According to Mitra Choudhary & Mukherjee 2009, it has been concluded

that 65.51 lakh people are directly or indirectly engaged in weaving and
associated activities in the handloom sector. In India, the handloom
sector is highly decentralized and dispersed. The government has come
up with a scheme called Integrated Handloom Cluster Development
Scheme (IHCDS). In this scheme, weavers who are organized as
clusters would get the assistance directly from the Union government. It
focuses on the handloom weavers’ group to enable them to become self-
sustainable and produce the best quality of products. In West Bengal,
there are 3,50,994 handlooms providing direct and indirect employment
to around 6,66,514 people. So, handlooms in West Bengal have made
some important contribution towards the economy of the state.
According to Das et al 2016, it has been seen that both Shantipur and
Fulia towns in Nadia district of West Bengal, Kolkata are the most
eminent handloom saree weaving centre in Bengal. In comparison to
Shantipur, Fulia is a recent center of handloom sarees getting weavers
from Bangladesh and East Pakistan. The Shantipur Fulia region has
over 125,000 handlooms, producing Shantipuri, Tangail, and Jamdani
handloom sarees in cotton, tussar and silk yarns. (Shantipur-Fulia). It
has been concluded that there are three types of weavers working in the
Handloom cluster of Shantipur and Fulia such as Entrepreneur, Labourer
and Cooperative fold weavers. These two towns are weaver
concentrated areas and around 42,000 looms are operated with 95,000
people working in the weaving field. After the development of various
handloom cooperative society in Shantipur, the houselhold income level
of the people has been increased. The average earning of the weaver’s
family is between Rs. 1500- Rs.2000 monthly. However, the weavers do
not get enough finance from the commercial banks. Government is
inactive in export promotion. So, more government support is required in
order to gain success in the Shantipur and Fulia region.
It has been concluded that handloom industry is the backbone of the
economy of Fulia and the weavers of Fulia are only carrying the
traditional weaving techniques with new advanced 93 thoughts and
designs of Tangail shari in West Bengal. Though the State Government
has taken some initiatives like grant of financial aid to install ‘Natural
Dying Unit’, establishment of ‘Modern Dying and Processing Unit’ set up
of ‘Indian Institute of Handloom Technology’ at Fulia for the development
of this industry but these are not sufficient. So, the Central Government
and also the State Government are yet to take necessary steps for the
overall development of handloom industry and also for the region.
(Basak & Paul, 2015) It has been seen that handloom clusters in Bengal
are known for their unique designs and techniques. Jamdani has been
declared an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. The
excellence in weaving has its base in the social, religious and natural
environment, and it is translated through a particular technique and
weavers’ skill. Jamdani has been witnessed in the well - known clusters
of Shantipur and Fulia. The flowy drapes of cottons and linens from
Fulia, neighbouring Shantipur, have taken the market by storm. They are
famous for Tangail saris, and Fulia weavers have developed their own
version of the tangail jamdani on the pallu. Most weavers in Fulia are
from the Basak community, and are supposed to be descendants of the
famous muslin weavers of Dhaka, who migrated during Partition. (The
Bengal Handloom Trail). Sarees of Shantipur became the brand name of
the product of Shantipur. It is popular for the fine and uniform texture.
(Mitra, Choudhuri, & Mukherjee, 2009). The sarees are famous for the
designs used with extra warp in the border and cotton ground base.
Muga, twisted cotton, zari, viscose (art silk), and polyester are used for
the extra warp. Depending upon the designs, colour, pattern, Shantipuri
sarees are named as Nilambari, Gangajamuna, Benkipar, Bhomra,
Rajmahal, Chandmalla, Anshpar, Brindabani Mour Par, Dorookha.
(Mitra, Choudhuri, & Mukherjee, 2009)
According to Mapdar, most of the inferior and medium quality handloom
fabrics are having some poor properties inherent to them, e.g. poor dye
ability, poor light washing and laundering fastness, unevenness of cloths
because of severe variation in the fitness of the constituent yarns,
severe variation in pick density. (Mukherjee & Mitra, 2008). It has been
observed that a fabric having good drapeability, crease resistance and
softness, will be rejected by the customers merely due to poor
laundering and light fastness properties. Therefore, such type of finishing
can be applied only on quality fabrics for enhancing their elegance and
feel. (Mukherjee & Mitra, 2008). Shantipur is India’s one of the largest
Handloom Hub of 70,000 looms in the district of Nadia of West Bengal.
The major products of this cluster are Shantipur Sarees, Stoles,
Scarves, Dress Materials etc. The core cluster actors are Weavers,
Master Weavers, Dyers & Designers. Other cluster actors are raw
material suppliers, equipment suppliers & 94 Mahajan/Traders. The main
strength of the cluster is the rich resources of traditional skills in jacquard
weaving.
According to Mapdar, the major problems of Shantipur is poor quality
dyeing, fluctuation of yarn prices, lack of design inputs & product
diversification, absence of business institutions & single marketing
channel. The major threats of the cluster are power loom product,
harping on single product i.e Saree & cost-based competition
deteriorating the quality.
At Phulia people work together by forming cooperatives but they cannot
achieve up to their potentiality without significant government help.
Government is inactive in promoting this Phulian Tangail sharee industry
It is also inactive in export promotion. So, more government efforts are
required to head towards success in Phulia. All the weavers who are
joined in the weaving programme they are all not the member of the
cooperatives some weaver works through Mahajans and some are
individual workers but who are joined with cooperative societies, they are
much reacher than the others. (Co-Operative Based Economic
Development in Phulia, 2015)
According to Parinita 2018, Tant sarees are characterized by a thick
border, a decorative pallav and are woven with a variety of floral, paisley
and other artistic motifs by the women of West Bengal and Bangladesh.
The simplest kind of tant sarees take about 10-12 hours to weave. But
the complex designs take 5-6 days to weave a saree. Shantipur and
Fulia are one of the major regions of tant production in West Bengal
providing the best quality of Tant sarees.
Mondal et al, found out that Santipur, once the bastion of finest dhotis
and saris handwoven in West Bengal, is stacked with cheaper and
aesthetically inferior powerloom goods." In pockets of Nadia district,
weavers have traded the looms that earlier wove gamchha and lungi for
powerlooms that can be operated by one person and can produce 12
saris in a day. (Sengupta). In Shantipur and Phulia, near about 70,000
working looms involve directly or indirectly 2,10,000 people in the
weaving and its associated occupations. Dyeing yarns is one of the most
important auxiliary occupations in this weaving sector. (Mondal, Biswas,
& Bhattacharya). In Shantipur, hundreds of people are involved in the
dyeing process in both organised (Govt. undertaking co-operatives) and
unorganised (private) units of dye houses. The yarns dyeing process has
different steps viz desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerization, dyeing,
washing and drying.
According to (Biswas, Bhattacharya, & Bhattacharya, Operational health
hazards among yarn dyeing employees, 2018), the handloom sector not
only provides socioeconomic stability to villages, but it also preserves
the country's cultural legacy and uniqueness. More than 90% of dyeing
units in Santipur and Phulia, West Bengal, have been actively striving to
create 60% coloured yarn and 40% grey yarn to suit the needs of the
area's weaving facilities. More workers are tired or fatigued after work as
a result of extended working hours and excessive workplace humidity.
More understanding of the hazards of the working environment is
needed to reduce the health risks faced by yarn dyeing workers.

According to the study (Sangeetha & Charles, 2019), the handloom

sector's strength resides in its distinctiveness, manufacturing flexibility,
openness to innovations, adaptation to supplier requirements, and
wealth of tradition. Due to different policies and initiatives such as cluster
strategy, strong marketing drive, and social welfare measures, the
handloom sector has exhibited positive growth and income levels have
improved since independence.

Agriculture's closest competition is handloom. People make almost as

much as or more than they do in agricultural pursuits by making sarees.
The profit was split evenly among the middlemen. Because the
installation fee is too exorbitant, not everyone can afford to possess a
loom. Even obtaining raw materials and marketing the finished product
are far too tough for the impoverished. Only a public-private cooperation
can make this happen. According to (Mishra & Bhattacharjee, 2017),
India's handloom sector employs 14 percent of the poor and generates
10% of total textile exports each year. Independent weavers profit 50%
more than cooperative weavers in the near run, according to the study.
However, in the long run, they are at a disadvantage.

According to (Kumar & Rao, 2018), the handloom sector has been able
to compete with the power loom and mill industries due to the
introduction of several developmental and welfare programmes. It does,
however, face a number of obstacles and issues that threaten its growth
and viability. People are dissatisfied with the implementation of the
Integrated Handloom Cluster Development Scheme (IHCDS), according
to the report, but they are hopeful for better results in the future. The
weavers' quality, social position, and social harmony improved as a
result of their membership in the cluster. Handloom items have a global
reputation, according to the study (Gera,2019), and the sector is strongly
tied with the country's cultural history.

(Avijit & Pradip, 2017) Stated that most of the cooperative society of
West Bengal has been closed day by day and the trend of production is
declining unexpectedly. There is inequality in the relation of handloom
workers. Number of challenges are faced by the handloom industry such
as financial constraint, inability to purchase up-to-date machinery, poor
working conditions, lack of domestic market and demand and so on.
People are living in a better condition due to the cooperative system but
most of the weavers are working under Mahajan.

Textile dyeing businesses, according to (M, G, & R, 2016), generate

significant amounts of toxic waste water, making them the leading
polluter of groundwater. Hundreds of people work in the dyeing process
in Santipur, Nadia district, because dying yarns is one of the most
significant auxiliary activities in the weaving industry. The study found
that the majority of wastewater parameters above the maximum
allowable limit, indicating that dyeing unit effluents include a high
percentage of non-biodegradable materials. To alleviate environmental
stress, proper awareness and regular wastewater monitoring should be
required.

West Bengal's handloom silk sector is beset by pricing anomalies, a lack

of infrastructure, a lack of technological adaptability, and an inability to
compete in international markets. In comparison to the rest of the
country, production is lower. Though the progress of mulberry sericulture
in West Bengal is unaffected, there are significant gaps. The main
factors are poor economic conditions and the craftspeople' small
estates. The growth of West Bengal's handloom artisans is hampered by
a lack of institutional supervision and a well-connected credit system, as
well as financial illiteracy. Technologies and innovations must be used to
produce greater outputs in more cost-effective ways.
Roy, 2017, described the handloom sector is in trouble due to low-cost
power loom textiles. It has faced major challenges such as a lack of raw
materials, a lack of credit, market support and brand promotion, poor
working conditions and infrastructure, a lack of quality yarn, a lack of
sufficient and appropriate data, education and vocational training, a lack
of working capital, and poor management. For the handloom sector to
expand, there must be investment, quality assurance, sales growth,
efficient cost control, technology upgrades, market facilities, and the
revival of traditional handloom.

The Government of India has implemented schemes under the

Handloom Weavers' Comprehensive Welfare Scheme, such as the
Health Insurance Scheme (HIS) and the Mahatma Gandhi Bunkar Bima
Yojana (MGBBY), to help boost the sector, as weavers are paid low
wages and are sometimes forced to abandon traditional work and seek
employment in cities. Panda and Panda (2018). The proportion of
participation in handloom households was 33.9 percent, with an average
household size of 4.59 people and 1.56 workers. Because handloom
weaving is mostly a rural activity, 83.8% of the workforce resides in rural
regions. Weavers labour for an average of 173 days per year and earn
Rs. 36,498 per year. Only 9.7% of workers fall into the most
impoverished category, while 36.9% fall into the below-poverty-line
category. 82.9 percent have completed elementary school, 12.7 percent
have completed secondary school, and 29.4 percent have never
completed any degree of schooling.

Weavers confront a lack of access to formal financial systems, as well as

problems with awareness of government aid programmes, as well as a
lack of incentives, low earnings, and occupational dangers. The rise in
the use of power looms, which reproduce handlooms faster and
cheaper, is the largest impediment to the expansion of the handloom
sector. Weavers are largely disorganized, whereas purchasers are,
giving buyers the upper hand in bargaining and leaving weavers in debt
and with little bargaining power. Because even the suppliers are
organized, the weavers have no influence over the raw material
inventories.
Despite having the ability to obtain discounted raw materials, they are
frequently unable to do so due to poor literacy, a lack of awareness, and
the presence of intermediaries. (Strategic Management Perspective for
Sustainable Development in the Handloom Industry, Singh & Srivastava,
2018)
Kumar & Sulaiman 2017, described functional management information
system (MIS) must be imposed, as well as the production of value-added
products such as clothes. Handlooms should focus on textiles that need
skilled and artisan labour, as well as low count yarn that other industries
are unable to create, whereas power looms can readily manufacture
finer plain textiles at a lower cost because of their operational efficiency.

Sarkar & Mukhopadhyay 2019, described the handloom industry is beset

by problems such as low productivity, a lack of product variety, and
difficulties obtaining raw materials. The cooperative industry is
uninterested in expanding its market. Despite the fact that there are
many experienced and cost-effective weavers, they continue to use
traditional methods; weavers' adoption of new techniques is extremely
low. As a result of the trade's instability, the new generations are all
unwilling to adopt weaving as their primary activity.

Mishra & Mohapatra 2021, addresses handloom weavers are

hardworking and skilled artisans who can make considerable money if
properly guided by marketing methods. The current situation offers a
very different picture, with weavers earning terrible pay. Despite the
invisibly applied marketing methods, the weavers' well-being is in doubt.
2020 (Vyshnavi & Nair) Despite the government's efforts in the form of
institutional support and direct financial help, the handloom weavers
continue to suffer from a variety of issues and losses. Nonetheless, due
to its strong cultural and aesthetic significance, the handloom sector will
not lose market share, but it will confront numerous hurdles in order to
maintain its traditional place alongside its market share.

D'Costa 2021, mentioned elite nature of handmade products in the age

of power looms, the economic and social divide between handloom
weavers and consumers may be enormous. Segmented marketplaces
are as ubiquitous as product differentiation in today's capitalist economy.
When compared to pre-capitalist systems, one of the advantages of the
capitalist industrial economy is the democratization of consumption.

Phulia is known for production of excellent cloths of various kinds by

different types of materials like cotton, silk, wool, linen of attractive
design, pattern and colours. At present near about 25 thousand looms
are running in Phulia, among them 80% are producing the traditional
saree and rest 20% are engaged in exportable cloth production. (Co-
Operative Based Economic Development in Phulia, 2015). The total
number of handlooms under the cooperative is nearly 500 and more in
Phulia municipality area. 30% of the looms are used to make sarees
such as, Jamdani, Tangail, Baluchori, Padma anchala, tant sarees etc.
70% of the total looms are engaged in making of exportable goods.
Such as scurf made by pure silk. Though the saree is the traditional
wear of the Indian women, the demand of other products made by silk or
tant thread increased. So, the proportion of this looms are more because
of the high demand of these goods at the foreign markets. The weavers
get more benefit in making these materials. So the number of handlooms
of sarees are rapidly lesser though the looms which made the exportable
material rather then sarees increased. (Co-Operative Based Economic
Development in Phulia, 2015)
A migration (inter district as well as intra district) is seen in Phulia where
other side people like from North Dinajpur, Cooch Bihar seen,Jalpaiguri,
Murshidabad where we see some very small handloom cluster in West
Bengal but the weavers migrate in Phulia because here they could get
much money from other place of the India and also in West Bengal and
a migration seen here from other parts of Santipur handloom cluster.
(Co-Operative Based Economic Development in Phulia, 2015)
One of the important thing is seen in Phulia is that here we see some
Handloom Cooperatives. We know that all over the Santipur Handloom
cluster contains many Cooperatives but some Cooperatives are closed
today and some are active but those cooperatives cannot act properly.
Export promotion is an important part of Phulian handloom industry and
Cooperatives export its products with the help of some foreign market
agents or agencies but Government inefficiency is seen in export
promotion. The house hold income of Phulia changed widely after
generating various source of income which are created by the
development of handloom cooperative. (Co-Operative Based Economic
Development in Phulia, 2015)
Ranga (1930) analysed the nature of economics and organizational
structure of handloom industry. It also analysed the pattern of production
and market condition of handloom products. The unique contribution of
the study was that it provides a detailed description about the important
handloom centres. The study suggests that Co-Optex should conduct
market research to identity the needs of foreign and domestic
consumers and should try to reduce the interest burden on loans by
creating its own internal source.
Venkataramanan (1935) explores the nature of relationship between
production and marketing of handloom products. The Study found that
the system of production determines 96 the method of distribution of
handloom products. While the individual weaver sells his product mainly
through paddling, the organized producers market their products through
show rooms, commission agents etc.
Gosh (1947) stressed the location importance of handloom industry. The
study states that weaves with proximity to market enjoy the location
advantage of marketing. The weaves who are away from market had to
walk 20 to 25 miles losing 2 to 21/2 days to market their products. At the
same time, the location advantage need not be over emphasized. The
study states that even though the outlook of the handloom industry is
dismal at a macro level, in some states the industry has performed well.
Hence a location specific study of the industry will provide better insights
into the dynamics of handloom industry.
Sahai(1956) studied the handloom industry in north India, focusing the
attention on the competition faced by handloom sector from power looms
and mills. The study suggested that handloom weavers should learn
more designs and the production technology should be improved to face
the competition. The Government should take steps to impart training to
the weavers, and supply design books and other instruments free of
cost. National Council for Applied Economic Research (NCAER)
conducted a survey in 1958 on the Economics of Handloom Industry in
Mysore State. The study pointed out that the earnings of weavers were
relatively low and much less than the average standards of living. It was
also pointed that the earnings in the urban centres were considerably
higher than those of the rural centres in 1964.
David Anterro Aloysius (1960) stated that production and marketing are
two areas which require immediate attention. The study pointed out that
the producers are compelled to fix high prices for their products due to
the increased cost of production; and suggested the Government should
supply raw materials at subsidized rates to the weavers.
Nanekar (1968) stated that in order to gain tangible results in the
handloom sector, the volume of production should be increased
substantially. The long-term significant improvement in the earnings of
the weavers can only be achieved by improving the productivity of
labour, a problem ultimately related to the technique of production.
Sinakandhan, (1972) observes that the hike in the raw material cost is
the main reason for the continuous decline in the production of
handloom cloths. Lack of marketing facilities and absence of proper
organizational support are adding to the woes of the sector. The study
suggests that the Government should give priority to the handloom
industry and allocate more resources for the development of this sector.
Angadi, (1975) points out that customer prefer power loom cloths to
handloom cloths due to the price advantage. This makes the marketing
of handloom products extremely difficult. Under such circumstance, it is
necessary that the Government should reserve certain items exclusively
for handloom sector for the sector to survive.
Ramakrishnan, (1978) pointed out that that exploitation by middlemen
and competition from power looms are the major problems faced by
weavers in the handloom sector.
Varada Raj (1979) stated that the yarn market was capable of providing
sufficient quantities of yarn for the handloom industry in India but the
export policies of the government had created scarcity of yarn. The study
recommended that the government should allot more resources for the
development of co-operative spinning mills, and should take steps to
improve the present yarn distribution system so that sufficient quantity of
yarn is available for the handloom sector.
According to the study of Mondal M, his study showed that most of the
waste water parameters are exceed the maximum permissible limit to
some extent. Due to excessive use of different chemical compositions,
the textile industry effluent is considered as number one toxic polluter to
the flora and fauna. Due to lack of knowledge, the untreated toxic
effluent is directly discharged into the surrounding environment. Though
several steps have been taken to improve the surface water quality, but
waste water management practice should be mandatory for every dye
factory. Moreover Awareness campaign and regular monitoring of the
factories may keep away the environmental stresses.
According to the study of Chittaranjan Das (2011) his study seeks to
examine the economics of Jamdani handloom product and labour
process of production of jamdini cotton handloom product. Both gross
profitability and net profitability in this industry are substantial for the
independent units while gross income generated for the artisans working
under different 98 production organization is significant for livelihood.
Variation in profitability across independent units and tied units is
significantly explained by both labour productivity and capital productivity
while that in units under cooperatives by capital productivity alone. For
the industrial units taken together (60 units) across the three production
organizations the profitability variation is explained by labour
productivity, capital productivity and type of production organization.
Production organization emerges as more significant than both labour
productivity and capital productivity to explain the variation in profitability
across the industrial units working under different production
organizations.
According to the study of Nilay Kumar Basak (Dec 2015), his study is
concerned with the origin and evolution of the handloom industry of Fulia
with its present status and also indicates the problems facing by this
industry. From the study it was found that the handloom industry is the
backbone of the economy of Fulia and the weavers of Fulia are only
carrying the traditional weaving techniques with new advanced thoughts
and designs of Tangail Shari. It can be concluded that though the State
Government has taken some initiatives like grant of financial aid to install
‘Natural Dying Unit’, establishment of ‘Modern Dying and Processing
Unit’, set up of ‘Indian Institute of Handloom Technology’ at Fulia for the
development of this industry.
According the study of Chandan Das Sep (2015) his study identify co-
operative base development in weaving in Phulia, identify the socio-
economic condition due to co-operative formation, identify the
infrastructural and socio-cultural change in Phulia, to know about the
status of weaver, to study the present condition of weaving industry, to
analyse the empowerment of weaver due to co-operative development.
According the study of Chandan Das (Oct 2015) his study analyse the
type of work done by handloom worker, identify the infra-structural
facilities provided to the worker, find out the wage pattern for weaving,
identify the various socio-economic problems of weavers, study the
effects of implementation of the various Govt. schemes, study the socio-
economic condition of the weavers of the Village. About 10 million
people directly depend on this industry to eke out their livelihood, while
many millions of people depend upon it as a subsidiary occupation
connected with the handloom industry. The share of employment
provided by the handloom industry in the total decentralized sector is
about 5.5%. Thus the 99 industry constitutes one of the major sectors
employing the largest number of people next only to agriculture.
Nilay Kumar Basak, Pintu Paul (2015) this present paper is concerned
with the origin and evolution of the handloom industry of Fulia with its
present status and also indicates the problems facing by this industry.
So from the study, it can be concluded that the joint venture of both the
Central Government and the State Government is highly solicited for the
development of the handloom industry and also for the region as Fulia is
only centre of Traditional Tangail Shari in all over the India.
B. Premsundar &J.Kannan (WOMEN IN HANDLOOM INDUSTRY
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS) Recent days, women’s empowerment
has become a growing concern both at the national and international
levels on the subjugated, the disadvantaged and status of women in the
society. In India, this concern i.e. women’s empowerment has to be
focused mainly in non-formal sectors, where the women’s work force is
predominant. One among them is handloom sector. On a whole the
purpose of this paper is to familiarize with the current status and
livelihood problems of unorganized women handloom workers and also
to propose the importance of social protection and security.
A.Aggarwal , A. Sharma, A. Tripathi, A. Wadhawan, E. Chongtham,
H.Gupta, K. Agarwal, M. Chaturvedi, N. Wangkhem, R. Bhardwaj (Static
or Dynamic- The Analysis of Handloom Industry of Assam ) this research
paper on handloom industry in North East India(Assam), intend to
analyze the rudimentary problems faced by customers, retailers and
weavers of the handloom product in the state. The paper also aims to
present to the Government of India, which claims the handloom industry
to be a sunset industry, a meticulous plan of action through which it can
take a step forward to preserve and promote the North-Eastern
handloom Industry, which acts as an asset to our economy.
Seemanthini Niranjana, SoumyaVinayan (2001) conducted a study,
commissioned to Dastkar Andhra by the Planning Commission, has
been to generate such field data, which can become the basis for future
interventions. It identifies areas of potential growth in the handloom
sector, and indicates models for intervention based on ground realities. It
focuses on different handloom regions of Andhra Pradesh, with a view to
bringing out specificities in weaving and to identify particular problems. A
unique feature of the study has been the active 100 collaboration
between the perspectives of primary producers (weavers), field
researchers and academicians.
Chandan Das, Mithu Roy, Prosenjit Mondal (A New Gate Way of
Promoting Handloom Industry in Phulia) the study mainly focuses on the
identification of socio-economic and cultural transformation due to
modern cooperatives-based handloom practices like as weaving. The
Indian handloom fabrics have been known for times immemorial for their
beauty, excellence in design; texture and durability. The Cooperative
Societies have a major role in the movement of revival and development
of Tangail Industry in Phulia.
Chandan Das (2015) worked on the handloom industry in India and
emphasised that it is an ancient cottage industry in India with a de-
centralized set up. It has been an old-age source of livelihood for millions
of people in the country. The study has been done to give a clearer
picture of socio-economic condition of weavers, facilities are available to
them, the progress of Governmental schemes.
Ashis (2009) report on the cluster development programme of Shantipur
handloom cluster to formulate a sustainable business plan as well as
marketing plan to assist the historic cluster to compete in the ever
challenging textile business. The report concludes that there is growing
opportunity for market diversification, product diversifications in exports
and local markets etc by adopting appropriate level of technology or
contemporary methods thereby ensuring better price realization of the
produce, and in turn empowerment of the entire handloom weavers’
community of the cluster.
Asha (2003) points out the need for the expansion of domestic and
international market for Indian handloom products. She argues that, in
the era of globalization when the market is flooded with textiles from
China and other countries, the regional specialization of handlooms, if
which the list is endless, can be used to provide a well-defined product
identity. For this purpose, the identities of handloom fabrics must be
respected, protected, and reinforced.
Soundarapandian (2002) analyses the growth and prospects of
handloom sector in India. Inadequate financial support and lack of
market orientation are considered the main reasons for the failure of the
cooperatives. He suggests that weavers be oriented towards the 101
betterment of their skills, knowledge and technology in order to ensure
quality. He emphasizes that the Indian handloom industry will have a
great future if it gets well organised and is adaptable to change.
Sukumaran (2002) critically evaluates the prospects of achieving local
economic development in Kerala through growth and competitiveness of
small firm clusters. He states that in Kerala, a massive movement was
recently launched towards decentralized planning with great success. He
concludes that if more policy making powers are transferred to the
panchayats, probably they could play an important role in fostering the
rural clusters in Kerala that could substantially raise output and
employment. The immense potential of a cluster-based strategy of
industrialization which is more appropriate for Kerala can then only be
fully realized.
Seemanthini and Soumya (2001) provide detailed field level data
regarding cotton handloom weaving, and shows that the industry exhibits
vitality in a number of places. A decline of weaving in some areas due to
a combination of circumstances is offset by a reorganization and
rejuvenation of the industry in other regions. The study suggests that by
addressing the urgent needs of the handloom industry through a holistic
approach, substantial growth in both employment and output can be
achieved.
Rammohan (1999) focuses on the implications of technological
backwardness in Kerala’s industrial life marked with the use of low
productive technologies. The study demonstrates that though new
technology is introduced in workers cooperatives, the involvement of
workers in decision-making is very little. He concludes that the ongoing
technological change appears to be less successful in increasing
productivity and workers income.
Kannan (1998) states that in the handloom weaving industry, absence of
modernisation (including technological changes) in the Schumpetarian
sense, led to the decline of the industry in Kerala. This was despite the
demonstrated ability of the workers to innovate products and capture
foreign markets for a short span of time. The failure of labour unions to
agree to productivity improvements through technological changes and
increasingly resorting to 'closed shop' strategies has been particularly
emphasized in this respect.

The role of cooperatives for the development of technology in the

weaving clusters is examined by Biswas (1998). He points out that
though weaving cooperatives provided the stimulus for technological
development by developing new designs and looms, they failed to make
further advancement through the externalities created by them in the
subsequent period. As a result, private artisans and master traders
benefitted from the technological improvements.

Mridul (1991) conducted an enquiry into the functioning of Hantex, a

state sponsored cooperative society. In the study, she briefly described
the state of the handloom industry in Kerala, in particular the growth of
the cooperative sector. She emphasized on product
diversification and product design as important elements for the
development of the industry.

Sahadevan (1989) focuses attention on various problems and prospects

of the handloom industry in Kerala with special reference to marketing
problem. He finds that compared to other States’ handloom products, the
Kerala handloom fabrics are qualitatively better. However, proper
organizational and managerial inadequacies make the industry and its
products less competitive. He concludes that there is a good prospect for
this age-old traditional industry if proper attention is paid to it.

Studies on handloom cooperatives in Kerala [Krishnankutty-(1985);

Rajgopalan (1986); Manuel (1987); Tony (1988); Raghavan(1995)]
primarily concentrates on the nature of handloom cooperatives in Kannur
and Thiruvananthapuram and the differences involved in
the organizations of production, marketing, structural differences of cost
and profit between South and North Kerala.

Rajagopalan’s study (1986) highlights the fact that cooperatives in

Kannur are more organized than that in Thiruvananthapuram and when
the former depends on foreign markets, the latter depends on local
market.

Rejuladevi (1983) suggest the government take care of the handloom

industry by allocating huge resources for the development of the
industry. Socio- economic position of the majority of weavers is not in a
better position and the weavers are trying to give up their profession and
go to alternative works.

Rao (1979) points out the declining employment opportunities in the

handloom industry. The weavers try to change their profession and to
got to alternative jobs. Because of inadequate financial support from
government, the weavers are facing the problem of hike in raw
material cost, scarcity of necessary inputs, lack of proper production,
marketing and financial
facilities.

TNN (2011) has mentioned that the state government has taken several
decisions to encourage weavers to boost handloom industry in the state.
The state government with the cooperation of the Centre has formulated
several schemes to ameliorate the socio-economic conditions of the
weavers belonging to the handloom industry.

IANS (2011) has noted that Indian consumers need to change the
thinking; they need to think 'swadeshi' rather than 'videshi’. The greatest
tragedy weavers’ face is being ignored not just by people but by
designers as well. The fashion industry is a very powerful platform to
convey the message across the masses that fashion is more than chic
dressing; there has to be an essence to it.

Prachi (2010) has observed that Indian handloom is growing in its

popularity not only among the people in India, but also among the
people admiring Indian handloom and Indian handicrafts from around the
globe. In spite of having distinct styles and ways of weaving, there is a
lot of exchange of styles that happened among the diverse Indian
handloom styles.

Sehgal H. K. (2009) has examined that as far as the garment export

sector is concerned, there have been mixed signals: continuing world
economic downturn; some late recovery, however temporary and for
some people; recent Rupee appreciation and with a new Government,
expected to be stable, assuming charge.

Shijina Shiji (2009) has marked that the weaving process is central to the
quality of the rug. As a matter of fact, handloom rugs and carpets is an
age-old profession practiced by village artisans. It is indeed unfortunate
that the handloom rug making units are under threat of closure as they
are encountering stiff competition globally from power loom units.
Mathiraj and Rajkumar (2008) made an analytical study on Handloom
products production and marketing. The study narrated the production
related problems of the Handloom Weavers’ Societies and reviewed the
marketing process carried out by the Weavers’ Societies.

The studies on handloom sector and socio-economic condition of

weavers are not meagre. Some of the important studies are mentioned
here. Tawheed Yousuf and et. al in 2013 have analyzed the socio-
economic profile of silk weavers of Srinagar city. The study reveals that
the situation of the weavers is worrying as they are feeble due to
illiteracy, financial constraints, health problems, meagre remuneration
and poor Governmental support.

Female work participation rates in India have been studied by Devi in

2011. The socio- economic condition of handloom workers in India and
some policy options for improving the welfare of the weavers has been
analyzed by N.D. George in 2011.

Narasimha Reddy in 2006 has explained that women handloom weavers

are facing the brunt, as well as provided some way for upliftment of poor
female weavers. Rajani Sinha in 2005 has analyses the status of women
and economic development in India. She has also found out the regional
pattern in female participation.
Nisar Ahmad in 1987 has examined the problems and management of
small scale and cottage industries in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
Carpet industry of Shahjahanpur showing occupational structure of
workers in the city has been studied by M. Irshad Hussain in 1975.

Importance of handloom in solving the problems of unemployment of

women has been studied by TD Goswami in 1960. Srinivasachari in
1965 has examined the handloom industry in India. He described the
history of handloom industry, its structure in the age of competition and
also suggested some remedial measures.