-OCC OF DC SHUNT:

Occ drawn(E0 vs If) at rated speed, slope of tangent of occ = Rc

Rsh drwan on same graph(slope =dV/dI) & perform OCC for different speeds(below rated speed), for
one occ Rsh becomes the tangent.. that speed=Nc(or u can calculate by indirect method).

- Rsh measured by V/I method

Causes for Failure to Self Excite and Remedial Measures

 Absence of Resuidal Magnetism.
 Wrong field winding connection.
 Wrong direction of Rotation.
 Resistance of Field-winding (Rf) > Critical Resistance (Rc)
 Speed of Rotation (N)< Critical>

-LOAD TEST ON SHUNT

Initially keep the motor field rheostat at minimum resistance position and generator field rheostat at
maximum resistance position.

Q) y motor field rheostat at minimum resistance position and generator field rheostat at maximum
resistance position.----. At the time of starting of motor, the armature resistance is kept at
maximum position to control and reduce the high starting current and field rheostat
atminimum position to ensure that speed does not go beyond rated value and to have
high starting torque.

Generator field rheostat is kept in Max position. Why because generated voltage is

directly proporsnal to flux as speed constant (E=zN(flux)/60). If we keep field rheostat in
minimum position high currents are flowing through the windings. Due to high generated
voltage which is of above rated voltage.

the efficiency of DC generator will be,

η=Po/Pi=VIL/VIL+I2LRa+Wc
d η/di = 0 ----- variable loss=const losses
Motor- Effie=EbIa/EbIa+Wc+Wi

η/di = 0 ----- variable loss=const losses

The voltage applied to armature overcomes the back EMF and
armature drop in the armature winding. As per Kirchhoff’s
voltage law all the voltages around a closed loop in a
circuit is equal to zero.

The equation (1) is called voltage equation of DC motor. 

 
Power Equation of DC Motor
 
The power developed by motor can be determined by
multiplying the voltage applied (V) to armature current(Ia).By
Multiplying both sides of equation(1) by Ia, we get power
equation of DC Motor.
Thus the efficiency of DC motor depends on the back
EMF (Eb) and the motor has higher efficiency if back emf
is more.

Condition for Maximum Power

However, this condition can not be realized. If the back
EMF is half of the applied armature voltage, the motor
will draw more current than its rated current and
efficiency of the motor will be below 50 percent
Differential compound DC motors are having some disadvantages:

1). If a sudden heavy load is thrown on the motor, the series field winding will draw a heavy
current from the supply and thus cause the total flux to reduce to a very small value. The
motor will now attain a dangerously high speed like a series motor. Therefore, this motor is
not used at places where there is a possibility of overloading the motor.

2). When the motor is started, the shunt field winding takes sometime to build up field flux as
it has high resistance. However, the flux due to the series winding is at once set up due to the
heavy rush of current through the series field and armature winding. This establishes a
reverse polarity on the poles when the motor is switched on and thus the motor starts rotating
in the reverse direction. Meanwhile the flux of shunt field winding is established which tries
to rotate motor in its proper direction.

This difficulty is removed by short circuiting the series field winding at the time of starting.
Also, when the motor has attained its normal speed, this winding is put in the circuit.

SO, differential compound dc motors are not used in practice.

Centrifugal pumps, weaving and lathe machines, lifts, fans, blowers, spinning
machines, conveyors, and other applications use shunt DC motors.

Armature Reaction—
The geometrical neutral axis (GNA) is the axis that bisects the angle between the centre line of
adjacent poles. The magnetic neutral axis (MNA) is the axis drawn perpendicular to the mean
direction of the flux passing through the centre of the armature. No e.m.f. is produced in the
armature conductors along this axis because then they cut no flux. [6] When no current is there in
the armature conductors, the MNA coincides with GNA.
The brushes of a generator must be set in the neutral plane; that is, they must contact segments
of the commutator that are connected to armature coils having no induced emf. If the brushes
were contacting commutator segments outside the neutral plane, they would short-circuit "live"
coils and cause arcing and loss of power.
Without armature reaction, the magnetic neutral axis (MNA) would coincide with geometrical
neutral axis (GNA). Armature reaction causes the neutral plane to shift in the direction of rotation,
and if the brushes are in the neutral plane at no load, that is, when no armature current is
flowing, they will not be in the neutral plane when armature current is flowing. For this reason it is
desirable to incorporate a corrective system into the generator design.
These are two principal methods by which the effect of armature reaction is overcome. The first
method is to shift the position of the brushes so that they are in the neutral plane when the
generator is producing its normal load current. in the other method, special field poles, called
interpoles, are installed in the generator to counteract the effect of armature reaction.
The brush-setting method is satisfactory in installations in which the generator operates under a
fairly constant load. If the load varies to a marked degree, the neutral plane will shift
proportionately, and the brushes will not be the correct position at all times. The brush-setting
method is the most common means of correcting for armature reaction in small generators (those
producing approximately 1,000 W or less). Larger generators require the use of interpoles.
In simplex wave winding, the back pitch (YB) and front pitch (YF) are both
odd and are of same sign.
The back-pitch and front-pitch are nearly equal to the pole pitch and
maybe equal or differ by ±2. + for progressive winding, – for retrogressive
winding.

LAP-

Important Points about Simplex Wave Winding

----------------------------

Cumulative compound generators are used for supplying power to DC motors. Cumulative

compound generators are used for lighting, power supply purposes and for heavy power
services, etc. The differential compound generators are used for arc welding purposes
where a large voltage drop and constant current is required
Swinburne’s test is the most commonly used and simplest method of
testing of shunt and compound wound DC machines which have constant
flux. In this test the efficiency of the machine at any load is pre-determined.
We can run the machine as a motor or as a generator. In this method of
testing no load losses are measured separately and eventually we can
determine the efficiency.
The circuit connection for Swinburne’s test is shown in figure below. The
speed of the machine is adjusted to the rated speed with the help of the
shunt regulator R as shown in figure.

Calculation of Efficiency
Let, I0 is the no load current (it can be measured by ammeter A1)
Ish is the shunt field current (it can be measured by ammeter A2)

Then, no load armature current =

Also let, V is the supply voltage. Therefore, No load power input = VI 0
watts.
In Swinburne’s test no load power input is only required to supply the
losses. The losses occur in the machine mainly are:
 Iron losses in the core
 Friction and windings losses
 Armature copper loss.
Since the no load mechanical output of the machine is zero in Swinburne’s
test, the no load input power is only used to supply the losses.

The value of armature copper loss =

Here, Ra is the armature resistance.
Now, no to get the constant losses we have to subtract the armature copper
loss from the no load power input.

Then,
After calculating the no load constant losses now we can determine the
efficiency at any load.
Let, I is the load current at which we have to calculate the efficiency of the
machine.
Then, armature current (Ia) will be (I – Ish), when the machine is motoring.

And , when the machine is generating.

Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is Motoring on
Load

Power input = VI

Armature copper loss,

Constant losses,

∴ Efficiency of the motor:

Calculation of Efficiency When the Machine is Generating on

Load

Power input = VI

Armature copper loss,

Constant losses,

∴ Efficiency of the generator:

Advantages of Swinburne’s Test

The main advantages of this test are:

1.
 1. This test is very convenient and economical as it is required very
less power from supply to perform the test.
2. Since constant losses are known, efficiency of Swinburne’s
test can be pre-determined at any load.
Disadvantages of Swinburne’s Test
The main disadvantages of this test are :

1.
1. Iron loss is neglected though there is change in iron loss from no
load to full load due to armature reaction.
2. We cannot be sure about the satisfactory commutation on loaded
condition because the test is done on no-load.
3. We can’t measure the temperature rise when the machine is
loaded. Power losses can vary with the temperature.
4. In DC series motors, the Swinburne’s test cannot be done to find
its efficiency as it is a no load test.

4 point starter-
TWO point starter-
https://www.electrical4u.com/hopkinsons-test/
Advantages of Hopkinson’s Test
The merits of this test are…

1. This test requires very small power compared to full-load power of the motor-generator
coupled system. That is why it is economical. Large machines can be tested at rated load
without much power consumption.
2. Temperature rise and commutation can be observed and maintained in the limit because
this test is done under full load condition.
3. Change in iron loss due to flux distortion can be taken into account due to the advantage of
its full load condition.
4. Efficiency at different loads can be determined.
Disadvantages of Hopkinson’s Test
The demerits of this test are

1. It is difficult to find two identical machines needed for Hopkinson’s test.

2. Both machines cannot be loaded equally all the time.
3. It is not possible to get separate iron losses for the two machines though they are different
because of their excitations.
4. It is difficult to operate the machines at rated speed because field currents vary widely.
Pliers—

Slip-Joint Pliers: for holding or bending flat or round stock, can crimp
sheet metal, loop a wire, cut soft wire nails, remove cotter pins, and, if

necessary, loosen or tighten a nut.

Water-Pump(tongue and groove) Pliers- these tools are
designed for gripping pipes. The jaws are angled to the length of the

handles so that reaching between joists and into awkward spaces is easier.
Linesman’s Pliers: cutting,joining
Locking Pliers: The multipurpose locking pliers can be used in place of
pipe wrenches, adjustable wrenches, or even clamps. As with other

varieties of pliers, locking pliers should be used rarely, if at all, on nuts, bolt

heads, pipes, or fittings that are to be reused

Needle-Nose Pliers
well suited to working with wire in confined spaces like electrical boxes,

though they are also useful for bending and holding metal fittings. Their

jaws taper to a point, and at the nose have serrations on the gripping

surface. At the throat of the tool near the pivot there is a side cutter.

 Fencing pliers: drive staples or remove them, grip wire for twisting, splicing, and
tensioning, or cut right through it.

- https://www.maantechnoplus.in/blogs/types-of-
drilling-machines

Rawl plug jumper (Tool)

i) The tool has two parts one is tool bit and other is tool holder.
2) The bit is made of carbon steel.
3) It is used for making holes in bricks and concrete walls.
4) Fibre plugs or PVC plugs are inserted in them to fix the wooden batten or casing and
capping for fixing it.
5) screws are driven in the plugs which cause the plug to expand and grip the wall.
6) while using the tool it should be rotated slowly after hammering
7) The sit is available according to numbers such as 8.10.12 and 14 numbers.
 Diameter
Standard Wire
Gauge
SWG
inches mm

7/0 0.500 12.700

6/0 0.464 11.786

5/0 0.432 10.973

4/0 0.400 10.160

3/0 0.372 9.449

2/0 0.348 8.839

1/0 0.324 8.236

1 0.300 7.620

2 0.276 7.010

3 0.252 6.401

4 0.232 5.893

5 0.212 5.385
 Diameter
Standard Wire
Gauge
SWG
inches mm

6 0.192 4.877

7 0.176 4.470

8 0.160 4.064

9 0.144 3.658

10 0.128 3.251

11 0.116 2.946

12 0.104 2.642

13 0.092 2.337

14 0.080 2.032

15 0.072 1.829

16 0.064 1.626

17 0.056 1.422

18 0.048 1.219

19 0.040 1.016

20 0.036 0.914

21 0.032 0.813

22 0.028 0.711

23 0.024 0.610

24 0.022 0.559
 Diameter
Standard Wire
Gauge
SWG
inches mm

25 0.020 0.508

26 0.018 0.457

27 0.0164 0.417

28 0.0148 0.376

29 0.0136 0.345

30 0.0124 0.315

31 0.0116 0.295

32 0.0108 0.274

33 0.0100 0.254

34 0.0092 0.234

35 0.0084 0.213

36 0.0076 0.193

37 0.0068 0.173

38 0.006 0.152

39 0.0052 0.132

40 0.0048 0.122

41 0.0044 0.112

42 0.004 0.102
 Diameter
Standard Wire
Gauge
SWG
inches mm

43 0.0036 0.091

44 0.0032 0.081

45 0.0028 0.071

46 0.0024 0.061

47 0.002 0.051

48 0.0016 0.041

49 0.0012 0.030

50 0.001 0.025

YPES OF SWITCHES DEPENDING ON USAGE

1. DO NOT DISTURB SWITCH

Entirely different from the regular switches available in the market, this soft touch
operating switch is generally used in places like hospitals and hotels. Do Not Disturb
Switch is generally used to ensure privacy and silence.

2. LIGHT DIMMER / STEPLESS REGULATOR

A light dimmer/stepless regulator is used to control or change the speed of a fan or

sometimes to change the intensity of a light between bright and dim. The regulators
available earlier used to rotate in steps, each step representing a definite level of fan
speed, but the Light Dimmer/Stepless Regulator allows you to rotate it freely without
any steps or levels.

3. BELL PUSH SWITCH

A Bell Push switch is connected to a doorbell. So, when the switch is pushed, it rings
the bell connected to it. It can be used at homes, offices or at any other place
wherever required. A Bell Push switch always maintains a broken circuit, unless the
button is pressed.

LED

Fluorescen
Halogen
Incandescent t
Philips L Daylight
Generic Philips
Prize[100] (TCP)

Electric power
60 42 14 10 12.5 9.7 9.8
(W)

Light output (lm) 860 650 800 800 800 910 950

Luminous
14.3 14.42 57.14 80 64 93.4 96.94
efficacy (lm/W)

Color
2700 3100[101] 2700 3000 2700 2727 5000
temperature (K)

Not
CRI 100 100 >75 >85 85 93
listed

Lifespan (h) 1000 2500 8000 25,000 25,000 30,000 25,000

A color rendering index (CRI) is a quantitative measure of the ability of a light source to reveal

the colors of various objects faithfully in comparison with a natural or standard light source. Light

sources with a high CRI are desirable in color-critical applications

https://www.seeedstudio.com/blog/2019/06/12/12-
commonly-used-components-on-pcbs-for-beginners/
#:~:text=Capacitors%20are%20the%20next
%20most,needed%20elsewhere%20in%20the
%20circuit.

https://qr.ae/pvMrWu

https://qr.ae/pGBreq
https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2014/11/fuse-
types-of-fuses.html

a) I.C.D.P. Switch: Iron Clad Double Pole main switch is used in single-phase

supply circuits. These are available in 15 Amp, 30 Amp, 60 Amps and 100 amperes

current rating. In these switches, either two numbers of fuse links are provided or a

fuse link and a neutral link is provided.

I.C.T.P Switch: Iron Clad Triple Pole main switches are used to control the three phase

supply circuit. These are available in 15 Amp, 30 Amp, 60 Amp,100 Amp, 150 Amp and

250 Amps current rating. Generally these switches are also known as 3 phase 4 wires main

switches.

----Mcb or miniature circuit breakers are electromechanical protection device against

short circuit condition or over current , overloading condition. these devices can trip and
stop the power supply within 2.5 milliseconds.. When the overflow of current takes place
through MCB – Miniature Circuit Breaker, the bimetallic strip gets heated and it deflects by
bending. The deflection of the bi-metallic strip releases a latch. The latch causes the MCB to
turn off by stopping the flow of the current in the circuit.
Depends upon phase system or voltage rating .there are different types of mcb's
available in market.

1 pole mcb,2 pole mcb, 3 pole mcb ,3 pole with neutral fuse mcb, 4 pole mcb & so on

1 pole mcb is for single phase ac system .connected on phase line of the system . Mostly
uses in our houses,

2 pole mcb is also used for single phase ac system .but it protect both phase and neutral
lines .

3 pole mcb is used For 3 phase ac system .it protect only R,Y,B of 3 phase line

4 pole mcb is used for .3 phase ac system ..but it protect R,Y,B & neutral line also ..

WIRES—
i. Vulcanised Indian Rubber (V.I.R.) Insulated Wires:
In this wire tinned copper or aluminium is used as conductor. On this conductor one or
more layers of vulcanised Indian Rubber, i.e. rubber treated with sulphur at high
temperature, is applied. In order to remove the bad effect of sulphur on copper or
aluminium, the conductor is thoroughly tinned or a layer of pure rubber is applied on the
conductor at first. But now-a-days single-core P.V.C. wires have largely replaced V.I.R.
wires from different fields of application..

What Is Tinned Copper Wire? Tinned copper wire is an uninsulated wire that is
coated by a layer of tin. Why do you need tin-plated copper wire? Recently
manufactured, fresh bare copper conductor works very well, but bare copper wire is
prone to oxidation over time much more than its tinner counterpart

ii. Tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S.) or Cab Tyre Sheathed (C.T.S.) Wires:
In these cables also tinned copper or aluminium conductor is used. Over the conductor a
layer of pure rubber or rubber treated with sulphur is applied. As outer protective layer
tough rubber sheath in T.R.S. wires and cab tyre sheath in C.T.S. wires are provided.
These sheaths are not readily affected by sun or water. Hence, they may be used in
damp places or in open atmosphere. For service connections and house wiring at
present P.V.C. wires are preferred over T.R.S. or C.T.S. wires.

iii. Metal Sheathed or Led Sheathed Wires:

In these cables V.I.R. wires are provided with a continuous lead sheath covering in place
of cotton tape or cotton braid sheath. Lead covering is mechanically strong and moisture
proof. These wires are used in lead sheath wiring system. Owing to its high cost as
compared to C.T.S. wires, lead sheathed wires are not usually preferred for internal
wiring. These cables are used for service connections and for wiring under abnormal
climatic conditions having lot of moisture.

Lead sheathed cables are available in single-core, twin-core flat, three-core flat and twin-
core flat with an earth continuity conductor. Here also rubber insulations over the
conductor have different colours for different cores.

v. Wires with Thermo-Plastic Insulation (P.V.C. Wires):

In these cables conductor is insulated usually with polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C.) which is a
thermoplastic material. This type of insulation is not affected by acid, alkali, ozone,
humidity or the sum rays. Rubber insulation is very quickly deteriorated when comes in
contract with oil, but P.V.C. remains unaffected. P.V.C. is much harder than rubber.

Factors on which Electric shock depends.

1. Current strength The effect of current on the human body system is an under Milli amps
mA Effect 1 to 8 mA Perceptible but not pain full (just bearable) 81 to15 mA Pain full
shock (Muscular control is not lost) 15 to20 mA Painful shock (Muscular control lost) 20
to 50 mA Severe muscular contraction (Breathing will be difficult) 50 to100 mA possible
death (no remedy) 200 mA and above certain death. Heart damages, burns... 2. The body
resistance Body resistance differs to persons and upon conditions. For dry Body -
70000Ω to 100000 Ω/sq.cm Wet Body - 700Ω to 1000 Ω/sq.cm Average body resistance
- 5000 Ω when dry 1000Ω when wet 3. Frequency of current For low frequency shock is
more severe and dangerous and direct current shock is most

Pipe Earthing:- This method is very common and best system of earthing. A pipe of
required diameter is used to carry the fault current. Size of pipe is depending on the current to
be carried and type of soil. As per ISI specifications for ordinary soil 38mm dia and 2m
length is used. The pipe must be placed in a wet ground. The depth is depending upon the
soil. As per ISI specifications pipe should be placed at a depth of 4.75 m. The pipe is tapered
at the bottom. The charcoal and salt are filled in that pit in alternate layers up to 2m and 15cm
around the pipe. The pipes drilled with holes so that water poured from top is made to spread
in the layers. At the top a cement concrete work is made for the protection. A funnel with
wire mesh is provided in the concrete work to pour the water. The pipe to which funnel is
connected is further connected to main earthing pipe. 3 to 4 buckets of water should be put
into the funnel. Another GI pipe is taken from the funnel towards outside for its connection to
earth wire. The SWG / 14SWG Earth wire from GI pipe of 19mm dia should be carried in a
GI pipe of dia 12.7mm at a depth of about 60cm below the ground

Plate Earthing:- In this method Earthing is done by embedding GI or copper plate. Size
of plate is 60 x 60 cm x 3.18mm for copper plate. Due to higher cost copper is not used
mainly.4m deep pit is dug and the earth electrode is placed vertically. The space around the
plate is filled with charcoal and salt of 15cm thickness. The plate is connected with GI pipe of
12.7mm dia for carrying GI earth wire for connection to earth electrode. Earth wire bolted to
the earth plate with nut, bolt washer and GI thimbles. There are all must be copper for copper
plating and GI for galvanized plating. The pit is connected with a pipe for pouring water for
the purpose of increasing dampness and moisture to reduce resistance. The cement work is
covered with iron plate for penodic opening. It is better to have an independence earth plate
for domestic applications. The diagram shows the details of all

------------------------------The cross section of the earth continuity conductor should not be

either less than 2.9mm2 (14SWG) or half of the installation conductor size.

--------------------------Fuse should be connected to live / phase wire of circuit. If it is

connected to neutral wire, the fuse will melt when excess current flow, but the
appliance will still be connected to high potential through live wire. Thus, if a
person touches the appliance, he receives shock.

---Difference between neutral and earth Neutral wire Earth wire 1 2 3 4 5 This is connected to
the neutral point of transformer which is earthed at sub station Slight potential exists
Unbalanced current flows Return current passes through the load Provide single phase supply

This is a solid earth at the sub stations Zero potential No current flow Fault current only
flows Protect from electric shocks..

----------- https://www.eeeguide.com/loop-tests-in-underground-cables/ MURRAY &

VARLEY LOOP TEST TO FIND EARTH FAULT LOCATION IN CABLE.
------------------b) Rating of points: (a) Light points in residential and non- residential
buildings shall be rated as 60 W. (b) Ceiling fan/table fan rated at 60 W. Exhaust fan at
100W. (c) Socket outlet 5 Amp points shall be rated as 100 w. (d) 15 Amp socket outlet point
for general use to be rated at 1000 watts, for geysers 2000 watts, for A.C. 3000 W. c) Height
level of SB’s etc. (a) Light points, junction boxes hanging lights from floor level to be 2.5
mtr. To 3.0 mtr. (b) Fans 2.75 mtr .from floor level and minimum of 0.30 mtr from ceiling.
(c) Light plug, power plug, telephone socket, inter-com socket, T.V. socket to be 0.25 mtr.
above floor. (d) Bed light 0.30 mtr. from floor level. (e) Bed side switch1.0 mtr. from floor
level. (f) Minimum height of switch board from floor to be 1.5 mtr. (g) Power plug in bath
room 2.0 mtr. From floor if it is plug. 34 (h) Power plug alone (without switch) to be 2.5 mtr.
From floor and switch to be 1.5 mtr. above floor if it is for geyser or air conditioner. (i) Bulk
head fitting 3.0 mtr /2.5 mtr. from floor level. (j) Call bell 2.5 mtr. To 3.0 mtr. Above floor.
(k) Push button for call bell to be 1.5 mtr or 1.00 mtr. from floor in case of Bed side bell
push.

-----------The maximum current which is likely to flow in a circuit expressed as percentage of

sum of the current ratings of all the current consuming appliances connected to that circuit is
known as diversity factor of the circuit.

-----------(A)For lighting/Fan/5 ampere socket points, a maximum of 10 electrical points or a

load of 800 watts is one sub circuit. (B)For power sub-circuit, a point feeding a 15 ampere
socket outlet rated at 1000 watts each--- max 3 points

a) ENERGY METER>b) MAIN SWITCH>c) DISTRIBUTION BOARD:

-----------The voltage drop should not be more than 3 percent of the voltage at the main
switch board under normal conditions .Since use of copper has gone very costly for
general purposes, an aluminum conductor cable of 1/1.40 mm. (1 is strand and
1.40 m is the diameter of conductor) size is used as a minimum size for
an ordinary sub circuit.

1.5mmsq(1.40mm dia) cable upto 10amps—used for all domestic sub ckts

For 15 Amp. Socket –outlet in kitchen = the wire of size 4mm2 or 1/2.24 mm
aluminum conductor single Core.

For 15 Amp .socket outlet = the wire of size 6 mm2 or 1/2.80 al. conductor single
core.

------------EIE TB from 38th page no.

14SWG, GI wire is to be used as earth wire.

1.5 Sq mm copper conductor(3/0.737)mm

Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring motors, and higherspeed
motors are normally more efficient than lower-speed motors. Efficiency is also a function
of motor temperature. Totally-enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient
than screen-protected, drip-proof (SPDP) motors. Also, as with most equipment, motor
efficiency increases with the rated capacity.

------------4.5. Factors affecting motor performance: Voltage unbalance: The design of

an electric motor calls for a balanced 3-phase supply for efficient operation .A voltage
unbalance leads to the flow of an additional negative sequence current in the motors
resulting temperature rise in the windings will increase the losses and the motors capacity
will reduce. 107 The unbalanced input voltage causes increased load unbalance in motors.
That the unbalanced no load current is 35% at a voltage unbalance of 3.0%, the
unbalanced full load current is 33% at 5% voltage unbalance and the losses are increased
by 33% at 5.0% voltage unbalance . The operation of motor at above the 5.0% voltage is
not recommended

------------EIE TB from 109th page no.

----------Motors fail for various reasons. A frequent cause is breakdown of the stator
winding insulation due to repeated motor overheating, extreme one-time heating (possibly
caused by loss of one of the three electrical phases), or water entering the motor.
Normally, failure due to breakdown of stator winding insulation does not damage the
core, and the core can be rewound if the old winding is carefully removed.

--------------Link is provided at a Neutral common point in the circuit from

which various connection are taken for the individual control circuit and so it is
given in a link form to withstand high Amps.

- Old to new
- Incandescent(60,100w) to CFL(25,9w)
- High pressure Mercury vapour lamp(250,400w)—HP sodium vapour lamp(150,250)

-----------Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with
mercury & sodium vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal
halide is the choice for colour critical applications where, higher illumination levels are
required. These lamps are highly suitable for applications such as assembly line,
inspection areas, painting shops, etc. It is recommended to install metal halide lamps
where colour rendering is more critical.

-----------------The LEDs have the following merits over the filament lamps. - Lesser
power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp) - Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the
power supply. - Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours) It is recommended to
install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.

--------------Four Strokes - Diesel Engine The 4 stroke operations in a diesel engine

are: induction stroke, compression stroke, ignition and power stroke and exhaust
stroke. 1 st: Induction stroke - while the inlet valve is open, the descending piston draws
in fresh air. 2 nd: Compression stroke - while the valves are closed, the air is compressed
to a pressure of up to 25 bar. 3 rd: Ignition and power stroke - fuel is injected, while the
valves are closed (fuel injection actually starts at the end of the previous stroke), the fuel
ignites spontaneously and the piston is forced downwards by the combustion gases. 4 th:
Exhaust stroke - the exhaust valve is open and the rising piston discharges the spent gases
from the cylinder.