NABUTSE QUESTIONS

1.2 SECTION II- GENERAL

SEC. II General total
1. ORAL
1. FAILED AREAS A E F H I K L
1f 1m 1c 1g 1a 1g 1h 1b 1f 1d 1i 1b 12
2. FAILED AREAS A C D I K 6
2a* 2b* 2 2 2 2b
3. FAILED AREAS D F G H I K L 7 2
3a 3h 3b 3d 3b 3a 3g 5

A. Basic electricity
1f). Explain Ohms law using illustration Ohms Triangle
- The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage applied to that conductor and inversely
proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
*Calculation of power in elec. Circuit (1A1f)
Power = IV, V= IR, I=V/R Power= (V/R)V= (V^2)/R = (I^2)R
When R is absent, power =IV
When I is absent, power = (V^2)/R
When V is absent, power = (I^2)R
Current = charge/time I=Q/T
Energy = charge * voltage W=Q*V. Therefore, Q=W/V and I=(W/V)*1/T
W=I*V*T=I*IR*T=RTI^2
1m). What method is used to service Nickel-cadmium batteries and lead-acid batteries and how do you clean a spill of: Lead Acid
battery and Nickel-cadmium battery

 Service Nickel-cadmium batteries and Electrolytes used

- Can withstand higher charge/discharge rates and has a longer life
- It’s electrolyte is potassium hydroxide (KOH) diluted with distilled water.
- Should be charged using a constant current source.
-
How do you clean a spill of: Nickel-cadmium battery
In case of electrolyte spillage, cover/clean the area with acetic acid, 5% solution of chromic acid or 10% solution of boric
acid.
 Service lead-acid batteries and Electrolytes used
- It’s electrolyte is pure Sulphuric acid diluted with distilled water.
- Should be charged by constant voltage source.
- Excessive charging rates can lead to boiling of electrolyte; fumes containing droplets of electrolyte can escape the
battery.
How do you clean a spill of: Lead Acid
- In case of electrolyte spillages, cover/clean the area with sodium bicarbonate.

*3 types of batteries used on aircrafts.

- Lead-acid batteries
- Nickel-cadmium batteries
- Lithium-ion batteries
2a. CORE COMPETENCY ELEMENT: Use measuring equipment to measure in a circuit or circuit component(s), at least one of the following: voltage, current,
resistance, or continuity.

a. How to Measure Voltage

1. Power off the circuity/wiring under test if there is a danger of shorting out closely spaced adjacent wires, terminals or other points which have differing
voltages.
2. Plug the black ground probe lead into the COM socket on the meter (see photo below).
3. Plug the red positive probe lead into the socket marked V (usually also marked with the Greek letter "omega" Ω and possibly a diode symbol).
4. If the meter has has a manual range selection dial, turn this to select AC or DC volts and pick a range to give the required accuracy. So for instance
measuring 12 volts on the 20 volt range will give more decimal places than on the 200 volt range.
If the meter is autoranging, turn the dial to the 'V' setting with the symbol for AC or DC (see "What Do the Symbols on the Range Dial Mean?" below).
5. A multimeter must be connected in parallel in a circuit (see diagram below) in order to measure voltage. So this means the two test probes should be
connected in parallel with the voltage source, load or any other two points across which voltage needs to be measured.
6. Touch the black probe against the first point of the circuitry/wiring.
7. Power up the equipment.
8. Touch the other red probe against the second point of test. Ensure you don't bridge the gap between the point being tested and adjacent wiring,
terminals or tracks on a PCB.
9. Take the reading on the LCD display.

b. How to Measure Current

1. Turn off the power in the circuit being measured.

2. Connect the probe leads as shown in the photo below. Plug the black ground probe lead into the COM socket.
3. Plug the red positive probe lead either into the mA socket or the high current socket which is usually marked 10A (some meters have a 20 A socket
instead of 10A). The mA socket is often marked with the maximum current and if you estimate that the current will be greater than this value, you must
use the 10 A socket, otherwise you will end up blowing a fuse in the meter. On some meters, there is no additional socket for measuring current and the
same socket is used as for measuring voltage (usually marked VΩmA).
4. A multimeter must be inserted in series in a circuit in order to measure current. See the diagram below.
5. Turn the dial on the meter to the highest current range (or the 10A range if the probe is in the 10A socket). If the meter is autoranging, set it to the "A" or
mA setting. (See the photo above for an explanation of symbols used).
6. Turn on the power.
7. If the range is too high, you can switch to a lower range to get a more accurate reading.
8. Remember to return the positive probe to the V socket when finished measuring current. The meter is practically a short circuit when the lead is in the
mA or 10 A socket. If you forget and connect the meter to a voltage source when the lead is in this position, you may end up blowing a fuse at best or
blowing up the meter at worst! (On some meters the 10A range is un-fused).
 c. How to Measure Resistance

1. If the component is on a circuit board or in an appliance, turn off the power

2. Disconnect one end of the component if it's in a circuit. This may involve pulling off spade leads or desoldering. This is important as there may be other
resistors or other components having resistance, in parallel with the component being measured.
3. Connect the probes as shown in the photo below.
4. Turn the dial to the lowest Ohm or Ω range. This is likely to be the 200 ohm range or similar.
5. Place a probe tip at each end of the component being measured.
6. If the display indicates "1", this means that resistance is greater than can be displayed on the range setting you have selected, so you must turn the dial
to the next highest range. Repeat this until a value is displayed on the LCD.

d. How to Check Continuity and Fuses

A multimeter is useful for checking breaks in flexes of appliances, blown filaments in bulbs and blown fuses, and tracing paths/tracks on PCBs

1. Turn the selecting dial on the meter to the continuity range. This is often indicated by a symbol which looks like a series of arcs of a circle (See the photo
showing symbols used on meters above).
2. Connect the probe leads to the meter as shown in the photo below.
3. If a conductor on a circuit board/ a wire in an appliance needs to be checked, make sure the device is powered down.
4. Place the tip of a probe at each end of the conductor or fuse which needs to be checked.
5. If resistance is less than about 30 ohms, the meter will indicate this by by a beep tone or buzzing sound. The resistance is usually indicated on the display
also. If there is break in continuity in the device being tested, an overload indication, usually the digit "1", will be displayed on the meter.

2b. Determine the appropriateness of measurement(s) according to instructions /specifications

C. Weight & balance
*He had a diagram of an aircraft on weighing scale. You are required to find the CoG.
*Calculating Cog and giving the location using the CoG symbol.
2. Demonstrate the ability to calculate weight and balance CG and complete aircraft weight and balance documentation.

ITEM WEIGHT (lbs) TARE (lbs) NET WEIGHT (lbs) ARM (in) (in-lbs)
NOSE 225 -2.5 222.5 -30 -6675
LEFT MAIN 650 -5 645 +70 45150
RIGHT MAIN 640 -5 635 +70 44450
SUBTOTAL 1515 -12.5 1502.5 82895
FUEL TOTAL -177 +95 -16815
FUEL UNUSED +6 +98 588
OIL FULL
TOTAL 1331.5 +50.1 66698
D. Fluid lines and fittings
2). Core competence element: demonstrate the ability to perform at least one of the following – rigid line fabrications to include
tube fittings, bending, and tube flaring. (level 3) (identify various components associated with pipes)

 Take the tube cutter from stores.

 Check that it’s serviceable by comparing the certificate of calibration attached to it if it matches with S/N of the tool
itself.
 Then take a tube bender, do the same checking for serviceability.
 Inspect the flaring tool also.
 Generally, they come in one set (kit), except the tube bender.
 Cut the pipe needed by putting a mark a few inches more on the pipe and then place the tube cutter in position.
 Slightly tighten the tube cutter as you rotate alternatingly, until the pipe gets cut.
 Deburr the inner and outer diameters using the deburring tool in the kit.
 Then place the pipe on the appropriate groove on the tube bender.
 Align the marked mark on the tube bender with either L for left, or R for right, depending with the direction where the
measured length is to the tube bender.

 When bending, first align the zeros on the bender. Then swing the bending handle until the short zero ‘0’ on the roll
support reaches the 90 degrees mark on the name plate.
 If the measurement is from left to right, align the mark on the tube to the L(left) mark on the bender.
 Then slowly move the handle down until the 90 degrees mark on the name plate aligns with the 0 degrees mark on the
roll support.

3a). Describe three methods that can be used on the repair of a dent on a pipe.
1. Bullet method
2. Permaswage repair
3. Install new pipe if damage beyond repair

3a). Inspect for and identify defects in a rigid and/or flexible pipe lines.
Flare angles are 37 degrees for aviation while automotive angles are 45 degrees.

Rigid line
Inspect for leakage
Inspect for unwanted bends
Inspect for proper routing
Inspect for wrong bends
Inspect for proper / correct clamping
Inspect for tightness

Flexible lines
Inspect for twist as indicated by the lay line
Inspect for leakage
Inspect for tightness
Inspect for proper installation and security
Inspect for malfunction.
E. Materials and processes
1c. What type of rivets are heat-treated and kept in “ice-box” before use and what is the advantage of using 2117-T4 rivets over
2024-T3 (identify rivets provided) and any of the metals commonly used in aircraft and their general application (lower wing
skin, inlet lips of engines nacelles fuselage skins and wheel hubs?

2117-T4 & 2024-T3

T3 – Solution heat treated and artificially aged (strain hardened)
T4 – Solution heat treated and naturally aged
O – Annealed (soft)
H - Cold rolled
1c). Heat-treated parts precautions, using DD or “icebox” rivets
- They should be refrigerated till when they are needed for installation so that they won’t harden.
Should they harden, they should be heat-treated again and installed immediately (after recommended time).
- They are kept in their annealed condition in the freezers to delay their hardening process for as long as possible.
2017 D
After heat treatment, the aluminum alloy doesn’t harden immediately. It remains soft for several hours and gradually becomes
hard and gains strength.
They can be kept in this annealed (soft) condition by removing them from a quench bath and immediately storing them in a
freezer.
They become hard when they warm up to normal temperature and may be reheated as many times as necessary without
impacting/impairing their strength.

2024 DD
They must be stored at cool temperatures until when they are ready to be driven.
The length of time the rivets remain soft to drive is determined by the storage temperature.
After driving, their alloy designation becomes 2024-T3.

1g). Briefly describe how magnetic particle inspection is carried out and how excess magnetism is removed from the part after
inspection.
- It’s a method for detecting cracks, laps, seams, voids, pits, subsurface holes, and other surface, or slightly subsurface,
discontinuities in ferro-magnetic materials.
- Can only be used on ferro-magnetic materials (iron and steel) only.
- Uses the tendency of magnetic lines of force, or flux, of an applied field to pass through the metal rather than through the air.
- The defect at or near the materials surface distorts the distribution of the magnetic flux and some of the flux is forced to pass
at/through the surface.
- Field strength is increased in the area of the defect and appropriate magnetic poles form on either side of the defect.
- Fine magnetic particles applied to the part are attracted to the regions and form a pattern around the defect.
- To locate the defect, it’s necessary to control the direction of magnetism, and flux lines must be perpendicular to the axes of
expected defects.

How excess magnetism is removed from the part after inspection.

1. Involves subjecting a magnetized part to a continuously reversing magnetic field that gradually decreases in strength.
2. This requires special equipment that works the opposite way of the magnetizing equipment. The magnetization is
normally done with a high current pulse that reaches a peak current very quickly and instantaneously turns off leaving
the part magnetized. To demagnetize a part, the current or magnetic field needed has to be equal to or greater than the
current or magnetic field used to magnetize the part. The current or magnetic field is then slowly reduced to zero,
leaving the part demagnetized.
F. Ground operation and servicing
1a). Briefly describe procedure precautions and requirements for towing large aircraft out of hangar after maintenance
*Procedures and precautions for towing an aircraft from hangar after maintenance. (1F1a)
1. Avoid towing an aircraft too fast and to be sure that there is always sufficient clearance between the wings and any
obstructions.
2. A qualified person should be in the cockpit to operate aircraft brakes when needed, since the brakes on the towing
vehicle are usually insufficient to overcome a large aircraft momentum.
3. Extra personnel should be assigned to watch the wingtips and tail for clearance between other objects.
4. If necessary, disconnect the nose gear locking device so that the nose wheel can be swiveled to facilitate
maneuvering. Remember to reset the lock after removing the tow bar from the aircraft.
5. Person’s riding in the cockpit should not attempt to steer the nose wheel when a tow bar is attached to the aircraft.
6. Remove the tow bar after the aircraft is parked in the right (desired) position.
7. When positioning the a/c, be sure to push only at points that are specified by a/c manufacturer.

1g). What is:

*Color of breathing oxygen cylinder supplied by vendor

- black with white collar

*Color of oxygen bottle installed on the a/c.

- green

*Color of industrial oxygen bottle.

Black with white collar

*Color of nitrogen bottles.

Grey with black collar

*Color of CO2 bottle.

Green grey

*Safety practices/Precautions when servicing oxygen system.

1. Oxygen servicing should be done outdoors or at least in a well-ventilated area of the hangar.
2. All electrical work on the a/c should be suspended when oxygen servicing is to be performed in the a/c.
3. Only authorized persons are permitted to service the a/c with oxygen.
4. Avoid the oxygen getting into contact with grease, oils and bituminous material.
5. Avoid liquid oxygen coming into contact with the skin as it will cause severe burns because of its low temperature.

3h) Briefly describe how to set up and connect an AC external power source to power an a/c and describe the most common
observed indications and what are the specification of the ground power source?
Dash 8 has AC ground power port at the #1 powerplant nacelle.
AC ground power has 3pins – 2long and 1 short pin
DC ground power has 6pins – 4 long and 2 short pins
*How many pins does a DC ground power has. N also the AC ground power. (1F3h)

BONDED STORE: This store will contain only such parts intended for aeronautical use, which have been found to
conform to all requirements.

QUARANTINE STORE: On receipt, all parts must be placed in this store until it can be confirmed that they meet
all the standards required for transfer to the bonded store.
G. Cleaning and corrosion control
3b). Briefly explain how corrosion removal from aluminum alloy is accomplished on aircraft part and how is mercury spillage
cleaned?
- Rub with a wire brush and finish-off with a sand paper so as to remove as much of the corrosion products as
practicable.
- Neutralize any residual materials remaining in pits and crevices.
- Restore protective surface films
- Apply temporary or permanent coatings or paint finishing.

i) If it’s aluminum, apply alodine.

ii) If it’s steel, do cadmium plating.
iii) Add primer.

*There was also corrosion treatment. (1G3b)

* Corrosion removal. (1G3b)

H. Mathematics
1h) Convert 32 Degrees Fahrenheit to celcius scale.
X degrees Fahrenheit
To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract 32 from X, then multiply the result by 5/9.
(X-32) x 5/9

3d) What is the speed ratio of an input gear with 28 teeth meshed to a 20 teeth gear and where is gear ratio applied in aircraft
system?
Factors that determine the selection of gear/gearbox
- How much power to be transmitted?
- Is a change of rpm required?
- Is a change of torque required?
- Is a change of angle or direction of drive required?
- Is the gear system to be free from feedback (non-reversible)

Driver – a gear wheel that drives another gear wheel.

Driven – the other gear wheel that is driven.
Idler – this is driven and driver as it is a wheel between two others
- Used to change the direction of rotation or change the speed.

Gear Ratio or Speed ratio = driving gear/driven gear = N1/N2

Speed ratio = 1: driven gear ratio
 I. Maintenance records
1b.) Name types of CRS and what are the content aircraft maintenance reflecting approval for return to service after 100-hour
inspection.
Class 1 – Scheduled maintenance and major modification.
Class 2 – Component release from a workshop.
Class 3 – Unscheduled aircraft maintenance.

Each person who maintains, performs preventive maintenance, rebuilds, or alters an aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine, propeller,
appliance, or component part shall make an entry in the maintenance record of that equipment containing the following
information:
(1) A description (or reference to data acceptable to the Administrator) of work performed.
(2) The date of completion of the work performed.
(3) The name of the person performing the work if other than the person specified in paragraph (a)(4) of this section.
(4) If the work performed on the aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine, propeller, appliance, or component part has been performed
satisfactorily, the signature, certificate number, and kind of certificate held by the person approving the work. The signature
constitutes the approval for return to service only for the work performed.

What are the content aircraft maintenance reflecting approval for return to service after 100-hour inspection.
An entry must be made in the a/c maintenance records that describes the type, the extent, and the date of the inspection; the
aircraft total time in service; and the signature, certificate type, and number of the person approving or disapproving the aircraft
for return to service

1f) Explain the terms “major repair” and “minor repair” used in relation to aircraft maintenance
Major repair – means a repair of an aeronautical product that might appreciably affect the structural strength, performance,
Powerplant operation, flight characteristics, or other qualities affecting airworthiness or environmental characteristics, or that
will be embodied in the product using non-standard practices.

Minor repair – means any repair other than major repair.

2.) Core competence element: Demonstrate the ability to write appropriate entries on AC-AWS014A, Major repair and major
alteration, indicating performance of a major repair, and make appropriate corresponding aircraft maintenance record entry.
Each person who maintains, performs preventive maintenance, rebuilds, or alters an aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine, propeller,
appliance, or component part shall make an entry in the maintenance record of that equipment containing the following
information:
(1) A description (or reference to data acceptable to the Administrator) of work performed.
(2) The date of completion of the work performed.
(3) The name of the person performing the work if other than the person specified in paragraph (a)(4) of this section.
(4) If the work performed on the aircraft, airframe, aircraft engine, propeller, appliance, or component part has been performed
satisfactorily, the signature, certificate number, and kind of certificate held by the person approving the work. The signature
constitutes the approval for return to service only for the work performed.
“The undersigned certifies that the work specified was carried out in accordance with current regulations and in respect of that
work, the aircraft or aircraft component is considered ready or release to service”

3b.) What is the preventive maintenance and how is it achieved?

Means simple or minor preservation operations and the replacement of small standard parts not involving complex assembly operations.
K. Maintenance publications
1d) What is an airworthiness directive (AD) its source, purpose and categories issued?
AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVE (AD) – It’s a notification to owners and operators of a certified aircraft that a known safety
deficiency with a particular model of aircraft, engine, avionics or other system exists and must be corrected.
Source of ADs
 Issued by the authority of the state of design to correct unsafe conditions that affect the safety of an aircraft.
 Also issued by the CAA of the country of manufacture or of aircraft registration.
When they are issued by the authority of the country of registration, they are almost coordinated with the civil aviation
authority of the country of manufacture to ensure that conflicting ADs are not issued.
They are mandatory and require compliance
Purpose
 To correct unsafe condition that affect the safety of an aircraft.
 To notify owners and operators that the a/c may not be in conformity with its basis of certification or of other
conditions that affect the aircraft’s airworthiness.
 To inform them that there are mandatory actions that must be carried out to ensure continued safe operation.
 In some urgent cases, the a/c must not be flown until a corrective action plan is designed and carried out.
Categories of ADs issued
i) Notice of proposed rule-making (NPRM) followed by final rule
ii) Final rule; request for comments
iii) Emergency ADs. Require immediate compliance. By the owner or operator.

*CAAs that issue ADs.

Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
Directorate General of Civil Aviation (INDIA) Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand
Transport Canada Civil Aviation (TCCA) Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA)(Australia)
ANAC (Brazil)
*How they communicate the ADs
- They are sent to the owner/operator by mail and by post.
- They can also be accessed in the manufacturer’s website.
- Subscription for issuing by the manufacturer.
- By phone

- They are issued in hardcopy or in digital format.

- This data is obtained through subscriptions, for new issues of, and the revision services to, manuals
in either hardcopy or digital format.
- distribution of alert information by manufacturers, by means of phone or email communication, and
through Alert Bulletins and Letters.
1i) What is ATA 100. Give 8 examples of the chapters (5, 6, 8, 10, 33, 45, 30, and 50).
5. Time limits / maintenance checks
6. Dimensions and areas
7. Lifting and shoring
8. Levelling and weighing
9. Towing and taxiing
10. Parking, mooring, storage and Return to service
11. Placards and markings
12. Service
30. Ice and rain protection
33. Lights
45. Diagnostic and maintenance system
50. Cargo and accessory compartment
What is the meaning of un-assigned chapters and give an example of 4 chapters?
- 2 - 92 to 96
2b). Locate and list all applicable ADs for at least one particular make, model, and serial number of an aircraft, engine, propeller,
or appliance.

- Access the authority of the state of design’s website, i.e the FAA.
- Then select the model required.
 - Then select all the ADs or the latest ones if that’s what needed.
3a) What is a Service Bulletin, who issues SBs and give two types of service bulletins.

SB is the document issued by manufacturers of aircrafts, their engines or their components to communicate details of
modifications which can be embodied in aircraft.
- They are notices to a/c owners and operators from a manufacturer notifying them of a product improvement.

L. Aviation mechanic privileges and limitations

1b) What length of experience is required for eligibility to pursue LWTR?
1. 5 years of practical maintenance experience on operating aircraft, if the applicant has no previous relevant technical
training.
2. 3 years of practical maintenance experience on operating aircraft from completion of a relevant technical course
acceptable by the authority.
3. 2 years of practical maintenance experience on operating aircraft and completion of an approved training organization
basic training course.

3g) Which KCAA publications do you find information on privileges and limitations of a licensed aircraft engineer and who are
recipients of the publications?
i) Civil aviation (Personnel licensing reg. 127)
RECIPIENTS
- Maintenance organizations
- Engineers
- Owners
- Operators

Life limited parts - items that are subject to a thorough inspection based on flight hours, cycles of
operation or calendar time. 
 I.3 SECTION III – AIRFRAME STRUCTURES
SEC.III 15
8. Airframe structures
1. FAILED AREAS A D E F G
1c 1f 1k 1e 1j 1a 1g 1e 8
2. FAILED AREAS D G 2
2 2
3. FAILED AREAS A B D E F
3c 3b 3d 3d 3g 5

A. Wood structures
1c) Effects of moisture/humidity on wood.
- Moisture causes the wood to swell and crack as it dries out.
- It allows fungus to develop in the wood and cause it to decay.

1f) Acceptable wood defects

- Cross grain with limitations
- Wavy, an interlocked grain, with limitations.
- Hard knots, with limitations.
- Pin knot clusters, only if the produce a small deviation of grain direction.
- Pitch pockets, but with limitations.
- Mineral streaks, provided there’s no decay indicated anywhere on the wood.

3c) What is the common wood used in modern aircraft construction

 Ash
 Balsa
 Birch
 Mahogany
 Pine

B. AIRCRAFT COVERING
3b) Test a finished covering sample to determine acceptability of strength.
- Cut a 1.25-inch wide by 4-inch-long sample from a top exposed surface, remove all coatings and ravel the edges to a 1-inch
width.
- Clamp each end between suitable clamps with one clamp anchored to a support structure while a load is applied by adding
sand in a suitable container suspended a few inches above the floor.
If the breaking is still in question, a sample should be sent to an appropriate lab for more testing

*Fabric. The areas of the fabric susceptible to damage (2B3b) (2D1,2,3)

D. Sheet metal and non-metallic structures
1k) When working with resins on composite material, explain the terms “SHELF-LIFE” and “POT LIFE”?

- Shelf-life: Is the length of time a product may be stored without becoming unsuitable for use or consumption.
- Pot-life: Is the amount of time a given mass of mixed resin/hardener will remain in the liquid state at a specific temperature
- The amount of time an adhesive remains useable in the container once it has been mixed or opened.
- The length of time a mixed adhesive remains workable (flowable) before hardening.
- Life limited parts - items that are subject to a thorough inspection based on flight hours, cycles of operation or calendar
time. 

2) Core competency element: Demonstrate the ability to install and remove at least two each, of two or more types of rivets.
*He had rivets. Identify the different types he had.
*There also identification of a letter O after aluminium alloy materials e.g 2024-O. What is that 'O' for?
Annealed (soft)
- To install, use the appropriate rivet gun and a bucking bar to drive the rivet.
REMOVAL
-center punch to instill a small hole on the head and center of the rivet.
- Then select a smaller drill than the diameter of the rivet.
- But first drill a small hole through the center.
- Then use a drill bit of the same thickness as the rivet diameter to drill out the rivet.
- Then use a rivet punch to wedge it out.

- The distance between the edge of a sheet and the first row of rivets is called ’land’.

Edge distance (Land)

- It is important when installing a row of rivets that they are placed neither too close to the edge of the sheet nor too far
away. If they are too close to the edge, the sheet is likely to tear. But if they are too far back, the edge of the sheet will
lift. The normally accepted practice is to place the center of the hole not closer than 2D from the edge and no further
back than 4D. A good rule is to place the center of the holes approx. 2.5D back from the edge of the sheet.

The distance from the center of one rivet to the center of the nearest one on the same or adjacent (next) row is
called the pitch.
In order that the sheet not be weakened by too many holes in a row, the adjacent rivets should be no closer than
4D to each other and to prevent the sheet buckling between rivets, they should be no further apart than 10D to
12D.

3d) Demonstrate how to inspect a composite structure using a non-destructive testing method (in addition to visual)
*Types of non-destructive inspection methods. (2D3d)

*Types of non-destructive inspection methods.(2D3d)

- Tap testing – Radiography - Dye penetrant - Acoustic emission testing

- Ultrasonic inspection - Thermography - Magnetic particle Inspection

E. Welding
1e) What is the purpose of gas shielding during welding and give examples of two shielding gases used during welding.

Their purpose is to protect the weld area from oxygen, and water vapour. These atmospheric gases can reduce the quality of
the weld or make the welding more difficult.

Type of welding
Examples of shielding gases: Helium and Argon, carbon dioxide, made - up mixture of argon, carbon dioxide and oxygen
MIG –Metal inert gas (Gas metal arc welding)
- A constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used
- It’s a semi - automatic or automatic arc welding process in which a continuous and consumable wire electrode and a
shielding gas are fed through a welding gun.
- There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW, called globular, short circuiting, spray and pulsed spray.
- Mainly used for thick sheets of high alloy steel, copper and its alloys and aluminium and its alloys.
TIG – Tungsten inert gas (Gas Tungsten arc welding)
- An AC or DC power source with standard generators, rectifiers or transformers is used.
- uses a non - consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld.
- used to weld thin sections of stainless steel and light metals such as aluminium, magnesium, and
copper alloys.
oxy - acetylene welding (gas fusion welding)
- Oxy - acetylene welding is applied in pipefitting, chassis –frame construction and thin –sheet metal welding (up to 6
mm).
- - Mostly materials, like non alloyed and low alloyed steels and non-ferrous materials (e.g. copper, brass) are joined
using oxy - acetylene welding.
- Oxygen and acetylene are used as sources of heat.
1j) Describe the terms ‘solder’ ‘soldering tip’ and ‘flux’ and what is the purpose of ‘tinning’ of the wire to be soldered.

Soldering is the process of joining two or more electronic parts together by melting solder around the connection.
- Is the process of joining metals by heating them to their melting temperature and causing the molten metal to flow
together.

1. Solder is a fusible metal alloy used to create a permanent bond between metal work pieces.
- Solder is a metal alloy material that is melted to create a permanent bond between electrical parts.
It must have a lower melting point compared to the parts which have to be joined.
- The working temperature is reached, if the
1. Solder moistens, i.e., it is accepted by the material.
2. Flows, i.e., it is spread over the material.
3. Bonds, i.e., it forms an undetachable joint with the material.
2. Soldering tip – It’s the part of the soldering iron that transfers the needed heat to melt the solder.

3. Flux - is a chemical cleaning agent used before and during the soldering process of electronic components onto
circuit boards
The main purpose of the flux is to prepare the metal surfaces for soldering by cleaning and removing any oxides
and impurities.
Oxides are formed when metal is exposed to air and may prevent the formation of good solder joints.
The flux also protects the metal surfaces from re-oxidation during soldering and helps the soldering process by
altering the surface tension of the molten solder.

PURPOSE OF TINNING
Tinning – it involves filing the tip of the soldering iron to remove dirt and rough edges, after which the bit should be heated to
a temperature sufficient to melt solder.
- This process will help improve the heat transfer from the iron to the item you’re soldering.
- Tinning will also help to protect the tip and reduce wear.
A soldering iron is a hand tool that plugs into a standard 120v AC outlet and heats up in order to melt solder around
electrical connections.
3d) Determine the appropriate method/material(s) to use for a specific soldering.

F. Assembly and rigging

1a) Describe and draw a cross section of a control cable of specification 7x9, 7x19 and name common material used to
manufacture control cables and what is the purpose of control cable connectors and cable guides.

 Describe and draw a cross section of a control cable of specification 7x9, 7x19
- 1/8-3/8 diameter. 7x19 (7strands, 19wires to each strand). Used in primary controls and where operation of pulleys
is frequent.
- 1/16-3/32 diameter. 7x7 (7strands, 7 wires to each strand). Used for trim tab controls, engine controls and indicator
controls.
- Several wires are preformed into a helical or spiral shape and then formed into strand. The preformed strands are
then laid around a straight center strand to form a cable.
- 6 strands are laid around the centre strand

Cables should be wiped with a par-el-ketone, a wax grease to protect the cable from moisture and corrosion.
 Name common material used to manufacture control cables
control cables are made from carbon steel or stainless steel
 What is the purpose of control cable connectors and cable guides?
They enable a cable length to be quickly connected or disconnected from a system.
-Cable guides are used to guide cables in a straight line through or between structural members of the aircraft.

1g) What’s the purpose of torque tube in flight control movement?

 To transmit motion in opposite directions or where an angular or twisting motion is needed in a control system

3g) Describe how to inspect and document a flight control system for travel and security after replacement.

G. Airframe inspection.
1e) How is compliance with service letters, instructions for continued airworthiness, and/or bulletins accomplished?

At ALS, it’s accomplished by raising an MCN number for each fleet. Then a task card is raised for each fleet and it’s planned to be
done during the appropriate time (check) depending on the duration provided on it.

- Emergency Airworthiness Directives distributed in electronic format are effective upon receipt.
 - complied within the specified time limit, and the details of the work done forwarded to technical
records
- Implementation instructions as per the AD compliance Form are routed to Planning who schedules
the incorporation into the affected products.
- Engineering Services opens the scheduled ADs into the applicable AD Compliance Files.
- Tech Records will forward the completed, signed-off incorporation job card to Planning that will
satisfy themselves that the forms had been signed off and Planning will ensure that a current status
list (Compliance Files) of all AD’s performed for each managed aircraft is updated.
The status list must contain the following:
a) Aircraft make/model/serial number
b) Engine make/model/serial number
c) Component make/model
d) AD number
e) Subject
f) Date and hours/cycles at compliance
g) Method of compliance (SB number, AFM revision, not applicable by S/N etc)
h) Recurring action (yes/no)
i) Next compliance due date (date/hours/cycles), if recurrent action is requested.

2) Core competency element: Demonstrate the ability to examine an aircraft maintenance record and determine if inspection
and/or maintenance is due.

Simply check on the aircraft technical log book and the previous Class 1 CRS. On the log book and the previous Class 1 CRS, it’s
indicated when the next check is due depending on hours accumulated, cycles accumulated and/or calendar time.
Then compare with the current aircraft statistics that have been indicated by the crew.

1.4 SECTION IV – AIRFRAME SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS

SEC. IV
Airframe
3. Systems and Components
1. FAILED AREAS A B D F G H I J
1a 1i 1b 1e 1g 1d 1a 1e 1a 1j 1b 1b 1c 13
2. FAILED AREAS B F
2 2 2
3. FAILED AREAS A B D F G H I J
3g 3h 3a 3a 3g 3c 3c 3d 8

A. Aircraft landing gear systems

Precautions when carrying out oleo strut servicing (3A1a)
1a) Describe the precaution to be taken when servicing oleo pneumatic strut and which ATA chapter will you find the type of
lubricant to be used when required?
- ATA 12 or 32 depending with manufacturers procedures.
 Ensure that the Aircraft is on the ground, that is weight-on-wheels (WOW).
 Clear from the area below and around the aircraft all equipment that touches the aircraft fuselage, wings, and
stabilizers.
 Make sure that the emergency parking brake is not applied.
 Make sure that the landing gear safety pins are installed on the RH and LH MLG.
 Make sure that the wheel chocks are installed on the RH and LH Main Landing Gear.
 Remove the wheel chocks from Nose Landing Gear, if they are installed.
 On the overhead circuit breaker panel, open the STEER circuit breaker and attach a DO-NOT-CLOSE tag to it.

Strut/oleo servicing
1. Consult maintenance manual for correct procedure and safety precautions for the a/c type.
2. Assemble all the required tools and equipments.
 3. With weight on wheels, slowly open nitrogen charging valve and allow strut to fully compress.
4. Remove nitrogen charging valve.
5. Connect source of approved fluid to the oil charging valve.
6. Open oil charging valve and fill until overflow from upper valve port is gas free.
7. Close oil charging valve and remove oil source.
8. Replace nitrogen charging valve.
9. Apply nitrogen pressure until the shock strut commences to extend and note the pressure required to initiate the
extension.
10. Identify from the manufacturer provided graph, the dimension “X” that corresponds to the identified/noted pressure.
11. Add further nitrogen until the measured extension is equal to the identified value of dimension “X”.
12. Close nitrogen charging valve.
13. Carry out required entries and issue a CRS.
14. After 5 to 10 landings, inspect strut for leaks and if required, service the strut.

The cylinder is attached to the a/c structure, and a close fitting piston is free to move up and down inside the cylinder.
It’s kept in alignment and prevented from coming out of the cylinder by torsion links.
The upper link is hinged to the cylinder and the lower link to the piston. Wheel and axle are mounted to the piston
portion of the strut.

There was also fluid used to clean the bearings. (3A1i)

1i) Briefly describe how a wheel bearing is cleaned, inspected and packaged for storage?
 They should be cleaned and inspected.
 They should be cleaned in a solvent such as white spirit and examined for corrosion, brinelling of the races, shipped
balls or rollers, retaining cage condition, roughness and discoloration.
 If serviceable, bearings should be packed with approved grease immediately after inspection.
3g) Select lubricant and lubricate wheel bearings.

3k) Describe how to accomplish a landing gear retraction/extension check.

B. Hydraulic and pneumatic power systems

Accumulator (charging it. How it's used.) (3B1b) (3B3h)
1b) What is the function of accumulators in a hydraulic system and where are they located in the system.
 Dampen pressure charges(pressure fluctuations) in the hydraulic system caused by actuation of a unit and the effort of
the pump to maintain pressure at a preset level.
 Supply fluid under pressure to compensate for small internal or external leaks which would cause the system to cycle
continuously by action of the pressure witches continually “kicking in.”
 Allow for thermal expansion
- Provide an emergency supply of fluid to the system in the event of pump failure.
- Aid or supplement the power pump
- Store power
- Store hydraulic fluid under pressure
1. Dampen pressure.
2. Allow for thermal expansion.
3. Provide emergency fluid in case of pump failure.
1e) Name two types each of hydraulic/pneumatic filters and how does water separator filter work?
1. Micronics – specially treated paper. (throw away after removal)
2. Porous metal – cleaned by various methods and replaced in the system.
3. Magnetic - cleaned by various methods and replaced in the system
Micronics are used to prevent solids greater than 10 microns (0.000394in)
Most types of filters used in aircrafts are inline type. Their basic units:
i) Head assembly
ii) Bowl
iii) Element
2) Demonstrate the ability to select and install a hydraulic seal.
When installing a hydraulic seal, they should be protected from damage when slipping them over the rings by covering the
threads with a suitable sleeve (grease)
Types of accumulators
 1. Diaphragm type accumulators
2. Bladder type accumulators
3. Piston-type accumulators
Function of accumulators on E135/145
1. #1 Accumulator – Assist the operation of landing gear system and allow passenger door retraction when the system
is off.
2. #2 Accumulator – Provides power for the emergency/parking brakes .
3h). Demonstrate the ability to perform at least one of the following – service a hydraulic system accumulator.
Accumulator servicing
1. put chocks on the landing gears #1
2. Fully release the pressure from the fluid chambers of the hydraulic accumulator.
3. Remove the cap from the charging valve.
4. Connect the hose of the nitrogen cylinder to the charging valve.
5. Open the cylinder valve and adjust the pressure in the regulating valve to the specified pressure.
6. Open the charging valve.
7. Stop the nitrogen supply when the pressure gauge of the accumulator shows the required pressure I.A.W the
provided graph temperature.
8. Close the charging valve.
9. Close the cylinder valve.
10. Disconnect the hose of the nitrogen cylinder.
11. Use a brush to apply the leak defection fluid on the charging valve and examine it for gas leakage.
12. Install the cap to the charging valve.
13. Let the gas pressure become stable for 10min, and then record the valve from the pressure gauge. Make sure that
the pressure is at the correct valve.

D. Aircraft instrument systems

Gyroscopic instruments
- Gyroscopic instruments gives the aircrafts attitude status during flight i.e pitching, yawing and rolling
Instruments using pitot static system (3D1g)
1g) Describe briefly the three pitot and/or static instruments and what checks are performed on the first day of the flight?
- The airspeed indicator - The vertical speed indicator - Altimeter
Checks performed on the first day of the flight
 Check the pitot tube for blockage
 Check the static ports for blockage
 Check the pitot tubes and static ports for F.O.D.
 Carry out functional checks on the airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator and altimeter.
3a) Describe the general procedure and precaution to be observed during the removal of airspeed indicator and test carried out
after installation.
 Consult the appropriate AMM for correct procedures and safety precautions.
 Assembly all the required tools and equipments.
 Pull the CB’s that’s applicable to the airspeed indicator.
Test carried out after airspeed indicator installation.
 Leak test
 Operational test

F. Fuel systems
 Name the three types of fuel tanks. (3F1d, 3F2, 3F3a)
- Bladder type - Rigid type - Integral
 1d) what are the fuel line and electrical harness fo fuel system routing/installation requirements? (FTS critical
configuration design limitation)
- If it is impossible to physically separate fuel lines from electrical wire bundles, locate the fuel lines below the wiring
and clamp the wire bundle securely to the airframe structure. It is never permissible to clamp a wire bundle to a
fuel line.
- Support all fuel lines so there will be no strain on the fittings, and never pull a line into place by the fitting.
- There must always be at least one bend in rigid tubing between fittings. This allows for slight misalignment of the
ends for vibration and for expansion/contraction caused by temperature changes.
 - Electrically bond all metal fuel lines at each point that they are attached to the structure. Do this by using bonded
clamps to hold the tubing.
- Protect all fuel lines from being used as a household.
- To protect fuel lines from being stepped on by or damaged by baggage or cargo, route them along the slides or top
of compartments where this type of damage could occur.
 2) Demonstrate ability to service a fuel system strainer

Maintenance
Fuel strainer removal,  inspection,  cleaning,  and  replacement  should  be  accomplished in accordance   with   the   applicable
aircraft   maintenance   manual.      
(a)Removal
Remove  strainer  in  accordance  with  aircraft  maintenance  manual  making  sure  to  place the fuel selector valve in the off
position prior to removal.
(b) Inspection
- Inspect strainer for dents, tears, clogging, foreign particles, and separation of  solder joints.
- Inspect body and cap for cracks or other damage.
Replace strainer if punctured.
WARNING –Dry-cleaning  solvent  is  flammable  and  solvent  vapors  are  toxic.   Use  P-D-680,  Type  II Solvent in a well-
ventilated area.  Keep away from open flames.  Avoid prolonged solvent contact with skin. · When using air pressure, be
extremely careful. Do not blow stream of air toward yourself or any other person. Users  of  air  pressure  and  personnel  within
the  immediate  area  shall  wear  safety glasses,  goggles,  or  face  shield. Ear protection may be required. Pressure will not
exceed 30 psig. Failure to comply may result in injury.

(c) Cleaning
Clean strainers with dry-cleaning solvent P-D-680, Type II. Blow dry with filtered, low pressure, compressed air.

(d) Replacement.
Replace strainer in accordance with applicable aircraft maintenance manual.
 3a) Name two types of fuel quantity transmitters used in aircraft fuel system and how is post-installation operational
checks performed.

Electric fuel quantity indicators

Most of these units operate with direct current (DC) and use variable resistance in a circuit to drive a ratio-meter type
indicator. The movement of a float in the tank moves a connecting arm to the wiper on a variable resistor in the tank
unit. This resistor is wired in series with one of the coils of the ratio-meter type fuel gauge in the instrument panel.
Changes to the current flowing through the tank unit resistor change the current flowing through one of the coils in the
indicator. This alters the magnetic field in which the indicating pointer pivots. The calibrated dial indicates the
corresponding fuel quantity.

Digital indicators
Digital indicators are available that work with the same variable resistance signal from the tank unit. They convert the
variable resistance into a digital display in the cockpit instrument head. Fully digital instrumentation systems, such as
those found in a glass cockpit aircraft, convert the variable resistance into a digital signal to be processed in a computer
and displayed on a flat screen panel.

Capacitance-type fuel quantity indication system

They are wired in parallel. As the level of the fuel changes, the capacitance of each unit changes. The capacitance
transmitted by all of the probes in a tank is totaled and compared in a bridge circuit by a microchip computer in the
tank’s digital fuel quantity indicator in the cockpit. As the aircraft maneuvers, some probes are in more fuel than others
due to the attitude of the aircraft. The indication remains steady, because the total capacitance transmitted by all of the
probes remains the same. A trimmer is used to match the capacitance output with the pre-calibrated quantity indicator.

G. Aircraft electrical systems

 Naming of components in an electrical circuit. (Circuit protection devices) Fuses. (3G1e)
 1a) name two factors that determine the size of a wire in aircraft electrical circuit.
- Allowable power losses in the line
- Permissible voltage drop (IR) in the line. (Voltage drop caused by the current flowing through the wire)
- Current carrying capacity
 1e) Requirements for circuit protection devices
 - Fuses - Circuit breakers - Switches - Relays - Thermal switches
 Also remember to study on a/c bonding. Why aircraft is bonded. (3G3g)
 3g) Install a bonding wire and accomplish a resistance check (what is the difference between bonding and ground )
- Bonding is the joining of metallic pieces to form a conducting path which ensures safe electrical continuity.
Bonding is generally done as protection from electrical shocks.
- Bonding is the electrical connecting of two or more conducting objects not otherwise connected adequately.
- Any intentional or accidental connection between an electrical circuit or instrument and the earth is known as
Grounding. Grounding ensures that all metal parts of an electrical circuit that an individual might contact are
connected to the earth, thus ensuring zero voltage.
- Grounding is the electrical connecting of a conducting object to the primary structure for return of current.

Bonding and grounding connections are made in aircraft electrical systems to:

1. Protect aircraft and personnel against hazards from lightning discharge,

2. Provide current return paths,
3. Prevent development of radio-frequency potentials,
4. Protect personnel from shock hazard,
5. Provide stability of radio transmission and reception, and
6. Prevent accumulation of static charge.

H. Position and warning systems

 1a) What is the purpose of anti-skid system and name basic components.
- Measure deceleration of a skidding wheel
- Control of brake pressure
- relieves pressure to the brake pistons of the wheel in question
i) Prevent a locked-wheel condition and optimize braking performance

ii) Control criterion:

- Deceleration rate / Slip velocity / Slip ratio.

iii) Touchdown Protection:

- Prevent brake application during touchdown at wheels spin-up;
- Tires subjected to a high load/ acceleration condition

iv) Locked-Wheel Protection:

- Compare the deceleration of paired
- Wheels or combination of wheels;
- Avoid inadvertent yaw moments due to assymetrical braking.

v) Hydroplaning Protection:
- Hydroplaning condition;
- Release brake pressure in the wheel whose speed is inferior to a percentage of aircraft speed.

vi) Drop-out Function:

- System becomes inative below a threshold value (10kt to 20kt);
- Allow ground taxiing maneuvers

vii) BIT (Built-inTest) Function:

–System monitoring circuit;
–Identify electrical failures.
 a) Compares the speed of the aircraft with the rotational speed of each main wheel.
b) Minimize aquaplaning and the potential tyre damage which can occur when a wheel is locked or rotating at a
speed which does not correspond to the speed of the aircraft.
c) Removes the possibility of reverted rubber skids caused by locked wheels.
d) Improves stopping distance on substandard surfaces such as gravel or grass .
ANTI-SKID SYSTEM COMPONENTS

a) Transducers –transmit the rotation speed of a particular wheel to the anti-skid control box.
b) Control box – processes the signals of the transducers, calculates the necessary brake pressure and sends these signals
to the anti-skid control valves.
c) The control valve – controls the brake pressure to the brake

 1j) Name two types of stall warning/lift detector systems and their operating characteristics.
a) Stall strips
b) Stick shaker
c) Vane types
d) Aural warning

 3c) On what principle does a flap position indicating system work?

- Electromagnetism

I. Ice and rain protection

 1b) Explain briefly how ice detection system work and give examples of three methods of ice detection and what is the
purpose of heating windscreens of some aircrafts

Working Ice detection system

After accumulation of ice, the different systems give signals that reflect on the cockpit.

i) Pressure operated ice detector

- It consists of an elliptically shaped tube, which has holes on the leading edge. There is a large hole which is
connected to the diaphragm at the base of the tube. Pressure from this hole goes to the upper part of the
diaphragm.
- Then there is small holes which are connected to the lower part of the diaphragm. The total area of the small holes
is larger than that of the large hole.
- The air pressure from the small holes keep the pressure switch in the open position (basically open).
- When ice starts accumulating and blocks the small holes, the ram air pressure from the large hole closes the
pressure switch. In return, the ice warning relay is energized and the ICE warning light comes on. The heater in the
detector is also activated.
ii) Vibrating rod ice detector
- The ice detector consists of a probe which is exposed to the airframe. The rod on probe vibrates ultrasonically
(under the influence of a magnet) at a set frequency driven by driver coil. This vibration is monitored by a reference
coil and compared to a reference oscillator in an ice detector controller.
- For redundancy, two similar detection systems are installed.
NB: There are also vibration rod ice detector systems with the sensor and the controller in the same housing.
- When on both detection systems no ice is present, the rods vibrate at the same frequency as the reference signal
and the message ”NO ICE DETECTED” comes on the warning display if still wing or tail or engine ant-ice systems are
in use.
- If ice accumulates on the rod, its weight will change and this alters the vibration frequency. If the discrepancy
between the two signals exceeds a set amount, the warning “ICE DETECTED” appears until all anti-ice systems are
selected to ON and a heater is switched on to melt the ice on the probe to reset the detector. The heater will
remain on until the two signals match again.

Examples of ice detection systems

 a) Vibrating rod ice detector
b) Pressure operated ice detector
c) Radio-active ice detector

Purpose of heating windscreens of some aircrafts

a) To cool ice formation and fog
b) To keep window areas free of ice and frost
c) To control icing and fogging

 3c) What installation Inspection are carried out on a deicer boot

(1) Inspection for surface damage: cuts, tears, abrasions, scuffs, erosion, pinholes, foreign object damage (FOD), debonding,
aerodynamic smoothness, spongy areas, or signs of brittleness, cracking and crazing.
(2) Check back and front of deicer carefully. Pay particular attention to air connection area.
(3) If any damage is found, inflate deicer with a regulated air source to the correct operating pressure of the deicing system
(15 psi) and check for leaks.
(4) Inflate deicer with regulated air source to correct operating pressure of the deicing system (15 psi). Check inflation time.
Deicer should inflate to operating pressure within 6 seconds.
(5) When the deicer has reached the operating pressure, seal off deicer at the air connection. Check deicer pressure after 60
seconds. Pressure drop should not be more than 3 psi.
(6) Allow deicer to deflate naturally with no vacuum applied. Deflation should not be more than 20 seconds.
(7) .When deicer is deflated, check for trapped air in tubes.

J. Fire protection
How smoke detectors work. (3J1b, c)
J1b) Describe the operating principle of smoke detector.

 Photoelectric (optical)
Exp 1: They contain a source of infrared, visible or ultraviolet light – typically an incandescent light bulb or light-emitting
diode (LED) – a lens, and a photoelectric receiver – typically a photodiode.
Exp 2: They respond better to smoldering fires – essentially those that begin with a long period of smoldering. Photoelectric
alarms work using a photoelectric sensor and a light source. As smoke alters the chamber and crosses the path of the light
beam, light is scattered by smoke particles, aiming it toward the sensor which in turn triggers the alarm.

Basically, photoelectric smoke detector works through a scattering of light principle.

 Ionization
Exp 1: It uses a radioscope to ionize air. A difference due to smoke is detected and an alarm is generated.
The ionization detectors are more sensitive to the flaming stage of fires than optical detectors.
The ionization smoke detector has two ionization chambers, one open to the air and a reference chamber which does
not allow the entry of particles.
The radioactive source emits alpha particles into both chambers, which ionizes some air molecules.
There is a potential difference (voltage) between pairs of electrodes in the chambers; the electrical charge on the ions
allows an electric current to flow.
The currents in both should be the same as they are equally affected by air pressure, temperature, and the ageing of the
source. If any smoke particles enter the open chamber, some of the ions will attach to the particles and not be available
to carry the current in that chamber.
An electronic circuit detects that a current difference has developed between the open and sealed chambers, and
sounds the alarm.
Exp 2: They are more responsive to fast, raging fires and flames. They contain a small amount of radioactive material
that passes between two electrically charged plates, which create an ionization chamber. This configuration ionizes the
air and creates a current that flows between the plates.
If smoke enters that space, it absorbs alpha particles and disturbs the ionization process, which reduces the current and
activates the alarm.
 Basically, photoelectric smoke detector works through a scattering of light principle.
 Alpha particle detector
 Visual smoke detector
 Carbon monoxide detectors
J1c) Describe the operating principle of fire detection system and give two examples of fire detector types
Examples of fire detectors
i) Unit type detectors
ii) Continuous-type detectors
iii) Smoke detectors
i) Unit type detectors

a) Melting-link switches
-Consist of a pair of contacts held apart by a mechanism which is released when a fusible compound melts. At a predetermined
temperature, the compound melts, allowing the contacts to come together and complete the circuit to a warning lamp.

b) Thermo-couple detectors
-These units are used to operate a sensitive relay or electronic circuit when a predetermined temperature is exceeded.

c) Differential expansion switch

-This type of unit detector is often used in engine installations and combustion heat zones. The switches operate on the principle
of the difference in the coefficients of expansion of dissimilar metals, and reset automatically when the ambient temperature is
reduced below the warning level.

ii) Continuous-type detectors

a) Continuous wire detectors

- resistance type - capacitance type
b) Liquid type detectors

c) Pyrotechnic flame switch

a) Continuous wire detectors

i) resistance type
-The resistance of the insulating material decreases with an increase in temperature until, at the warning temperature sufficient
current passes to operate a warning circuit. The element is fed with a current which is passed through a control box for
operation of the warning system.

ii) capacitance type

-The element forms a capacitor, the capacitance of which increases with increased temperature. The control electrode is used
with half wave alternating current which it stores and returns to a control unit during the second half of the cycle. The stored
charge increases with the temperature and, when the warning temperature is reached, the back current is sufficient to operate a
relay in the warning circuit.
b) Liquid type detectors
-This detector consists of a tube and expansion chamber filled with liquid. If a short length of the tube undergoes a sudden rise
in temperature, the liquid expands and builds up a pressure differential across an orifice leading to the expansion chamber.
Bourdon tube is thereby deflected to close a pair of electrical contacts.

c) Pyrotechnic flame switch

-This consists of a metal capillary housing a pyrotechnic code which will ignite if sufficient heat or flame touches any part of the
capillary length. If this occurs, pressure is generated within the capillary and operates a switch mechanism.
 iii) Smoke detectors
- Photoelectric cells. – single cell – double cell
- Alpha particle detector
- Visual smoke detector
- Carbon monoxide detectors

3d) Removal/installation of a smoke detector (AMM procedure)

- All maintenance practices performed on the smoke detectors should be carried out IAW the relevant AMM of the
particular aircraft model.
- The relevant aircraft procedures should be followed.
- After removal/installation, a functional check should be carried out after installation and inspection.