Physics 1 Notes PHYSICS: Branch of science dealing with the interact a ey te cin thermodynamics, etc.) and modem (“quantum" and “relay theory”) physics. BASIC AND DERIVED QUANTITIES > BASIC QUANTITIES: length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, amount of substance, luminosity ‘STANDARD UNIT OF BASIC [Quantity UNIT NAMES Length meter Mass kilogram Time ‘second Blectric Current, ampere Temperature [Kelvin “Amount of Substance | mole Luminosity candela | od 1 > DERIVED QUANTITIES: Quantities defined in terms of two or more of the basic quantities. Examples of which are velocity, acceleration, force and work. ‘SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES > SCALAR: Has magnitude and unit only (e.9., distance, ‘speed, time, energy) > VECTOR: Has magnitude, unit, and direction (e. displacement, velocity, force and acceleration) ‘A. COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR Fx: x-component pointing along the x-axis. Fyty-component pointing along the y-axis. Note: If a component points to the positive direction of an axis, it has 2 postive sign (+), Otherwise, t has @ negative sign (-) Fy ADDITION OF VECTORS 1. If force vectors act in the same direction, the “net force” or resuitant force (Fr) is: Fy + Fz = Fr Example: Two boys exert forces of 200N and 150N in pushing a bax to the right. The amount of force they exerted on the box is —> —> — Fa = 200N + 150N = 350N 2. IF force vectors act in opposite directions, the resultant is the difference of the forces with direction following the ‘ctor with the greater magnitude. Example: Lou and Paul pushed each other. Lou exerted 175N to the right while Paul exerted 200N to the left. The resultant force is Fy= 175N + ~200N = ~25N (The negative sign indicates that the resultant force is in ‘the opposite direction.) 66 3. "Head to tail” addiuon of vectors 1s used for forces in any direchon creating an angle. ample: Find the resultant force (Fx) of two vectors acting on the body, Fi (3N to the east) and F (AN to the roth. Fa 4N 3N Fea JF + Fa? = JN)? + (4N)? = 5N NATURE'S FOUR BASIC FORCES 1, Gravitational Force: Attracts bodies toward each other. 2. Electromagnetic Force: Attraction or repulsion between electric charges or magnetic poles 3, Strong Nuclear Force: Binds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus 4. Weak Nuclear Force: Holds electrons, neutrons, and ‘ther fundamental particles together ENERGY: Ability to do work 1. Kinetic Energy: Possessed by a moving body 2. Potential Energy: Energy of a body due to its position or shape ‘&. Gravitational Potential Energy: Energy of an object due to its vertical separation from the earth’s surface b. Elastic Potential Energy: Energy in a stretched or ‘compressed spring . Blectric Potential Energy: Energy of electrons inside an atom 3. Internal Energy: a.) random kinetic energy of atoms and molecules; and b.) chemical energy due to bonds and interactions between atoms and molecules. MOTION FORCE: Push or pull MOTION: Change in position of a body DISTANCE: Length covered by a body due to its motion DISPLACEMENT: Distance with direction A. AVERAGE SPEED ‘Speed (3) is the distance traveled (4) over time (t) t The unit used is Example: A jeepney moves along a straight road at an average speed of 20%. What is the distance traveled by the jeepney in 1 hour? Solution: m a=se=(207)a4) Note that, 1h = 36005 LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWERi 4 i men, 4 = (20%) 96005) = 72.000 m ‘Therefore, the jeepney would have travel hour at the rate of 20 124 72,000 min 4 B. CHANGING SPEED ACCELERATION: Change in speed unit used is %. Let a = acceleration; s1 = first speed with time ty Sa second speed with time ty; s = speed a= S201 _ As aah ae 4 (deta) means change in the respective quantty Example: An automobile travels east at 20 ™ and speeds up to 25 7 still moving to the east in 2 s, Calculate its acceleration. Per unit of time, The Solution: si=202 yeas t=0s be2s as == aa RO as 8S Miscellaneous: ‘A body which starts from rest and moves with constant acceleration has a distance of: d= Sat? Example: A stone is dropped from the top of the building and hits the ground after 2 seconds. What is the height of the building? Assume that a (acceleration due to gravity) is10 3. Solution te2s (10 B) ast = (J) com = 20m . VELOCITY: Vector quantity which is the ratio of displacement (x) over time (t). v fe Example: On the way to dass, you walked east and then south so that your displacement is 360 m. Your average velocty is 20 in the same direction as your displacement, For how long did you walk? x _ 360m _ ayy aoe 1D, ACCELERATION: the rate of change in velocity with respect to time, a v a= where: Av = vrinat ‘Bt = tina at Sines Exempla: A truck travelling east has a velocity of 26 3. The truck then decelerates at —2 2 for 3 s. What ists final ‘velocity? Note that a negative acceleration means the body 'S decelerating or stowing down. 67 E. NEWTON'S THREE LAWS OF MOTION 1. Law of Inertia: "Bodies at rest will remain at rest and bodies in motion will continue moving at constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by a net force”. This law implies that objects will remain at rest or moving at 2 Constant rate if the sum of all forces acting on them is zer0, 2. Law of Motion and Mass (or Law of Acceleration): ‘An unbalanced force acting on an object will cause the object to accelerate in the direction of the force” ‘Acceleration is directly proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to its mass. 3. Law of Interaction: "For every action there is an ‘equal but opposite reaction.” F. IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM > MOMENTUM: Tendency of a moving object to continue moving and the diffcuty encountered in reducing that motion p=my ‘where m is mass and vis velocity. The unit is kg +. > Impulse of 2 force on an object for atime tis: Impulse = Ft ‘The units Nes > The relationship between impulse of a force and the change in momentum is given by Foet = mvs = mV where vis the final velocity and vis the initial velocty. ‘This states that the sum of the impulses of all forces acting on an object for a certain time is equal to the change in momentum of the object durin that time, xample: A145 g baseball traveling at 35 is hit by @ bat and rebounds in the opposite direction at 40! What is the change in momentum? Solution: m= 145 g oF 0.145 kg; 353, w= ~402 may dv = (0.145 kg) (~407 - 352) = -1015 kg «2 ‘Note that the negative sign accounts forthe direction of the momentum which isthe direction of the velocity ofthe baseball bat. G. CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM If no external force (ike fricion) acts on a body, the momentum ofthe body wil not change. Let p = rvs + rz (the momentum of the system before collision) ‘where: m, = mass of object 1; v1 = velocity of object 1 ma = mass of object 2; v2 = velocity of object 2 Let p’= mw’ + may : (the momentum of system after collision) LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB - NMAT REVIEWERi ‘The law of conservation of momentum states that: op =p'-p=Oorp'=p H. PROJECTILE MOTION > Maton of 2 body thrown horizontally and affected Earth's gravtational pull Ua Sacha by > Trajectory is the path taken by an ‘motion 1, Body Thrown Upward ‘an object is given an intial upward velocity vs. Whi fight, the ball is pulled downward by gravy. Since ike force and velocity are opposite in directions, the speed the object decreases up to the highest point of as might Then It fais downward with increasing velocty unt reaches the ground. ‘The net force due to gravity is Fy = may where ay = 102. 2. Body Thrown Horizontally ‘AS an object is thrown horizontally, an initial horizontal force, Fr iS applied. Once the object is released no more horizontal force acts on it. But maintains its horizontal Velocty, Vk. This object is being pulled downward by gravity so it moves vertically downward with acceleration due to gravity, ag = 10, The vertical force is Fy = Fy= may ‘Thus the object moves in two directions at the same time, both horizontally and vertically. ‘The resultant velocity is Va= Vat W object in projectile 1, UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION Consider an object of mass, m, while moving in a circular path at constant speed (Fe = mac). Relating the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration, a., with the J. LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. Fp emt en Ht where G (gravitational constant) = 6.67 x 1 ELASTICITY: Property of matter that enables it to return to Rs original size and shape when the applied external force is removed STRESS AND STRAIN STRESS: A component of a force perpendicular to the area it acts on. It is mathematically written as: Stress = ‘STRAIN: A measure of deformation, usually it is the object's change in length, HOOKE’S LAW: Strain is directly proportional to the 68 where: Y = Young's Modulus of Elasticity {= the original length of the material Al = the change in length Young's Modulus is a measure of the stretchability or ‘compressibility of @ material within its elastic limit. The higher Y is, the more elastic the material PRESSURE: Perpendicular force acting on a unit surface. F A Tre nif pres is Fasc (9) 13 = 24 Increase in neg causes decrease in ar densty. Tnerease in molecular coisons causes Increase in pressure. PASCAL'S PRINCIPLE ‘An external pressure exerted on a static, enclosed Nuid is transmitted uniformly throughout the fiid. ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE Magnitude of buayant force, Fe, is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by the object: Fa = VuDwg Vw volume of displaced water V = volume of the object Du = density of water D = density of the object ‘A body wil float in a fluid if iis less dense than the fluid, Example: Calauate the buoyant force experienced by @ 324g rock with desty of 2800 #2 when fly submerged in water of densty 1000 2, soliton: Va essoftheabject __32ko = Pe lensityoftneobjec 0.01mi = Ww 280088, (0.011 m*) (1,000 £8 ) (10 110 Newtons WORK, POWER AND ENERGY WORK: Done wien a force causes displacement Ward KINETIC ENERGY KES 5 om? where m = mass and v = velcity W = KE Tris is true only if the object starts from rest W = A(KE) = (KE)Anat ~ (KE)itit ‘where wis the inital speed of the object and vr isthe final speed ofthe object. Ths is used if the object is intially moving. POTENTIAL ENERGY PE = mgh where m = mass of the object, g = 10 3, and h = height of the object W=A(PE)orer W = (PEge n= (PEt W ssbb «thee LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWERPhysics 2 Notes MAGNETIC FIELD: Region in space where th affects another magnet. emeanet EFFECTS OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON CURRENT- CARRYING CONDUCTORS” If a carrent carrying conductor is in @ magnetic fel, it moves 08 drecton a ght angle to btn the drecton of and MAGNETIC FORCE: Magnetic force (F) is maxi siren caret T ond magnet Tels rectors et perpendicular to each other. The magnitude of the force F depends on the folowing: 2) arent (1) D) seer of magnetic ido) ©) ength ofthe conductor that hes in magnetic In equation, magnetic force is: arene Hoe, F=BIL EFFECT OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON MOVING CHARGES IN VACUUM F=qvB = no, of charges; v = velocity = £ ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION Current is induced when a conductor moves across a magnetic field or when a magnetic field moves with respect to a stationary conductor. FACTORS AFFECTING THE AMOUNT OF INDUCED CURRENT > Relative velocity of the conductor and magnetic fields > The strength of the magnetic fed. > Length of the conductor in the field > Current is produced when a potential difference between two points in a circuit exist. > Can magnetism induce current? This is shown by the following equation. BL Note that the current (I) is proportional to voltage (V). Thus ass current increases, v, B, and L increases. Ap aaa ‘The induced voltage is numerically equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. As the flux changes, current Is induced. WAVE AND ENERGY ENERGY TRANSFER Waves are classified as mechanical and electromagnetic waves. They either move in circular or straight motion. ‘A. KINDS OF WAVE 1. TRANSVERSE: Movement of the particles of the medium are perpendicular to the direction of the wave motion. 2, LONGITUDINAL: Movement is parallel to the direction Of the wave. 69 B. WAVE CHARACTERISTICS 1, WAVELENGTH: Distance between two corresponding points on a wave train. 2. WAVE FREQUENCY: Expressed in hertz which Comesponds to the number of times the wave source completes a vibration in one second. 3. PERIOD: Time it takes the wave source to rake one Complete vibration. Ii the reciprocal of frequency. 4, AMPLITUDE: Highest or lowest displacement from a wave’s equilbrium positon. Increase in amplitude causes 2 transfer of more energy. 5. VELOCITY: Directly proportional to frequency veat ¢. SOUND ‘Sound needs a _medium to propagate. When the air ‘molecules transfer their motion to the neighboring particles, these strike the eardrum and make it vibrate. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES: 1. LOUDNESS OR INTENSITY: Loud sounds have ‘greater amplitude 2. PITCH: Highness or lowness of sound ‘3. QUALITY: Distinguishes sounds from one another D. "DOPPLER EFFECT” ‘Occurs when the speed of the wave is greater than the speed of the source. E. LIGHT 1, REFLECTION IN PLANE MIRRORS ‘The image is reversed in a plane mirror. The virtual image is of the same size as the object in front of the mirror. 2, REFLECTION IN CURVED MIRRORS ‘A curved mirror has a vertex V, 2 center of curvature c, ‘and a principal focus F. The focal length, fis the distance. from V to F. $3, COMPARISON OF CONCAVE & CONVEX MIRRORS. CONCAVE (= ___| CONVEX “Te reflected rays meet at | The paral ras spread the real focus. out. The concave mirror enlarges the image and used as light reflectors. ‘The virtual image is erect ‘and smaller than the object > A diverging lens always forms an ead, witualimoge ‘which is diminished in size. It is located closer to the lens than the object, between the principal focal point and the. lens. > Lens defects are called aberrations, They hinder the ‘Quality of the image formed in an optical system. > To correct for spherical aberration in lenses, achromatic or aspheric lenses can be used. This 5 ‘done by using thin lens combinations to cancel out aberrations. Achromatic lenses, designed to correct for ‘chromatic aberration at some wavelengths, can also help to reduce spherical aberration. > Lenses are used in many different Kinds of prattical applications. (Several should be studied.) > An optical system may use a combination of mirrors, lenses, prisms, and other Kinds of optical devices. > An image formed by one component in an optical system can serve as an object for a different component. LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER70 > The image charactersics for fenses depend on the location eee converging summarizes the characteristics of images found nm a "ect. Ths table converging mirror based on the location ofthe object Human Eye: Farsightedness and i Le Tine toe Trey groan eR to correct te defect (Convex ens} In hyperop, the lenses fl to rena and fs seen 25-8 Dlured epee = thee focal length or the eyeball is too short. The image is formed behind the Site person resorts to achutng the necate,1720e. Te Clary musces have lest ther power of secommoaston The Magnification (m) isthe rato ofthe size of the go ot £0 De able to see it better. CONVEX LENS OR CONVERGING LENS ——T TMAGE FOR ERGING LENS Jens are those which are thicker ject at an infinite distance: neker inthe mide [Distance of object is infinity. limage is a point at F. i Case TT [Object at F. limage is merely a pont, at infinit (Object at F. Case BY Omject at 3 ect is at infty. cy at 2F. obit line a3 inverted, same size, real mn sa ‘Case IV [Between 2F and F, lImage is between F and C, inverted, sane size and [Object between F and C. Image outside C, inverted, bigger in size, real. lObject is between F and mirror. limage is behind the mirror, erect, bigger in size, virtual image outside 2F” larger in size, inverted, real. ‘CaseV Between lens and F. image at the same side of the lens, larger in size, erect, \virtual. Case VI (Outside 2F. [Object outside C, Center of Curvature. nage is between F and 2F, reduced in size, inverted, Image is between F and C, inverted, reduced in size, \real real. (CONCAVE LENS OR DIVERGING LENS: ‘CONVEX MIRROR OR CONVERGING MIRROR: IMAGE FORMATION 7 IMAGE FORMATION | diect is at any place. Image is at the same side of the — | Similar rays diverge upon being reflected and seem to lens, reduced in size, erect and virtual ‘come from a common point within the mirror. Object is in any point in front of the convex mirror. Image ‘appears behind the mirror, erect, smaller in size, virtual 7 = — 5 — ‘Sign convention for lenses: ‘Sign convention for Spherical mirrors | Negative Positive, [_Negative Convex or converging | Concave or diverging | Concave or diverging Convex or converging Real object Virtual object__| Real object | Virtual object Real image Virtual image Real image Virtual image Erect image —Tnverted image Erect image — Inverted image APPLICATIONS ‘Convex Mirror Uses: Magnifying Glass aaa eee + Two convex miors placed back to back are used to make a ‘Convex Mirror Uses: Inside Buildings magnifying gi2ss. «Large hospitals, stores and office buildings often use convex tir teow pool to sx wats round coe fo [APPLICATIONS OF CONCAVE MIRRORS, help keep people from running into one ancther. ; ‘conrax Wirror Uses Sunglasses Concave Mirror Uses: Vehicle + Convex mirrors ae used to make sunglass lenses. These ‘Concave mirrors ae used in vehicle headights to focus the ‘iors help reflect some of the sunlight away from the light from the headboht. The Hight ks not as difused and the wearers eyes. dhiver can see better at night. Convex. 5: Vehicles Comermors arcane nthe passenger Ses of Concave Mir Uses: Light Concentration motor vehides. These mirrors make objects appear smaler ‘© Concave mirors are used to focus ight for heating purposes. than they realy ae. Due to his compression, these minors brett wel rage oa, ee ove. Cconwax Miror Use: Security : * Convex ror are often placed near ATS alow bank tones tose fsameare ein et. Ts 2 } ‘Seowity measure that helps keep ATM users om | foobar ofan cash wahdrawals and hes keep ATM users Nenty more secre LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWERIMAGES FORMED BY A CONVERGING LENS Images formed by Characterstes Converging Lens or Com = ex ofthe Image a) Dstant Real, Inverted object ES Sales than PETS object at F b) Object Real, Inverted aa Same size ALE ©) Object A Real, Inverted between 2 and F Object No image on Refracted rays are parallel Virtual, Erect €) Object Larger than between object Fand Behind the Jens object on the same side of the lens IMAGES FORMED BY A DIVERGING LENS Characteristics of the image regardless of object position Virtual, Erect ‘Smaller than object Between object and lens Object at Farm F, REFRACTION Bending of light at the boundary between different media. The index of refraction is: n=s where n = index of refraction, c = speed of light (3x 10°), and v = speed of light in the medium Law of Reflection + “It states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.” + Insymbols, 6= © where: © angle of incidence ©, ~ angle of relection n ‘The normal line is always drawn perpendicular with the reflecting surface. Angle of incidence and reflecvon 1s ‘measured from the normal Ine. MULTIPLE REFLECTION OF LIGHT ‘When light hits reflecting surfaces several times, multiple images wail be formed, Ifthe angle between two reflecting surfaces such as mirror decreases, the number of images formed increases.to determine the number of images that ‘can be formed between two mirrors hinged together at an angle is 360 number images = =~ 1 Where © = angle between two mirrors REFRACTION OF LIGHT Light bends when it travels obliquely from one transparent ‘medium to another. Light is bent toward or away from the ‘normal as it changes its speed when traveling through ferent optical media. A measure of how fast or slow light ‘vave's from one medium to another is called the index of refraction (optical density) index of refraction(n) “__ speed of light ina vacuum = Speed of light ina given medium ¥ Index of refraction is a dimensionless quantity and Its value is always greater or equal to 1 since light travels fastest in 2 vacuum than any other media. Normal tine is aways drawn perpendicular to the refracting surfaces. The angles of incidence and refraction are ‘measured from the normal ine. When the first medium has (greater index of refraction than the second medium, light bends away from the normal. If medium 2 is denser than ‘medium 1, light bends towards the normal ‘Snel’ aw is the basic law of refraction that shows the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction ny sind, = nzsind, ‘Where, index of refraction of the fist medium a index of refraction of the second medium 1 angle of incidence @2— angle of refraction DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT A separation of white ight into several rainbow colors after passing a prism is called dispersion. Dispersion occurs because the indices of refraction are wavelength dependent (Nowikow et al, 2002) “The speed of light in vacuum is the same forall wavelengths but the speed in a material substance is, different for difterent wavelengths. Dispersion is the dependence of wave speed and index of refraction on wavelength. In most materials, ight of longer wavelength has greater speed than light of shorter wavelength since the value ofthe index of refraction decreases with decreasing frequency and increasing wavelength. ' LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB - NMAT REVIEWERray f white ight indent ona prism separates todow or“ O, GV Ral ee while violet light is deviated most since deviation (chant ) produced by a prism increases with increasing’ es ‘and index of refraction and decreasing wavelength. TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION Total Internal Reflection happens winen the greater than Ye cial angle, tis is poste cer nee ® light travels from denser to less dense medium suche diamond to air. As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction also increases since light bends away from the normal from denser to less dense medium. When the crtical angle is reached, the angle of refraction is along the interface of the two media which is equal to 90 degrees from the normal line. Using Srel's Law. nysin®, = nsing, Incident angle (@) is equal to the critical angle (8.) when the refracted ray moves paralle to the boundary when @> = 90°, One of the applications of total internal reflection isthe used ofthe flexible pipe in fiber optics industry, Images can be transferred from one point to another resulting to multiple intemal reflection using the bundle of parallel fibers in constructing transmission line. Another application is seen In the medical field, physician utilize optical fiber devices to ‘examine internal organs of the body or to perform surgery without making large incisions. Electrical wirings such as copper wiring and coaxial cables are being replaced by optical fibers since these can carry greater volume of telephone calls or other forms of communication (Serway, 2004) DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT Tks the bending of light waves around the objects it passes and spreads out after passing through the narrow sits which glve rise to a diffraction pattern due to interference between light rays that trave! different distances (Giancolh, 200). When light passes through an opening that is large Compared van tie navcength cig 2 shadow wil Be ‘caste on the screen with sharp boundary Detveen te ca {nd light areas of shadow. But when light waves through chin i karts whic produces bright and dark areas. Longer waves diffract more since the amount of shadow depends on the wavelength of the wave compared with the size of the obstruction that casts the shadow (Hewitt, 2006). n INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT Interference of wave is the meeting or superimposing of ‘one wave on another wave. ‘Types of interference: = Constructive Interference ~ At points where the waves ave in phase. As seen from the figure at the right, when a crest meets another crest or a trough meets another trough (waves are in phase), the resulting wave is being reinforced forming a Supercrest or supertrough. ‘+ Destructive Interference — At points where the waves arrive in opposite phase. Figure at the right shows the ‘meeting of waves with the same amplitude which are ‘out of phase (crest meets trough) resulted to a cancellation of wave. : ght isa transverse electromagnetic wave which exhibits interference. Striped Interference pattern was produced When a monochromatic ight passes through closely spaced ~ sits. Series of bright and dark lines results from the different path lengths from the sits to the screen. ‘The central bright fringes are the results of the in phase waves that reinforced each other (Constructive Interference) while the dark fringes are produced from the. meeting of the waves that are out of phase (Destructive Interference). POLARIZATION OF LIGHT Polarization of light waves shows that ligt is realy a transverse wave. All EM waves exhibits polarization. There ‘are many applications of pokarized light Such as: ‘2. Polarized light is useful in determining the size and shape of virus. b. Polaroid isa trademark for glare - reducing plastic which is used in sun glasses. Polaroids cut down the horizontally polarized light to reduce the glare and intensity. Polaroids with perpendicular axes are used in special types of glasses for three dimensional Viewing (3-D view) 4d. Photo elastic stress analysis uses polarized light. POLARIZATION by TRANSMISSION Itis the most common method of polarization which utilizes Polaroid filter that blocks one of the two planes of vibration of an electromagnetic wave upon transmission of the light ‘through it. Unpolarized light vibrates in all directions. ‘Vertical and horizontal components of light have equal intensities but after passing through a polarized, one of the components is eliminated and light intensity is reduced to half. Unpolarized light can be entirely stopped when the two polaroids are crossed having perpendicular polarizing axes (Polarizer and Analyzer). ‘The second Polaroid, the analyzer, then eliminates this ‘component since its transmission axis ls perpendicular to the first. You can try this with Polaroid sunglasses (Fig. 24- 44), Note that Polaroid sunglasses ciminate 50% of LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~ NMAT REVIEWERunpolarized light because of their polanzing prc szrd even ore Decause they are coat ery MEY POLARIZATION by REFLECTION When ight strikes @ nonmetalic surface at any angl than perpendicular, the reflected beam isa poland oe preferentially in the plane parallel to the surface. Furthermore, the component with polarization in the pane ical to the surface is preferentially transmitted or absorbed. People who go fishing wear polaroid sunglosces to see beneath the water more clearly since it eliminates the reflected glare from the surface (Giancoli). Rettection of ight off of non-metallic surfaces resuts in some degree of polarization parallel to the surface, POLARIZATION by REFRACTION Refraction isthe bending of light as it passes obliquely from ‘one transparent medium to another. Light ray bends which acquires some degree of polarization. As light enters a transparent medium such as Iceland spar, i refracts the incident light into two different paths which are polarized. ‘The double refraction of light can produce two images. ‘The two refracted rays passing through the Iceland Spar ‘aystal are polarized with perpendicular orientations. POLARIZATION by SCATTERING As light strikes the atoms of a material, the electrons of the ‘atoms Set into vibration which later produce their own ‘electromagnetic wave radiated outward in al directions, The newly generated wave strikes other neighboring atoms that forces their electrons to vibrate at same original frequency, and then produces new electromagnetic waves radiated ‘outward in all directions. The absorption and remission of light waves causes the light to be scattered and partially Polarized about the medium. Polarization by scattering is (observed as light passes through our atmosphere which (often produces a glare in the skies. GEOMETRIC OPTICS. Images can be formed either by reflection of light as it hits 2an opaque or transparent medium respectively. The image formation can be ilustrated by ray diagrams in geometric optics and can also be proven mathematically using the ‘minor or thn lens equation and magnification. ‘Some important quantities/terms needed in the image formation by lens or mirror. * Object distance (p) - distance of the object from the mirrorfens. + Image distance (q) - cistance of the image from the ‘mirorfens, + Focal length (f) - haf of the radius of curvature (R) of the reflecting or refracting surfaces; the distance oe the center of the mirror/lens to the focal point * Focal point (F) - the point where incident parallel rays to.come to a focus after reflection/refraction B + Principal Axis - straight ine perpendicular to the fat oF curved reflecting or refracting surfaces + Magnification (M) - dimensionless quantty which tells whether the image formed is maximize, diminish or same size as the object. + Image size (n)- size of the image + Object’s size (h) - sze of the object To determine the lacaton ofthe object or mage, @ Ierorfvin lens equations used. rer Fesoia) Images formed by a mior/lens can be real or tua, erect or inverted, Real images are usually inverted while virtual images are erect + Real images is formed when ight rays pass through and civerge from the image point and can be displayed on the screen ‘+ Virtual image do not pass through the image point but ‘only appear to averge from that point and cannot be displayed on the screen ‘+ Erect image isan image formed in upright position. +175 isan image formed which tums upside-down. Images can also be diminished, maximized or same size as the object + Diminished image isthe image formed that is smaller than the object. + Maximized image isthe image formed that is larger than the image. + Same size image is the image formed that is similar to the size ofthe object. ‘According to the magnification formula (M): a oe When the absolute value of ‘+ M1, objects some size asthe image + Mc, diminished image + M> 1, maximize image In solving for the different unknowns, some sign ‘conventions are important to remember to determine the kind of image that will be formed after reflection of ight ‘rom mirror and refraction of light from lens. ‘Sign Conventions for Mirrors and Lenses Deserption of mage Wiualor Focal Erector Real ‘Same/Max/Dim Length Image Inverted Real (postive | Invert : Comversing | ©) | (negative ny | Sire (= 2) Cy | vita | ec | MEK(M > 2 (negative | (positive h) a) Virtual Di Erect veg tose | prey | Om LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER‘The table below shows the summary of the characteristics of images formed convex mirrors. rmed by concave and cope ance ce Sei ed ING MIRROR — Seas omen iat emer Pt eno ee Fea {perenne fee cusmetaey eee} Ss | oe | HRoMeEK/DIVERGING HIEROR eared] cumaeeaeintetsts | ex | wa | amnaea | | ‘The table below shows the summary of the images produced after light is being refracted from thin lenses. THAGE FORMED objects Distance — | Erector | Me | Maurine er | cimncned L. = vss | orsane sz | ‘SERTEXTCONVERGING LENS i 1. Oops ica beeen Tame bomsbenest [eet | was | maanaed | 2 Obst seat oF Te imoge ied] 5: Object ate between F om “[oweres | vet | macrned Toes baal — ined rer aaa] Gusts bod _|-ivetat [res | amr | Gomes cntty | tvs | ven | MEH ‘OROAVE DIVERGING LENS — Git sain fertets || we | ered Eye is the most remarkable optical device necessary to see the things around us in the presence ofthe visible light spectrum. Itis also similar to a camera that focuses light and produces a sharp image. Camera-Eye Analogy + Lens - Comea/Lens «+ Aperture ~ Pupil «+ Film — Retina ‘» Shutter - Eyelid Eye Defects Farsightedness (Hyperopia): is the inability to see ‘nearby objects clearly. Since the images is formed behind the retina, a converging lens Is needed to correct this eye defect. In order to focus the image on the retina, the Converging lens refracts more the incoming rays toward the Principal ans before entering the eye. ‘Nearsightedness (Myopia): is the inability to see far objects dearly. Since the image is formed in front of the. ‘retina, a diverging lens is needed to correct this eye defect. In order to focus the image on the retina, the diverging lens ‘efracts more the incoming rays toward the principal axis before entering the eye. 74 Old-age vision (Presbyopia): itis due to a reduction in ‘accommodation abity as the cilary muscle weakens and the lens hardens. The comea and lens do not have sufficient focusing power to bring nearby objects into focus on the retina. Converging fens can be used to correct this eye defect. ‘Astigmatism: when the comea or the lens or both are not perfectly symmetric, this resulted to an eye defect that Prevents the light rays from meeting at a single point, Producing an imperfect image. In order to correct this eye ‘defect, lenses with diferent curvatures in two perpendicular, directions can be used. LIGHT AND COLORS Even we have functioning eyes, without light we can’t use ‘anything and the colors of different objects depend on the: ‘colors of the light that illuminates them. White light is not & Color rather it is the presence of all frequencies of visible light while Black is the absence of the visible light spectrum, White is capable of reflecting all visible "ight spectrum white and black is capable of absorbing all visible light spectrum ‘and converted it to heat energy. Primary Colors of Light Secondary Colors of Light 41, Red (R) 1. Yelow (¥) =R+G 2. Blue (8) 2.Cyan()=B +6 3. Green (G) 3. Magenta (M) = B +R When the colors of ight with varying degrees of intensity are mixed/addes, another covor will be produced. White ight can also be formed when the three primary Colors with same intensity are added. W=R+B+G ‘Complementary Colors of Light 4, Red + Cyan = White 2. Green + Magenta = White 3. Blue + Yellow = White ‘The color of objects isnot inthe object but rather in the light which reflects off or transmits through the object. In colr subtraction, the ultimate color appearance of an object is determined by beginning with a single colo or mixture of colors and identifying which color or colors of light are subtracted from the original set. W-B = (R+G+8)-8 R+G= “The object is capable of absorbing Blue under the White light. The object appears Yellow to the observer since blue light was cancelled and transformed to heat energy. R-AER “The object Is capable of absorbing Blue under the Red light. ‘The object appears Red tothe observer since blue light cannot be cancelled and transformed to heat energy from fed iat me gens rik LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER:‘he object's capable of absorbing Blue under the Magen ight. The object appears Read to the observer since be? ight was cancelled and transformed to heat energy, G. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, Bextromagnetic waves Consist of a changing electric ets and a changing magnetic field. James Clerk Maxwell (851, 1879) theorized that electromagnetic induction happene fy space even without the presence of a conductor, H. NATURE OF MATTER AND ENERGY Te ps hawng eneay and momentum is expressed by =hf where f= Planck’ constant (6,63 x 10% sec) and {= frequency RADIOACTIVITY: The spontaneous emission of radiation from the nuclei of atoms of certain substances termed 2s radioactive. Radiation is of three main types: alpha (fast, moving helium nucle); beta (fast-moving electrons); ‘gamma (high-energy, highly penetrating protons). Beta and ‘gamma radiation are both damaging to body tissues, but are especialy dangerous if a radioactive ‘substance is ingested or intaled. When radiation takes place, there is ass of energy. UGHT, OPTICS, SOUNDS, AND ELECTRICITY ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESS Heat is transfered from a body or place of higher temperature to that heat of lower temperature, All natural Processes tend to go from a less disordered to a more Gravitational Potential Energy = mgh = joules UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION e xe sat Fes ma,=m= LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION Gm, a= where G = 6.67 x 10 = = gravitational constant (no. need to memerize te value of 6) POWER otk dose ia itenal todo ewe Unt for powers watt att = 1W = 1/5 1 hp = 550 tbs = 746 W = 33,000 tymin TRW "134 np Gas and electric companies charge for energy, not ‘power, usualy y the Klowathour (kWeh). A lowatcheur oF, energy is 1 kWeh = (10° W) (3600 S) = 3.6 x 10° Wes = 3.6 MD Average Power Py = AY = 3E ~ At at Power equation if the Force is parallel to velocity v PHFy Power = (force)(speed) Power Eiency = SEEEMPH 5 199 95 LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB ~— NMAT REVIEWERHOOKE'S LAW Fekx were F= force (N),K = spring constant (¥), x = ‘or compression of spring (m) WEIGHT - MASS RELATIONSHIP weme Shere n= weight extension m= tase f= AMiNVOBL me oF39285) wee PRESSURE be pressure = Fe" = Pa, Pascats or #. where A = area of the surface (m?), Force = fon normal to the surface (N) a ‘SPECIFIC HEAT ‘Amount of heat required to raise the temperature of either ane kogram or one gram of that material by one Celecg degree. Different units may be used depending on where specie heat is measured in terms of grams or klograme, and joules or calories. " meAT Heat Exchange = Q= moat = kgx fx? = joule ELECTRICCURRENT SS Tet = Stent = amperes where q = number of charges passing through a conductor © OHM'S LAW V=IR \V= volts, I= amperes, R = ohms POWER CONSUMPTION P= VI Watts = volts x ampere PePRe = RESISTANCE OF WIRE 4 Length 2. Coss-Sectona rea 3. Temperature B= -N (22) = wots = no, of turns of the coi 40 = 8, ~ 6, = final flux in Weber — initial flux in Weber i q LEARNFAST REVIEW AND TUTORIAL HUB — NMAT REVIEWER 7