Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 1

PHYSICS LAB
MANUAL




Course Code: PHY122
Course Title: PHYSICS LAB-II





The principle of science, the definition, almost, is the following: The test of all knowledge is
experiment. Experiment is the sole judge of scientific truth. But what is the source of knowledge?
Where do the laws that are to be tested come from? Experiment, itself, helps to produce these laws, in
the sense that it gives us hints. But also needed is imagination to create from these hints the great
generalizations-to guess at the wonderful, simple, but very strange patterns beneath them all. And then
to experiment to check again whether we have made the right guess.
Richard Feynman














Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 2






TEXTBOOK:
1. LMPHY122.doc


OTHER READINGS:
2. Arora C.L., B.Sc. Practical Physics Chand S. & Company, New Delhi, Twentieth edition,
2007








S. No Title of Experiment Page
No.
1
An introduction to units, errors ,different types of graphs and measurement of
length, mass and time.
3-8
2
To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of circular
coil carrying current by plotting a graph.

9-10
3
To compare the frequency of oscillation produced by the two audio oscillator
using Lissajous figures.

11
4
To plot a graph between current and frequency in LCR series and parallel circuit
and find resonant frequency, quality factor and band width.

12-14
5
To study the voltage regulation and ripple factor of (a) Half Wave Rectifier (b)
Full Wave Rectifier (c) Bridge rectifier and trace it input and output by using
CRO. Also Study the L-type and -type filter circuit.

15-18
6
To study the induced e.m.f. as the function of velocity of the magnet

19-20
7
To find the coefficient of self inductance of a coil by Andersons method using a
head phone.

21-22
8
To determine Hall Voltage and Hall Coefficient using Hall Effect.

23-24
9
To study the characteristics of PNP and NPN transistor (CE and CB).

25-27
10
To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork using CRO.

28-29
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 3



Experiment 1
Title :- An introduction to units, errors ,different types of graphs and measurement of length, mass and
time.
Equipments to be used :- Vernier calliper, travelling microscope, and screw gauge etc.
Material Required:- Simple graphs papers
Learning objective:-
1.To find the least count of various measuring instrument.
2.How to plot graphs?
3.Error Analysis

Units.
The measurement of the physical quantities should be done in the most convenient unit e.g. mass of the
body in grams, measurement using vernier calliper in cm, small current in mA etc. All the measured
quantity must be converted into SI unit while tabulating.

Least count.
Least Count= (Value of one main scale division) / (Total no. divisions on the vernier scale)
Observed Reading=M.S. reading+ V.S. reading
Note: find out the the least count of the measuring instrument available in the lab
e.g vernier calliper, screw gauge, spectrometer, Michelson Interferometer, etc.


A graph is a straight or curved which shows the relative change between two quantities out of which
one varies as a result of change in the other. The quantities which is changed at will is called
independent variable while alter due to the change in the first is called dependent variable. The point
where the axes of independent and dependent variable meet at right angle is called origin.
Following rule must be adopted while plotting a graph
1. Find the independent and dependent variables. Plot the independent variable along X-axis and
the dependent variable along the Y-axis.
2. Determine the range of each variable and count the no of divisions available on the graph to
represent the each variable along the respective axes.
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3. Choose a convenient scale for both variables .It is not necessary to have the same scale for
both.The scale should neither be too narrow nor too wide.It is preferable that 10 divisions
should be represent 1,2,5, or 10 or their multiples by any +ve or ve power of 10. We must see
that maximum portion of the graph paper is utilized and the graph is well within it.
4. At least six observation extending over a wide range should be taken for plotting the graph.
5. If the relation between the two variables begins from zero of if zero value of one of one of the
variables is to be found out, it is necessary to take origin as zero along both the axes.
6. The origin need not always be represent by zero. Its value should be round number less than
the smallest given value of the independent or dependent variable.
7. It is not necessary to write all the values along the respective axes.
8. Mark the point with a pencil. Draw a small circle or put a cross to indicate the plotting point
prominently.
9. Draw a smooth free hand curve through the plotted points. It is not necessary that the curve
should pass through every point leave as many points below it as there are above it.
10. The title graph should be given boldly near the top of the graph paper.
11. It is always better to indicate the scale for both the variable at the top in the left or right corner
of the graph paper.


Linear graphs
Example 1
Let us consider the case of time period T of a simple pendulum which is written as

T = (2t) (L/g)
1/2
----------(1)

L is the length of the pendulum while g is acceleration due to gravity. Eq. (1) can be re-written as

T
2
= (4t
2
/g) L---------(2)

Eq. (2) is an equation of straight line with slope = (4t
2
/g) and intercept = 0
A student came up with the following data.
S.No T
(s)
L
(cm)
1 1.0 24.8
2 0.9 20.1
3 0.8 15.9
4 0.7 12.2
5 0.6 8.9
6 0.5 6.2
Find the value of g by graphical analysis.
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How to draw the graph?
Step 1. From Eq. 2 we have to plot T
2
vs L so our table is (L should in meters)





S.No T
2

(s)
L x 10
-2

(m)
1 1.0 24.8
2 0.81 20.1
3 0.64 15.9
4 0.49 12.2
5 0.36 8.9
6 0.25 6.2

Step 2. Choose a linear graph sheet which is linearly (normally in mm) graduated on both X- as well Y-
axis.
Step 3. Choose Y-axis for T
2
and X-axis for L
Step 4. Max T
2
is 1 and min is 0.25; choose your scale so that you can mark 0.25 clearly. Similarly choose
scale for L on X-axis.
Step 5. Mark the points on the graph with a sharp pencil
Step 6. Draw a straight line through the points so that maximum number of points are on/very close to the
line (Best fit we will not discuss presently)
Step 7. Find the slope from the graph and calculate g
Important:
(i) Give a title to the graph; in present case it will be T
2
Vs L for a simple pendulum.
(ii) Mark scales on the graph sheet; X-axis 10mm = so many m and Y-axis 10mm= so many
seconds
(iii) Mark X-axis and Y-axis with quantity (along with units) you are plotting
(iv)Calculate the slope and g on the graph sheet so that a graph is complete and one need not to refer
to the Lab Sheets.
Interpolation: From the graph you can find the L for T=0.44 (for example, within the present data set))
even though there is no experimental data; this process is called interpolation.
Extrapolation: One can extend the length of the line so that one can predict L for T =0.1s or 2.5s
(outside the present data set); this is called extrapolation.

Example 2. Change in the value g with the distance h (outside the earth) is given by
g
h
(value of g at a height h)= g(1-2h/R) where R is the radius of earth

Data from an experiment is given in the following table
S.No g
h
m/s
2

h
m
1 8.8 0.05R
2 7.8 0.10R
3 6.9 0.15R
4 5.9 0.20R
5 4.9 0.25R
6 3.9 0.30R
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By graphical analysis find the value of g. Can you find out the value of R from the graph?
Semi-log graph
Radioactive decay is given by N(t) = N(0) e
-ot
, where N(t) are the observed counts at time t, N(0) are the
counts at time t = 0 (fixed arbitrarily) and o is the decay constant. Calculate N(0) and by graphical
technique from the given data:
Time t
s
No. of counts
1.0 905.0
2.0 820.0
3.0 735.0
4.0 670.0
5.0 600.0
6.0 550.0

N(t) = N(0) e
-ot

Or ln N(t) = ln N(o) - ot (ln is log to the base e)
Or 2.3log N(t) = 2.3 log N (0) -ot (change of log base to 10)
Or log N(t) = log N(0) - (o/2.3) t
Plot of log N(t) with t is a straight line with log N(o) as intercept and -o/2.3 as slope. Since one side is log
so use a semi-log graph paper to get the values of N(0) and o.

Log-log graph
Planetary period T (in earth years) is related to its distance R( AU, astronomical units; 1AU is equal to
average separation between earth and sun) by the relationship of the form
T = kR
n

Calculate k and n by graphical analysis from the following data












T = kR
n

or log T = log k + n log R
Plot of log T vs log R is a straight line with log k as intercept and n as slope. Since both sides are in log
form use log-log graph paper.






Name of the planet T in
Earth years
R in
Astronomical units
Mercury 0.39 0.24
Venus 0.72 0.62
Earth 1.00 1.00
Mars 1.52 1.88
Jupiter 5.20 11.86
Saturan 9.54 29.46
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 7


Error analysis

Measurement is basic to science. A measurement is meaningful only if the uncertainties involved are
specified. An operator X has to specify the uncertainty (error) in his final result; the practice of
comparing the result with standard value is unscientific as the experimental conditions/instruments used
to find out the standard value are different when compared to those of X. Please remember

The error in an experimentally measured quantity is never found by comparing it to some
number found in a book or web page

These uncertainties do not include the blunders/mistakes of the person performing the measurement.
These errors are due to limitations of the measuring instruments (like zero error, faulty calibration, error
due to parallax, bias of the operator etc) and uncontrollable changes in experimental parameters like
temperature, pressure, voltage etc. The instrument errors (systematic errors) are instrument specific, can
be either +ve or ve and are constant in nature. On the other hand errors due to changes in experimental
parameters are random in nature; can be both +ve as well as ve in a particular set of easements.
Estimation of systematic errors
There is no prescribed method to minimize systematic errors. An operator has to examine various
measuring instruments (scales, meters, etc) for zero-errors (zero of a meter or vernier caliper might have
shifted), take readings so as to minimize parallax error and if possible check the calibration of the
measuring instruments. Systematic errors cannot be minimized by taking large number of measurement
(Why?).
Estimation of random errors
Random errors are both +ve as well ve in a measurement cycle, can be handled by well-known statistical
techniques. Two basic techniques are:
(i) Arithmetic Mean or simply mean = (X
1
+ X
2
+ X
3
+..+X
N
)/N= X
M

(ii) Standard deviation = {(1/N) [(X
1
-X
M
)
2
+ (X
2
-X
M
)
2
+ (X
3
-X
M
)
2
+..+(X
N
-X
M
)
2
}
1/2

It shows how much deviation there is from the "average" (mean). A low standard deviation indicates that
the data points tend to be very close to the mean. whereas high standard deviation indicates that the data
are spread out over a large range of values.
Propagation of random errors
If Z is a function of X and Y so that we have Z = F(X,Y). Error in X is AX while for Y the error is AY
how to find error in Z (Z) { X and Y are independent that measurement in X does not induce error in Y
and vice versa; this is the case in most of your experiments.)
What will be Z in case Z = X Y ? The standard procedure is:
Contribution to the error AZ due to AX is given by (oF/oX) AX [(oF/oX) is partial derivative of F with
respect to X treating Y as constant) while due to AY the contribution is (oF/oY) AY.
Total AZ is given by
AZ = {(oF/oX)
2
(AX)
2
+(oF/oY)
2
(AY)
2
}
(1/2)
Example1. Z= X+Y
Z/X =1, Z/Y = 1 so Z = {(X)
2
+ ( Y)
2
}
(1/2)

What will be Z in case Z = X Y ? What conclusion you arrive at from this example?
What will be Z in case Z =a X + Y/b ? where a and b are constants?

Example2. Z = XY
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Z/X =Y, Z/Y = X Z = {Y
2
(X)
2
+X
2
( Y)
2
}
(1/2)
. This is absolute error in Z. Alternately we can have
Z/Z =Z/XY ={(X/X)
2
+ ( Y/Y)
2
}
(1/2)
. This is relative error in Z and can be expressed in terms of % by
the relation (Z/Z) x 100.

Example3. Z = X/Y
Z/X = 1/Y,Z/Y = -X/Y
2
Z ={(1/Y)
2
(X)
2
+[(X)
2
]/Y
4
( Y)
2
}
(1/2)
.
Which gives Z/Z ={(X/X)
2
+ ( Y/Y)
2
}
(1/2)
.
The procedure outlined above can be used for functions with more than two independent variables.

Significant figures
The final result of an experiment should be expressed [measured value] [estimated error] units. If it is a
single measurement like measurement of length your final result could be for example, 10.280.05cm
which means that the length could be from 10.33 to 10.23cm. All the four digits in the result are
important; your result has four significant digits. If the object whose length was measured has breadth say
5.410.05cm (measured with the same scale used for the measurement of length so that error is same).
Area = (10.280.05cm) x (5.410.05cm). (10.28) x (5.41) = 55.6148 and error in area = {(0.05)
2
+
(0.5)
2
}
1/2
= 0.070710678 (calculated on CASIO 5-VPAM). So our result will look like
55.61480.070710678 cm
2
. We know the error in our length as well as breadth measurement is 0.05cm so
the order of magnitude of the error in area must be same which turns out to be 0.07cm when you carefully
examine the final result for area. Note that the error in area is more than that of length or breadth which
is expected(WHY?). So area = 55.61480.07cm
2
which means that area is expressed to 1/10000 accuracy
while error is only accurate to 1/100. Hence digits 4 and 8 have no significance in the final result which is
area = 55.610.07 cm
2
.

Errors i n t he measurement det ermi ne t he number of si gni fi cant di gi t s one shoul d use i n t he fi nal
resul t
How to calculate errors in your Lab experiments
1. Check for zero-errors in all your measuring instruments like scales, vernier calipers, screw gauges,
volt/amper meters etc and note them properly in your LAB Note Book= no rough copy is to used in the
LAB for recording of the data.
2. Check and record the least count of all the measuring instruments. Examine each instrument carefully to
determine the least count. For example a scale may be graduated so that it has markers after every one
mm; least count being 0.1cm. However, if the markers are distant enough so that one can read to an
accuracy of o.5mm the least count is 0.05cm.

Intelligent and careful use of the measuring instruments to get best out of these instruments is
the basic experimental skill. In real world you will never get ideal instruments.
3. Make the required measurements and record these measurements directly in your LAB note book.
Units of all the quantities you have entered in the note book should be mentioned.
4. Compute the result
5. Calculate the error by standard deviation technique.
6. Calculate the percentage error by partial differentiation technique






Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 9


Experiment No. 2
Title: To study the variation of magnetic field with the distance along the axis of circular coil carrying current
by plotting a graph. (Using Stewart and Gees apparatus.)
Equipments required: Stewart and Gees type tangent galvanometer, a battery, a rheostat, an ammeter, a one-
way key, a reversing key, connecting wires.
Material Used: NA
Learning Objectives:
To understand the working of Tangent Galvanometer using Tangent Law.
To study the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field around the coil.

Circuit Diagram

Procedure:
1. Place the instrument in such a way that the arms of the magnetometer lie roughly east and west and the
magnetic needle lies at the centre of the vertical coil. Place the eye a little above the coil and rotate the
instrument in the horizontal plane till the coil, the needle and its image in the mirror provided at the base of
the compass box, all lie in same vertical plane. The coil is thus set roughly in the magnetic meridian.
Rotate the compass box so that the pointer lies on the 0-0 line.
2. Connect the galvanometer to a battery, rheostat, one way key and an ammeter through a reversing key.
3. Adjust the value of the current so that the magnetometer gives a deflection of the order of 60-70
0
degrees.
Reverse the current and note the deflection again.
4. Now slide the magnetometer along the axis and find the position where the maximum deflection is
obtained.
5. Note the position of arm against the reference mark and also the value of current. Read both ends of the
pointer in the magnetometer, reverse the current and again read both ends. Now shift the magnetometer by
2 cm and note the reading again. Record a number of observations.
6. Similarly repeat the observation by shifting the magnetometer in the opposite direction and keeping the
current constant at the same value.

Observations.
Least count of the magnetometer =
Current I =

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 10




S. No Left Side Right Side

Distance from
the centre,x
(in )
Direct Reversed
Mean tan
Direct Reversed
Mean tan







Scope of the result to be reported
Plots & Parameters: Plot a graph between tan and x, where is the deflection produced in a deflection
magnetometer and x is the distance from the centre of the coil.
The intensity of magnetic field varies with distance from the centre of coil, the graph can be
plotted and variation can be known. The intensity of magnetic field is maximum at the centre and goes on
decreasing as we move away from the centre of the coil towards right or left.
The value of magnetic field at the centre of coil and radius of coil can also be determined from
this experiment. A graph showing the relation between B and the distance x is plotted. The curve is first
concave towards O and then afterwards becomes convex. Then the points where the curve changes its nature
are called the point of inflection. The distance between the two points of inflexion is equal to the radius of the
circular coil.
Cautions:
1. There should be no magnet, magnetic substances and current carrying conductor near the apparatus.
2. The plane of the coil should be set in the magnetic medium.
3. The current should remain constant and should be reversed for each observation.




















Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 11


Experiment No. 3: To compare the frequencies of oscillations produced by two audio-oscillators using
Lissajous figures.
Equipment Required: A standard 1000 Hz audio-oscillator, a variable frequency audio-oscillator and cathode
ray oscilloscope.
Material Required: NA
Learning Objectives:
- To draw the lissajous figure.
- From the lissajous figure the Phase difference can be calculated.
- Compare the frequencies of two audio oscillators.
Outline of the Procedure:
1. Connect the standard frequency [1000 Hz] oscillator to the vertical input terminal of the
oscilloscope. Connect the audio oscillator whose frequencies are to be compared with the standard
oscillator to the horizontal frequency input terminal .Connect together the ground terminals of both the
oscillators.
2. Set the CRO so that the sharp, bright spot is obtained at the centre of the screen. Set the audio
oscillator frequency to the marked value of 1000Hz.
3. Switch on both the oscillators and adjust the gain control of the oscillators as well as the horizontal
and vertical gains of the oscilloscope so that a good size ellipse appears on the screen. The actual
frequency oscillator frequency is now 1000Hz.Record the dial reading.
4. Set the oscillator frequency to the marked value of 500 and adjust slowly so that a 1:2 Lissajous
figure is obtained. Record the dial reading.
5. Similarly obtain (1:3,3:1), (2:3,3:2) Lissajous figure and so on up to (1:5,5:1).
Observations:
Vertical input standard frequency = 1000Hz
No. of tangency points Hor. Input
Marked dial
Shape of fig
On X-axis On Y-axis
Vertical Freq.
Horizontal Freq.
Actual Hor. Freq.


Scope of the results expected: Actual Horizontal frequency
Parameters and Plots: NA
Cautions:
- The vertical and horizontal gain controls of the oscilloscope should be adjusted to obtain a proper
size of Lissajous Figure.
- The sensitivity depends upon the amplifier gain. The gain control knob should not be disturbed
during the experiment.
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 12

- The frequency of the audio-oscillator should be slowly adjusted so as to lock the pattern.
Experiment No. 4- To plot a graph between current and frequency in LCR series and parallel circuit and find
resonant frequency, quality factor and band width.
Equipment Required- An audio-frequency oscillator (range 10 Hz to 10 kHz), an inductance coil, variable
capacitors, variable resistors, a non-inductive resistance box, ac milliammeter, ac voltmeter, connecting wires
etc.
Material Required: NA
Learning Objective - To experimentally study LCR series and parallel circuit.
2. To find the quality factor and resonant frequency.
3. Also calculate bandwidth from the graph.
4. Be able to explain why LCR series circuit is called acceptor and LCR parallel circuit is called rejector
circuit.
Circuit diagram:


Fig: Series LCR Circuit Fig: Parallel LCR Circuit

Procedure: 1. Connect the LCR (series/parallel) circuit.
2. With output voltage of the oscillator kept constant throughout the experiment vary the value of A.F. and
measure the corresponding value of current in millammeter for each observation.

3. Repeat the experiment for two more different values of R.

4. Plot a graph between current (y axis) and frequency (x axis).

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 13

Observations:
Resistance R =
Capacitance C =
Inductance L =
Output voltage of audio oscillator = Input voltage for LCR Circuit , E
v
=
S. No Frequency (in ) Current in the circuit (in mA) for
R
1
R
2
R
3



Current at resonance from the graph for
(i) R
1
=
(ii) R
2
=

(iii) R
3
=
Calculated value of current at resonance for
(i) R
1
= Ev

/R
1
(ii) R
2
= Ev

/R
2
(iii) R
3
= E
V
/R
3
Resonant frequency,
r
= 1/(2 LC )
Resonant frequency,
r
(graphically) =

Quality Factor
Maximum value of current at resonance I
r
=
Corresponding Frequency
r
=
0.707 I
r
=
Corresponding value of frequency
below
r
,

1
=
above
r
,

2
=
Band Width =
2
-
1
=
Quality Factor, Q = 2
|
|
.
|

\
|

1 2


r

Calculated value of Q from inductance L = (
r
L)/R =
R
L
r
H 2


Calculated value of Q from inductance L =
R
C
r
) / 1 (
=
r
CR H 2
1

Parallel Circuit
S. No Frequency (in ) Current in the circuit (in mA) for
R
1
R
2
R
3



Current at (anti) resonance from the graph for
(i) R
1
=
C R
L
1
=
(ii) R
2
=
C R
L
2
=
Impedance at resonance Z =

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 14

Calculated value of current at (anti) resonance for
(i) R
1
= Ev

/Z =
L
C R E
v 1


(ii) R
2
= Ev

/Z =
L
C R E
v 2

Anti Resonant frequency,
r
(graphically) =
Calculated value for R
1
=
H 2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
1
1
L
R
LC

Calculated value for R
2
=
H 2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
1
L
R
LC



Plots and parameters:
Current vs. frequency

Scope of the Result-
Graph between current and frequency will be Gaussian.
Resonant frequency, quality factor and band width can be calculated from the graph.
Cautions-
- If the amplitude of the output voltage of the oscillator changes with frequency, it must be adjusted.
- The values of inductance and capacitance are so selected that the natural frequency of the circuit lies
almost in the middle of the available frequency range.




















Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 15


Experiment No. 4: To study the voltage regulation and ripple factor of (a) Half Wave Rectifier (b) Full Wave
Rectifier (c) Bridge rectifier and trace it input and output by using CRO. Also Study the L-type and -type
filter circuit.
Equipment Required: A step down transformer, P-N junction diodes, a high resistance, a voltmeter, a
ammeter, multimeter, a cathode ray oscilloscope, connecting wires.
Learning Objectives:
- Input current I
ac
and Input Voltage V
ac

- Output current I
dc
and output voltage V
dc

- Voltage Regulation Factor with and without filter
- Rectifier Efficiency with and without filter.
- Varying the R
L
you can compare effect of load on circuit output.
- You can trace the output using CRO to visualize the changing in output of circuit with respective
change in various electronic parameters of circuit.
Outline of Procedure:
1) Set the circuit as shown in circuit diagram for both half wave and full wave rectifier.
2) Study the entire crux mentioned under learning objectives.
3) Do the required calculations and trace out the output.
4) Repeat all these steps for different value of load R
L
.
5) Full wave Rectifier with -type filter: Close the switch S to bring both the semi-conductor diodes D
1

and D
2
in circuit so that the arrangement acts as a full wave rectifier. Also close switches S
1
and S
2
to
get a -type filter. Connect the terminals A
1
and B
1
to the y-y plate of C.R.O. Connect the primary of
the transformer T to A.C. mains supply and switch on the key K. Obtain the pattern of the full wave
rectified voltage through the -type filter on the C.R.O. screen and trace it.
6) Full Wave Rectifier with L-type filter: Switch off S
1
keeping S
2
closed so that L-type filter consisting
of choke coil L and capacitor C
2
is only in circuit. Repeat all observations in step 2, 3 and 4.
Circuit Diagram:


















Half Wave Rectifier
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Fig 1: Half Wave Rectifier




Fig2: Full Wave rectifier Fig 3: Bridge Rectifier



Fig 4: Full wave rectifier with L filter
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Fig5: filter

Observations:
Half Wave Rectifier
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V



Full Wave Rectifier
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V



Bridge Rectifier
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V



Full Wave Rectifier with L filter
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V



Full Wave Rectifier with pi filter
S. No Resistance V
ac
V
dc
=
dc
ac
V
V



Plots and Parameters:
- Trace of Output waveform of HWR and FWR with and without the use of filters.
- Ripple Factor
Scope of Results:
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 18

You can trace the output of both HWR and FWR in this experiment and study the response of circuit under
different conditions.
Voltage regulation is the ability of a rectifier to provide near constant voltage over a wide range of
load conditions. It is a dimensionless quantity defined as:
Where V
nl
is voltage at no load and V
fl
is voltage at full load. A smaller
value of VR

is usually beneficial.
- Current Regulation of a circuit can also be studied by using the current as a study parameter instead
of voltage.
- Rectification or Power Efficiency can be defined as ratio of output d.c power available at load to
input d.c power from the mains.
Rectification
where ,
The rectification of HWR and FWR ideally is 40.53% and 81.06% respectively.
Cautions:
- A safely resistance must be connected in series with the load to avoid excessive current.
- To find the effective value of a.c. component a blocking capacitor of 16f capacitance must be
used.
- The load in the output circuit must be varied by changing the resistance by 1k at a time.




















Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 19

Experiment No. 5: To Study the induced e.m.f. as function velocity of the magnet.
Equipment Required: A small permanent magnet mounted at the middle of a semi-circular arc, a coil
consisting of number of turns, two weights, stopwatch, capacitor, diode, resistance, voltmeter
Material Required: A small strong permanent magnet, a stopwatch
Learning Objectives:
- Electromagnetic induction
- Induced e.m.f
- Dependence of the magnitude of induced e.m.f on the velocity of the magnet.
Outline of the Procedure:
- Mount the magnet at the middle point of the semi-circular arc and suspend the rigid aluminium frame
from its centre so that whole frame can oscillate freely through the coil.
- Adjust the position of two weights on the diameter arm of the arc to have minimum time period.
- Connect the terminals of the coil to the diode circuit for measuring the peak value of induced e.m.f.
- Note time for about 20 oscillations with an amplitude of about say 20cm and respective peak voltage.
- Repeat thrice keeping the amplitude same and find the time period. Also note the peak voltage each
time.
- Repeat the experiment after changing the amplitude and take 8-10 readings.
- Now change the time period by adjusting the position of the weights on the diameter arm. Take about
three readings at this position.
- Repeat the experiment after changing the time-period and take 8-10 readings.

Scope of the results expected: This experiment will help in understanding the nature and polarity of induced
e.m.f. One can apply the acquired knowledge to see the dependence of induced e.m.f. on velocity of magnet
w.r.t. the pickup coil.

Parameters and Plots:
(A) Time period constant, amplitude variable:
Mean position of the centre of the magnet= cm.
Radius of the semi-circular arc R
0
= cm.


Sr.No. Amplitude
a = R
0

0

Time for 20
Oscillations
Mean time
period(T)
e
o
e
o
/a= e
o
/ R
0

0
Linear velocity
v = (2/T) R
0

0

1

(i)
(ii)

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 20

.
.
.
(iii)

Mean
2



(B) Amplitude constant, time period variable:

Sr.No. Amplitude
a = R
0

0

Time for 20
Oscillations
Mean time
period(T)
e
o
e
o
T Linear velocity
v = (2/T) R
0

0

1


(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Mean



Model Plot:


Cautions:
- The semi circular frame should oscillate freely as a whole on the knife edge.
- The magnet should pass freely through the coils..
- The magnet should be small and should be mounted at the middle of the semi circular arc.
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 21


Experiment No. 6: To determine the coefficient of self-inductance of unknown coil by Andersons method
using a headphone.
Equipment Required: Inductance coil, Capacitor, Two variable resistances, Galvanometer, headphone, audio
oscillator
Material Required: NA
Learning Objectives:
(a).Balancing point of the Wheatstone bridge.
(b). Self-inductance of the unknown coil
(c). Unknown capacity of capacitor can be determined.
Outline of the Procedure:
- According to circuit diagram using a battery in place of A.C. Source and galvanometer in place of
headphone make the connections.
- Make Resistance P = Q
- Taking a suitable value of R adjust the value of S so as to get a null point. Note the values of
resistances P and R.
- Now replace the galvanometer by a headphone and battery by A.C. source you will hear a sound in
headphone.
- Reduce the sound to minimum or zero value by varying the variable resistance r by keeping all
other resistances constant out of which three are already constant. This is the balance point for
alternating current. Note the value of r for which sound in minimum or zero.
- Note the value of capacitance marked on it. Repeat it three times by changing the value of
capacitance.


Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 22

Scope of the results expected:
The self inductance of unknown coil is ------- L. This experiment can be used to calculate the unknown
capacity of capacitor.
Parameters and Plots:
Capacitance C =
Resistance P = Q =
Resistance R =
Resistance r = (i) (ii) (iii)
Mean r =
Inductance L= CR (P+2r)
Cautions:
- Balancing point should be clearly noted.
- Sound should be reduced to minimum value or zero before noting balancing point.
- The resistance used should be non-inductive
Error analysis:-
Probable error:-

Probable error = Standard Error

=
Where S =
2

= n mean value of frequency
m is the number of readings taken.

S.NO. Inductance of coil
2


Percentage error:-

%age error = (actual value measured value/ Actual value) * 100

Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 23

Experiment No. 7: - To study Hall-effect by using hall probe. (Germanium crystal).
Equipment Requirement: -Hall probe, Gauss probe, Gauss meter, electromagnet, constant current power
supply, digital voltmeter.
Material used: Ge crystal
Learning objectives: - When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor, a
voltage is developed in a specimen in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field.
This phenomenon is called the Hall Effect. The voltage is so produced is called hall voltage. When the
charges flow, a magnetic field directed perpendicular to the direction of flow produces a mutually
perpendicular force on the charges. Consequently the electrons and holes get separated by opposite forces
and produce an electric field. , there by setting up a potential difference between the ends of specimen.
This is called hall potential.

Outline of Procedure:-
1. Place the specimen at the centre between the pole pieces and exactly perpendicular to the magnetic
field.
2. Place the hall probe at the centre between the pole pieces, parallel to the semiconductor sample and note
the magnetic flux density from the guess meter keeping the current constant through electromagnet.
3. Before taking the reading from the gauss meter ensure that gauss meter is showing zero value. For this
put the probe away the electromagnet and switch on the gauss meter and adjust zero.
4. Do not change the current in the electromagnet for the first observation.
5. Vary the current in small increment. Note the current and the hall voltage.
6. For the 2
nd
observation keep the current constant through the specimen and vary the current through
electromagnet and note the hall voltage.
7. Plot the graph between the hall voltage and the current through electromagnet.

Observations:
Current through the electromagnet = A(Constant)
Magnetic field (as measured by the Gaussmeter) =
Voltmeter reading
S.
No
Current through
Hall probe I (in )
with magnetic
field,V
H

without magnetic
field,V
H

Hall
Voltage, V=
V
H

- V
H

1
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 24




Current through the specimen = mA(Constant)
Voltmeter reading
S.
No
Current through
Electromagnet I

( in )
with magnetic
field,V
H

without magnetic
field,V
H

Hall
Voltage, V=
V
H

- V
H

1



Scope of Result: - The graph between the V
H
and I, V
H
and I is the straight line.
Parameters & Plots: -


The current density J = I / A
I = n E v A
The hall coefficient is given R
H
= V
H
b / IB,
where b = thickness of the specimen, V
H
= Hall Voltage, I = Current through the specimen, B = Magnetic
Field
The hall coefficient m
3 /
C
Caution:-
1. The hall probe should be placed at the centre of the electromagnet.
2. The specimen should be placed at the centre of the electromagnet.
3. Zero should be ensured in the gauss meter before placing the hall probe between the centre of
electromagnet.
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 25

Experiment No. 8: To study the characteristics of pnp and npn transistor (CE and CB).
Equipments Required: A pnp and npn transistor, Two voltmeters, Two milliammeters, a potentiometer of
total resistance of the order of one mega ohm, Batteries, connecting wires.
Material Required: NA
Learning Objectives:
- Set the transistor circuit to study its input/output characteristics with proper biasing.
- Study the active, cut-off and saturation region.
- Comparison of CB and CE characteristics
Circuit diagram: From C.L Arora (Ch 51)
Outline of Procedure:
Common base characteristics of the PNP transistor: Base is common to input and output circuit. To draw
the input characteristics, adjust the values of V
CB
(fix at one point) and increase the V
EB
from zero onwards
note I
E.
To draw the output characteristics, adjust the values of I
E
at some fixed value and increase the value of V
CB
from zero onwards and note I
C
.
Common emitter characteristics of the PNP transistor: Emitter is common to input and output circuit. To
draw the input characteristics, adjust the value of V
CE
(fix at one point) and increase the value of V
EB
from
zero onwards and note the value of I
B.
To draw the output characteristics, adjust the values of I
B
at some fixed value and increase the value of V
CE
from zero onwards and note I
C
.
Parameters & Plots:
I
E
=Emitter current, I
B
=Base current, I
C
=Collector current, V
EB
=Emitter to base voltage, V
CB
=collector to base
voltage, V
CE
= Collector to emitter voltage.
Characteristics of Transistor: There are two types of characteristics.
(A) Input:
For Common Base: Between I
E
and V
EB
at constant values of the collector voltages.
For Common Emitter: Between I
B
and V
BE
at constant values of the collector voltages.
(b) Output:
For Common Base: Between I
C
and V
CB
at constant value of emitter current.
For Common Emitter: Between I
C
and V
CE
at constant values of the collector voltages.
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 26

Plots of data:
Common Base configuration:



Input characteristics Output characteristics

Common Emitter Configuration:



Input characteristics Output characteristics
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 27

Cautions:
1. If the collector voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage for the junction the result may vary.
2. If in a PNP transistor the emitter is not given the positive potential with respect to the base and collector a
negative voltage with respect to the base then the result may vary.

3. The leads of the transistor should be connected in the right way, the collector and the emitter junctions
should not be interchanged.





































Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 28

Experiment No. 9: - To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork using CRO.

Equipment Requirement: - Electrically maintained tuning fork, battery, connecting wires, CRO, Audio
frequency oscillator, rheostat, resistance box.

Learning objectives:-
o To draw the Lissajous figure

Circuit Diagram
:
Outline of procedure:-
(a) With CRO
- Make the connection according to the circuit diagram.
- Switch on the power supply to the CRO and obtain a bright, sharp and fine spot of light at the
centre of the CRO screen by adjusting the intensity, focussing and positioning controls of the
CRO.
- Set the tuning fork into vibration by inserting the key K. As the tuning fork is vibrating an A.C.
voltage is develop across the resistance R, which will trace a vertical line on the screen .Keep
this line within the scale by adjusting the Y-amplifier gain.
- Switch on the audio frequency oscillator and adjust its frequency so as to obtain the trace of a
circle on the C.R.O screen. Trace the circle. The frequency produced by the audio oscillator
for this trace is the same as the frequency of the tuning fork.
- Now adjust the frequency of audio oscillator such that a figure of eight (8) appears in the
vertical direction on the screen. Trace the figure and note the frequency produced by the audio
oscillator. The frequency of the tuning fork will be one half the frequency produced by the
audio oscillator.
- Again adjust the frequency of the audio oscillator such that the figure of eight () in the
horizontal direction appears on the screen. Trace the figure and note the frequency produced by
the audio oscillator. The frequency of the tuning fork will be double the frequency produced
Approved for Autumn Term Session 2010-11 29

by the audio-oscillator.

Observations
Hor. Input
Frequency
from the audio
oscillator
Shape of fig
No. of tangency
points
Vert.freq./Hor.freq. Freq. of
tuning fork.
o
8

8



Parameters & Plots: Trace of patterns obtained on the C.R.O
Mean frequency=.. Hz
CAUTIONS:

- While finding the vertical sensitivity both the horizontal deflecting plates must be earthed and
vice versa.
- The sensitivity depends upon the amplifier gain. The gain control knob should not be disturbed
during the experiment.
- The frequency of the audio oscillator should be slowly adjusted so as to lock the pattern.
















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