ETHICS: FOUNDATIONS OF MORAL VALUES

KEY CONCEPTS: 
🞆What are moral standards and how do they  differ from others rules of lives? 
🞆What is foundational moral principles? 
🞆Why freedom crucial in our ability to make  moral decisions? 
🞆What is the advantage of owning moral  standards (morality and ethics) over merely  abiding
by moral standards. 
INTRODUCTION 
“Know thyself…. 
The unexamined life is not worth  living.” 
-Socrates 
“gnothi seauton, nosce te ipsum”

INTRODUCTION 
“Human beings is endowed with the ability to  think and search for reasons for our actions  led
to the birth of philosophical thoughts.”
INTRODUCTION 
Philosophy (Big Questions)
PHILOSOPHY 
- a discipline attempt to answer the deepest, basic questions about subject matters of our lives
and about the significant aspects of our existence. 
Mackinon, 2013 
Subfield: 
Logic (the study of correct reasoning) 
Metaphysics (the study of the fundamental nature of reality) Epistemology (the study of
knowledge) 
Ethics (the study of Morality)
ETHICS 
- (Etymologically), is derived from Greek word ethos which means “a characteristics way of
acting” 
Ethos would refer to the characteristics belonging to  man as a thinking and rational animal,
gifted with  intellect and freewill.
ETHICS 
Ethos of man (rational being) may be characterized by  the following: 
1. That within us the feeling that tells us that we must  do what is good and avoid evil. 
2. That within us is the ability to distinguish between  good and evil, right and wrong, moral
and immoral. 
3. That within us is the feeling that whatever we do, we  are accountable and responsible for,
irrespective  of whether the consequence of our action is a reward  or a punishment.
ETHICS 
Is this right?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P-2DJK2041k 

ETHICS 

❖ Also known as Moral Philosophy (Study of  Morality) 

Morality 

❑ Beliefs about right or wrong, good and evil. 

❑ “The quality of human acts by which we call  them right or wrong, good or evil.”  

- Panizo, 1964
ETHICS 

❖ Human Acts is right, when it conforms with NORM 

RULE 
LAW OF MORALITY 
Otherwise it is said to be wrong.
ETHICS 

Speaking to police officials and personnel gathered for the celebration of the 118th police
service anniversary at Camp Crame the other day, Duterte explained he does not consider “as
bribery” the act of giving monetary reward or gifts to public servants, including policemen. 
Pcoo.gov.ph
ETHICS 
Under Section 7 (d) of the law, “Public officials and employees shall not solicit or accept,
directly or indirectly, any gift, gratuity, favor, entertainment, loan or anything of monetary
value from any person in the course of their official duties or in connection with any operation
being regulated by, or any transaction which may be affected by the functions of their office.” 
R.A. 6713
ETHICS 
🞆 CSC on Duterte remark on cops receiving gifts: There  are laws that should be followed 
Civil Service Commission (CSC) Commissioner Aileen Lizada on Sunday said there are laws that
should be followed, after President Rodrigo Duterte said it is okay for cops to receive gifts. 
“Meron ho tayong mekanismo na kailangan sundin in the form ng batas. Ito po ay ang
Republic Act 6713 which is the Code of Conduct and Ethical Standards for Public Officials and
Employees, as well as Republic Act 3019, the Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act,” Lizada told
GMA News Online.
ETHICS 
For Instance,  
When Juan gets the pencil of Pedro without the  latter’s permission, Juan’s action is wrong
because it is  not adherent to the norm, “stealing is wrong” 
Another example: 
It is not natural for man to behave like a beast  because he is not a beast.  
He is a man, He has intellect and free will. 

Foundational Moral Principle

🞇A principle is that on which something is based, founded, originated, initiated. 

🞇A foundational moral principle is, therefore the universal norm upon which all other principles

on the rightness or wrongness of an action are based. 

🞇“DO GOOD AND AVOID EVIL.”

ETHICS 
Foundational moral principle is contained in  the Natural Law.
- What is natural law? 
- The law “written in the hearts of men.” (Romans  2:15) 
- For theists, it is “man’s share in the Eternal Law  of God.” 
- “The light of natural reason, whereby we discern  what is good and what is evil…an imprint on
us  of the divine light…” (St. Thomas) 
ETHICS 
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:
1. Is morality for persons and animal? 
2. Is an animalistic act of man moral? 
3. Is the foundational moral principle sensed only by  believers? 
4. Is the foundational moral principle very specific? 
5. Is foundational moral principle known by our  predecessors? 
Do you remember a time when you had to  make a choice and each option was equally 
pleasant? 
DILEMMA 
What is a Dilemma? 
A choice between two or more alternatives, in which the outcomes are equally undesirable, or
equally favorable. 
The dilemma does not typically involve a moral or ethical crisis, but the person or character’s
life may change as a result of their decision.
DILEMMA 
What is a Dilemma? 
A dilemma is a situation where person is forced to choose between two or more conflicting
options, neither of which is acceptable.
LET’S THINK ABOUT IT 
Is this a mere Dilemma or Moral Dilemma?

MORAL DILEMMAS 
- are situations where persons, who are called “moral agents” in ethics, are forced to choose
between two or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves the situation in a morally
acceptable manner.

MORAL DILEMMAS 
Sample Scenario 
- A military Doctor is attending to the needs of the wounded soldiers in the middle of the war.
Unfortunately, two soldiers urgently need a blood transfusion. However, only one bag of blood
is available at the moment. 
To whom shall 
the doctor 
administer the 
Blood transfusion?
MORAL DILEMMAS 
Sample Scenario 
- Lindsay is a deeply religious person; hence, she considers killing humans absolutely wrong.
Unfortunately, it is found out that Lindsay is having an ectopic pregnancy.
MORAL DILEMMAS 
In moral dilemma, the moral agent “seems fated to commit something wrong which implies
that she is bound to morally fail because in one way or another she will fail to do something
which she ought to do. In other words, by choosing one of the possible moral requirements, the
person also fails on other.” 
Benjiemen Labastin
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS Systematic/Structural Level (Macro) 
- at this level involve social, political, legal, and economic systems that are in place at a given
time. 
- Choices made at this level are affected by political pressures, economic conditions and societal
atmospheres and attitude.
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS 
Systematic/Structural Level  (Macro) 
Moral Issues abound: 
🞆Mining Laws 
🞆 Transport Modernization 
It is never easy for people in power to  make moral choices and be burdened with  irreparable
consequences.

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS 

Systematic/Structural Level  
(Macro)

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS Systematic/Structural Level (Macro) 

Certain events in the  
World place us (Moral 
Agents) in a situation 
of moral conflict.
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS 
Organizational Level 
This involves moral 
dilemmas in relation to 
particular groups of 
organizations. 
- It consists of the 
policies of particular groups, 
institutions, or professions 
and its impact on the choices 
and actions of its members.
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS Organizational Level 
Code of Ethics: 
🞆 Teachers 
🞆 Journalists 
🞆 Lawyers 
🞆 Doctors 
🞆 Nurses 
🞆 Business 
Set of policies, Serve 
as guide for decisions and 
actions of its members.
MORAL DILEMMAS 
How does a good-hearted lawyer resolve moral dilemmas, e.g. when he knows that his client
is guilty, or a professional criminal?

MORAL DILEMMAS 
How do doctors deal with the possibility that the person they are saving might actually be a
criminal?
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS 
Organizational Level

THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS 

Personal/Individual Level 
This includes dilemmas concerning individual decisions, behavior or character when such is
influenced by peer pressure, personal financial position and socio-economic status.
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS 
Personal/Individual Level 
This includes dilemmas concerning individual decisions, behavior or character when such is
influenced by peer pressure, personal financial position and socio-economic status. 
ChoicesPerson’s Culture Person’s Beliefs 
Person’s Values
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS 
Personal/Individual Level 
(Sample Scenario) 
You are going to be late again for your class. Your teacher warned you that if you will be late
again, she would be forced to give you a violation slip which means that you will lose your
chance for scholarship for the semester. On the way to school, you saw an old lady tripped and
fell face-down on the sidewalk and all the contents of her grocery bag rolled everywhere. You
were the only person around to help her. You checked the time and realize that to help her
means that you will be late for class! What will you do?
THREE LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMAS To be or not to be? 
The responsibility of making choice would cause the person to take neutral ground, not do
anything and just wait for events to unfold. 
To not do anything when we have a chance, is to fail as a human being.
ENRICHMENT TASK/ACTIVITY 
Take A Stand: Give your position and Support with  Explanations/Examples. 
1. The Death Penalty 
2. Ending the Drug War 
3. Legalizing Divorce 
ENRICHMENT TASK/ACTIVITY 
Take A Stand: Give your position and Support with  Explanations/Examples. 
1. Student-Teacher Mutual Attraction/Relationship 
2. Imagine you were the principal of your school and had  to decide whether to use a limited set
of funds to continue  either the honors program or the program for at-risk  students.  
3. One of your students is unable to complete an  assignment regarding a religious figure due to
a parent's  objection. Do you float the student on the grade, or fail  him for not completing his
work? 

ENRICHMENT TASK/ACTIVITY

SETTING THE MOOD: 

Why do you think it is important to choose a course of action in a moral dilemma than to not
make any choice at all? Explain and support with an example.
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Vaugh (2008), to not exercise the freedom to choose has the following drawbacks: 
1. It deprives the person the right to make choices. Being human means having the freedom to
make choices. To not be able to do this, lowers the stature of man to that of a beast and denies
him the chance to fulfill his destiny
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Vaugh (2008), to not exercise the freedom to choose has the following drawbacks: 
2. His responses to moral dilemmas will be incomplete, confused or mistaken. He will be
deprived of the knowledge of the consequences of his choices. Thus, he fails to learn and grow
as a mature human being.
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Vaugh (2008), to not exercise the freedom to choose has the following drawbacks: 
3. The person will be deprived of intellectual moral growth. Maintaining neutrality or blindly
accepting moral beliefs may end up in denying all morality.

SETTING THE MOOD:

SETTING THE MOOD: 

Article III Bill of Rights  
It is the charter of Liberties for the individual and a limitation upon the power of the state.
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Freedom 
- Greatly valued 
- Freedom is what makes us responsible for our acts 
- I have responsibility for those actions (Imputability – moral responsibility for one’s human
actions) 
- Complete freedom is an illusion and would be detrimental, not only to ourselves, but also to
our fellow human beings.

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Freedom 
- Greatly valued

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Freedom 
- Greatly valued 
Man by nature is free. He always seeks for freedom. He cannot be contented being enslaved by
any external forces. He needs to express himself according to his nature. Any violation to this
right to freedom is a moment of struggle. In the history of mankind, there were several
instances when man continuously fights for this very right to freedom. He allows no one to
violate it. By any means he tries to sustain it.

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Responsibility 
- the state of being responsible or accountable; that for which one is answerable, for example, a
duty or trust. 
- it is the capacity to distinguish between right and wrong – having ethical discrimination. 
- And of course, in the first place, it is accepting full responsibility for one's own life and all that
it entails.
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Freedom 
- it involves the will, the rational appetite, and a faculty for the good. 
- the power that's rooted in our intellect and our will to act or not to act to do, this or that and
so to perform deliberate actions on our own responsibility . 
Thus, in the context of morality, actions and choices undertaken must be supported by good
reasons.
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Reason 
According to Merriam and Webster, reason is a statement that explains why something is the
way it is, why someone does, thinks, or says something or why someone behaves in a certain
way. 
- it is also mind’s power to think and understand in a logical way.
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Does Emotions Hinder Your Rational Decision Making? 
As individuals capable of emotions, they are usually carried out in the heat of the moment. 
Chances are, the reasons for such actions are flawed and cannot be accepted.
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Does Emotions Hinder Your Rational Decision Making? 
Watch this…… 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gApa 
A1p09F8

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Does Emotions Hinder Your Rational Decision Making?

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Does Emotions Hinder Your Rational Decision Making? 
The feelings may be irrational and may have resulted because prejudice, selfishness and
cultural upbringing (Rachels,2009).
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Decisions should be guided by reasons and morally right thing to do (Guided by Moral
Principles) 
Characteristics of Moral Principles (Percesepe,1998, Holmes, 1998) 

❖ Prescriptivity 

❖ Universalizability 

❖ Overridingness 

❖ Publicity 

❖ Practicability

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Characteristics of Moral Principles (Percesepe,1998, Holmes, 1998) 

❖ Prescriptivity 
- the action-guiding principle of morality posed as injunctions and imperatives. 
Injunctions (one is required to do or refrain from doing specified act)

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Characteristics of Moral Principles (Percesepe,1998, Holmes, 1998) 

❖ Universalizability 
- What is right for one person is right also for another in a relatively similar situation. - a rule
that forbids us from treating one person differently from another when there is no 

good reason to do so.

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Characteristics of Moral Principles (Percesepe,1998, Holmes, 1998) 
❖ Universalizability
FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 
Characteristics of Moral Principles (Percesepe,1998, Holmes, 1998) 

❖ Overridingness 
- Moral Principles take precedence over other kinds of considerations, including aesthetic,
prudential and legal ones. 
Example: When so much injustice results from a bad law, then this situation may call for not
illegal but moral defiance

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Characteristics of Moral Principles (Percesepe,1998, Holmes, 1998) 

❖ Overridingness

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Characteristics of Moral Principles (Percesepe,1998, Holmes, 1998) 

❖ Overridingness

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Characteristics of Moral Principles (Percesepe,1998, Holmes, 1998) 

❖ Publicity 
- Moral Principles must be made public. This is the only way it can be known. 
Example: Senate and Congressional hearings are made public that the government is not
tolerating 

graft and corruption.

FOUNDATION OF MORALITY: FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY 

Characteristics of Moral Principles (Percesepe,1998, Holmes, 1998) 

❖ Practicability 
- Moral system must be workable. Ethical systems take human limitations into consideration. 
Example: Work schedules should be made in such a way as it considers the basic need of
employees for rest and nourishment. Shifting schedules should benefits both employees and the
organization.