiological
fatty change is of no importance.
AMYLOID DEGENERATION
Secondary to some chronic tissue-destructive processes such as tuberculosis or suppurations, an
infiltration of amyloid into the liver resulting in degenerative changes may occur. The changes
are mainly related to the interstitial tissue which is considerably thickened due to the deposit of
a wax –like substance (amyloid). The liver cells undergo atrophy. Affected livers are enlarged
with rounded edges pale and heavy with a rubber-like consistency.
JUDGEMENT
Where it is part of a generalization with amyloidosis in other organs like kidneys, spleen and
mucous membrane of the intestine, total condemnation is done.

WHITE NODULES ON THE LIVER SURFACE

If the post-mortem signs of degenerative changes are complicated with a grey-brownish
discolouration and small greyish-white foci are scattered on the surface of the liver it could be a
case of East Coast Fever where lymphoid cells proliferate and form small lymphatic-tissue
nodules on the liver and kidneys.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if accompanied by systemic changes.
NECROSIS
Necrosis is the death of tissue which is still part of the living body. This occurs chiefly as a result
of bacterial or toxic action or by arrest of the blood supply to a certain part. In the liver the
bacterial and toxic necrosis is frequently seen. The bacteria involved may be of different types,
but fusiformis necrophorus is very often encountered as responsible for liver necrosis in cattle.
From the intestine where it is a frequent inhabitant, the bacteria penetrate the wall and enter the
portal system to reach the liver. In most cases it will be a chronic affection characterized by a
few or numerous necrotic foci throughout the surface. The appearance of the affected areas is
yellowish spots of a coagulated necrotic tissue which are raised slightly above the surface. The
shape is irregular and the size varies. In the early stage the affection may be surrounded by a
hyperaemic zone and the causal organism may be demonstrated at the junction of the healthy and

15
necrotic tissue. Later the necrotic area may become encapsulated and the content may change
into greenish-yellow purulent fluid.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if the condition is accompanied by systemic changes, otherwise local
condemnation.
TUBERCULOSIS
Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by the microorganism Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
It mainly affects the lungs but other organs also get infected. The liver may be affected by
tuberculosis in three different ways;
1) Congenital TB
2) Generalised TB
3) TB spread from the intestines
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation, if the carcass is emaciated or fevered owing to an acute blood infection, or
the lesions are generalized, extensive or acute or actively progressive.

ACTINOBACILLOSIS

16
This is a chronic disease of cattle and sheep but can occur in other species like horses, pigs, dogs
and chickens. In cattle it is mainly caused by Actinobacillus lignieresi. It is characterized by
inflammation of the tongue and less frequently of the lymph nodes of the head and sometimes of
the viscera and carcass. Lesions develop into abscesses that rupture and discharge yellow-green
pus containing granules. When Actinobacillosis in rare cases becomes generalized the liver may
be affected. The infection may also spread via contact or via lymph vessels from an affected
reticulum to the liver.
JUDEGEMENT;
Generalized cases, total condemnation. In other cases the affected parts are trimmed off and the
carcase judged on its merits.

ABSCESSES {PURULENT HEPATITIS}

Abscesses in the liver are fairly common and the causative agents may be any the pyogenic
bacteria. The species encountered most often are corynbacterium pyogenes, fusiforms
necrophorus, staphylococci and streptococci. In most cases the liver abscesses are a localized
phenomenon. In calves however the condition often develops as an infection through umbilicus
resulting in pyaemia.
JUDGEMENT;
When abcesses are present in the liver, there is a theoretical possibility for the development of
pyaemia but the condition is most likely to be localized in which case the carcass can be passed.
If there are multiple abscesses or the condition is generalize, total condemnation.
In calves with umbilical pyaemia, total condemnation.

17
Caseated abscesses
PARASITIC DISEASES
Three main types of organisms causing these conditions are protozoa, helminths and ecto-
parasites. The first two are endo-parasites and usually cause lesions inside the body. The route of
infection for many parasites is by ingestion either through contaminated food or water or
sometimes through the skin. For the parasites affecting the liver, their ingestion is followed by
migration via the portal vein to the liver, which serves either as a final habitat or as a crossroad
for these parasites. The most important of them are described below.
ECHINOCOCCUS CYST-HYDATID CYST
The cysts are usually found in the liver and lungs but occasionally in other organs. The size of
the cyst usually ranges from that of a pea up to the size of a tennis ball. Many of the cysts show
degenerative changes in which the fluid disappears and the cavity becomes filled with a
yellowish-green Caseous material which often undergoes calcification.

18
JUDGEMENT: Infected liver must be condemned and destroyed in order to break the life cycle
of the parasite. The carcass and the other organs should be checked for cysts.
CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLLIS
By migrating through the liver tissue the larvae leave a tortous track of red soft material. If the
burrows heal, the enclosed masses of detritus becomes firbrous and they are seen as greyish-
white tortous cords in the liver tissue. The cysticerci which reach the surface of the liver develop
rapidly into thin-walled fluid filled bladders which vary in size. If the larvae do not reach the
surface of the liver they rapidly degenerate and become calcified nodules the size of a pea.
JUDGEMENT
The liver should be concemned if several cysts and/or tortous cords are present. If only one or a
few cysts are found in the liver, they should be trimed off and the liver passed.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
When the cysts are calcified they may have the appearance of any other kind of calcified cysts
and thus be mistaken for cysticercus bovis, Hydatid cysts or Cysticercus cellulose. The nodules
could also be mistaken for calcified TB lesions.

CYSTICERCUS BOVIS
In spite of the fact that the liver is not the predilection site for this cyst, heavily affected animals
may have cysts in the liver tissue.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation
DISTOMATOSIS
When the liver fluke larvae reach the liver it penetrates the capsule producing a local peritonitis
(peri-hepatitis). The flukes migrate for a considerable time in the liver tissue, causing varying
degrees of destruction such as tracts filled with blood, dead liver tissue and immature flukes. The
fluke finally reach the bile ducts where they reach maturity. Their presence in the bile ducts lead

19
to an inflammation which results in a considerable thickening of the walls of the ducts.
Calcification of the walls often occur.
JUDGEMENT
If it is possible, affected livers should be trimmed. Livers heavily infested should be condemned.
TELANGIECTASIS (plum pudding)
This liver condition is found in cattle, sheep and horses. It is more frequent in older cows. The liver
lesions are bluish black and irregular with depressed surfaces and dilated blood filled hepatic sinusoids. A
cause of hepatic telangiectasis in cattle is thought to be local ischemia.

Judgement: Slightly affected liver is approved after appropriate trimmings. Extensively affected liver
requires condemnation. Condemned material can be used for animal food.

This is capillary dilatation involving a group of sinusoids within any part of a lobule in the liver.
The cells of hepatic cords between the dilated sinusoids have partially or completely
disappeared. The condition occurs in cattle, sheep and horses but is more common in older cattle.
A cause of hepatic telangiectasis in cattle is thought to be local ischemia (local deficiency of
blood supply to an area).
Grossly it is seen as pin-point dark red or bluish black spots, irregular in shape. They are often
very numerous and shine through the capsule. The lesions appear to be depressed below the
surface of the organ, with dilated blood filled hepatic sinusoids. Microscopic examination
reveals that the spots are of spongy appearance and consist mainly of dilated capillaries. The
cause of this condition is obscure.
JUDGEMENT
Judgement: Slightly affected liver is approved after appropriate trimmings. Extensively affected
liver requires condemnation. Condemned material can be used for animal food
MELANOSIS
This is the presence of melanin in abnormal locations commonly detected during meat
inspection. The lesions are seen as black focal areas in the affected tissue. Melanosis in the liver
appears as black spots of unequal size scattered on the surface and in the liver tissue itself. A
multifocal deposit of melanin in the liver of a calf is known as “Melanosis maculosa”. It is
common in calves and it usually disappears after the first year of age.
JUDGEMENT
In cases of extensive discoloration, condemnation of the liver. In cases where only a few spots
are present they should be trimmed off and the rest of the liver passed.

20
CIRRHOSIS
Cirrhosis is an abnormal liver condition in which there is irreversible scarring of the liver tissue.
For cirrhosis to develop long-term, continuous damage to the liver needs to occur, and can
eventually lead to liver failure. The condition occurs following a series of pathologic events
leading to increase in dense fibrous connective tissue in the liver. It is characterized by complete
reorganization of the liver following focal losses of parenchyma. This results from various
forms of chronic hepatitis and the subsequent effort of regeneration and compensatory
hypertrophy in liver tissue. The pathogenesis of cirrhosis is loss of parenchyma, scar formation
and compensatory hyperplasia. Grossly, the affected liver is firm and hard with grayish color.
The normal architecture of the lobules is lost. It is replaced by islands of parenchyma, varying
much in size and shape, which are surrounded by newly formed connective tissue. Various
factors are associated with cirrhosis but liver flukes are a common cause.
JUDGEMENT
This depends on the cause. Since its mainly associated with chronic conditions, systemic
involvement is rare. Rejection of the liver is usually done and the carcass judged on its merit.
ICTERUS OR JAUNDICE
Icterus is the result of an abnormal accumulation of bile pigment, bilirubin, or hemoglobin in the
blood; leading to yellowing coloration of the affected tissues. This is particularly evident in the
mucous membranes, intima of the blood vessels and fatty tissue. Icterus is a clinical sign of a
faulty liver or bile duct malfunction, but it may be also caused by diseases in which the liver is
not impaired. Jaundice is divided into three main categories

 Prehepatic jaundice

This occurs following excessive destruction of red blood cells. It is seen in cases of such diseases
as babeciosis and Anaplasmosis. Overproduced blood pigment, which cannot be metabolized in
the liver, builds up in the blood (haemoglobinemia). It is excreted by the kidneys into the urine
(haemoglobinuria) causing the urine colous to be dark red.

 Hepatic jaundice

This occurs due to direct damage to liver cells as seen in liver cirrhosis, systemic infections, and
in chemical and plant poisoning. In sheep, jaundice may have been caused by phytogenic chronic
copper poisoning. Liver function is impaired and the liver is unable to secrete bile pigments.

 Obstructive jaundice

This occurs when the drainage of the bile pigment bilirubin is blocked from entry into the
intestine. This usually occurs due to the obstruction of the hepatic ducts by a tumour, by parasites
such as flukes or by gall stones. Obstruction may also occur due to an inflammation of the bile
ducts. In pigs, mature ascarides may occlude the bile ducts.

21
JUDGEMENT
Animals suspected to have icterus should be treated as “suspects” on antemortem examination.
In extensive cases of jaundice -total condemnation. Less severe cases (border-line) are kept in
the chiller for 24 hours. Upon re-examination, the carcass may be approved or condemned
depending on the absence or presence of pigment in the tissue. If the obstructive icterus
disappears after 24 hours, the carcass and viscera can be passed for human food.
NB: Icterus is a symptom and not a diagnoses so its cause should be considered before the
carcass is judged.
Tumors
The liver is a common site for tumors and they may be benign or malignant in nature.
Judgment
Malignant tumors are metastatic and often have systemic involvement. They often affect various
body systems and will be seen as a multiple lesions. This call gfor total condemnation
For benign tumors, there is no systemic involvement thus local condemnation is done.
SHEEPS AND GOATS
Most of the issues mentioned in connection with liver affections of cattle are found in sheep and
goats also.
In two of the parasitic disease the following difference are worth mentioning.
DISTOMATOSIS
Sheep are more likely to be affected in the acute stage of the disease with severe losses in the
herd. The affections seen in the liver differ from the ones of cattle in that bile duct never
becomes calcified.
STILESIA HEPATICA
This tapeworm which lives in the bile ducts is more frequently encountered in sheep and goats
and rare in cattle.
PIGS
TUBERCULOSIS
Both bovine and the avian type of the mycobacterium tuberculosis cause tuberculosis in pigs and
may be involved in the formation of lesions in the liver. Most of the lesions involve the lymph nodes
of the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Progressive lesions are observed in the lungs and well-
defined tubercles are seen in the liver, spleen and other affected organs

22
BOVINE TYPE
This has a high virulence for pigs and form typical TB-lesions with hyperemia, edema,
exudation and caseation. The affection of the liver is often found in connection with a
generalization where the most likely result is the miliary type.
AVIAN TYPE;
It is unlikely to have generalization with this type because the virulence of the bacteria is low. If
the liver is affected the route of infection is by the portal vein from TB-lesions in the intestine.
The appearance ‘milky spots’
JUDGEMENT
Generalized cases-total condemnation, and localized case, condemn the affected organ and judge
carcass on its merit.
MILKY SPOT LIVERS
The migrating larvae of Ascaris suum pass the liver where some are caught in the capillaries. By
irritation and migration they give rise to a chronic focal interstitial hepatitis characterized by
irregular white spots on the liver surface. These spots are known as milky spots and they consist
of fibrous tissue.
JUDGEMENT
In cases where it is possible the liver should be trimmed-local condemnation.

AFFECTIONS OF THE SPLEEN

CATTLE
1. Enlargement of the spleen
By far the most important affection of the spleen is the enlargement (splenomegally) of the
organ, which can be seen in quite a number of systemic diseases such as Anthrax, Salmonellosis,
Babesiosis, Anaplasmosis, Theileriosis, Trypanosomiasis, Heartwater, Septicaemia, Viraemia,
Toxaemia etc. Due to the function of the spleen as a blood reservoir with varying capacity, the
degree to which the size departs from normal may be difficult to assess but in many cases the
enlargement is obvious and a thorough inspection of the whole carcass and all organs must
always be carried out in order to obtain the most exact diagnoses if the spleen is enlarged.

23
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation as they are all serious systemic diseases.
Two main types of splenomegally:

 Congestive splenomegaly

Acute congestion occurs in connection with either a heart failure followed by stasis in the
circulatory system or torsion of the spleen where the venous outlet is blocked. The appearance of
the spleen will be enlargement, softness and a bluish-black colour. On the cut surface the pulp
bulges out and blood oozes from the incision. If the congestion becomes chronic the organ
becomes firmer and indurate due to fibrosis of the reticulum, the capsule and the trabeculae.
JUDGEMENT
This depends on the cause of the congestion. If it is torsion the spleen needs to be condemned. If
a disturbance of the main circulatory system is the cause, the judgment depends on the
seriousness of the affection.

 LEUKOSIS

The enlargement of the spleen in a case of leucosis may either be diffuse or it may consist of
numerous lymphoid nodules (tumors).
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation
2. TUBERCULOSIS
Of the specific inflammation of the spleen the tuberculosis is one of the most important ones.
Two anatomical forms are to be distinguished but both of them are always a result of
generalization.

24
MILIARY TUBERCULOSIS
This is a particular sign of generalization. Microscopically the spleen is not enlarged but studded
with miliary grey nodules.
LARGE LESION TUBERCULOSIS
This is the most usual form of tuberculosis in the spleen. The lesions are seen in protracted
generalization. The nodules are often caseous and partly calcified.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation as tuberculosis in the spleen is always part of a generalization.
3. INFARCTS
The development of infarcts follows the occlusion of end arteries with emboli which generally
originate from valvular endocarditis. Most of the infarcts are wedge shaped, but size and shape
may vary considerably. From the outside, the foci can be recognized by their opaque yellow
appearance and the slightly increased volume. on the cut surface lesions are seen to be sharply
demarcated from the surrounding tissue. The border may be distinctly hyperemic in acute cases.
JUDGEMENT
This depends on the main affection of the animal. If the valvular endocarditis from where the
emboli develop is caused by purulent bacteria, total condemnation is done. If it is non purulent
infection, the judgment will depend on the condition of the carcass.
PURULENT SPLENITIS OR ABSCESSES

 HAEMATOGENOUS

This is a metastatic condition associated with purulent processes in other parts of the body eg
metritis, mastitis or abscesses in any part of the body. In these conditions the spleen is studded
with small or large abscesses and normally the term pyaemia is used in connection with this
condition.
JUDGEMENT;
Total condemnation

 BY EXTENSION:

Foreign bodies which penetrate the wall of reticulum and rumen may cause purulent
inflammation of the spleen. The perforation tract can nearly always be found filled with pus and
necrotic tissue. In the surroundings of the track, abscesses of different size may be present.
JUDGEMENT:

25
 Total condemnation if there are signs of fever, fresh infection, emaciation or other systemic
disturbances. In localized old affections the affected parts should be condemned and the carcass
judged on its merits.
PARASITIC LESIONS
It is relatively rare that the spleen is affected by any parasites but during the migration or
circulation in the blood, of certain parasitic larvae, some of them may be caught in the spleen
tissue. Hydatid cysts, cyticercus bovis and liver flukes may occasionally be found in the spleen.
Judgment: Refer to parasitic diseases
HAEMATOMA
As a result of injury often occurring during transport, bleeding takes place in the spleen. If the
capsule of the spleen is intact the blood will form a clot (hematoma) in the spleen tissue. If a
hematoma continues to increase in size, rupture with bleeding into the abdominal cavity may be
the result.
JUDGEMENT
Rejection of the spleen
SHEEP AND GOATS
1. Enlargement of the spleen:
Just as in cattle, splenomegally in sheep and goat may be seen in cases like Anaplasmosis,
Theileriosis, Heartwater, Septicaemia, viraemia, toxaemia and Parasitic infestation. The clinical
picture is as described for cattle and so is the judgment.
PARASITIC LESIONS
Parasitic affections occasionally found in the spleen of sheep and goats include hydatid cysts,
Tenuicollis cysts and migratory liver flukes. However, they are a rare condition.
Judgement: Refer to parasitic diseases
PIGS
1. Congestive splenomegalia
2. Tuberculosis
ENLARGEMENT OF THE SPLEEN
This condition occurs in cases of septicaemia, viraemia, toxaemia and in diseases like Swine
Erysipelas and Swine Fever (hog cholera).
JUDGEMENT;

26
Total condemnation
NB: Anthrax in pigs does not result in a splenomegally.
CONGESTIVE SPLENOMEGALY

 This occurs in connection with disturbances in the circulatory system, such as heart
failure, the spleen may be involved due to stasis of the portal blood system. The spleen
will be enlarged and congested and if the condition changes into a chronic one, the
consistency of the organ will be firmer because an increased amount of fibrous tissue will
replace the splenic pulp.
JUDGEMENT
The main cause of the congestion should be considered before the final judgment.

 Another type of congestion is seen in the torsion of the spleen. This happens quite
frequently in pigs, because the attachment of the spleen to the stomach is relatively loose.
Due to the torsion the outflow of blood from the spleen is stopped because of the
compression of the veins. The arteries continue for a certain time pumping blood into the
spleen and the organ becomes acutely enlarged and congested. After a short time,
necrotic changes take place and the spleen is destroyed without serious complications for
the animal.
JUDGEMENT
This is often a local condition resulting in rejection of the spleen only.

AFFECTION OF THE KIDNEYS

The systemic inspection of a kidney requires observation of its size, shape, colour and
consistency.
Two things have to be considered when the kidneys are affected;
1. Is the affection localized, or part of a systemic disease?
2. Is the affection so serious that the normal function of the kidneys has been insufficient,
resulting in uremia.
Common affections of the kidney include:
1. NON- PURULENT NEPHRITIS
In one type of nephritis the kidneys are enlarged and of a light grayish colour. The surface is
finely granulated and the capsule is removed without difficult. In another type of nephritis
greyish white nodules of lymphoid and fibrous tissue project on the surface and extend as

27
wedges into the cortex. The capsule may be difficult to remove (this type may occur e.g in
animals affected with ECF.
Nephritis is usually caused by bacterial infection or bacterial toxins. In most cases nephritis is of
minor importance. The changes found in kidneys are a result of affections which have occurred
long ago and are often of local nature.

nephritis
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if accompanied by systemic changes such as signs of toxemia, septicemia,
uremia and emaciation. Otherwise local condemnation.

PURULENT NEPHRITIS (ABSCESSES)

When pyogenic bacteria are seeded in the kidneys from the blood stream during pyemia, small
abscesses are formed. Pyemia is a type of septicaemia that leads to widespread abscesses of a
metastatic nature. The abscesses are normally confined in the cortex. The sizes and the number
of lesions may vary. The smaller lesions (from a pinhead to 2-3 mm) are greyish-yellow foci
which contain a droplet of pus. They are often surrounded by a zone of hyperemia. Large
abscesses are readily visible through the capsule as dirty-white raised nodules which may rupture
during decapsulation releasing pus. Healing may occur resulting in shrinkage and scar formation.
The pyemia may originate from ulcerative endocarditis, septic metritis, septic mastitis and
suppurations in other parts of the body.

JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation

28
 PYELONEPHRITIS
This mainly happens when bacteria ascend from the bladder. Cystitis (bladder inflammation) is
commonly associated with pyelonephritis.
This is an ascending urogenous infection mainly from the urinary bladder. It is commonly
associated with inflammatory changes in the ureters and the bladder, and the involvement of the
kidney pelvis and medulla is always more severe than of the cortex. It is commonly seen together
with cystitis (inflammation of the bladder). Stasis or obstruction in the urinary tract is an
important predisposing factor. The attack is very often bilateral, but unilateral cases also occur.
The affected kidney (s) is enlarged and the pelvis and calyses normally dilated and filled with
greasy purulent mass containing fibrinous clot. The walls of the pelvis and the ureters are
opaque, hemorrhagic and often ulcerated. With the accumulation of the contents in the pelvis and
in the calyses, pressure atrophy of renal tissue may occur.

JUDGEMENT

29
This depends on the seriousness of the disease. The cases where there are no signs of systemic
reactions such as fever or uremia, and the animal is in good condition, only the kidneys need to
be rejected. Fever, pyemia, uremia or emaciation result in total condemnation.

DEGENERATIVE CHANGES AND HAEMORRHAGES

If these conditions are encountered during meat inspection, a further examination should be
carried out in order to decide whether septicemia, toxemia or viremia is present.

Petechial hemorrhages
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation in case of septicemia, toxemia or viremia
INFARCTS
This is caused by emboli in the terminal branches of the artery. The arteries of the kidney are
called “end arteries”, which means there is no collateral / peripheral circulation. The lesions are
at first hemorrhagic, but they become pale following the onset of necrosis in the affected area.
The necrotic tissue may be absorbed and be replaced by whitish fibrous scar tissue which
normally shrinks leaving an irregular depressed area on the kidney surface. On the cut surface
the infarct appears wedge shaped, with the base on the surface of the kidney and the apex
towards the center.

Generalized infarction
Infarct with scar formation (depression)
NB: Sometimes white-greyish nodules, which occur as a result of nephritis, are found on the
kidney surface and resemble infarcts. However, they appear to protrude on the surface. These

30
nodules consist of lymphoid tissue which proliferates during the outbreak of East coast fever
(theileriosis).

JUDGEMENT
This will depend on the cause of embolism. Condemn the affected organs only unless in cases of
accompanying systemic changes and/ or the carcass is in poor condition.
TUBERCULOSIS
Infection of the kidneys by mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria of hematogenous origin is a
sign of generalization. The lesions may be either milliary tubercles, or large lesions caused by
protracted generalization

JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation as it is a sign of generalized tuberculosis.
LEUKOSIS
This is a leukemia-like malignant viral disease that is found in animals. It is more common in
cattle and poultry. The infected animal develops lymphoid tumours affecting all body systems.
The kidneys are among the organs frequently affected by the nodular type of leucosis. There is
however no evidence of any human health risk.

Diffuse nodular lesions

JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation as its part of systemic infection.
CONGENITAL CYSTS

31
Cysts appear as thin walled vesicles filled with fluidy content, on the surface of the organ. There
may be one or a few large cysts of varying sizes containing watery fluid or there may be a few or
numerous generally smaller vesicles scattered all over the kidneys. Both types are related to
anomalies in the development of the renal tubules in the fetus and are therefore confined to the
renal cortex. In cases where very many cysts are present the possibility of uremia should be
considered.
Sometimes there may be acquired cysts, which may occur as single or multiple, small or big and
contain urine-like fluid. They arise from obstruction of the tubules following chronic
inflammatory process in the calculi.
NB: Polycystic kidneys are rare in cattle and very rare in sheep. They are hereditary in
pigs and may alternatively be associated with avitaminosis A.

Congenital polycystic kidneys visible drained cysts

JUDGEMENT
In cases where one or few cysts are found trimming off or rejection of the kidneys only is done.
In cases with many cysts in both kidneys (rare) the carcass should be checked for uremia before
final judgment.
HYDRONEPHROSIS (PARTIAL OR TOTAL)
This is an affection of the kidneys characterized by distension and dilation of the renal pelvis and
calyces. It is associated with progressive atrophy and cystic enlargement of the kidneys. The
cause is some form of urinary obstruction existing at any level from the urethra to the renal
pelvis. It could be caused by urinary calculi in any location, cystitis (inflammation of the
bladder), and compression of the ureters by the surrounding tissue etc.
Hydronephrosis may be unilateral or bilateral, partial or total. In partial affections only one or a
few of the kidney lobes show the cystic changes. If both kidneys are totally affected, uraemia
develops and the animal soon die.

32
 Hydronephrosis with extensive atrophy and thinning of the renal cortex
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if uremia is present, otherwise local condemnation.
PARASITIC AFFECTIONS
These occur rarely in the kidneys, but exceptionally migratory Fasciola hepatica and cysticercus
bovis may be found. A more common parasite seen in the kidneys is the hydatid cyst, which
develops the same way as in other organs, and they are situated under the capsule or in the
cortex.

SHEEP AND GOATS- similar to those of cattle.

The lesions and diseases found in the kidneys of small stock resemble those described for
cattle.
PIGS
The common affections include the following which are similar to those in cattle.

 Nephritis
 Degeneration and haemorrhages
 Infarcts
 Cysts
 Hydronephritis

33
NB: infarcts are frequently found in kidneys of pig associated with swine erysipelas with
verrucous endorcaditis. The lesions appear on the kidney surface as pale depressed areas of
irregular shape and different size. They have a wedge shape appearance on incision.
The only difference seen in parasitic infestation is described.
STEPHANURUS DENTATUS
This is the kidney worm of swine. The adult worm is found in the renal area where it forms cysts
that contain the worm and some greenish pus. The cysts communicate with the lumen of the
ureters allowing eggs to escape.
JUDGEMENT
Kidneys affected should be condemned and the carcass judged on its merits.

AFFECTIONS OF THE HEART

CATTLE
1. Pericarditis
a) Fibrinous
b) Purulent
2. Hydropericardium
3. Petechial Haemorrhage
4. Atrophy of the pericardial fat
5. Endocarditis
6. Myocarditis
7. Parasitic affections
a) Cysticercus bovis
b) Sarcocysts
8. Melanosis
9. Xanthosis
Pericarditis
Pericarditis is the most common pericardial disease of cattle. Pericardium is the membrane
enclosing the heart, consisting of an outer fibrous layer and an inner double layer of serous
membrane. Pericarditis is an inflammation of the pericardium that results in accumulation of
pericardial fluid within the pericardial sac. In cattle, it is mostly caused by the perforation of the
pericardial sac by an infected foreign body through the reticulum. It can also result due to
infectious conditions like pasteurellosis, viral diseases etc.

34
Types of pericarditis
Fibrinous pericarditis
This is the most common form of pericarditis. Grey strands of fibrin cover the epicardium and
only a small amount of fluid will accumulate. The exudation of fibrin usually begins at the base
of the heart and extends to cover more and more of the pericardium. The deposited fibrin may
form a continuous layer, which if not organized can be stripped off exposing the hyperaemic
serous membrane. If the resolution of the fibrin is not complete, fibrous tissue will replace the
fibrin and eventually form adhesions between the pericardium and epicardium. This condition is
most commonly caused by the hematogenous spread of organisms such as Pasteurella species,
Haemophilus species and Streptococcus species.
This is commonly seen in animals suffering from contagious bovine pleuro-pneumonia (CBPP)
and hemorrhagic septicemia. During routine inspection of the heart small areas covered with
fibrous tissue can often be encountered but they are usually without any particular significance.

35
Fibrinous pericarditis
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation in cases with systemic reactions. Where the lesions are obviously localized
the heart should be rejected and the rest of the animal may be passed.
PURULENT / SUPPURATIVE PERICARDITIS
Purulent pericarditis indicates the presence of pyogenic organisms e.g. Staphylococcal species. It
is most commonly seen in cattle as a result of traumatic perforation by a foreign body from the
reticulum (hard ware disease). The suppurative pericardial fluid may appear as thin cloudy
exudates or thick creamy pus or as a mixture of pus and fibrin. Large amounts, up to 4 liters can
accumulate in the pericardium, causing severe constriction of the ventricles. The colour varies
from greenish to yellow depending on the type of bacteria involved in the inflammation. Healing
takes place by organization of the exudates forming a constrictive pericarditis, but death usually
occurs before organization. Toxemia becomes apparent in the early stages of the condition.

purulent pericarditis

JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if accompanied by large amounts of exudates in the pericardial sac,
disturbances in the circulatory system, emaciation or abnormal odour. In the absence of these
changes the carcass can be released after local condemnation of the affected parts.
HYDROPERICARDIUM
This is a non-inflammatory condition of the pericardium characterized by an excess in the
volume of fluid normally present in the pericardial sac. Hydro-pericardium is often part of the
cachectic illnesses and heart failures. It results mainly in cases of an interrupted circulation, and
is usually an accompaniment of ascites or general dropsy, which is frequently seen in the last
stages of chronic nephritis, or old valvular disturbances. It is also frequently seen in out-breaks
of heart water. The fluid is clear or straw-coloured.

36
Hydropericardium can result in Cardiac tamponade which is the compression of the heart. It
develops when the intrapericardial pressure increases due to unchecked fluid accumulation
within the pericardial sac as seen in congestive heart failure or mulberry heart disease in pigs.

Pericardial sac containing clear transudate

JUDGEMENT
This should be based on the cause of the hydro-pericardium

ATROPHY OF THE PERICARDIAL FAT

In cachexia (wasting syndrome) there is a progressive mobilization of fat depot which includes
that which is beneath the epicardium. The depots are converted to greyish-brownish gelatinous
masses, a times mixed with areas of fat necrosis. It is associated with chronic conditions such as
chronic renal failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, chronic parasite infestation etc.

Serous atrophy of fat

NB: The heart on the left is from a sheep with severe intestinal parasitism

37
 JUDEGEMENT
If it occurs as part of emaciation do total condemnation.

ENDOCARDITIS
This is the most significant of the endocardial alterations and is almost without exception of
bacterial origin. It is the inflammation of the endocardium (inner tissue of the heart eg valves). It
is caused by bacteria or toxins and occurs exclusively in chronic infections; commonly found in
pigs, cattle and sheep. In cattle it is caused by Corynebacterium pyogenes and streptococcus
fecalis. The affection often occurs as a result of a bacteriaemia which originates from abcesses,
metritis or mastitis.
In majority of the cases the lesions are found on the valves characterized by vegetation
formation. The initial step in the establishment of vegetation is endo-cardial injury, followed by
focal adherence of platelets and fibrin. Some organisms with high virulence are capable of
infecting normal heart valves, such as Staphylococcus aureus. The initially sterile platelet-fibrin
nidus becomes secondarily infected by microorganisms circulating in the blood, either from a
distant source of focal infection or as a result of transient bacteremia from a mucosal or skin
source.
The colour varies from yellowish-red to yellowish-grey and the consistency is friable which
makes it easy to break off the vegetation. When removed a granular ulcerated surface of the
valve is seen. Fragments of the vegetations on the valves may, when they are torn loose as
emboli, result in infarcts in other organs.

Endocarditis

38
Drawing of bacterial vegetation growing on heart endocardial surface, valves, and causing
systemic embolus

39
 JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if accompanied with systemic changes. In case of healing and scarification
the carcass may be passed if it is in good condition.
MYOCARDITIS
This is an affection which may be found as a complication in systemic diseases. It is the
inflammation of the myocardium and results following pathogenic infections. Sometimes there is
invasion by pyogenic bacteria resulting in single or multiple absceses eg in staphylococcus or
streptococcus infections. The result of the inflammation is in most cases a degeneration of the
myocardial muscle which looks parboiled. If the degeneration is of the fatty type, the colour will
be pale yellow. The degenerative changes in many cases do not affect the heart uniformly but are
present in streaks and spots.
In rare cases, myocarditis develops as a direct extension from a local inflammation in the
surrounding tissue.

40
 JUDGEMENT
This depends on whether the affection is part of a systemic disease or localized.
HAEMORRHAGES OF THE HEART AND ITS MEMBRANES
The incidence of hemorrhages in the heart of cattle is relatively low. Sub-epicardial petechial
haemorrhages or echymoses are found in many acute infectious diseases and in connection with
death caused by anoxia.
Sub-endocardial haemorrhages may have the same pathogenesis but are less frequently found.
Small capillary bleedings within the myocardium often accompany those within the sub-serous
layers.

JUDGEMENT
The pathological findings of which the haemorrhages are a part should be the basis for the
judgment.

CYSTICERCOSIS
Cysticercus bovis is frequently found in the myocardium which is one of their predilection sites.
They may be situated just under the epicardium or deeper in the muscles. The cysts are either
41
fresh with a visible scolex or they are hard and calcified.

JUDGEMENT
Slightly affected carcasses can be conditionally passed grossly affected animals have to be
condemned. A carcass where only the head tongue and or organs are infected is considered to be
slightly affected and is conditionally passed.
SARCOSPORIDIOSIS
Sarcocysts may be found in the heart muscles appearing as small rice grain-like calcified cysts.

42
 sarcocystis
JUDGEMENT
Condemnation of the heart and the carcasses should be checked for cysts. The main reason for
condemning is aesthetic.

MELANOSIS
Sometimes deposits of melanin can be found in the heart. For further details see general
pathology

XANTHOSIS
This is a yellowish-brown discoloration of the myocardium. For further details see general
pathology.
SHEEP AND GOATS
The disease and pathological conditions which have been described in cattle occur in sheep and
goats as well. The only difference is that cysticercosis is caused by C. ovis instead of C. bovis.

CYSTICERCUS OVIS.

43
This is the cystic stage of Taenia ovis which lives in the intestines of dogs. It is frequently found
in the myocardium either as a fresh transparent bladder cyst or as a calcified one.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation. This is so because C .ovis was eliminated and thus is a rare condition in the
country.

PIGS
PERICARDITIS
Acute swine erysipelas, swine fever and other infectious diseases are often accompanied by a
fibrinous pericarditis, perhaps with formation of adhesions between the pericardial sac and the
surface of the heart.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation as it is part of a systemic disease. If it is a localized affection the heart is
rejected and the carcass judged on its merit.
ENDOCARDITIS
In the chronic form of swine erysipelas the heart valves are often inflamed. It is the vegetative
type of affection where cauliflower like growths cover the valves. The vegetations consist mainly
of masses of fibrin and these are normally soft, friable, and yellowish-grey in colour. Renal
infarcts often occur as a result of emboli from fragments of growths on the valves.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation if accompanied by general edema, general stasis, fresh red infarcts in kidney
or emaciation.
Otherwise local condemnation.
CYSTICERCUS CELLULOSA-
The cystic stage of Taenia solium, a tapeworm in man, is found in the muscles of pigs and the
heart is one of the predilection sites for the cysts. The cysts are oval in shape and the size of the
pea.
JUDGEMENT
This differs from country to country, but in countries where pork measles occur frequently, the
judgement is the same as for cysticercosis in bovine. In countries where the occurrence is rare
total condemnation.

44
SARCOSPORODIOSIS
S. miescheriana are sometimes found as calcified cysts in the heart of pigs.
JUDGEMENT
The heart is condemned and the carcass is checked for cysts

AFFECTIONS OF LUNGS AND PLEURA

PNEUMONIA
This denotes the inflammation of the lungs. It is usually caused by bacteria and viruses. The
infection occurs as a result of aerogene infection or haematogeneous spread of infection from
other parts of the body( remember that the total blood volume passes through the lungs and that
any microorganisms which enter the blood stream via the lymphatic ducts are likely to cause
pathological lesions in the lungs.) Occasionally microorganisms reach the lungs as a result of
penetration of a foreign body (usually from the reticulum). In rare cases inflammation may be
due to fungi and irritant gases.
TYPES OF PNEUMONIA
1. BRONCHOPNEUMONIA OR LOBULAR PNEUMONIA
Infection is usually aerogene. The inflammation involves groups of lobules which can be found
as consolidated brownish red or grayish yellow patches intermingled with the normal lung
tissue. It chiefly affects the antero-ventral parts of the lungs such as the apical, cardiac,
intermediate lobes and the anterior part of the diaphragmatic lobes. The selective involvement of
these parts is due to short airways and the gravity of the inhaled material.
Resolution may take place and the alveoli become aerated again, but in many cases the affected
area becomes atelectic with the area depressed under the surface, with a firm meaty
appearance. In chronic cases the changes mentioned above are present, and in addition there is a
progressive fibrous thickening of the alveolar septa with induration of the lungs.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation in acute cases accompanied by fever and signs of systemic disturbance and
chronic cases with emaciation, otherwise local condemnation of the lungs. In case of purulent
bronchopneumonia the carcass should be checked for signs of pyemia.

45
 Apical lobe

Cardiac lobe

Intermediate lobe

Diaphragmatic lobe

Severe bronchopneumonia in a dog. Note that the

cranioventral areas are dark, consolidated, and on the left there is even some roughening on the
surface that might be fibrin.

Bronchopneumonia in a lamb. Note the distinct line of demarcation between normal and
abnormal lung. Look carefully. The right cranial lung is severely consolidated and reddened and
blends right in with the heart

46
 These lungs came from a foal suffering from
septicemia. They are diffusely affected, with involvement of all areas EXCEPT the tips of the
cranial and diaphragmatic lobes.

Diffusely swollen lungs with rib imprints on them. Most of

the alveolar lining cells are responding to damage/irritant.

Poor cow was turned out into a beautiful pasture,

and within two days was down and in severe respiratory distress. Alveolar emphysema
The lungs are diffusely reddened and there is abundant emphysema as well
2. FIBRINOUS PNEUMONIA OR LOBAR PNEUMONIA
This type of pneumonia is usually due to aerogene infection. The inflammation spreads rapidly
by all available routes to affect larger parts of lobes or whole lobes. Four stages are normally
distinguishable:
1. Congestion
2. Red hepatization

47
 3. Grey hepatization
4. Lysis or necrosis with sequestration
1. In the initial stage the affected areas of the lungs are swollen, dark red and relatively firm
in consistency. The enlargement is due to inflammatory edema and the greatly dilated
capillaries filled with blood. Bloody fluid will exude from the incised lung tissue.
2. In this phase fibrin and leucocytes begin to accumulate and the affected tissues become
solidified (hepatized). There is thrombosis in the blood vessels of the area and the blood
supply is cut off.The appearance of the area is darker, enlarged and solid, and the cut
surface is dry.The septal tissues become widened by the accumulation of fibrin. The
overlying pleura are dull and dark red, due to extensive hemorrhages and a fibrinous
pseudo-membrane begins to form on it.
3. The grayness of the solidified tissue is due to the increased amount of fibrin and
leucocytes, together with ischemia, which is produced by the pressure on blood vessels of
the expanding exudates and the thrombosis in the alveolar capillaries. The lysis of the
extravasated red blood cells is also partly responsible for the colour change from red to
grey. Sharp capsular demarcation from unaffected tissue is seen. The interstitial tissue
becomes fibrous and extensively thickened.
4. When resolution (return to normal architecture and function after tissue damage and
inflammation) takes place there is lysis of the fibrin and liquefaction takes place. The
affected areas may disappear totally, due to resolution and desorption, or the affected
areas may be encapsulated and sequestrated (abnormal separation)

Pleuritis is frequently associated with fibrinous pneumonia and it may be either sero-fibrinous or
fibrin-purulent depending on the causative agent. When it heals it does so by the conversion of
fibrinous tissue to fibrous tissue with adhesions between the visceral and the parietal pleura.
Pasteurella and mycoplasma species are mainly responsible for the fibrinous pneumonias in food
animals (CBPP/CCPP).
JUDGEMENT
In acute cases, total condemnation because there is fever and signs of general systemic
disturbance. In chronic cases, which are not accompanied by emaciation, only local
condemnation is necessary.

48
 Summary of the four stages

ASPIRATION PNEUMONIA WITH GANGRENE

49
Gangrene refers to localized death and decomposition of body tissue, resulting from either
obstructed circulation or bacterial infection. Gangrenous pneumonia is not an independent type,
but merely a complication of either broncho or fibrinous pneumonia in which there is necrosis of
the tissue. It is the result of aspiration of foreign material containing saprophytic putrefactive
bacteria.
The gangrenous pneumonia is often rapidly disastrous, and death may occur before there is time
for inflammatory changes to develop. If inflammatory changes are found they are characterized
by a yellowish green to black colour and a foul smell. Extensive ragged cavitation rapidly
develops.
Gangrenous pneumonia may also develop following the penetration of the reticulum, diaphragm
and lung tissue by a foreign body.
JUDGEMENT
This is usually a very acute condition, accompanied by fever and systemic disturbance, which
necessitates total condemnation.

50
 5. ABSCESSES
Abscesses in the lungs may occur as metastatic abscesses originating from a purulent
inflammation in some part of the body (hematogenous infection- pyemia) or as purely local
abscesses which have developed during a purulent lobular pneumonia. Occasionally abscess
formation may also occur in connection with penetration of a foreign body from the reticulum.
Pyemic abscesses can usually be distinguished from the local abscesses by their multiple
occurrence and even distribution in various places in the lungs and by accompanying signs of
pyemia in other parts of the body and organs. The abscesses originating locally from a purulent
pneumonia are usually few, and found in only a limited part of the lung.
JUDGEMENT
Metastatic abscesses (pyemia), total condemnation
Local abscesses, local condemnation provided the carcass is in good condition.

51
 6. TUBERCULOSIS
This appears in the lungs in various form as:
Primary complex
In inactive form, well defined encapsulated and often calcified tuberculous nodules are seen
under the pleura and in the bronchial lymph nodes. In the active form, there is an active caseous
focus whose size varies with age of the lesion. The lymph nodes which are greatly enlarged often
shows radiating caseation.

52
Chronic lung tuberculosis
The spread mainly occurs through the bronchi. Chronic Caseous broncho-pneumonia can be seen
as small clover-leaf-shaped foci or as a result of fusing of such areas, as larger chronic caseous
broncho-pneumonic areas comprising whole lobules or an entire lobe. In the main bronchi and
trachea, tuberculous nodules are formed which erode and form ulcers. The reaction in the lymph
nodes is slight.

Generalized tuberculosis
The typical lesions, many milliary tuberculous nodules or a few larger lesions (protracted
generalization) are seen.

53
 miliary tuberculous nodules

Judgment
Active primary complex form, generalized tuberculosis, congenital tuberculosis and case of
tuberculous bacteremia (characterized by systemic disturbances eg fever) necessitate total
condemnation.
In case of extensive tuberculous lesions on the serous membranes and emaciation, total
condemnation (aesthetic purposes)
When non-extensive tuberculous lesions of definite local nature are found in the organ or its
regional lymph nodes, local condemnation is done. Also case of portal tuberculosis in the pig
liver is considered of local nature if there are no signs of haematogeneous spread thus call for
local condemnation.
7. LIVER FLUKES
Immature liver flukes may accidentally migrate to the lungs via the blood stream. As the lung
tissue is not the predilection site the parasite becomes encapsulated and dies. The content of the
nodule consist of a dead immature fluke in a brownish slimy like fluid. The wall of the nodule
may undergo calcification.
JUDGEMENT
The affected parts can be trimmed off and the rest of the lungs may be passed.

8. HYDATID CYSTS
Cattle serve as an intermediate host for the cystic stage of echinococcus granulosus. The lungs
and the liver are the organs chiefly affected. If the cysts are numerous a considerable number of
bronchioles may be blocked, and extensive alveolar emphysema develops.

54
Hydatid cysts frequently degenerate. The fluid content is resorbed and the remaining content
becomes caseous. Caseous cysts may later become calcified, and the caseous calcified content
may resemble the lesions seen in TB.
JUDGEMENT
Condemnation and destruction of the lungs. The carcass should be checked for hydatid cysts
before final judgment.

9. LUNGWORMS

55
Dictyocaulus viviparus is a bovine lungworm. They are found in the trachea and larger bronchi
and are responsible for parasitic bronchitis and frothy fluid. On postmoterm, recovery of worms
from lungs, pulmonary oedema and emphysema are often present in the lung tissue. The
infestation will often result in chronic bronchitis. During their migration the larvae cause damage
to the alveolar tissue which often serves as portal of entry to secondary bacterial infection which
causes pneumonia.
Infestation with lungworms is known as ‘Husk’ or ‘Hoose’.
JUDGEMENT
In acute cases where fever is present, total condemnation. In chronic cases accompanied by
emaciation- total condemnation. In other cases the lung should be rejected and the carcass judged
on its merits.

56
 Nodules of Muellerius capillaries in sheep
10. ATELECTASIS
This is a complete or partial collapse of a lung or lobe of a lung. It develops when the tiny air
sacs (alveoli) within the lung become deflated.
Two types of atelectasis are known:
 FETAL ATELECTASIS
The lungs are small and they are dark reddish blue in colour. They are of flesh consistency and
do not float.
 ACQUIRED ATELECTASIS
General acquired atelectasis of the lung doesn’t occur in an animal that has once breathed. The animal would be
dead before all of the air could be removed. Focal acquired atelectasis is very common and is caused by pressure
exerted upon, portions of the lung which force air out of the area. This pressure is produced by enlarging tumours,
A compressed lung is ischemic and airless and a cut
abscesses, hydrothorax, and hydropericardium.
surface appears grayish red, homogenous and does not release fluid under pressure. If the
case of compression is removed, re-inflation of the involved segment may follow. It is also caused
be complete bronchial obstruction when the air in the alveoli distal to the obstruction is absorbed. This bronchial
obstruction is caused by masses of exudate or parasites in the bronchi, or the existence of peribronchial tumours or
abscesses which cause compression of the bronchi. The alveoli partly collapse and partly become filled with
edematous fluid. Subpleural atelectasis is very commonly observed in the cattle and is often confused with
haemorrhages or infarcts. Incision of the area reveals the true nature of the lesion.

JUDGEMENT
The cause of either obstructive or compressive has to be established, but in most cases it will be
localized condition which only necessitates condemnation of the lungs.
Sub-pleural atelectasis which only involves a very thin film of the pleura is of no importance.

57
 11. EMPHYSEMA
Pulmonary emphysema is the increase of air content or over inflation of lung tissue.
Types
o Alveolar or vesicular emphysema

This affects alveolar ducts and alveoli which become greatly distended with air. It may be acute
or chronic. In acute case, the lung returns to normal after the escape of the increased air. In
chronic case however, the dilatation is permanent and the lung doesn’t return to normal. The
prolonged over inflation may result in pressure atrophy, weakness, loss of elasticity rupture and
sometimes disappearance of alveolar walls. It is caused by the constriction or the occlusion of
bronchi and bronchiols seen in  cases of bronchitis and bronchiolitis obliterance, chronic
bronchopeumonia and lung worms in calves, sheep and pigs. The affected parts are recognized
by their grayish yellow colour (pearly like shine) and their increased volume. By palpation the
affected areas are felt to be peffy and crepitate.

58
 c
o Interstitial emphysema
This is characterized by the presence of air in the connective tissue which forms the interlobular
septa. It occurs as a result of leakage in the alveolar wall mainly results from rupture of alveoli as
in chronic alveolar emphysema and violent coughs which leads to the escape of air in the
interstitial tissue. It may be also traumatic from a fractured rib or a penetrating foreign body. It
is frequently observed in slaughtered animals particularly cattle and it is assumed that the
extensive gasping respiration in connection with the slaughtering procedure can over distend the
alveoli to cause their rupture. The lobules of the affected area will be separated by the distended
interstitial tissue so that lobulation becomes very pronounced.

59
JUDGEMENT
Depends on the Cause of the emphysema
TUMOURS
Lungs act as a central filter for the venous blood and lymph from all parts of the body, so they
are especially exposed to the lodgment of metastatic tumor emboli.
JUDGEMENT
Benign tumours: condemn affected parts. Malignant tumours: if metastasis has occurred or the
carcass is emaciated, total condemnation. Otherwise condemnation of the lungs.

60
ANTHRACOSIS
The lungs of animals may show black discoloration of the lung tissue and the draining LNS due
to the accumulation of carbon and dust particles.
JUDGEMENT
Condemnation of affected parts

SHEEP AND GOATS

Affections of the lungs are similar to those in cattle. The only difference worth noting are:-

61
TUBERCULOSIS
TB in sheep and goats is rare but if it occurs the bovine and the avian mycobacterium may be
responsible for the outbreak. the route of infection is, in most cases, the respiratory tract. The
lesions are similar to those found in cattle.
JUDGEMENT
For details, see infectious diseases
LUNGWORMS
Several species of lungworms are encountered in sheep. The most important are dictyocaulus
filarial, Protostrongylus rufescens and Muellerius capillaries
Dictyocaulus and protostrongylus live in the bronchi and produce the same lesions as in cattle.
Muellerius capilaris which is the most common lungworm in sheep and goats cause different
lesions. It lives in the alveoli and it is responsible for the reddish brown or greenish grey small
nodules and larger patches which can be found in lungs of sheep and goats. The nodules are
usually found under the pleura of the diaphragmatic lobe. The animal is normal not seriously
affected and apart from nodules, the affection is alveolar emphysema.
JUDGEMENT
In cases where fever or emaciation is present, total condemnation. In cases where the affection is
localized only the lungs need to be rejected.
PIGS
The following differences from lung affections in cattle should be noted:-
PNEUMONIA
In pigs the type of pneumonia most often encountered is bronchopneumonia and as in other food
animals, several causal agents may be responsible for the outbreak.
Apart from the main affection in enzootic pneumonia, bronchopneumonia is often found as a
complication in swine fever, swine erysipelas and atrophic rhinitis. Also infestation with
lungworms and migrating parasites such as Ascaris suum may result in bronchopneumonia.
JUDGEMENT
If fever, systemic changes or emaciation is present, total condemnation. In cases where the
affections are limited to the lungs, condemnation of the lungs and carcass may be passed.

62
TUBERCULOSIS
TB in the lungs of pig usually occurs as military or large nodules originating from
generalization. Aerogene infection and consequent development of primary complex in the lungs
is rare.
ASCARIS SUUM-REFER
The migration of ascaris suum may affect the lungs if the number of parasites is high.At the time
the larvae break into the alveoli from the lung capillaries an acute bronchopneumonia may
develop. Coughinh and fever are the main symptoms. hrgic traces and spots may be seen in the
lung tissue.
JUDGEMENT
If fever is present total condemnation. In other cases only rejection of the lungs. ‘Check for
milky spots’
BLOOD SPLASHING
If electrical stunning is used and the time between the electric shock and the sticking of the
animal extends 10 seconds, hemorrhages may occur in various places, e.g in the lungs
JUDGEMENT
Where only few hrges are present, the lungs can be passed. If the lungs are severely affected they
have to be condemned.
BACK BLEEDING
When pigs are stuck, some of the blood may run thro the sticking wound into the plural cavity,
where it coagulates. When such an animal is dresses, the condition may be confused with acute
pluritis.
In cases of back bleeding, the blood can, however, easily be washed off while the haemorrhages
in cases of pleuritis are situated under the pleura and cannot be removed by washing.
ASPIRATION OF SCALDING WATER
When pigs are lowered into the scalding tank the dirty water may be aspired into the lungs due to
‘artificial inspiration’ created by movements of the abdominal organs against the diaphragm.
The lungs appear large heavy and translucent. if they are incised the dirty water will run out from
the incision.
JUDGEMENT
Condemnation of the lungs.

63
 This is an example of hydrothorax. The pleural
space is filled with serous fluid

This thorax is filled with white fluid. This is

called chylothorax. Chylothorax happens when the big lymphatic ducts traversing the thorax rupture

This dog had a ruptured patent ductus

arteriosus. Oops. Blood and lots of it in the thoracic cavity. This is called hemothorax

64
 Oooh. Nasty business, this. This is an opened cat's thorax - it is
filled with fluid purulent material. This is pyothorax. What is
the most common

Pleural mineralization

Uremia can cause mineralization to happen in lots of

strange places. Pleura is just one. Here are some
deposits of calcium on the parietal pleura.

AFFECTIONS OF LYMPHNODES
ALL FOOD ANIMALS
1. Lymphadenitis: Acute
Chronic
2. Tuberculosis
3. Parasitic affections
4. Discoloration
5. Caseous lymphadenitis
6. Corynebacterium equi infection
Examination of the LNs is of prime importance in meat inspection as they give a guide to the
nature and extent of disease processes in the body.

65
Inflammation of the LNS can either be acute or chronic. It is the result of either an inflammation
in the drainage area of the node or a generalized infection.
The following description covers all the food animals.
ACUTE LYMPHADENITIS
In acute lymphadenitis the nodes are enlarged soft and moist. They project above the cut
surface and are hyperemic to a variable degree. In some cases areas of necrosis may be found in
the nodes. The dominant change in connection with some diseases is hemorrhages which range
from petechial to extensive congestion of the nodes. When the inflammation is due to one of the
pyogenic organisms abscess formation occurs. Initially these may be many and small
suppurative foci which coalesce to destroy most of the node.
Acute lymphadenitis is seen in various cases such as septicemia, viremia, and toxemia. Cases
with abscessation may be found in pyemia.
CHRONIC LYMPHADENITIS
The affected nodes are fairly large and firm. Hyperemia and edema are not obvious.
Chronic lymphadenitis is found in foci eg in Actinobacillosis and Actinomycosis
TUBERCULOSIS
The lesion varies with the phase of the disease. It is either an active (the node is enlarged with
necrosis, caseation, exudation and hyperemia) or an inactive tuberculosis lesion. (Encapsulated
caseous, may be calcified tubercle).
PARASITIC AFFECTIONS
The lymph nodes are not the final habitat for any parasites but some transverse them during
migration and some may become lodged accidentally. Muellerius and Protostrongylus species
can be found in the bronchial nodes where they cause an enlargement of the nodes and formation
of encapsulated caseo-calcerous nodules.
Larvae of Fasciola spp. or Linguatula serrata may be trapped in the mesenteric lympnodes ,
where they form small nodules.
JUDGEMENT
Rejection of the affected nodes.
DISCOLOURATION
Anthracis is a condition seen in animals which live in industrialized areas or along the roads
where carbon dust is present in the air. After inhalation the carbon particles are retained in the
phagocytic cells which are situated mainly in the medulla of the nodes colouring this part black.
JUDGEMENT
Condemnation of the affected nodes.

66
CASEOUS LYMPHADENITIS (SHEEP)
This is a suppurative infection of the lymph nodes caused by corynebacterium ovis which enters
through a wound. The infection spreads to the regional lymph nodes in which an abscess is
formed. The abscess contains pus of a distinct greenish colour and of caseous or caseo-purulent
consistency. In old lesions the content may become encapsulated. The affection is often localized
to superficial lymph nodes and the animals are rarely seriously affected. In old animals there may
be lymphogeneous and hematogenous extension which produces abscesses in internal organs,
especially the lungs.
JUDGEMENT
Careful examination of all lymph nodes should be done before judgment. If the affection is
localized and the carcass is in good condition the affected parts can be trimmed off and the
carcass passed. However, in cases where metastasis has occurred or emaciation is present total
condemnation.

Corynebacterium equi infection: this affects the sub-mandibular lymph nodes in pigs. It causes
necrosis in the sub-mandibular lymph nodes which appear as small yellowish necrotic foci
surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. These lesions may be confused with those of TB but
those of Corynebacterium are easily decapsulated while those of TB are firmly attached to the
capsule. The shape of mycobacterium tuberculosis is long slender rod shaped while
Corynebacterium equi are ovoid short rods-shaped bacterium.

AFFECTIONS OF THE BLOOD

1. Anaemia
2. Jaundice
3. Leukosis
4. Uraemia
Affections of the blood are of relatively little importance to meat inspectors and only a few
conditions are considered below.
ANAEMIA
Anemia denotes a decrease in the amount of red blood cells (RBCs) or hemoglobin in the blood
or a lowered ability of the blood to carry oxygen. Anaemia is not a disease but a symptom for
which a number of different etiological factors could be responsible. They can be classified as
follows;
a) Anaemia due to bleeding eg due to trauma, gastrointestinal parasites etc.
b) Anemia due to increased red blood cell breakdown ( Hemolytic anemia) eg in case of Poisons
like Copper and phenothiazine, Infectious diseases like Leptosiprosis etc

67
 c) Anaemia due to decreased red blood cell production (nutritional deficiencies) eg iron
deficiency, lack of vitamin B12 and a number of neoplasm of the bone marrow.

The presence of anemia in a carcass results in pale colour of the flesh and mucous membranes.
It is often accompanied by emaciation and edema.
JUDGEMENT
This depends on the condition which has caused the anemia. For generalized and systemic
conditions, total condemnation is recommended, for mild cases judge carcass on its merit
JAUNDICE (ICTERUS)
This denotes the accumulation of a yellow pigment (bilirubin) in the blood and in the tissues.  It
is more evident in the sclera and mucous membranes in life and in the tunica intima of the aorta
at post-mortem examination.
Judgment
In extensive jaundice -total condemnation. In borderline cases detain the carcass for 24 hours and
then re-examine. NB: the cause should be considered before the carcass is judged.

LEUCOSIS
This is a chronic disease in which there is an increase in the number of the white blood cells,
especially the lymphocytes. As the number increases proliferative changes take place in the
lymph nodes and the spleen and nodular lymphatic tumors may develop in various organs.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation
URAEMIA
This occurs when there is an obstruction to the normal outflow of urine from the body or if a
chronic disease of the kidney reduces the amount of renal substance below the level necessary
for the excretory function. The result is that the blood has a smell of urine which is transmitted to
all the organs and tissues.
JUDGEMENT
Carcass affected by uraemia is totally condemned. In case of doubt, a boiling test is useful.

AFFECTIONS OF THE MUSCLES

1. Wounds abscesses and bruising
2. Cyticercosis
a. C.bovis
b. C.cellulosae
c. C.ovis
3. Sarcosporodiosis
4. Trichinosis

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 5. Actinobacillosis
6. Black quarter
7. Degenerative Changes
8. Haemorrhages

WOUNDS
The appearance of damage to the muscular tissue varies greatly but this is less important than the
degree of infection and contamination which may be present in an open wound.
JUDGEMENT
In case of septic wounds or abscesses the carcass should be checked for signs of septicemia,
pyemia and fever. Any of these conditions will necessitate total condemnation. In absence of
these, the affected parts can be trimmed off and the carcass judged on its merit.
BRUISING
Bruising is one of the conditions most commonly affecting the muscular tissue. It is traumatic in
origin and it is characterized by hemorrhages of varying size and degree, hyperemia and
infiltration of the affected tissue with sero-hemorrhagic exudates. Draining LNS are hemorrhagic
and perhaps enlarged.

JUDGEMENT
Bruised animals should be treated as suspects on ante mortem examination. On postmortem
examination, carcasses affected with local bruising are approved after being trimmed. Carcasses
affected with bruises or injuries associated with inflammatory lesions are also approved if tissue
reaction does not extend beyond the regional lymph nodes. The affected area should be
condemned. When bruises or injuries are associated with systemic change and the
wholesomeness of the musculature is lost, the carcass will be condemned.
ABSCESSES
An abscess is a localized collection of pus separated from the surrounding tissue by a fibrous
capsule. They are most likely the result of some type of trauma, which can facilitate bacterial
growth at the site of injury and cause an infection. In most cases the trauma can be attributed to
the injury during transport or improperly administered health products.
Judgment
Most cases of muscle abscesses are considered local in nature and local condemnation is done.
However, in case of systemic changes, total condemnation is done.
CYSTICERCOSIS
Cysticercus bovis, Cysticercus cellulose and Cysticerus ovis are the cystic stages of various
tapeworms. The fresh bladder-like transparent or the old calcified cysts are regularly encountered
in the muscles of the food animals during meat inspection.

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C. bovis and C. cellulose are the most important ones in connection with human health.
JUDEGEMENT
Refer to previous notes.
SARCOSPORIDIOSIS
Sarcocysts may be found in the muscle tissue of the food animals.
JUDGEMENT
Gross affection results in total condemnation. Slight affections should be trimmed off and the
carcass passed.
ACTINOBACILLOSIS
The masseter muscles are sometimes affected with Actinobacillosis. The lesions are mainly seen
in the soft tissues (tongue, gums, soft palate, masseter muscles and the muzzle). Post mortem
lesions include; Thick walled fibrous nodules containing center foci of granular pus;
development of fibrous tissue in the tongue.

Judgment
Total condemnation if there are signs of generalization or emaciation, otherwise local
condemnation of the affected parts and their draining lymph nodes.
BLACKQUARTER
The affected muscles are hemorrhagic and edematously swollen and of a dark red to blackish-red
colour. The bloated spongy muscles contain gas bubbles. They crepitate when touched and the
cut surface seems dry. Sero-hemorrhagic fluid is seen in the interstitial connective tissue. The
affected parts give off an odour like that of rancid butter. The regional lymph nodes are enlarged,
hemorrhagic and edematous due to serous infiltration.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation
DEGENERATIVE CHANGES
In connection with septicemia, viremia and toxemia where organs are likely to show
degeneration, muscular tissue may be affected in the same way. The appearance of the affected
parts will be dull, grayish and soft.
Degeneration of muscular tissue may also occur if an animal is exhausted during transport. This
is particularly seen in the longissimus dorsi muscle of pigs. The muscles become whitish, soft
and look like fish meat.
JUDGEMENT

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When it is part of a systemic disease, total condemnation. In other cases only local condemnation
is necessary.
HAEMORRHAGES-
Petechial hemorrhages may be found in muscles in connection with systemic diseases or it may
occur as blood splashing following the electrical method of stunning.
JUDGEMENT
The cause and the extent of the hemorrhages must be considered before final judgment.

AFFECTIONS OF THE BONES

1. Fractures
2. Actinomycosis
3. Rickets and osteomalacia
4. Pre-sternal calcification
5. Osteomyelitis

FRACTURES
This is a frequent cause of emergency slaughter in food animals. It mostly involves the ribs,
pelvic bones, or bones of a limb. Fractures may be classifies broadly as incomplete, complete, or
multiple, or either closed or open. Complete fractures are indicated by the complete loss of bony
continuity, allowing overriding and deformation while as incomplete fracture implies that a bone
has not completely lost continuity; some portion of the bone remains intact. In compound
fractures, also called closed fracture, the fractured bone does not communicate with the outside
environment but rather remains encased within the skin and musculature that surround it. It is the
most common fracture in animals. Simple fractures, also known as open fractures, communicate
with the outside environment. This may occur through a large wound or a tiny puncture wound.
Regardless of wound size, any fracture that has communicated with the outside is considered an
open fracture.
Fresh fractures are recognized by the hemorrhagic infiltration of the bone marrow and the
surrounding tissues. If the fracture has occurred during life, the adjacent lymph nodes are
enlarged and of a red, reddish brown colour as a result of blood absorption.
In cases of open fractures it is advisable, if at all possible, to perform a Bacterial Examination in
order to ascertain that no infection has taken place through the wound, following the fracture.

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JUDGEMENT
In the case of negative Bacterial Examination the affected parts can be trimmed and the carcass
passed. If a BE cannot be carried out, it will be necessary to ensure that there are no systemic
changes before the carcass can be passed and the affected part be trimmed.
RICKETS AND OSTEOMALACIA
These two conditions are both the result of a disturbance in calcium phosphorus and D-vitamin
balance in the body. Rickets may be found in young animals and it is therefore a condition
unlikely to be encountered in MI. it is characterized by softening, swelling and curvature of
skeletal bones.
Osteomalacia is a disease of adult animals and it is a decalcification of already existing bones. In
pronounced cases only a thin shell of bone is left and possibilities of fractures increase with the
development of this condition.
JUDGEMENT
If the animals are in good condition the carcass can be passed, perhaps after deboning.
PRESTERNAL CALCIFICATION
The repeated bruising of the pre-sternum during the act of lying down may lead to fat necrosis,
which gives the appearance of irregular puffy like muscles in the pre-sternal fat. Secondary
calcification takes place in some of the cases.
This condition could be mistaken for TB, but it can be distinguished from this by the absence of
the involvement of the associated LNS.

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JUDGEMENT
The affected parts can be trimmed off and the carcass passed.
OSTEOMYELITIS
Osteomylitis is an inflammation of the bone and bone marrow. This can sometimes be found in
conditions like pyaemia and ulcerative endocarditis where pyogenic bacteria are circulating in
the blood forming metastatic inflammations in the body including the bones.
The inflammation developing may be haemorrhagic or purulent and the bone marrow becomes
yellow or brownish coloured. Finally an encapsulated purulent affection (abcess) can be seen.
JUDGEMENT
As this is a result of haematogeneous spread of pyogenic bacteria it will necessitate total
condemnation.
AFFECTIONS OF THE JOINTS
ARTHRITIS
a) Traumatic arthritis (aseptic inflammation)
b) Infectious arthritis

It is of great importance in meat inspection to determine whether the infection is non-septic or

septic. The non-septic traumatic arthritis is of local importance only. The septic infections, which
occur as a result of a puncture wound, from a focus of infection in the surrounding tissue or via
the bloodstream, can be divided into two categories
1. Septic arthritis in multiple joints, which can be seen in septicaemia and pyaemia.
2. Septic arthritis in one joint only, developing as a local infection. REMEMBER, that this
may however be the focus from where a pyaemia may develop

Ante-mortem signs of septic arthritis are fever, swelling of the joint, lameness, and maybe
emaciation.
If the joints are opened, the following post-mortem lesions may be seen the synovial
membrane is thickened, hyperaemic and the villi become visible due to oedema. Exudation
and the amount of fluid in the joint is increased. The consistency and colour of the fluid
varies depending on the type of bacteria involved.
JUDGMENT
Non-septic arthritis only calls for condemnation of the affected joint(s). Infectious (septic)
arthritis in two or more joints necessitates total condemnation. Infectious arthritis in a single
joint and not accompanied by fever or metastasis, is a local affection which only requires
local condemnation.

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 The chronic arthritis which occasionally develops as sequence to Swine Erysipelas often
affects the large joints, especially in the hind leg. The condition will, although it may affect
more than one joint only necessitate local condemnation.

AFFECTIONS OF THE UTERUS

1. Septic metritis
2. Tuberculosis
3. Pyometra
4. Mummification of the foetus
5. Putrefaction of the foetus
6. Hermaphoditism

SEPTIC METRITIS
This is the most serious and important condition affecting the uterus. It occurs as a result of
infection via a retained placenta after parturition or through injury or rupture of the uterine
mucus membrane during parturition.
The animal has fever and there is usually great constitutional disturbance with insufficient
bleeding, degenerative changes in the organs, and other signs of septicemia.
If the infection is caused by pyogenic bacteria pyemia usually develops.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation
TUBERCULOSIS
Most of the uterine tuberculosis cases are as result of generalization or due to descending
infection from an existing tuberculous peritonitis where bacilli from the peritoneum enter the
uterus via the fallopian tubes. A primary complex practically never occurs in the uterus. The two
forms commonly distinguished are:
a) Acute milliary TB (Nodular Tuberculous endometriris): this is characterized by typical
tubercles or nodules under the mucosa and formation of ulcers due to erosion of the
mucosa.
b) Acute /diffuse caseous Tuberculosis (Caseous Tuberculous endometriris): characterized
by extreme thickening and caseation of the mucosa and formation of a thick Caseous
layer on the mucosa.
Judgment

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 Total condemnation considered in case of:

 Active primary complex form

 Generalization
 Congenital tuberculosis
 Fever during antemortem inspection

PYOMETRA
This is a chronic inflammation of the uterus with accumulation of pus in the uterus; normally
there is no discharge through the vagina and it is not usually accompanied by fever or other
systemic changes, though it may in a few cases, lead to emaciation.

JUDGEMENT
This must be based on the nutritional state of the animal and, if possible, a Bacterial Examination
is done.
MUMMIFICATION OF THE FOETUS
This is an aseptic process which takes place in the uterus. The fetus becomes dehydrated and
appears dry and odorless. There is a complete lack of constitutional disturbances, and there is no
deleterious effect on the maternal carcass.
JUDGEMENT
Condemnation of the uterus and the carcass is judged on its merit.
MACERATION OF FOETUS
This denotes the degenerative changes caused by some non pathogenic and non putrefactive
bacteria on the soft tissues, and eventual disintegration of fetus retained in the uterus after its
death. The foetal soft tissue becomes transformed into grayish-red soft odorless fluid containing
pieces of bones. These changes have no effect on the maternal carcass.
JUDGEMENT
The carcass can be passed after condemnation of the affected uterus.
PUTREFACTION OF THE FOETUS
In connection with delivery the foetus may die and remain in the uterus. Putrefactive bacteria
enter the uterus through the open cervix, and in the dead body they find excellent conditions for
growing. If the dead foetus is left in the uterus for a few hours bacterial intoxication takes place
and this may cause death to the mother.

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 JUDGEMENT
The presence of putrefactive foetus in the uterus results in total condemnation.
HAEMAPHRODITISM
This is a term used for all the bisexual conditions characterized by a mingling of the sexual
characteristics of both sexes in one individual.
Females may have testes instead of ovaries or the organs have become a mixture called ova-
testes in which both types of tissue can be recognized. Other parts of the sexual organs may be
changed as well.
JUDGEMENT
This is insignificant for the meat inspector as the affected parts are not used for human
consumption.

AFFECTIONS OF THE UDDER

1. Mastitis
a. Chronic mastitis
b. Acute mastitis
2. TB
3. Actinomycosis
4. Melanosis

MASTITIS
This refers to the inflammation of the mammary gland and udder tissue. It may be either acute or
chronic in nature. The chronic type in most cases results with destruction of the glandular tissue
which is replaced by fibrous tissue (induration). Thick walled abscesses may also be found in
some cases. Generally, the chronic cases of mastitis are of no importance for the meat inspector.
Acute mastitis, also known as septic mastitis is a serious condition characterized by rapid
progress and severe systemic disturbances such as pain, swelling, warmth and redness. The
inflammation is often accompanied by gangrene, in which case the affected tissue is of grayish –
brown colouration and contains a dark malodorous liquid.
JUDGEMENT
Total condemnation in cases of septic mastitis. Cases of chronic mastitis the udder is rejected and
the carcass judged on its merits.
TUBERCULOSIS

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Most of the cases of TB in the udder are a result of a generalization and will as such necessitates
total condemnation. Three forms of the disease can be distinguished in the udder:
1. Generalized miliary TB
2. Chronic udder TB
3. Breakdown forms (caseous tuberculous mastitis)-refer

Judgment:- refer

ACTINOMYCOSIS
Actinomycosis of the udder of the sows is caused by Actinomyces suis and it is characterized by
thick walled abscesses embedded in indurate udder tissue. Typical sulphur granules are present
in the pus. Finally the udder becomes indurate and the milk secretion ceases.
JUDGEMENT
The udder and the draining lymph nodes are condemned and the carcass judged on its merit. In
case of signs of emaciation- total condemnation is done.
MELANOSIS (SEEDY CUT)
This is deposition of melanin pigments in the udder of female pigs giving the mammary tissue an
appearance of round black seeds. Dark brown lines and patches are distributed in the tissue of
the mammary gland.
JUDGEMENT
The affected parts are condemned.

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