Database Design and Programming 20210071

Database Design and
Programming
Tahaluf Training Center 2021
Tahaluf Training Centre 05 Jul 2021

Chapter 01
1 Overview of Database
2 Introduction of Oracle Database
3 Development Life Cycle SDLC
4 Overview of Database Design
5 Database Design Phases

Overview of Database
A Database is a collection of related data organized in a way that can

make the process of data access, manage and update easier.
Database can be hardware based or software based in order to store

data.

What is DBMS?
A DBMS is software that allows users to build, create and manipulate

the database, allowing them to process, analyze and store data easily.
DBMS provides a tool or interface to perform different operations

such as storing data, creating and updating it, and creating tables in the
database.

Examples of popular DBMS used these days:
▪ MySQL.
▪ Oracle.
▪ SQL Server.
▪ IBM DB2.
▪ PostgreSQL.
▪ Amazon SimpleDB (cloud based) etc.

Introduction of Oracle Database
An Oracle database is a combination of data treated as a unit. The

purpose of a database is to retrieve and store related data.
A database server is a key used to solve the problems of information

management.

Introduction of Oracle Database
Oracle Database features
1. Oracle Database is cross-platform.
2. Oracle Database has its networking stack.
3. ACID-compliant.
4. Commitment to open technologies.

Development Life Cycle SDLC
The Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a methodology used

to create a high quality software.
SDLC provides a structured flow of phases that used to help an

organization to produce high quality software quickly.

Development Life Cycle SDLC

Database Design Phases
Design methodology is a structured approach that uses techniques,

procedures, tools, and documentation aims to support and make the
process of design easier.
There are many database design phases, such as:
1. Requirement analysis.
2. ER – Diagram.
3. Schema Diagram.
4. Class Diagram.

Database Design Cycle
Problem Statement
ER Diagram Schema Diagram
Create Tables
Add update Delete Data
View Data

What is Requirements Analysis?
Requirements Analysis is the process of characterizing the expectations of

the users for an application that is to be built or updated. It contains all
the tasks that are produced to identify the needs of different
stakeholders.
Requirements analysis means to analyze, validate, document and manage

system or software requirements.

Example
In a LMS System, there are many courses teach by a many teachers. Each
course has a name, status, date from and date to. Each course has an
exam. In this system, there are many employees work in different
positions.

Example Solution
Database Name: LMS.

Entities: Course, Teacher, Exam, Employee, Role.
Attributes:
1. Course: name, status, date from and date to.
2. Employees: First Name, Last Name, email, Phone Number … etc.
Note: Attributes determine by a database creator based on System need.
Relationships:
1. Many-to-Many: Course and Teacher.
2. One-to-One: Course and Exam.
3. One-to-Many: Role and Employee.

Exercise
In a hospital System, there are many doctors and other employees work.
Doctors treat patients and provide them with care and medicines. There is
a room for every patient entering the hospital.

Exercise Solution
Database Name: Hospital.

Entities: Room, Medicine, Patient, Employee, Role.
Attributes:
1. Employees: First Name, Last Name, email, Phone Number … etc.
Note: Attributes determine by a database creator based on System need.
Relationships:
1. Many-to-Many: Patient and Medicine.
2. One-to-One: Patient and room.
3. One-to-Many: Role and Employee, Employee and Patient.

What is ER - Model?
An Entity–relationship model (ER model) describes the structure of a

database with a diagram, which is known as Entity Relationship Diagram
(ER Diagram).
An ER model represent a design of a database that can later be

implemented as a database.

What is ER - Diagram?
An entity relationship diagram (ERD) displays the relationships of entities

stored in a database.

ER – Diagram Components
Entities are represented by rectangles.
An entity is an object or thing about used to store information.

Relationships are represented by diamond shapes, display how two

entities share a data in the database.

Attributes are represented by ovals.

A key attribute is the unique, special characteristic of the entity.
Example: an employee’s have a social security number.

Attributes are represented by ovals.

A key attribute is the unique, special characteristic of the entity.
Example: an employee’s have a social security number.

There are four types of relationships:

1. One to One.
2. One to Many.
3. Many to Many.

Draw ER – Diagram
Click on this link: https://erdplus.com/standalone
ERDPlus is a web-based database modeling tool to create entity

relationship (ER) diagrams, star schemas, relational schemas, and SQL DDL
statements.

Draw ER – Diagram
Example
1. Create an entities.

Draw ER – Diagram
2. Create a relationships.

Draw ER – Diagram
2. Create a relationships.

Draw ER – Diagram
3. Create an attributes.

Exercise
Draw ER – Diagram for the following scenario:


Exercise Solution

Built-in data types

Oracle Database provides a collection of built in data types:
1. VARCHAR2(size [BYTE | CHAR]): Variable-length character string

having maximum length size characters or bytes.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Var2_Example (

VARCHAR2_byte VARCHAR2(1 BYTE),
VARCHAR2_char VARCHAR2(1 CHAR)
);

2. NVARCHAR2(size): Variable-length Unicode character string

having maximum length size characters.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Var2_SizeExample (

VAR2 VARCHAR2(100)
);

3. NUMBER [ (p [, s]) ]: Number having precision p and scale s. The

scale s can range from -84 to 127. The precision p can range from 1 to
38.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Number_Example (

NumberExample NUMBER(8,2)
);

4. FLOAT [(p)]: A subtype of the NUMBER data type having precision p.

A FLOAT value is represented internally as NUMBER.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Float_Example (

FloatExample FLOAT(5)
);

5. LONG: Character data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes, or 231 -1

bytes.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Long_Example (

LongExample LONG
);

6. DATE: Valid date range from January 1, 4712 BC, to December 31,
9999 AD.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Date_Example (

DateExample DATE
);

7. BINARY_FLOAT: 32-bit floating point number. This data type requires

4 bytes.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Binary_Example (

BinaryExample BINARY_FLOAT
);

8. BINARY_DOUBLE: 64-bit floating point number. This data type requires

8 bytes.
Example:
CREATE TABLE BinaryD_Example (

BinaryDExample BINARY_DOUBLE
);

9. TIMESTAMP [(fractional_seconds_precision)]: Year, month, and day

values of date, as well as hour, minute, and second values of time, where
fractional_seconds_precision is the number of digits in the fractional part
of the SECOND datetime field. Accepted values of
fractional_seconds_precision are 0 to 9.
Example:
CREATE TABLE TimeStamp_Example (

TimeStampExample TIMESTAMP
);

10. TIMESTAMP [(fractional_seconds_precision)] WITH LOCAL TIME

ZONE: All values of TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE, with the following
exceptions:
Data is normalized to the database time zone when it is stored in the
database.
Example:
CREATE TABLE TimeStampWithLocalZone_Example (

TimeStampWithLocalZoneExample TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL
TIME ZONE
);

11. INTERVAL YEAR [(year_precision)] TO MONTH: Stores a period of time

in years and months, where year_precision is the number of digits in the
YEAR datetime field.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Interval_Example (

IntervalExample INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH
);

12. INTERVAL DAY [(day_precision)] TO SECOND

[(fractional_seconds_precision)]: Stores a period of time in days,
hours, minutes, and seconds.
Example:
CREATE TABLE IntervalD_Example (

IntervalExample INTERVAL DAY (6) TO SECOND (5)
);

13. RAW(size): Raw binary data of length size bytes.
Example:
CREATE TABLE RawExample (

RawExample RAW(10)
);

14. LONG RAW: Raw binary data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes.
Example:
CREATE TABLE LRawExample (

LRawExample LONG RAW
);

15. ROWID: Base 64 string representing the unique address of a row in its
table.
Example:
CREATE TABLE RowIdExample (

Row_Id ROWID,
Name VARCHAR(20)
);

16. UROWID [(size)]: Base 64 string representing the logical address of a

row of an index-organized table.
Example:
CREATE TABLE URowIdExample (

URow_Id ROWID,
Name VARCHAR(20)
);

17. CHAR [(size [BYTE | CHAR])]: Fixed-length character data of length

size bytes or characters.
Example:
CREATE TABLE CharExample (

Name CHAR(3 CHAR)
);

18. NCHAR[(size)]: Fixed-length character data of length size characters.
Example:
CREATE TABLE NCharExample (

Name NCHAR(3)
);

19. CLOB: A character large object containing single-byte or multibyte

characters.
Example:
CREATE TABLE ClobExample (

Name NCHAR(3),
Note CLOB
);

20. NCLOB: A character large object containing Unicode characters.
Example:
CREATE TABLE NClobExample (

Name NCHAR(3),
Note NCLOB
);

21. BLOB: A binary large object.
Example:
CREATE TABLE BlobExample (

Image BLOB
);

21. BFILE: Contains a locator to a large binary file stored outside the
database.
Example:
CREATE TABLE BfileExample (

Document BFILE
);

What is Schema Diagram?
Schema diagram contains attributes and entities.
It only display the database design and does not display the actual data of
the database.
Schema can be a single table or more than one table which is related.

Draw Schema Diagram
Example

Exercise
Draw Schema Diagram for the following scenario:

What is Class Diagram?
A class diagram used in modeling and designing software to describe

classes and relationships.
Class diagrams used to model a software in a high level of abstraction.

Draw Class Diagram
Example

Exercise
Draw a Class Diagram for the following scenario:

Chapter 02
1 Structured Query Language SQL
2 Data base Object
3 Constraints

Structured Query Language SQL
SQL is a standardized language for defining and manipulating data in

a relational database.
• SQL stands for Structured Query Language.

• SQL lets you access and manipulate databases.
• SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1987

SQL as we all know is the database language by the use of which we

can perform certain operations on the existing database and also we
can use this language to create a database.
SQL uses certain commands like Create, Drop, Insert etc. to carry out
the required tasks.


SQL Data Definition Language DDL
DDL actually consists of the SQL commands that can be used to

define the database schema.
It simply deals with descriptions of the database schema and is used

to create and modify the structure of database objects in database.

Examples of DDL commands:
• CREATE – is used to create the database or its objects (like table,

index, function, views, store procedure and triggers).
• DROP – is used to delete objects from the database.
• ALTER – is used to alter the structure of the database.

• TRUNCATE – is used to remove all records from a table, including

all spaces allocated for the records are removed.
• COMMENT – is used to add comments to the data dictionary.
• RENAME – is used to rename an object existing in the database

Data Manipulation Language DML
DML SQL commands that deals with the manipulation of data present
in database belong to DML or Data Manipulation Language and this
includes most of the SQL statements.
Examples of DML commands:
• INSERT – is used to insert data into a table.

• UPDATE – is used to update existing data within a table.
• DELETE – is used to delete records from a database table.

Data Control Language DCL
DCL includes commands such as GRANT and REVOKE which mainly

deals with the rights, permissions and other controls of the database
system.
Examples of DCL commands:
• GRANT - gives user’s access privileges to database.

• REVOKE - withdraw user’s access privileges given by using the
GRANT command.

Transaction Control Language TCL
TCL commands deals with the transaction within the database.
Examples of TCL commands:
• COMMIT– commits a Transaction.

• ROLLBACK– rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.
• SAVEPOINT– sets a save point within a transaction.
• SET TRANSACTION –specify characteristics for the transaction.

Chapter 02
2 Data base Object
3 Constraints

Data base Object
A database object is any defined object in a database that is used to

store or reference data.
Anything which we make from create command is known as Database

Object.
It can be used to hold and manipulate the data.

Data base Object
Some of the examples of database objects are :
• Table: basic unit to store data has rows and columns.

• View: logical represent data from table or more .
• Sequence: generate numeric value .
• Index: improve the performance of some query.
• Synonym: Give alternative name to an object.

Create user
Use the CREATE USER statement to create and configure a database

user, which is an account through which you can log in to the
database, and to establish the means by which Oracle Database
permits access by the user.
Steps:
1. Create user username identified by password;
2. Grant permission to username .
3. Connect userename/password .

Create Table
Use the CREATE TABLE statement to create one of the following types
of tables:
1. A relational table, which is the basic structure to hold user data.
2. An object table, which is a table that uses an object type for a

column definition. An object table is explicitly defined to hold
object instances of a particular type.

Create Table
Tables are created with no data unless a subquery is specified. You can add
rows to a table with the INSERT statement.
After creating a table, you can define additional columns, partitions, and
integrity constraints with the ADD clause of the ALTER TABLE statement.
You can change the definition of an existing column or partition with the
MODIFY clause of the ALTER TABLE statement.

Create Table
Table Naming Roles:
1. Begin with a letter.

2. Be 1–30 characters long .
3. Contain only A–Z, a–z, 0–9, _, $, and # .
4. Not duplicate the name of another object owned by the same user.
5. Not be an Oracle server–reserved word.
6. Names are not case-sensitive Department is the same department.

Create Table
Syntax :
CREATE TABLE [schema.]table

(column datatype [DEFAULT expr][, ...]);

Create Table
Example :
CREATE TABLE dept

(deptno NUMBER(2),
dname VARCHAR2(14),
loc VARCHAR2(13));

Create Table

View
This database object is used to create a view in database.
A view is a logical table based on a table or another view. A view contains no

data of its own but is like a window through which data from tables can be
viewed or changed.
The tables on which a view is based are called base tables. The view is stored
as a SELECT statement in the data dictionary.

View
Example:
CREATE VIEW salv

AS SELECT employee_id ID_NUMBER, last_name NAME,
salary*12 ANN_SALARY
FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 50;

Sequence
This database object is used to create a sequence in database.
A sequence is a user created database object that can be shared by multiple

users to generate unique integers.
A typical usage for sequences is to create a primary key value, which must be
unique for each row.
The sequence is generated and incremented (or decremented) by an internal

Oracle routine.

Sequence
Example:
CREATE SEQUENCE dept_deptid_seq

INCREMENT BY 10
START WITH 120
MAXVALUE 9999
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;

Index
This database object is used to create a indexes in database.
An Oracle server index is a schema object that can speed up the retrieval of
rows by using a pointer.
Indexes can be created explicitly or automatically. If you do not have an index

on the column, then a full table scan occurs.

Index
An index provides direct and fast access to rows in a table. Its purpose is to
reduce the necessity of disk I/O by using an indexed path to locate data
quickly.
The index is used and maintained automatically by the Oracle server. Once an
index is created, no direct activity is required by the user.
Indexes are logically and physically independent of the table they index. This
means that they can be created or dropped at any time and have no effect on
the base tables or other indexes.

Index
Example :
CREATE INDEX emp_last_name_idx
ON employees(last_name);

Synonym
This database object is used to create a indexes in database.
It simplify access to objects by creating a synonym(another name for an

object). With synonyms, you can Ease referring to a table owned by another
user and shorten lengthy object names.
To refer to a table owned by another user, you need to prefix the table name
with the name of the user who created it followed by a period.

Synonym
Creating a synonym eliminates the need to qualify the object name with the
schema and provides you with an alternative name for a table, view,
sequence, procedure, or other objects.
This method can be especially useful with lengthy object names, such as
views.

Synonym
In the syntax:
• PUBLIC : creates a synonym accessible to all users.

• synonym : is the name of the synonym to be created.
• object : identifies the object for which the synonym is created.
CREATE [PUBLIC] SYNONYM synonym FOR object;

Commands
Syntax:
DESCRIBE tablename
Example:
DESCRIBE DEPT

Commands
Syntax:
Select * from TableName;
Example:
Select * from DEPT;

Data type
• VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data (minimum size is 1;

maximum size is 4,000.).
• CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data (minimum size is 1; maximum size
is 2,000) .
• NUMBER(p,s) Variable-length numeric data (from 1 to 38, and scale UP
TO 127.).
• DATE: Date and time values between January 1,4712 B.C., and December
31, 9999 A.D

Data type
• LONG Variable-length character data (up to 2 GB).

• CLOB Character data (up to 4 GB) .
• RAW and LONG Raw binary data .
• BLOB Binary data (up to 4 GB) .
• BFILE Binary data stored in an external file (up to 4 GB).
• ROWID A base-64 number system representing the unique address of a
row in its table
Only one LONG column can be used per table

Chapter 02
2 Data base Object
3 Constraints

constraint
Use a constraint to define an integrity constraint--a rule that restricts the

values in a database.
Oracle Database lets you create six types of constraints and lets you declare
them in two ways.

constraint
The six types of integrity constraint are described briefly here :
• NOT NULL constraint prohibits a database value from being null.
• unique constraint prohibits multiple rows from having the same value in
the same column or combination of columns but allows some values to
be null.
• primary key constraint combines a NOT NULL constraint and a unique

constraint in a single declaration. That is, it prohibits multiple rows from
having the same value in the same column or combination of columns and
prohibits values from being null.

constraint
• foreign key constraint requires values in one table to match values in

another table.
• check constraint requires a value in the database to comply with a

specified condition.
• REF column by definition references an object in another object type or in

a relational table. A REF constraint lets you further describe the
relationship between the REF column and the object it references.

constraint
You can define constraints syntactically in two ways:
1. As part of the definition of an individual column or attribute. This is called

inline specification.
2. As part of the table definition. This is called out-of-line specification.
NOT NULL constraints must be declared inline. All other constraints can be
declared either inline or out of line.

Example of a column-level constraint
CREATE TABLE employees(

employee_id NUMBER(6)
CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk PRIMARY KEY,
first_name VARCHAR2(20),
PhoneNumber Number(10)
)

Example of a table-level constraint

employee_id NUMBER(6),
first_name VARCHAR2(20),
job_id VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT emp_emp_id_pk
PRIMARY KEY (EMPLOYEE_ID));

Foreign Key Constraint Table level

employee_id NUMBER(6),
last_name VARCHAR2(25) NOT NULL,
email VARCHAR2(25),
salary NUMBER(8,2),
commission_pct NUMBER(2,2),
hire_date DATE NOT NULL,
department_id NUMBER(4),
CONSTRAINT emp_dept_fk FOREIGN KEY (department_id)
REFERENCES departments(department_id),
CONSTRAINT emp_email_uk UNIQUE(email));

Foreign Key Constraint Column level
CREATE TABLE employees

(...
department_id NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT emp_deptid_fk
REFERENCES departments(department_id),
...
)

Foreign Key Constraint
A foreign key is a way to enforce referential integrity within your Oracle

database. A foreign key means that values in one table must also appear in
another table.
The referenced table is called the parent table while the table with the
foreign key is called the child table. The foreign key in the child table will
generally reference a primary key in the parent table.
A foreign key can be defined in either a CREATE TABLE statement or an

ALTER TABLE statement

CREATE TABLE supplier

( supplier_id numeric(10) not null,
supplier_name varchar2(50) not null,
contact_name varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT supplier_pk PRIMARY KEY (supplier_id)
);
CREATE TABLE products

( product_id numeric(10) not null,
supplier_id numeric(10) not null,
CONSTRAINT fk_supplier
FOREIGN KEY (supplier_id)
REFERENCES supplier(supplier_id)
);


CONSTRAINT supplier_pk PRIMARY KEY (supplier_id, supplier_name)
);

CONSTRAINT fk_supplier_comp
FOREIGN KEY (supplier_id, supplier_name)
REFERENCES supplier(supplier_id, supplier_name)
);

Foreign Keys with Cascade Delete
foreign key with cascade delete means that if a record in the parent table is
deleted, then the corresponding records in the child table will automatically
be deleted. This is called a cascade delete in Oracle.
A foreign key with a cascade delete can be defined in either a CREATE TABLE
statement or an ALTER TABLE statement.


);

ON DELETE CASCADE
);


);

ON DELETE CASCADE
);

Using an ALTER TABLE statement
ALTER TABLE products

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_supplier
ON DELETE CASCADE;
We could also create a foreign key (with a cascade delete) with more than
one field as in the example below:

ON DELETE CASCADE;

Foreign Keys with Set Null on Delete
A foreign key with "set null on delete" means that if a record in the parent
table is deleted, then the corresponding records in the child table will have
the foreign key fields set to null. The records in the child table will not be
deleted.
A foreign key with a "set null on delete" can be defined in either a CREATE
TABLE statement or an ALTER TABLE statement.


);

supplier_id numeric(10),
ON DELETE SET NULL
);


CONSTRAINT supplier_pk PRIMARY KEY (supplier_id, supplier_name)
);

supplier_id numeric(10),
supplier_name varchar2(50),
CONSTRAINT fk_supplier_comp
ON DELETE SET NULL
);

In this example, we've created a foreign key "with a set null on delete"
called fk_supplier that references the supplier table based on the
supplier_id field.

ON DELETE SET NULL;

We could also create a foreign key "with a set null on delete" with more
than one field as in the example below:

ON DELETE SET NULL;

Add constraint after table creation
ALTER TABLE location

ADD CONSTRAINT PK_location PRIMARY KEY (lnumber,LName);
ALTER TABLE Department

ADD CONSTRAINT FK_manager
FOREIGN KEY (mg_ssn) REFERENCES employee (SSN);
ALTER TABLE mytable

MODIFY (mynumber NUMBER(8,2) CONSTRAINT
my_cons_name NOT NULL);
ALTER TABLE supplier

ADD CONSTRAINT supplier_unique UNIQUE (supplier_id);

Add constraint after table creation
ALTER TABLE suppliers

ADD CONSTRAINT check_supplier_name
CHECK (supplier_name IN ('IBM', 'Microsoft', NVIDIA'));

View Constraint
select constraint_name,constraint_type,table_name
from user_constraints

Enable and disable Constraint
1- alter table table_name ENABLE constraint

constraint_name;
2- alter table table_name DISABLE constraint

constraint_name;
select constraint_name,constraint_type,table_name, Status

from user_constraints

Drop constraint
ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name;
ALTER TABLE location

DROP CONSTRAINT PK_location;

General Example

ALTER TABLE
• Add a new column

• Modify an existing column definition
• Define a default value for the new column
• Drop a column
• Rename a column
• Change table to read-only status

ALTER TABLE
ALTER TABLE employees READ ONLY
ALTER TABLE employees READ WRITE

ALTER TABLE
1. ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name datatype;
2. ALTER TABLE DROP COLUMN
3. ALTER TABLE table_name

MODIFY column_name datatype;
ALTER TABLE "table_name"

RENAME COLUMN “oldname" TO “newname ”;

Drop table
Use the DROP TABLE statement to move a table or object

table to the recycle bin or to remove the table and all its
data from the database entirely.
DROP TABLE table name

Chapter 03
1 Overview of Data Manipulation Language (DML)
2 Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands

Overview of DML
Data Manipulation Language (DML) is a language used to select,

insert, update and delete data from a database.
DML used to manipulate and retrieve data in a relational database.

Overview of DML
Insert
Update
Delete
DML Commands

Data Manipulation Language (DML) Commands
DDL commands are as follows:
1. INSERT.
2. UPDATE.
3. DELETE.
4. SELECT.
Note: DML performs read-only queries of data.

Exercise
Create a database for the following scenario:
In an exam system, each course contains a many of exams. Each

course has a name, id, description, start date and end date. Each
exam has name, id, duration, start time.

Exercise Solution
CREATE TABLE Course(

Id NUMBER GENERATED BY DEFAULT AS IDENTITY,
Name VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL,
Description VARCHAR2(250) NOT NULL,
StartDate DATE NOT NULL,
EndDate DATE NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY(Id)
);

Exercise Solution
CREATE TABLE Exam (

Id NUMBER GENERATED BY DEFAULT AS IDENTITY,
Name VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL,
Duration TIMESTAMP NOT NULL,
StartTime TIMESTAMP NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT FKeyCourse_Exam
FOREIGN KEY (Id)
REFERENCES Course (Id)
);

INSERT command is used to insert a data into a table.
This command can used to add one or more records to a single table in a
database.
Syntax
INSERT INTO table(column, column...)

VALUES (value, value...);

There are many mistakes that users make with the insert statement:
✓ Duplicate value violating any primary or unique key constraint.
✓ Forgetting a mandatory value for a NOT NULL column.
✓ Referential integrity maintained for foreign key constraint.
✓ Any value violating a CHECK constraint.
✓ Values too wide to fit in column or data type mismatches.

Example
Insert a record into course table.
Example Solution
INSERT INTO Course(Name, Description, StartDate,EndDate)

VALUES ('Math101', 'Maths', DATE'2021-01-01', DATE'2021-
10-01');

Exercise
Insert a three record into Course table. Then, Insert a five record into
Exam table.

Exercise Solution

VALUES ('IT101', 'IT', DATE'2021-02-15', DATE'2023-08-
01');

VALUES ('English101', 'English', DATE'2050-02-09',
DATE'2070-08-01');

VALUES ('English102', 'English', DATE'2000-02-09',
DATE'2010-12-05');

Exercise Solution
INSERT INTO Exam(Name, Duration, StartTime,Id)

VALUES ('FirstExam',timestamp '2017-10-12 21:22:23',
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP, 2);

VALUES ('FirstExam',timestamp '2021-09-16 01:30:23',
timestamp '2021-09-16 3:22:23', 2);

VALUES ('SecondExam',timestamp '2021-09-16 01:30:23',
timestamp '2021-09-16 3:22:23', 4);

UPDATE command is used to modify the records in a table.
This command is used to update existing data changes it of one or more

records in a table.
Syntax
UPDATE table
SET column = value [, column = value, ...]
[WHERE condition];

Example
Update a course name if the description contains English.
Example Solution
UPDATE Course
SET Name = 'English100'
WHERE Description = 'English';

Exercise
Update an Exam name to final exam if the course is IT.

Exercise Solution
UPDATE Exam
SET Name = 'Final Exam'
WHERE id = 2;

DELETE command is used to delete or remove a single record or multiple

records from a table.
Syntax
DELETE FROM table WHERE condition;

Example
Delete a course if the course name is IT 101.
Example Solution
DELETE FROM Course

WHERE Name = 'IT101';

Exercise
Delete an exam if start time before 16/9/2021.

Exercise Solution
DELETE FROM Exam

WHERE StartTime = '2021-09-16';

TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete all records from a table.
It is the same command as a DELETE without a WHERE clause.
Warning: If you need to truncate a table, the TRUNCATE TABLE

command can not be rolled back.
Syntax
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example
Delete all record from course table.
Example Solution
TRUNCATE TABLE Course;

A SELECT statement retrieves data from database. It is used to:
1. Projection: select the columns in a table that are returned using a

query.
2. Selection: select the rows in a table that are returned using a

query.
3. Joining: bring together data that is stored in different tables.

SELECT Statement Syntax
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [[AS]

alias],...}
FROM table;

SELECT Example
SELECT id, name, description, startdate, enddate FROM

Course;

SELECT * Example
SELECT * FROM Course;

Arithmetic Operators are used to add, negate, multiply, subtract, and

divide numeric values.
1. + - : Unary operators denotes a negative or positive expression.
2. * / : Binary operators represent a multiplies and divides.
3. + - : Binary operators represent adds, subtracts.

Arithmetic Operators Examples
SELECT id, name, description, startdate, enddate FROM

Course;

SELECT id+5, name, description, startdate, enddate FROM

Course;

SELECT id-1, name, description, startdate, enddate FROM

Course;

SELECT id*50, name, description, startdate, enddate FROM

Course;

SELECT id/10, name, description, startdate, enddate FROM

Course;

Operator Precedence Examples
SELECT name, 5+mark*12, id FROM Student;

Operator Precedence Examples
SELECT name, (5+mark)*12, id FROM Student;

Null value
✓ Null value not zero.
✓ Null value unknown, unavailable, unassigned.
✓ Null value not blank space.

Null value Example
SELECT name, (5+mark)*12, id FROM Student;

ALIASES Statement is used to create a temporary name for tables or

columns.
COLUMN ALIASES are used to make column names easier to read.
Syntax
column_name AS alias_name

COLUMN ALIASES Example
SELECT name, (5+mark)*12 AS IncreaseSalary, id FROM

Student;

COLUMN ALIASES Example
SELECT name, (5+mark)*12 "Salary", id FROM Student;

TABLE ALIASES are used to make a table easier to read or to perform a

self join.
Syntax
table_name alias_name

TABLE ALIASES Example
SELECT name, (5+mark)*12, id FROM Student Std;

DISTINCT Operator exclude duplicate rows.
Example
SELECT DISTINCT name, startdate, enddate, description
FROM Course;

WHERE Clause is used to restrict the rows returned.
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK > 80;

Comparison Operator
= : equal
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK = 90;

Comparison Operator
<> : Not equal
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK <> 90;

Comparison Operator
!= : Not equal
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK != 90;

Comparison Operator
> : Greater than
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK > 85;

Comparison Operator
>= : Greater Than or Equal.
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK >= 85;

Comparison Operator
< : Less Than.
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK < 85;

Comparison Operator
<= : Less Than or Equal.
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK <= 85;

Comparison Operator
IN ( ) : Matches a value in a list.
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK IN (90, 80);

Comparison Operator
NOT: Negates a condition.
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK NOT IN (90, 80);

Comparison Operator
BETWEEN: Within a range (inclusive).
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK BETWEEN 85 AND 90;

Comparison Operator
IS NULL: NULL value.
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK IS NULL;

Comparison Operator
IS NOT NULL: Non-NULL value.
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE MARK IS NOT NULL;

Comparison Operator
LIKE: Pattern matching with % and _.
Example
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Name LIKE 'a%';

Comparison Operator
LIKE Examples
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Name LIKE '%i';

Comparison Operator
LIKE Examples
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Mark LIKE '8_';

Logical Conditions combines the results of two conditions to

produce a single result.
1. NOT returns TRUE if the condition is FALSE.
2. AND returns TRUE if both conditions are TRUE.
3. OR returns TRUE if either condition is TRUE.

Logical Conditions Examples
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE name LIKE 'a%' OR mark = 90;

SELECT * FROM Student WHERE name LIKE 'a%' AND mark =

90;

SELECT * FROM Student WHERE name NOT LIKE'%i';

ORDER BY Clause used to specify the order in which rows appear in

the result sed.
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE name NOT LIKE'%i' ORDER BY

ID;

ORDER BY Clause Examples
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE name NOT LIKE'%i'ORDER BY ID

ASC;
Note: ORDER BY ASC is the default case.

ORDER BY Clause Examples
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE name NOT LIKE'%i'ORDER BY ID

DESC;

SQL function
1. Single Row Function.
2. Multiple Row Function.

SQL function
1. Single Row Function.
✓ Character.
✓ Number.
✓ Date.
✓ Conversion.

Single Row Function
Character functions example
SELECT INITCAP(name) from Student;

Single Row Function
SELECT LENGTH(name) from Student;

Single Row Function
SELECT ROUND(mark) from Student;

Single Row Function
SELECT TRUNC(mark) from Student;

Single Row Function
General function NVL
SELECT MOD(mark, id) from Student;

Single Row Function
General function NVL
SELECT NVL(dname, 0) FROM DEPT;

Multiple Row Function
Aggregate function GROUP BY
SELECT name, Min(Mark) AS "Min" FROM student GROUP

BY name;

SELECT name, Max(Mark) AS "Max" FROM student GROUP

BY name;

SELECT name, COUNT(*) FROM student GROUP BY name;

SELECT name, COUNT(*) FROM student WHERE Id= 1

GROUP BY name;

SELECT name FROM student HAVING SUM(mark)>=90

GROUP BY name;

Chapter 04
1 Overview of Transaction Control Language (TCL)
2 Transaction Control Language (TCL) Commands

Overview of Transaction Control Language (TCL)
Transaction Control Language (TCL) commands are used to manage

transactions in the database.
These are used to manage the changes made by Data manipulation

language (DML) commands.
It also allows commands and statements to be grouped together into

logical transactions.

A transaction consists of one of the following:
✓ DML commands constitute one consistent change to the data.
✓ One data control language (DCL) command.
✓ One DDL command.

A transaction starts implicitly when the first SQL command begins,

and it continues until one of the following are met:
✓ COMMIT command used to write the changes to this point on the

database.
✓ ROLLBACK statement to cancel/no write the changes to this point

on the database.

✓ When a user executes DDL commands (CREATE, DROP, ALTER,

…etc), the system first commits any DML commands (INSERT,
UPDATE, DELETE) executed to this point, before executing the DDL
statements.
✓ When a program crashes, all the updates to this point are rolled
back implicitly.

Transaction Control Language (TCL) Commands
Commit Example
INSERT INTO DEPT (DEPTNO, DNAME, LOC)

VALUES(1, 'Admin', 'Irbid');
SELECT * FROM DEPT;
VALUES(4, 'Training', 'Irbid');

Commit Example

VALUES(1, 'Admin', 'Irbid');
SELECT * FROM DEPT;
VALUES(4, 'Training', 'Irbid');
COMMIT;

ROLLBACK Example

VALUES(5, 'Training2', 'Irbid’);
SELECT * FROM DEPT;

ROLLBACK Example
ROLLBACK;
SELECT * FROM DEPT;

Automatic commit
An automatic commit occurs in the following:
1. A DDL statement issued.
2. A DCL statement issued (GRANT, REVOKE).
3. Normal exit from SQL*Plus or SQL Developer, without explicitly

issuing ROLLBACK or COMMIT commands.

Automatic Rollback
An automatic rollback occurs in the following:
1. When there is an abnormal termination of SQL Developer,

SQL*Plus or a system failure.

State of the Data After COMMIT
1. Data updates are saved in the database.
2. The previous state of the data is overwritten.
3. All users can display the results.
4. Locks on the affected rows are released;
5. All save points are erased.
6. Rows are available for other users to manipulate.

State of the Data After ROLLBACK
Discard all pending updates occurs in the following:
1. Previous state of the data is restored.
2. Data updates are undone.
3. Locks on the affected rows are released.

FOR UPDATE Clause in a SELECT Statement
SELECT *
FROM DEPT
WHERE DNAME = 'Admin'
FOR UPDATE
ORDER BY DEPTNO;
Note: Lock is released only when you issue a COMMIT or a ROLLBACK.

Chapter 05
1 Display data from multiple table
2 INNER JOIN
3 LEFT OUTER
4 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
5 FULL OUTER JOIN
6 Queries

Display data from multiple table
The related tables of a large database are linked through the use of
foreign and primary keys or what are often referred to as common
columns.
The ability to join tables will enable you to add more meaning to the
result table that is produced.

For 'n' number tables to be joined in a query, minimum (n-1) join

conditions are necessary.
Based on the join conditions, Oracle combines the matching pair of

rows and displays the one which satisfies the join condition.

Joins are classified as below:
1. INNER JOIN (or sometimes called simple join)

2. LEFT OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called LEFT JOIN)
3. RIGHT OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called RIGHT JOIN)
4. FULL OUTER JOIN (or sometimes called FULL JOIN)

INNER JOIN
The INNER join is such a join when equijoins and non equijoins are
performed, rows from the source and target tables are matched using
a join condition formulated with equality and inequality operators,
respectively. These are referred to as inner joins.

INNER JOIN
Syntax:
SELECT table1.column, table2.column

FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

INNER JOIN

INNER JOIN

INNER JOIN(Exercise)
Create the following Table :


SELECT a.department_id, a.department_name, b.city

FROM departments a INNER JOIN locations b ON
a.location_id = b.location_id;

LEFT OUTER
A LEFT OUTER JOIN performs an inner join of two tables (supposed

table A which writes before the join keyword and table B which writes
after the join keyword in the SQL statement ) based on the condition
specified after the ON keyword.
It returns all rows from the table A as well as the unmatched rows
from the table B. For all rows in A that have no matching rows in B,
Oracle Database returns null for any select list expressions containing
columns of B.

LEFT OUTER
Syntax:

FROM table1
LEFT OUTER JOIN table2
ON (table1.column = table2.column);

LEFT OUTER

LEFT OUTER

LEFT OUTER

LEFT OUTER
SELECT e.first_name, e.department_id,

d.department_name FROM employees e LEFT OUTER JOIN
departments d ON (e.department_id = d.department_id)
WHERE d.department_name LIKE 'P%';

RIGHT OUTER JOIN
A RIGHT OUTER JOIN performs an inner join of two tables (supposed table A
which writes before the join keyword and table B which writes after the join
keyword in the SQL statement ) based on the condition specified after the ON
keyword.
It returns all rows from the table B as well as the unmatched rows from the
table A. For all rows in B that have no matching rows in A, Oracle Database
returns null for any select list expressions containing columns of A.

RIGHT OUTER JOIN
Syntax:

FROM table1
RIGHT OUTER JOIN table2

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

LEFT OUTER

LEFT OUTER
SELECT a.department_id, a.department_name,

count(m1.employee_id) employees,
NVL(TO_CHAR(AVG(m1.salary), '99999.99'), '- Nil -
') avg_sal, m2.first_name, m2.salary, m2.job_id
FROM departments a RIGHT OUTER JOIN employees m1
ON a.department_id = m1.department_id RIGHT OUTER
JOIN employees m2 ON a.department_id =
m2.department_id GROUP BY a.department_id,
a.department_name, m2.first_name, m2.salary,
m2.job_id ORDER BY a.department_id, employees;

LEFT OUTER

FULL OUTER JOIN
A full outer join performs a join between two tables that returns the results
of an INNER join as well as the results of a left and right outer join

FULL OUTER JOIN
Syntax:

FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2

FULL OUTER JOIN

FULL OUTER JOIN

FULL OUTER JOIN

FULL OUTER JOIN
SELECT a.first_name, b.department_id,

b.department_name FROM employees a FULL OUTER JOIN
departments b ON (a.department_id = b.department_id);

Queries
Q1: Write a SQL query to display the item name, price, and company name
of all the products.

Queries
Solution:
SELECT item_mast.pro_name, pro_price,
company_mast.com_name FROM item_mast INNER JOIN
company_mast ON item_mast.pro_com =
company_mast.com_id;

Queries
Q2: The following query retrieves all the matching rows in the departments
table, and employees table for the criteria same department_id in both
tables, and also those rows from employees table even if there is no match in
the departments table.
Use The Same Tables that we create before ☺

Queries
Solution:
SELECT e.first_name, e.department_id,
d.department_name FROM employees e RIGHT OUTER JOIN
departments d ON (e.department_id = d.department_id);

Queries
Solution:

Chapter 06
1 Subqueries
2 VIEW
3 Sequences (Auto number)
4 Synonyms

Subqueries
A subquery is best defined as a query within a query. Subqueries

enable you to write queries that select data rows for criteria that are
actually developed while the query is executing at run time.
More formally, it is the use of a SELECT statement inside one of the

clauses of another SELECT statement.

Subqueries
In fact, a subquery can be contained inside another subquery, which

is inside another subquery, and so forth. A subquery can also be
nested inside INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements. Subqueries
must be enclosed within parentheses.

Subqueries
A subquery SELECT statement is very similar to the SELECT statement

used to begin a regular or outer query.
The complete syntax of a subquery is:

( SELECT [DISTINCT] subquery_select_parameter
FROM {table_name | view_name}
{table_name | view_name} ...
[WHERE search_conditions]
[GROUP BY column_name [,column_name ] ...]
[HAVING search_conditions] )

Subqueries
Types of Subqueries:
• Single Row Sub Query: Sub query which returns single row output. They
mark the usage of single row comparison operators, when used in WHERE
conditions.
• Multiple row sub query: Sub query returning multiple row output. They
make use of multiple row comparison operators like IN, ANY, ALL. There
can be sub queries returning multiple columns also.

Subqueries
• Correlated Sub Query: Correlated subqueries depend on data provided

by the outer query.
This type of subquery also includes subqueries that use the EXISTS operator
to test the existence of data rows satisfying specified criteria.

Subqueries
In the below SELECT query, inner SQL returns only one row i.e. the
minimum salary for the company. It in turn uses this value to
compare salary of all the employees and displays only those, whose
salary is equal to minimum salary.
SELECT first_name, salary, department_id

FROM employees
WHERE salary = (SELECT MIN (salary)
FROM employees);

Subqueries
A HAVING clause is used when the group results of a query need to

be restricted based on some condition. If a subquery's result must be
compared with a group function, you must nest the inner query in the
outer query's HAVING clause.
SELECT department_id, MIN (salary)

FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id
HAVING MIN (salary) < (SELECT AVG (salary)
FROM employees)

VIEW
Use the CREATE VIEW statement to define a view, which is a logical

table based on one or more tables or views. A view contains no data
itself. The tables upon which a view is based are called base tables.

Create VIEW
Syntax:
The syntax for the CREATE VIEW Statement in Oracle/PLSQL is:
CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT columns
FROM tables
WHERE conditions;

Create VIEW
view_name
It specifies the name of the Oracle VIEW that you want to create.
WHERE conditions
Optional. The conditions that must be met for the records to be
included in the VIEW.

Create VIEW
In this example, we are creating two tables suppliers and orders first.
CREATE TABLE "SUPPLIERS"

( "SUPPLIER_ID" NUMBER,
"SUPPLIER_NAME" VARCHAR2(4000),
"SUPPLIER_ADDRESS" VARCHAR2(4000)
)

Create VIEW
CREATE TABLE "ORDERS"

( "ORDER_NO." NUMBER,
"QUANTITY" NUMBER,
"PRICE" NUMBER
)

Create VIEW
Create View Query:
CREATE VIEW sup_orders AS

SELECT suppliers.supplier_id, orders.quantity,
orders.price
FROM suppliers
INNER JOIN orders
ON suppliers.supplier_id = supplier_id
WHERE suppliers.supplier_name = 'VOJO';

Create VIEW
Display View Query:
SELECT * FROM sup_orders;

Sequences
n Oracle, you can create an auto number field by using sequences. A

sequence is an object in Oracle that is used to generate a number
sequence.
This can be useful when you need to create a unique number to act
as a primary key.

Sequences
Syntax:
The syntax to create a sequence in Oracle is:
CREATE SEQUENCE sequence_name

MINVALUE value
MAXVALUE value
START WITH value
INCREMENT BY value
CACHE value;

Sequences
sequence_name
The name of the sequence that you wish to create.
CREATE SEQUENCE supplier_seq

MINVALUE 1
MAXVALUE 999999999999999999999999999
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 20;

Sequences
This would create a sequence object called supplier_seq.
The first sequence number that it would use is 1 and each

subsequent number would increment by 1 (ie: 2,3,4,...}.
It will cache up to 20 values for performance.

Sequences
If you omit the MAXVALUE option, your sequence will automatically default
to:
MAXVALUE 999999999999999999999999999

Sequences
So you can simplify your CREATE SEQUENCE command as follows:
CREATE SEQUENCE supplier_seq

MINVALUE 1
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 20;

Sequences
To retrieve the next value in the sequence order, you need to use nextval.
supplier_seq.NEXTVAL;
INSERT INTO suppliers

(supplier_id, supplier_name)
VALUES
(supplier_seq.NEXTVAL, 'Kraft Foods');

Drop Sequence
Once you have created your sequence in Oracle, you might find that you
need to remove it from the database.
Syntax:
DROP SEQUENCE sequence_name;

Sequence
Thinking Question !!

Sequence
Question: While creating a sequence, what does cache and nocache options
mean?
For example, you could create a sequence with a cache of 20 as follows:
CREATE SEQUENCE supplier_seq CREATE SEQUENCE supplier_seq

MINVALUE 1 MINVALUE 1
START WITH 1 START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1 INCREMENT BY 1
CACHE 20; NOCACHE;

Sequence
Answer: With respect to a sequence, the cache option specifies how many
sequence values will be stored in memory for faster access.
The downside of creating a sequence with a cache is that if a system failure

occurs, all cached sequence values that have not be used, will be "lost".
This results in a "gap" in the assigned sequence values. When the system
comes back up, Oracle will cache new numbers from where it left off in the
sequence, ignoring the so called "lost" sequence values.

Sequence
Question: How do we set the LASTVALUE value in an Oracle Sequence?

Sequence
Answer: You can change the LASTVALUE for an Oracle sequence, by executing
an ALTER SEQUENCE command.
For example, if the last value used by the Oracle sequence was 100 and you
would like to reset the sequence to serve 225 as the next value. You would
execute the following commands.
ALTER SEQUENCE seq_name

INCREMENT BY 124;
SELECT seq_name.nextval FROM dual;
ALTER SEQUENCE seq_name
INCREMENT BY 1;

Synonyms
synonym is an alternative name for objects such as tables, views, sequences,

stored procedures, and other database objects.
You generally use synonyms when you are granting access to an object from
another schema and you don't want the users to have to worry about
knowing which schema owns the object.

Synonyms
Syntax:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] [PUBLIC] SYNONYM [schema .] synonym_name

FOR [schema .] object_name [@ dblink];
OR REPLACE:
Allows you to recreate the synonym (if it already exists) without having to
issue a DROP synonym command.

Synonyms
Syntax:

PUBLIC
It means that the synonym is a public synonym and is accessible to all users.
Remember though that the user must first have the appropriate privileges to
the object to use the synonym.

Synonyms
Syntax:

schema
The appropriate schema. If this phrase is omitted, Oracle assumes that you
are referring to your own schema.

Synonyms
object_name:
The name of the object for which you are creating the synonym. It can be one
of the following:
• table
• view
• sequence
• stored procedure
• function
• package
• materialized view
• java class schema object
• user-defined object
• synonym

Synonyms
Example:
CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM suppliers

FOR app.suppliers;
This example demonstrates how to create a synonym called suppliers.
Now, users of other schemas can reference the table called suppliers without
having to prefix the table name with the schema named app.

Synonyms
This example demonstrates how to create a synonym called suppliers:
CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM suppliers

FOR app.suppliers;
Now, users of other schemas can reference the table called suppliers without
having to prefix the table name with the schema named app:
SELECT *
FROM suppliers;

Synonyms
If this synonym already existed and you wanted to redefine it, you could
always use the OR REPLACE phrase as follows:
CREATE OR REPLACE PUBLIC SYNONYM suppliers

FOR app.suppliers;

Drop synonym
Once a synonym has been created in Oracle, you might at some point need
to drop the synonym.
Syntax:
DROP [PUBLIC] SYNONYM [schema .] synonym_name [force];

Drop synonym
PUBLIC
Allows you to drop a public synonym. If you have specified PUBLIC, then you
don't specify a schema.
force
It will force Oracle to drop the synonym even if it has dependencies. It is
probably not a good idea to use force as it can cause invalidation of Oracle
objects.

Drop synonym
Example:
DROP PUBLIC SYNONYM suppliers;
This DROP statement would drop the synonym called suppliers that we
defined earlier.

Chapter 07
1 PL/SQL
2 Anonymous Block
3 Data Types
4 Variables
5 Comments

PL/SQL
PL/SQL stands for “Procedural Language extensions to the Structured

Query Language”.
SQL is a popular language for both querying and updating data in the
relational database management systems (RDBMS).

PL/SQL
PL/SQL adds many procedural constructs to SQL language to

overcome some limitations of SQL.
Besides, PL/SQL provides a more comprehensive programming

language solution for building mission-critical applications on Oracle
Databases.

PL/SQL
PL/SQL is an embedded language.
PL/SQL only can execute in an Oracle Database. It was not designed

to use as a standalone language like Java, C#, and C++.
In other words, you cannot develop a PL/SQL program that runs on a

system that does not have an Oracle Database.

PL/SQL

Anonymous Block
PL/SQL is a block-structured language whose code is organized into

blocks. A PL/SQL block consists of three sections: declaration,
executable, and exception-handling sections.
In a block, the executable section is mandatory while the declaration

and exception-handling sections are optional.

Anonymous Block
A PL/SQL block has a name. Functions or Procedures is an example of

a named block. A named block is stored into the Oracle Database
server and can be reused later.
A block without a name is an anonymous block. An anonymous block

is not saved in the Oracle Database server, so it is just for one-time
use.
However, PL/SQL anonymous blocks can be useful for testing

purposes.

Anonymous Block

Anonymous Block
A PL/SQL block has a name. Functions or Procedures is an example of

a named block. A named block is stored into the Oracle Database
server and can be reused later.
A block without a name is an anonymous block. An anonymous block

is not saved in the Oracle Database server, so it is just for one-time
use.
However, PL/SQL anonymous blocks can be useful for testing

purposes.

Anonymous Block
Example :
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.put_line ('Hello World!');
END;
/

Anonymous Block
/
Welcome in Tahluf

Anonymous Block
Execute a PL/SQL anonymous block using SQL Developer:

Anonymous Block

Anonymous Block

Anonymous Block
DECLARE
l_message VARCHAR2( 255 ) := 'Hello World!';
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( l_message );
END;

Anonymous Block
DECLARE
v_result NUMBER;
BEGIN
v_result := 1 / 0;
EXCEPTION
WHEN ZERO_DIVIDE THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( SQLERRM );
END;

Data Types
Each value in PL/SQL such as a constant, variable and parameter has

a data type that determines the storage format, valid values, and
allowed operations.
PL/SQL has two kinds of data types: scalar and composite.

Data Types
The scalar types are types that store single values such as number,
Boolean, character, and datetime .
composite types are types that store multiple values, for example,
record and collection

Numeric data types
The numeric data types represent real numbers, integers, and

floating-point numbers. They are stored as NUMBER, IEEE floating-
point storage types (BINARY_FLOAT and BINARY_DOUBLE), and
PLS_INTEGER.
The data types NUMBER, BINARY_FLOAT, and BINARY_DOUBLE are

SQL data types.
The PLS_INTEGER datatype is specific to PL/SQL. It represents signed

32 bits integers that range from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.

Numeric data types
Because PLS_INTEGER datatype uses hardware arithmetic, they are

faster than NUMBER operations, which uses software arithmetic.
In addition, PLS_INTEGER values require less storage than NUMBER.
Hence, you should always use PLS_INTEGER values for all calculation
in its range to increase the efficiency of programs.

Numeric data types
The PLS_INTEGER datatype has the following predefined subtypes:

Boolean data type
The BOOLEAN datatype has three data values: TRUE, FALSE, and
NULL. Boolean values are typically used in control flow structure such
as IF-THEN, CASE, and loop statements like LOOP, FOR LOOP, and
WHILE LOOP.

Boolean data type
SQL does not have the BOOLEAN data type, therefore, you cannot:
• Assign a BOOLEAN value to a table column.

• Select the value from a table column into a BOOLEAN variable.
• Use a BOOLEAN value in a SQL function.
• Use a BOOLEAN expression in a SQL statement.
• Use a BOOLEAN value in the DBMS_OUTPUT.PUTLINE and
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT subprograms.

Character data types
The character data types represent alphanumeric text.
PL/SQL uses the SQL character data types such as CHAR, VARCHAR2,
LONG, RAW, LONG RAW, ROWID, and UROWID.
• CHAR(n) is a fixed-length character type whose length is from 1 to

32,767 bytes.
• VARCHAR2(n) is varying length character data from 1 to 32,767

bytes.

Datetime data types
The datetime data types represent dates, timestamp with or without

time zone and intervals.
PL/SQL datetime data types are DATE, TIMESTAMP, TIMESTAMP

WITH TIME ZONE, TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE, INTERVAL
YEAR TO MONTH, and INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND.

Data type synonyms
Data types have synonyms for compatibility with non-Oracle data

sources such as IBM Db2, SQL Server.
It is not a good practice to use data type synonym unless you are
accessing a non-Oracle Database.

Data type synonyms

Variables
In PL/SQL, a variable is named storage location that stores a value of

a particular data type. The value of the variable changes through the
program. Before using a variable, you must declare it in the
declaration section of a block.

Variables
The syntax for a variable declaration is as follows:
variable_name datatype [NOT NULL] [:= initial_value];

Variables
In the last syntax:
• First, specify the name of the variable. The name of the variable
should be as descriptive as possible, e.g., l_total_sales,
l_credit_limit, and l_sales_revenue.
• Second, choose an appropriate data type for the variable,

depending on the kind of value which you want to store, for
example, number, character, Boolean, and datetime.
• By convention, local variable names should start with l_ and

global variable names should have a prefix of g_ .

Variables
DECLARE
l_total_sales NUMBER(15,2);
l_credit_limit NUMBER (10,0);
l_contact_name VARCHAR2(255);
BEGIN
NULL;
END;

Variables
Default values:
PL/SQL allows you to set a default value for a variable at the

declaration time. To assign a default value to a variable, you use the
assignment operator (:=) or the DEFAULT keyword.

Variables
DECLARE
l_product_name VARCHAR2( 100 ) := 'Laptop';
BEGIN
NULL;
END;
It is equivalent to the following block:
DECLARE
l_product_name VARCHAR2(100) DEFAULT 'Laptop';
BEGIN
NULL;
END;

Variables
NOT NULL constraint:
If you impose the NOT NULL constraint on a value, then the variable
cannot accept a NULL value.
Besides, a variable declared with the NOT NULL must be initialized

with a non-null value.
Note that PL/SQL treats a zero-length string as a NULL value.

Variables
DECLARE
l_shipping_status VARCHAR2( 25 ) NOT NULL := 'Shipped';
BEGIN
l_shipping_status := '';
END;
It is equivalent to the following block:
ORA-06502: PL/SQL: numeric or value error

Variables
Anchored declarations:
Typically, you declare a variable and select a value from a table column to this
variable.
If the data type of the table column changes, you must adjust the program to
make it work with the new type.
PL/SQL allows you to declare a variable whose data type anchor to a table
column or another

Variables
DECLARE
l_name DEPT.DNAME%TYPE;
l_loc DEPT.loc%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT
DNAMe, loc
INTO
l_name, l_loc
FROM
DEPT
WHERE
DEPTNO = 3;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(l_name || ':' || l_loc );
END;
/

Variables
DECLARE
l_Name student.name%TYPE;
l_average_mark student.mark%TYPE;
l_max_mark student.mark%TYPE;
l_min_mark student.mark%TYPE;
BEGIN
-- get credit limits
SELECT
MIN(mark),
MAX(mark),
AVG(mark)
INTO
l_min_mark,
l_max_mark,
l_average_mark
FROM student;
SELECT
name
INTO
l_name
FROM
student
WHERE
id=1;
-- show the credits

dbms_output.put_line('Min mark: ' || l_min_mark);
dbms_output.put_line('Max mark: ' || l_max_mark);
dbms_output.put_line('Avg mark: ' || l_average_mark);
-- show customer credit

dbms_output.put_line('student name: ' || l_name);
END;

Comments
PL/SQL comments allow you to describe the purpose of a line or a block of

PL/SQL code.
When compiling the PL/SQL code, the Oracle precompiler ignores comments.
However, you should always use comments to make your code more
readable and to help you and other developers understand it better in the
future.

Comments
PL/SQL has two comment styles: single-line and multi-line comments:
• Single-line comments: A single-line comment starts with a double hyphen

(--) that can appear anywhere on a line and extends to the end of the
line.
-- valued added tax 10%
• Multi-line comments: A multi-line comment starts with a slash-asterisk

( /* ) and ends with an asterisk-slash ( */ ), and can span multiple lines.
/*
This is a multi-line commet
that can span multiple lines
*/

Chapter 08
1 Conditional control
2 Iterative processing with loops
3 Exception
4 Records
5 Cursors

IF Statement
The IF statement allows you to either execute or skip a sequence of

statements, depending on a condition. The IF statement has the three
forms:
• IF THEN
• IF THEN ELSE
• IF THEN ELSIF

IF Statement
IF THEN statement:
The condition is a Boolean expression that always evaluates to TRUE,
FALSE, or NULL.
If the condition evaluates to TRUE, the statements after the THEN

execute. Otherwise, the IF statement does nothing.

IF Statement
Syntax :
IF condition THEN
statements;
END IF;

IF Statement
Example :
DECLARE n_sales NUMBER := 2000000;

BEGIN
IF n_sales > 100000 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Sales revenue is greater
than 100K ' );
END IF;
END;

IF Statement
IF THEN ELSE statement:
The IF THEN ELSE statement has the following structure:
IF condition THEN
statements;
ELSE
else_statements;
END IF;

IF Statement
Example :
DECLARE
n_sales NUMBER := 300000;
n_commission NUMBER( 10, 2 ) := 0;
BEGIN
n_commission := n_sales * 0.1;
ELSE
END IF;
END;

IF Statement
IF THEN ELSIF statement:

The following illustrates the structure of the IF THEN ELSIF statement:
IF condition_1 THEN
statements_1
ELSIF condition_2 THEN
statements_2
[ ELSE
else_statements
]
END IF;

IF Statement
Example :
DECLARE
n_sales NUMBER := 300000;
n_commission NUMBER( 10, 2 ) := 0;
BEGIN
ELSIF n_sales <= 200000 AND n_sales > 100000 THEN
ELSIF n_sales <= 100000 AND n_sales > 50000 THEN
ELSE
END IF;
END;

IF Statement
Nested IF statement:
You can nest an IF statement within another IF statement as shown
below:
IF condition_1 THEN
IF condition_2 THEN
nested_if_statements;
END IF;
ELSE
else_statements;
END IF;

CASE Statement
The CASE statement chooses one sequence of statements to execute

out of many possible sequences.
The CASE statement has two types: simple CASE statement and
searched CASE statement.
Both types of the CASE statements support an optional ELSE clause.

CASE Statement
Simple CASE statement:

A simple CASE statement evaluates a single expression and compares
the result with some values.
The simple CASE statement has the following structure:

CASE selector
WHEN selector_value_1 THEN
statements_1
WHEN selector_value_1 THEN
statement_2
ELSE
else_statements
END CASE;

CASE Statement
DECLARE
c_grade CHAR( 1 );
c_rank VARCHAR2( 20 );
BEGIN
c_grade := 'B';
CASE c_grade
WHEN 'A' THEN
c_rank := 'Excellent' ;
WHEN 'B' THEN
c_rank := 'Very Good' ;
WHEN 'C' THEN
c_rank := 'Good' ;
WHEN 'D' THEN
c_rank := 'Fair' ;
WHEN 'F' THEN
c_rank := 'Poor' ;
ELSE
c_rank := 'No such grade' ;
END CASE;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( c_rank );
END;

CASE Statement
Searched CASE statement:
The searched CASE statement evaluates multiple Boolean expressions

and executes the sequence of statements associated with the first
condition that evaluates to TRUE.

CASE Statement
The searched CASE statement has the following structure:
CASE
WHEN condition_1 THEN statements_1
WHEN condition_2 THEN statements_2
...
WHEN condition_n THEN statements_n
[ ELSE
else_statements ]
END CASE;]

CASE Statement
DECLARE
n_sales NUMBER;
n_commission NUMBER;
BEGIN
n_sales := 150000;
CASE
WHEN n_sales > 200000 THEN
n_commission := 0.2;
WHEN n_sales >= 100000 AND n_sales < 200000 THEN
WHEN n_sales >= 50000 AND n_sales < 100000 THEN
WHEN n_sales > 30000 THEN
ELSE
n_commission := 0;
END CASE;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Commission is ' ||

n_commission * 100 || '%'
);
END;

GOTO statement
The GOTO statement allows you to transfer control to a labeled block

or statement. The following illustrates the syntax of the GOTO
statement:
GOTO label_name;
The label_name is the name of a label that identifies the target statement. In
the program, you surround the label name with double enclosing angle
brackets as shown below:
<<label_name>>;

GOTO statement

GOTO statement
BEGIN
GOTO second_message;
<<first_message>>
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Hello' );
GOTO the_end;
<<second_message>>
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'PL/SQL GOTO
Demo' );
GOTO first_message;
<<the_end>>
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'and good bye...' );
END;

Iterative processing with loops
DECLARE
l_counter NUMBER := 0;
BEGIN
LOOP
l_counter := l_counter + 1;
IF l_counter > 3 THEN
EXIT;
END IF;
dbms_output.put_line( 'Inside loop: ' || l_counter ) ;
END LOOP;
-- control resumes here after EXIT
dbms_output.put_line( 'After loop: ' || l_counter );
END;

FOR LOOP
PL/SQL FOR LOOP executes a sequence of statements a specified

number of times. The PL/SQL FOR LOOP statement has the following
structure:
FOR index IN lower_bound .. upper_bound

LOOP
statements;
END LOOP;

FOR LOOP
BEGIN
FOR l_counter IN 1..5
LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( l_counter );
END LOOP;
END;

FOR LOOP
DECLARE
l_step PLS_INTEGER := 2;
BEGIN
FOR l_counter IN 1..5 LOOP
dbms_output.put_line (l_counter*l_step);
END LOOP;
END;

FOR LOOP
DECLARE
l_counter PLS_INTEGER := 10;
BEGIN
FOR l_counter IN 1.. 5 loop
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (l_counter);
end loop;
-- after the loop
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (l_counter);
END;

WHILE loop
Here is the syntax for the WHILE loop statement:
WHILE condition
LOOP
statements;
END LOOP;

WHILE loop
DECLARE
n_counter NUMBER := 1;
BEGIN
WHILE n_counter <= 5
LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Counter : ' ||
n_counter );
n_counter := n_counter + 1;
END LOOP;
END;

FOR LOOP
WHILE loop example terminated by EXIT WHEN statement:
The following example is the same as the one above except that it has
an additional EXITWHEN statement.

WHILE loop
DECLARE
n_counter NUMBER := 1;
BEGIN
WHILE n_counter <= 5
LOOP
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( 'Counter : ' || n_counter );
n_counter := n_counter + 1;
EXIT WHEN n_counter = 3;
END LOOP;
END;

CONTINUE statement
The CONTINUE statement allows you to exit the current loop iteration
and immediately continue on to the next iteration of that loop.
The CONTINUE statement has a simple syntax:
CONTINUE;

CONTINUE statement
Typically, the CONTINUE statement is used within an IF THEN

statement to exit the current loop iteration based on a specified
condition as shown below:
IF condition THEN
CONTINUE;
END IF;

CONTINUE statement
BEGIN
FOR n_index IN 1 .. 10
LOOP
-- skip odd numbers
IF MOD( n_index, 2 ) = 1 THEN
CONTINUE;
END IF;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( n_index );
END LOOP;
END;

CONTINUE statement
CONTINUE WHEN statement:
The CONTINUE WHEN statement exits the current loop iteration

based on a condition and immediately continue to the next iteration
of that loop.
The syntax of CONTINUE WHEN statement is:
CONTINUE WHEN condition;

CONTINUE statement
BEGIN
FOR n_index IN 1 .. 10
LOOP
-- skip even numbers
CONTINUE
WHEN MOD( n_index, 2 ) = 0;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE( n_index );
END LOOP;
END;

Exception
PL/SQL treats all errors that occur in an anonymous block, procedure,

or function as exceptions.
The exceptions can have different causes such as coding mistakes,

bugs, even hardware failures.
It is not possible to anticipate all potential exceptions, however, you

can write code to handle exceptions to enable the program to
continue running as normal.

Exception
The code that you write to handle exceptions is called an exception

handler.
BEGIN
-- executable section
...
-- exception-handling section
EXCEPTION
WHEN e1 THEN
-- exception_handler1
WHEN e2 THEN
-- exception_handler1
WHEN OTHERS THEN
-- other_exception_handler
END;

Exception
DECLARE
c_id student.id%type := 2;
c_name student.Name%type;
BEGIN
SELECT name, id INTO c_name, c_id
FROM student
WHERE id = c_id;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('id: ' || c_id);
EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No such student!');
WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
END;

Records
A PL/SQL record is a composite data structure which consists of

multiple fields; each has its own value. The following picture shows
an example record that includes first name, last name, email, and
phone number:

Records
PL/SQL record helps you simplify your code by shifting from field-
level to record-level operations.
PL/SQL has three types of records: table-based, cursor-based,

programmer-defined.
Before using a record, you must declare it.
DECLARE
record_name table_name%ROWTYPE;

Records
CREATE TABLE persons (

person_id NUMBER GENERATED BY DEFAULT
AS IDENTITY,
first_name VARCHAR2( 50 ) NOT NULL,
last_name VARCHAR2( 50 ) NOT NULL,
primary key (person_id)
);

Records
DECLARE
r_person persons%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
-- assign values to person record
r_person.person_id := 1;
r_person.first_name := 'John';
r_person.last_name := 'Doe';
-- insert a new person

INSERT INTO persons VALUES r_person;
END;

Records
DECLARE
r_person persons%ROWTYPE;
BEGIN
-- get person data of person id 1
SELECT * INTO r_person
FROM persons
WHERE person_id = 1;
-- change the person's last name

r_person.last_name := 'Smith';
-- update the person

UPDATE persons
SET ROW = r_person
WHERE person_id = r_person.person_id;
END;

Cursors
A cursor is a pointer that points to a result of a query. PL/SQL has two

types of cursors: implicit cursors and explicit cursors.

Implicit cursors
Whenever Oracle executes an SQL statement such as SELECT INTO,

INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE, it automatically creates an implicit
cursor.
Oracle internally manages the whole execution cycle of implicit

cursors and reveals only the cursor’s information and statuses such
as:
• SQL%ROWCOUNT
• SQL%ISOPEN
• SQL%FOUND
• SQL%NOTFOUND.

Implicit cursors
The implicit cursor is not elegant when the query returns zero or
multiple rows which cause NO_DATA_FOUND or TOO_MANY_ROWS
exception respectively.

Explicit cursors
An explicit cursor is an SELECT statement declared explicitly in the

declaration section of the current block or a package specification.
For an explicit cursor, you have control over its execution cycle from
OPEN, FETCH, and CLOSE.
Oracle defines an execution cycle that executes an SQL statement and

associates a cursor with it.

Explicit cursors
The following illustration shows the execution cycle of an explicit

cursor:

Explicit cursors
Declare a cursor
Before using an explicit cursor, you must declare it in the declaration
section of a block or package as follows:
CURSOR cursor_name IS query;
In this syntax:
• First, specify the name of the cursor after the CURSOR keyword.
• Second, define a query to fetch data after the IS keyword.

Explicit cursors
Open a cursor
Before start fetching rows from the cursor, you must open it. To open
a cursor, you use the following syntax:
OPEN cursor_name;
In this syntax, the cursor_name is the name of the cursor declared in

the declaration section.

Explicit cursors
Fetch from a cursor

The FETCH statement places the contents of the current row into
variables. The syntax of FETCH statement is as follows:
FETCH cursor_name INTO variable_list;
To retrieve all rows in a result set, you need to fetch each row till the
last one.

Explicit cursors
Closing a cursor
After fetching all rows, you need to close the cursor with the CLOSE
statement:
CLOSE cursor_name;
Closing a cursor instructs Oracle to release allocated memory at an

appropriate time.

Explicit Cursor Attributes
A cursor has four attributes to which you can reference in the

following format:
cursor_name%attribute
where cursor_name is the name of the explicit cursor.

• %ISOPEN
This attribute is TRUE if the cursor is open or FALSE if it is not.
• %FOUND
This attribute has four values:
1. NULL before the first fetch
2. TRUE if a record was fetched successfully
3. FALSE if no row returned
4. INVALID_CURSOR if the cursor is not opened

• %NOTFOUND
This attribute has four values:
1. NULL before the first fetch
2. FALSE if a record was fetched successfully
3. TRUE if no row returned
4. INVALID_CURSOR if the cursor is not opened
• %ROWCOUNT
The %ROWCOUNT attribute returns the number of rows fetched from
the cursor. If the cursor is not opened, this attribute returns
INVALID_CURSOR.

cursor example
We will use the orders and order_items tables from the sample
database for the demonstration.

cursor example
creates a view that returns the sales revenues by customers:

CREATE VIEW sales AS
SELECT customer_id,
SUM(unit_price * quantity) total,
ROUND(SUM(unit_price * quantity) * 0.05)
credit
FROM order_items
INNER JOIN orders USING (order_id)
WHERE status = 'Shipped'
GROUP BY customer_id;

cursor example
Suppose you need to develop a anonymous block that:
1. Reset credit limits of all customers to zero.

2. Fetch customers sorted by sales in descending order and gives
them new credit limits from a budget of 1 million.

cursor example
The following anonymous block illustrates the logic:

cursor example
In the declaration section, we declare three variables.
The first one is l_budget whose initial value is 1,000,000.
The second variable is an explicit cursor variable named c_sales

whose SELECT statement retrieves data from the sales view:
CURSOR c_sales IS
SELECT * FROM sales
ORDER BY total DESC;

cursor example
In the execution section, we perform the following:
1. First, reset credit limits of all customers to zero using an UPDATE

statement.
2. Second, open the c_sales cursor.
3. Third, fetch each row from the cursor. In each loop iteration, we
update the credit limit and reduced the budget. The loop
terminates when there is no row to fetch or the budget is
exhausted.
4. Finally, close the cursor.

Chapter 09
1 Overview of Stored Procedure
2 Create Stored Procedure
3 Overview of Function
4 Create Function
5 Overview of Package
6 Create Package

Overview of Stored Procedure
A PL/SQL procedure is a reusable unit used to encapsulate a specific

business logic of the application.
Procedure is a named block stored in the Oracle Database.
Syntax
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
< procedure_body >
END procedure_name;

Create Stored Procedure
Each parameter can be in either IN, OUT, or INOUT mode.
An IN parameter is read only.
It means that if you do not specify the mode for a parameter

explicitly, Oracle will use the IN mode.

OUT parameter is writable.
Setting a returned value for the OUT parameter and return it to call a
program.
Note: A procedure ignores the value supplies an OUT parameter.

An INOUT parameter is both writable and readable. The procedure

can modify and read it.

Example
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE TahalufTrainees

AS
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line('Welcome in Tahaluf');
END;

Example
EXECUTE TahalufTrainees;

Example
EXECUTE TahalufTrainees;

DROP Stored Procedure
DROP PROCEDURE procedure-name;
Example
DROP PROCEDURE TahalufTrainees;

Example
DECLARE
a number;
b number;
c number;
PROCEDURE findMin(x IN number, y IN number, z OUT
number) IS
BEGIN
IF x < y THEN
z:= x;
ELSE
z:= y;
END IF;
END;
Example
BEGIN
a:= 23;
b:= 45;
findMin(a, b, c);
dbms_output.put_line(' Minimum of (23, 45) : ' ||
c);
END;

Example
DECLARE
a number;
PROCEDURE squareNum(x IN OUT number) IS
BEGIN
x := x * x;
END;
BEGIN
a:= 23;
squareNum(a);
dbms_output.put_line(' Square of (23): ' || a);
END;

Example

Overview of Function
Function is a multi-tenant, fully managed, on-demand, highly scalable

and service platform.
It is built on enterprise grade Cloud Infrastructure and powered by

open source engine.
Using Functions to focus on writing code to meet business needs.

Create Function
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION TotalStudent

RETURN number IS
total number(2) := 0;
BEGIN
SELECT count(*) into total
FROM student;
RETURN total;
END;

Create Function
Example
DECLARE
c number(2);
BEGIN
c := TotalStudent();
dbms_output.put_line('Total no. of student: ' || c);
END;

Create Function
Example
DECLARE
a number;
b number;
c number;
FUNCTION findMax(x number, y number)
RETURN number
IS
z number;
BEGIN

Create Function
Example
IF x > y THEN
z:= x;
RETURN z;
else
z:=y;
return z;
end if;RETURN z;
END;
BEGIN
a:= 23;
b:= 45;
c := findMax(a, b);
dbms_output.put_line(' Maximum of (23,45): ' || c);
END;

Overview of Packages
Packages are objects that groups logically related variables, types,

and subprograms.
A package will have two parts:
✓ Package specification.
✓ Package body or definition.

Overview of Packages
1. Public objects: All objects placed in the specification.
2. private object : Any subprogram not in the package specification.

Create Packages
Example
CREATE PACKAGE std_mark AS

PROCEDURE find_mark(s_id student.id%type);
END std_mark;

Create Packages
The package body has the codes for different ways declared in the
package specification.
Private declarations are hidden from the code outside the package.

Create Packages
Package Body Example
CREATE PACKAGE students_marks AS

PROCEDURE student_marks(std_id student.id%TYPE);
END students_marks ;
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY students_marks AS

PROCEDURE student_marks
(std_id student.id%TYPE) IS
BEGIN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE
('Marks ' || std_id);
END;
END students_marks;

Create Packages
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE students_package AS

PROCEDURE addstudent(std_id student.id%type,
std_name student.name%type,
std_mark student.mark%type);
PROCEDURE delstudent(std_id student.id%TYPE);
END students_package;

Create Packages
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY Package_student AS

PROCEDURE addstudent(std_id student.id%type,
std_name student.name%type,
std_mark student.mark%type);
IS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO student (id,name,mark)
VALUES(std_id,std_name,std_mark);
END addstudent;
PROCEDURE delstudent(std_id student.id%TYPE)IS
BEGIN
DELETE FROM student
WHERE id = std_id;
END delstudent;

Create Packages
Example
DECLARE
code student.id%type:= 1;
BEGIN
Package_student.addstudent(20, 'R', 93);
Package_student.addstudent(50, 'M', 93);
Package_student.delstudent(code);
END;

Overview of Triggers
Triggers are written to be executed in response when any of the

following events occurs:
✓ A database manipulation (DML) commands (DELETE, INSERT, or

UPDATE).
✓ A database definition (DDL) commands (CREATE, ALTER, or

DROP).
✓ A database operation (LOGOFF, SERVERERROR, STARTUP, or

SHUTDOWN).

Benefits of Triggers
1. Generate a some of derived column values automatically.
2. Event storing and logging information on table access.
3. Synchronous replication of tables.
4. Imposing security authorizations.
5. Preventing invalid transactions.
6. Enforcing referential integrity.
7. Auditing.

Syntax
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
DECLARE
Declaration-statements
BEGIN
Executable-statements
EXCEPTION
Exception-handling-statements
END;

Create Triggers
Example
CREATE TABLE audits (

audit_id NUMBER GENERATED BY DEFAULT
AS IDENTITY PRIMARY KEY,
table_name VARCHAR2(255),
transaction_name VARCHAR2(10),
by_user VARCHAR2(30),
transaction_date DATE
);

Create Triggers
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER student_audit

AFTER
UPDATE OR DELETE
ON student
FOR EACH ROW
DECLARE
l_transaction VARCHAR2(10);
BEGIN
l_transaction := CASE
WHEN UPDATING THEN 'UPDATE'
WHEN DELETING THEN 'DELETE'
END;

Create Triggers
Example
INSERT INTO audits (table_name, transaction_name,

by_user, transaction_date)
VALUES('CUSTOMERS', l_transaction, USER, SYSDATE);
END;

Create Triggers
Example
AFTER UPDATE OR DELETE ON student
UPDATE
student
SET
name= 'Mohammed'
WHERE
id =1;

Create Triggers
Example
SELECT * FROM audits;

Create Triggers
Example
DELETE FROM student

WHERE id = 2;

Create Triggers
Example
SELECT * FROM audits;

Introduction to Statement-level triggers
A statement-level trigger is fired when a trigger occurs on a

table regardless of number of rows are affected.
A statement-level trigger executes once for each transaction.

Introduction to Statement-level triggers
Syntax
CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER } triggering_event
ON table_name
[FOLLOWS | PRECEDES another_trigger]
[ENABLE / DISABLE ]
[WHEN condition]
DECLARE
declaration statements
BEGIN
executable statements
EXCEPTION
exception_handling statements
END;

Create Statement-level triggers
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER customers_credit_trg

BEFORE UPDATE OF credit_limit
ON customers
DECLARE
l_day_of_month NUMBER;
BEGIN
-- determine the transaction type
l_day_of_month := EXTRACT(DAY FROM sysdate);
IF l_day_of_month BETWEEN 28 AND 31 THEN

raise_application_error(-20100,'Cannot
update customer credit from 28th to 31st');
END IF;
END;

Create Statement-level triggers
Example
UPDATE
customers
SET
credit_limit = credit_limit * 110;

INSTEAD OF Triggers
An INSTEAD OF trigger allows to update data in the tables via their

view which cannot be modified directly through DML statements.
Syntax
CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name

INSTEAD OF {INSERT | UPDATE | DELETE}
ON view_name
FOR EACH ROW
BEGIN EXCEPTION ...
END;

INSTEAD OF Triggers
Example
CREATE VIEW vw_customers AS

SELECT
name,
address,
website,
credit_limit,
first_name,
last_name,
email,
phone
FROM
customers
INNER JOIN contacts USING (customer_id);

INSTEAD OF Triggers
Example
INSERT INTO
vw_customers(
name,
address,
website,
credit_limit,
first_name,
last_name,
email,
phone
)

INSTEAD OF Triggers
Example
VALUES(
'Ahmed',
'Irbid',
'Ahmed.com',
2000,
'Ahmed',
'mohammed',
'ahmedmohammed@gmail.com',
'0782944885'
);

INSTEAD OF Triggers
Example
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER new_customer_trg

INSTEAD OF INSERT ON vw_customers
FOR EACH ROW
DECLARE
l_customer_id NUMBER;
BEGIN
-- insert a new customer first
INSERT INTO customers(name, address, website,
credit_limit)
VALUES(:NEW.NAME, :NEW.address, :NEW.website,
:NEW.credit_limit)
RETURNING customer_id INTO l_customer_id;

INSTEAD OF Triggers
Example
-- insert the contact

INSERT INTO contacts(first_name, last_name, email,
phone, customer_id)
VALUES(:NEW.first_name, :NEW.last_name, :NEW.email,
:NEW.phone, l_customer_id);
END;

INSTEAD OF Triggers
Example
INSERT INTO
vw_customers(
name,
address,
website,
credit_limit,
first_name,
last_name,
email,
phone
)

INSTEAD OF Triggers
Example
VALUES(
'Ahmed',
'Irbid',
'Ahmed.com',
2000,
'Ahmed',
'mohammed',
'ahmedmohammed@gmail.com',
'0782944885'
);

INSTEAD OF Triggers
Example
SELECT * FROM customers;
SELECT * FROM contacts;

References
[1]. https://www.javatpoint.com/oracle-delete
[2]. https://www.techonthenet.com/oracle/truncate.php
[3]. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Oracle_Database/SELECT_Statement
[4]. https://ramkedem.com/en/oracle-where-clause/
[5].https://docs.oracle.com/cd/A87860_01/doc/server.817/a85397/operator.
htm
[6]. https://docs.oracle.com/javadb/10.8.3.0/ref/rrefsqlj13658.html
[7]. https://www.javatpoint.com/oracle-group-by-clause
[8]. PL/SQL Procedure: A Step-by-step Guide to Create a Procedure
(oracletutorial.com)
[9]. Oracle INSTEAD OF Triggers By Practical Examples (oracletutorial.com)
[10]. https://www.studytonight.com/dbms/overview-of-dbms.php

References
[11]. https://strolve.com/what-is-software-development-life-cycle-sdlc/
[12]. https://ecomputernotes.com/database-system/rdbms/phases-of-design-
methodology
[13]. https://www.oracle-dba-online.com/introduction_to_oracle.htm
[14]. https://www.oracletutorial.com/getting-started/what-is-oracle-database/
[15]. https://docs.oracle.com/database/121/SQLRF/sql_elements001.htm#SQLRF0021

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Database Design and

Tahaluf Training Centre 05 Jul 2021

2 Introduction of Oracle Database

3 Development Life Cycle SDLC

4 Overview of Database Design

5 Database Design Phases

Tahaluf Training Centre 05 Jul 2021

A Database is a collection of related data organized in a way that can

Database can be hardware based or software based in order to store

Tahaluf Training Centre 05 Jul 2021

A DBMS is software that allows users to build, create and manipulate

DBMS provides a tool or interface to perform different operations

Tahaluf Training Centre 05 Jul 2021

Examples of popular DBMS used these days:

Tahaluf Training Centre 05 Jul 2021

An Oracle database is a combination of data treated as a unit. The

A database server is a key used to solve the problems of information

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Oracle Database features

1. Oracle Database is cross-platform.

2. Oracle Database has its networking stack.

4. Commitment to open technologies.

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The Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a methodology used

SDLC provides a structured flow of phases that used to help an

Tahaluf Training Centre 05 Jul 2021

Tahaluf Training Centre 05 Jul 2021

Design methodology is a structured approach that uses techniques,

There are many database design phases, such as:

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ER Diagram Schema Diagram

Add update Delete Data

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What is Requirements Analysis?

Requirements Analysis is the process of characterizing the expectations of

Requirements analysis means to analyze, validate, document and manage

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Database Name: LMS.

Note: Attributes determine by a database creator based on System need.

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Database Name: Hospital.

Note: Attributes determine by a database creator based on System need.

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An Entity–relationship model (ER model) describes the structure of a

An ER model represent a design of a database that can later be

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An entity relationship diagram (ERD) displays the relationships of entities

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Entities are represented by rectangles.

An entity is an object or thing about used to store information.

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Relationships are represented by diamond shapes, display how two

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Attributes are represented by ovals.

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Attributes are represented by ovals.

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There are four types of relationships:

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Click on this link: https://erdplus.com/standalone

ERDPlus is a web-based database modeling tool to create entity