Ice Phase Aec

The Inuence of the Acoustic-electric Coalescence on Phase and Mass
Transfer of Supercooled Drops

ZLATKO R. VUKOVIC,
1
and MLADJEN CURIC
2
Abstract The objective of this work is to study the inuence of electrical discharge on the evolution
of the cloud droplet spectra using a 1-D cloud model. It is shown that droplet motion and the electrical
eects produced by lightning may cause a rapid and eective droplet coalescence process, with noticeably
more phase transfer from liquid toward frozen water. As a measure of the drop spectra changes, we
investigated variations of the radar reectivity factor and the mass-weighted mean diameters at ve
temperature levels (0, )5, )10, )15, and )20C) with 15 combinations of the initial conditions. The model
simulations suggest that about where the lightning occurred, after a few seconds, the initial unimodal
spectra of supercooled water drops can be transferred to the bimodal spectra of unfrozen and frozen water
drops. The number of newly created frozen drops is a few orders less than unfrozen water drops, but can
still be very important for further transformations due to gravitational coagulation and other
microphysical processes, e.g. glaciation. The results indicate that the procedure established to describe
processes related to the electrical discharge and droplet spectra transformations can be used within a 3-D
mesoscale model. It is concluded that the outcome can be also used to explain some of the physical
characteristics inferred from polarimetric radar observations.
Key words: Lightning, drop, freezing, acoustic, precipitation.
1. Introduction
Convective precipitation and electrical discharge are physically interrelated
through the cloud dynamical and microphysical processes. Abrupt heavy gushes of
rain frequently occur shortly after a lightning ash (MOORE et al., 1964; PIEPGRASS
et al., 1982; CURIC and VUKOVIC, 1991, 1992). Although the close correlation
between the discharge and the gush of rain is evident not only on the ground but also
through Doppler radar observations (ZRNIC et al., 1982; WILLIAMS and LHERMITTE,
1983), an agreement on the mechanism related to the discharge in the cloud is still not
properly known. This problem is too complex to be explained suitably by either
dynamical or microphysical processes. Electrical explanations were expressed among
1
Cloud Physics and Severe Weather Research Division, Meteorological Research Branch, Meteoro-
logical Service of Canada, 4905 Duerin St, Downsview Toronto, Ontario, M3H 5T4, Canada.
2
Institute of Meteorology, University of Belgrade, Serbia and Montenegro.
Pure appl. geophys. 162 (2005) 24532477
00334553/05/12245325
DOI 10.1007/s00024-005-2781-9
Birkha user Verlag, Basel, 2005
Pure and Applied Geophysics
others by SCHONLAND (1950), VONNEGUT and MOORE (1960), and ZIV and LEVIN
(1974). Several authors have suggested that acoustic forces associated with
thunderclaps inuence gushes of rain (GOYER, 1965a,b; HUANG et al., 1981; CURIC
and VUKOVIC, 1988, 1991,1992; LING et. al., 1999).
JAYARATNE and HALEETT (1983), and SAUNDERS (1993), among others, using
their laboratory results, suggested that the precipitation initiates the lightning, not
vice versa. Since it is basically accepted that the interactions between particles in
thunderclouds are the main cause for their electrication, the previous statement has
strong support. In the area where lightning occurred and there was a suciently high
water content, the inuence of acoustic-electric coalescence on precipitation is as an
amplication of existing precipitation, or aid in the initiation of it. VUKOVIC and
CURIC (1996, 1998) demonstrated that the droplet motion and electrical eects
produced by lightning might cause a rapid and eective droplet coalescence process.
Since this process is much faster than coalescence under gravity, the evolution of the
droplet spectra due to electrical discharge tends to produce larger drops, which then
enhance gravitational coalescence.
The model used has the same conceptual structure as the one described in the
previous study by VUKOVIC and CURIC (1998). The main modications were made in
establishing new initial conditions immediately after the passage of the acoustic
shockwave and the eects of collisions between frozen-unfrozen drops. A most
important improvement in the model is to include ice phase. The model rst deals
with only supercooled cloud drops and later with mixed supercooled and frozen
drops. Charge transfer between particles is also included without details that could be
related to the study of thundercloud re-electrication.
The main purpose of this study is to demonstrate the use of the model in the
estimation of the inuence of electrical discharge on forming thunderstorm
precipitation. In addition, it will be shown that the microphysical characteristics
inferred from polarimetric radar observations (LOPEZ and AUBAGNAC, 1997) can be
veried by the processes that have been included in the model.
2. Model Description
2.1. Physical Description
The paper does not deal with the mechanism of electrical discharge in a cloud but
the moment when it takes place. The lightning channel will be considered as the
vertical. The cloud characteristics are axial-symmetrical around the lightning
channel. The cloud-ground lightning channels propagating through a negatively
charged cloud area tend to be positively charged, similarly, channels propagating
through a positively charged cloud area tend to be negatively charged (MACGORMAN
et al., 2001). Therefore, it is assumed that before the positive electrical discharge
2454 Z.R. Vukovic and M. Curic Pure appl. geophys.,
occurs, the cloud is composed of negatively charged supercooled water drops that
belong to a horizontal layer of a unit thickness with a constant temperature (T). In
the layer, the size distribution spectra are assumed identical everywhere until the rst
electrical discharge occurs. There are only positive ions around the lightning channel
(MOORE et al., 1964). Those ions, carried by a shock wavefront, recede from the
lightning channel and are collected by the negatively charged droplets. The ions may
rst neutralize the negatively charged cloud droplets and because of the high space
density of the ions, then give them a very large positive charge. According to this
physical description, clouds will in the main have positively charged droplets near the
lightning channel and more negative ions away from the channel. In the model
simulation only supercooled droplets are assumed to exist before the electrical
discharge. After the electrical discharge some of them will be frozen (see section 2.2.).
The result is that air motion caused by the acoustic wave suddenly increases the
velocity of dierently charged frozen and unfrozen droplets. Faster drops pass the
slower ones and create conditions for coalescence growth. Since the droplets are
charged, the electric forces of oppositely charged droplets cause an increase in the
stability of a newly created droplet. Also, rapidly moving water drops will be
unstable and they fragment into smaller stable droplets. In the case of collisions
between frozen and unfrozen drops, depending on the stability of newly formed
drops, a new larger frozen drop or a few smaller frozen drops, may occur. This
coalescence is called acoustic-electric coalescence with phase transformation
(AECT).
2.2. Freezing Processes
Two main mechanisms of ice generated by the freezing of drops are usually
considered, immersion freezing and contact freezing nucleation. Observational
results (HOBBS and RANGNO, 1990; COBER et al., 1996) suggest that the formation of
ice in clouds can be determined either by the transformation of supercooled liquid
water or heterogeneous nucleation. Various studies have suggested that subjecting
water drops to mechanical shock could result in the freezing of drops. CZYS (1989)
summarizes several of these studies and presents additional evidence that mechanical
shock can induce drop freezing. He relates the shock-induced freezing to the
occurrence of cavitations within the drops. The mechanism by which cavitations
produce freezing is unclear as is the importance of this in the cloud.
In the AECT model, the drop freezing due to an acoustic shockwave produced
by a lightning stroke in the cloud is introduced (VUKOVIC and CURIC, 2000). The
glaciation of supercooled drops due to electrical discharge is assumed to occur in
two dierent ways. The rst process is the initiation of ice (a frozen droplet) as a
result of the dynamic stress of sonic waves generated by a lightning discharge.
That is called dynamic glaciations (GOYER et al., 1965b; CZYS, 1989). The second
mechanism of glaciations is contact freezing, which is freezing by collisions
Vol. 162, 2005 Inuence of the Acoustic-electric Coalescence 2455
between ice particles and water drops. Drop freezing mechanisms and collisions
between ice particles and supercooled drops (and between ice particles themselves)
are processes that are not well understood. The simulation of hydrometeor size
spectra evolution by water-water, ice-water, and ice-ice interaction was the object
of investigations by numerous authors. In the present model it is assumed that in
the case of the collision of water drops, we always have water drops while in the
case of water-ice collisions it is assumed that the result is a frozen droplet (or
droplets).
It is obvious that the parameterizations of dynamic stress induced glaciations due
to AECT will depend on the size and temperature of droplets and dynamic stress
from an acoustic shock wave. Based on the results of CZYSs (1989) laboratory
experiments pertaining to the freezing of supercooled water drops by mechanical
shock for given temperature (T) and diameter (D), the probability of drop freezing
P
f
D T caused by dynamic stress from an acoustic shockwave can be calculated
using the equation
P
f
D T P
d
P
n
1
where P
d
and P
n
are the probability of dynamic drop freezing and a normalization
factor, respectively.
The probability of dynamic drop freezing is given as:
P
d

0 ; for Pd<0
T
3
ln
D
0
D
; for 3C!T 20C,
1 ; for T!20C
2
where T is the temperature of the supercooled drops (in C) with the diameter D,
0 04 C
)1
and 0 3 are parameters which reproduce CZYSs experimental
results, while the factor
3
ln
D
0
D
represents a volume correction, since the
experimental water drops had a radius of D
0
=3 mm and it is calculated from the
assumptions that freezing probability is proportional to the drop volume. The parameter
0 65C
1
was calculated from that relation.
The probability of dynamic drop freezing implicitly assumes that the stress has a
sucient intensity. The maximum pressure that a droplet of diameter D can absorb
and still be stable (unbroken) is considered as a stress with sucient intensity. In that
case, the normalization factor P
n
can be dened as the ratio of shockwave pressure and
the maximum pressure that a droplet of diameter D can absorb and maintain
stability. Since a drop velocity V D is proportional to pressure (CURIC and VUKOVIC,
1991), P
n
can be expressed as a ratio of drop velocity immediately after the acoustic
front passage and maximum drop velocity before the drop becomes unstable:
P
n

V D
V
max
D
3
The glaciations due to collisions between ice particles and water drops were
parameterized as a result of the water-ice interaction. In the AECT model, it is
assumed that the interaction can be categorized in one of two ways:
(a) The water droplet size is smaller than the ice particle. After the collision, the
water-ice particle becomes unstable. The particles have the same masses as before,
however they exchanged charges and velocities according to the laws of conservation,
thereafter the water drop freezes.
(b) The ice particle is smaller or equal in size to the water drop. The water-ice
particle is unstable and after the collision the water drop is broken into two equal
frozen pieces. All three particles have exchanged charges and velocities in accordance
with the laws of conservation.
This scheme, as a rst step, signicantly simplies the computation algorithm and
still reects the main characteristics of the water-ice interaction.
2.3. Concentration, Distribution, and Charge of Particles
The initial concentrations and space distribution of supercooled droplets are
the same as described by VUKOVIC and CURIC (1998). Initially, the concentration
of positively charged droplets exponentially decreases with distance x from the
discharge channel, N
N e
x
. The concentration of negatively charged droplets
N
is the dierence between the Marshall-Palmer type distribution (N) and the
concentration of positive charged droplets, N
N1 e
x
, where parameter
represents a characteristic radial domain of existence of positively charged drops
around the lightning channel. The above relations change after glaciation due to
AECT, depending on how many droplets were frozen. Therefore, instead of two
main categories (positive and negative charged drops) now we have four (
frozen and unfrozen drops). Since the volume of the frozen drop is larger then
the size of the water drop of the same mass, the new ice particles will not
necessarily belong to the same size category as the original water droplet.
Redistribution of newly formed frozen drops into the nearest two classes
(conserving both number and mass) was done by a similar approach described by
SCOTT and LEVIN (1975).
We have analyzed two alternatives concerning the charge-size relationship. The
rst alternative, Q j j Q
mx
j j, is that the initial intensity of the negatively charged
droplets is given by an empirical relation, and for positively charged droplets it is
given by the Rayleigh theoretical equation (PRUPPACHER and KLETT, 1978) as
Q

1
3
10
6
D
3
4a
and
Q

1
3
10
6

2 D
3
p
4b
respectively. The diameter D of the droplet is given in meters and the charges in
coulombs; is the surface tension of water-air in N/m.
The second alternative, Q j j Q
mx
j j, assumes that positively and negatively
charged droplets have a maximum theoretical charge given by the Rayleigh equation.
Since frozen drops are created from supercooled drops, it is assumed that the initial
frozen drop charge has the same value as water droplets at the same mass category.
The droplet charge changes through the collision according to the law of
conservation of electric charge and the need for equal charge surface distributions
upon contact of two drops. Also, as a result of the incoming and outgoing uxes of
drops, with dierent charges for the same size drop category, the average drop charge
changes.
2.4. Velocities
The initial velocity of unfrozen droplets and air velocity is given by the following
equations respectively (CURIC and VUKOVIC, 1991) as
V
0
D x t
UXx
D
5
and
U
0
x
2
a
E
0
2 x expx
c

a
6
F and Xx are given by
U
B
4
A
w
B
3
D
m
A
2 9L
w
D
m
7
where and
Xx
c
E
0
x expx
c

a
8
In equation (7) L is the liquid water content (kg/m
3
), D
m
the mass-weighted mean
diameter,
w
the density of cloud drop (kg/m
3
), E
o
is the initial energy density of the
lightning channel (Jm
)2
/m), and a
c
and a
a
attenuation coecients for drops and
gases, respectively.
After passing the acoustic front, further movement of droplets are determined by
the following equations:
mD
DV D x t
Dt
3 D1 WN
Re
Ux t V D x t 9
Ux t U
0
x expt 10
where WN
Re
is a parameterization coecient as a function of the Reynolds number
given in WANG and PRUPPACHER (1977). The empirical parameter represents the
typical time duration of the air motion caused by a thunder clap (ZRNIC et al., 1982).
For the same reason, as for the charge of a frozen drop, the initial velocity of a frozen
drop equates to water drops of the same mass.
For each time increment, the velocity of droplets changes according to the above
equations. Before each time step a new start velocity is calculated. The velocity
represents average velocity value from all droplets at the size category that can have
dierent velocities as a result of the following two mechanisms:
(a) Some faster drops come from a volume closer to the lightning channel.
(b) A newly created drop has a velocity according to the law of conversation of
momentum.
2.5. Stochastic Collection Equations
The equations of stochastic coalescence in a mixed phase cloud are more
complicated than in the case of a cloud with warm microphysics. Essentially, two
types of stochastic equations, one for unfrozen water drops and another for frozen
drops are suggested. They are not independent because they interact through water-
ice collisions when the water spectrum has losses and an ice spectrum has gains. A
modied BERRY (1967) and SCOTT and LEVIN (1975) approach is used in both types
of equations:
DN
w
D
i
x t
Dt

1
2
imx
j1
imx
l1
N
w
D
j
x tN
w
D
l
x tK
ww
jli
N
w
D
i
x t
imx
j
N
w
D
j
x tK
ww
j
N
w
D
i
x t
imx
j
N
f
D
j
x tK
wf
ji
11
DN
f
D
i
x t
Dt

1
2
imx
j1
imx
l1
N
f
D
j
x tN
f
D
l
x tK
ff
jli
N
f
D
i
x t
imx
j
N
f
D
j
x tK
ff
ij
N
f
D
i
x t
imx
j
N
w
D
j
x tK
wf
ij
12
where N
w
D
n
x t and N
f
D
n
x t are concentrations of water droplets and frozen
water droplets with diameter D
n
(which correspond to the n-th center of the drop size
class), in a unit cloud volume at the distance x from the lightning channel, in the time
t after the lightning. The symbols K
ww
ij
, K
wf
ij
and K
ff
ij
are the acoustic-electric
coalescence kernels for water-water, water-ice and ice-ice coalescence, respectively,
which have the following form:
K
xy
ij

4
D
i
D
j
2
E
xy
ij
V
x
i
V
y
j
13
where K
xy
ij
is the redistribution kernel, which has a similar meaning to that formulated
in KOVETZ and OLUND (1969). The parameter E
xy
ij
is the acoustic-electric coalescence
eciency for x-y interaction (xy: ww, wf, ), which will be discussed later for each
interaction.
2.6. Coalescence Eciency
The acoustic-electric coalescence for all three interactions is similar to the
coalescence described by VUKOVIC and CURIC (1998). The coalescence eciency
expressed as E
xy
ij
E
c
E
0
, is a modied version of ATKINSON and PALUCH (1968)
approximation of numerically determined collision eciency E
c
of charged droplets
with high relative velocity.
E
c

1 1 4 for 5
1 6 for 5
0

E
el
E
ki
14
where E
ki
is the kinetic energy of the drop (relative to the other one), and E
el
is the
electrical energy that occurs as the drop moves from innite to minimal separation
from another drop. The E
0
determines the droplet stability after collision:
E
0

1 for E
c
E
xy
c stab
0 for E
c
E
xy
c stab
15
The droplet stability E
xy
c stab
for all three interactions has been determined from the
assumption that fragmentation following coalescence will occur if the rotational
kinetic energy (E
rot
) of the coalesced drop pair exceeds the surface (DE
surf
) and
electrostatic (DE
elst
) energy required to reform the original two drops from the
coalesced system (PRUPPACHER and KLETT, 1997; BRAZIER-SMITH, 1971). The
maximum rotational kinetic energy of two drops can be expressed as:
E
rot crtc
DE
surf
DE
el
16
The E
rot crtc
is estimated from the law of conservation of angular momentum
(L
0
L). The angular momentum of the coalesced system before the collision (L
0
) is
obtained from the given initial drop velocities (V
x
V
y
), and the reduced mass of the
system comprised of masses m
x
and m
y
of the two drops using: m
x
m
y
m
x
m
y
and the initial perpendicular distance between the drop centers Y

c crtc
. Then, E
rot
, Y
c
,
and E
xy
c stab
, are obtained respectively as:
E
rot

L
2
2 I

L
0 2
2 I

V
x
V
y
Y
c
2
2I
17
Y
2
c

2 I E
rot
2
V
x
V
y
2
18
and
E
xy
c stab

4Y
2
c crtc
D
x
D
y
2

8 I E
rot crtc
2
V
x
V
y
2
D
x
D
y
2

8 I DE
surf
DE
el
2
V
x
V
y
2
D
x
D
y
2
19
where I is the moment of inertia about the center of the coalesced pair.
According to the above assumptions, E
xy
c stab
depends on I and (DE
surf
DE
et
) which
represents one of three xy interactions: water-water, water-ice and ice-ice interaction.
In Appendix 1, the method for the determination of the above terms is presented.
3. Numerical Experiments
3.1. Numerical Computation Technique
Numerical experiments were carried out in a cylindrical domain. The grid interval
used was Dx = 5 m. The time increment in the numerical calculations is taken to be
smaller than the characteristic time for the fastest droplet, V
max
Dt Dx. For all the
time-dependent partial dierential equations, a forward time dierencing scheme was
used.
Values of concentration, velocity and charge of the droplets are averaged before
each time step at every grid point. At each time step, the fastest droplets leave the
elementary volume andgotothe right gridvolume (assuming that the lightning channel
is left of the chosen elementary volume). At the same time, some of fastest droplets from
the left neighboring volume come intothe elementary volume. The net uxes of droplets
determine the averaged concentrations of droplets for the specic time. The same
method is used for estimation of the averaged values of velocity and charged droplets.
At each time step, a new droplet charge for each radius class is calculated from
the average value of the new and existing charges. The charge on droplets of average
size is not allowed to exceed the Rayleigh limit.
3.2. Initial Conditions
Several numerical simulations have been carried out for a set of temperatures: 0,
)5, )10, )15, and )20C, for 15 cases which are summarized in Table 1. Each case is
dened by these ve parameters: liquid water content L, mass-weighted mean droplet
diameter D
m
, initial energy density of the lightning channel E
0
, values of droplet charge
Q, and the radial domain of positively charged droplets area . The indexes for droplet
charge have the following meanings: Q 0 means no charge, Q Q
mx
means the
droplet has less charge that the theoretical maximum charge (Rayleigh limit) and than
an empirical relation between droplet size and charge was used, and in the third case
Q Q
mx
, the droplet has the Rayleigh limit charge. In the case studies a radial domain
of 25 mis used, and it is always assumed that drop and gaseous attenuation coecients
are 10
)3
(m
)1
) and 10
)2
(m
)1
), respectively, and the typical time duration is 0.5 sec.
4. Results
The four main results related to the model simulations are summarized in the
following subsections.
4.1. Changes of Size Spectra and Phase with Ambient Temperature along
the Radial Distance from the Lightning Channel
The typical transfer of mass spectra due to AECT at )10C for ve dierent
radial distances away from the lightning channel (x 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 m) is
Table 1
Summary of the experimental parameters for the 15 cases. L is the cloud liquid water content; D
m
is the mass-
weighted mean diameter; E
o
is the initial energy density of the lightning channel; Q is the droplet charge
parameter with three possible values: 0 (no charge), <Q
mx
(less than Rayleigh limit - theoretical maximum
charge), =Q
mx
(theoretical maximum charge); is the space radius parameter that represents the domain of
the positively charged droplets area which captures positive ions from the lightning channel immediately after
the lightning
Case L
(g/m
3
)
D
m
( m)
E_{0}
(Jm^{-2}/m)
Q (m)
1 1 200 10
5
<Q
mx
15
2 3 200 10
5
<Q
mx
15
3 2 200 10
5
<Q
mx
15
4 2 200 10
5
=Q
mx
15
5 2 200 10
5
0 15
6 2 200 10
4
<Q
mx
15
7 2 200 10
6
<Q
mx
15
8 2 100 10
5
<Q
mx
15
9 2 100 10
5
=Q
mx
15
10 2 300 10
5
<Q
mx
15
11 3 300 10
6
0 15
12 3 300 10
6
<Q
mx
15
13 3 300 10
6
=Q
mx
15
14 2 200 10
5
<Q
mx
5
15 2 200 10
5
<Q
mx
25
Figure 1
The evolution of the initial mass spectra (dashed lines) of unfrozen (left) and frozen water (right) due to
acoustic-electrostatic coagulation (AECT) for T = )10C, for initial conditions shown in case 4, for ve
dierent distances from the lightning channel (x = 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 m).
c
shown in Figure 1. The water and frozen drop spectra are shown on the left and right
hand sides, respectively. The dashed lines represent the initial distributions of
unfrozen or frozen water drops. Initial frozen drops are assumed to be the result of
the dynamic stress of sonic waves. The full lines are for transformed water or ice
spectra.
The gures show that except in the rst position the droplet water mass spectra
have been shifted to bimodal distributions. The same changes occur in the ice mass
spectra.
The inuence of the temperature on AECT is shown on Figure 2. The changes of
the water and ice mass spectra for a location x 15 m are shown from the
combination of the initial conditions for case 4 (L 2g/m
3
, D
m
200 m,
E
0
=10
5
Jm
)2
/m, Q Q
mx
, and 15 m), for ve chosen temperatures. Transfor-
mations of the water drop spectra are similar for all temperatures. The water mass
was shifted to the bigger drops and as a result of that, bimodal distributions
occurred. The amount of water mass transferred due to spectra change to the bigger
drops is smaller for lower temperatures because a greater amount of the ice mass is
created. The initiation and growth of frozen drops is more signicant when the
temperature is lower, as was dened in the model; the dimension of the smallest
frozen drop decreases with decreasing temperature.
4.2. Changes of Total Water Mass, Total Concentration and Radar Reectivity
along the Radial Distance from the Lightning Channel
Depending on the initial conditions of the electrical discharge, the eects of
AECT along the distance from the channel are comparably dierent. For a
temperature of )10C, and a combination of the initial conditions dened in case 4
(L 2 g/m
3
, D
m
=200 m, E
0
=10
5
Jm
)2
/m, Q Q
mx
, = 15 m), the spatial changes
of the total water mass, total concentration, and radar reectivity are presented on
Figure 3. The results show that the total number of unfrozen and frozen drops is 25
to 60% less than that before the electrical discharge occurred (except in the rst
volume) while the total water mass is about 5% and the radar reectivity factor on
average is 10 dBZ greater.
The explanation for the shown spatial characteristics is related to the relative
velocities, number, and charge of drops. In the closest volume to the channel, the
highest relative drop speed occurs however all of the drops have the same charge
sign and the lowest drop concentrations are at the beginning of the AECT
(negative total ux of drops). At same time, in the other volumes a positive total
ux of drops and the number of drops with opposite charge are greater. As a result
of this, the rst volume has the largest percentage of drops without many successful
collisions. While in the other volumes there are considerably more drops and more
successful collisions that result in the creation of bigger drops and higher radar
reectivity.
Figure 2
The evolution of the initial mass spectra (dashed lines) of unfrozen (left) and frozen water (right) drops due
to acoustic-electrostatic coagulation (AECT) for ve dierent temperatures (T = 0, )5, )10, )15, and
)20C) for the initial conditions shown in case 4, for x =15 m distance from the lightning channel.
4.3. Drop Charge Transfer Caused by Drop Collisions
The drop charge transfer caused by drop collisions is another process that can
give us more information about the interactions between drops. Figure 4 shows the
typical transfer of positive and negative charges due to AECT for ve dierent
distances from lightning channel for unfrozen (left) and frozen (right) water drops at
a temperature of )10C. Full and dashed lines represent the positive and negative
drop charges. The y-axes for positive drop charge is on the left side of plots while for
negative drop charge y-axes is on the right side of plots. The bold lines show drop
charges after AECT, for both unfrozen and frozen water drops they are smaller as a
consequence of charge neutralization due to collisions.
The water droplet charge spectrum has a smooth curve, while the ice spectra
shows more variability. The shape of the spectra depends on the way in which drops
and ice particles are created. A new water droplet is formed by the coalescence of two
smaller droplets. The new droplet has less absolute charge than the charge at the
corresponding size category. Looking at the water droplets graphs we can see that
droplets below the diameter of around 400 microns mainly coalesce with bigger
drops. In other words, coalescence between small drops (smaller than 200400
microns) is rare compared to collisions between small and large drops. The same
conclusion is valid for frozen drops, with the addition that a collision between a small
ice particle and a large water drop produces two more frozen drops with half the
mass of the water droplet. That explains why charge changes for frozen drops occur
between 400 and 800 microns.
Figure 5 depicts how the total charge per unit volume changes with distance for
case 3 (Q<Q
mx
) and case 4 (Q Q
mx
). In the rst volume a charge density decrease is
Figure 3
The spatial changes of total concentrations (a), total mass (b), and radar reectivity (c) of all unfrozen and
frozen drops before (+) and after (o) the acoustic-electrostatic coagulation (AECT) for T=)10C and the
initial conditions shown in case 4.
Figure 4
The evolution of the initial drop charge spectra of unfrozen (left) and frozen water drops (right) for negative
(dashed) and positive (full lines) drops due to acoustic-electrostatic coagulation (AECT) for T =)10C, for
the initial conditions shown in case 4, for ve dierent distances from the lightning channel (x = 5,10,15,20
and 25 m). The bold lines stand for the nal charge-size distributions after the AECT.
caused by a negative ux of drop number. In the other volumes, drop collisions and
charge interchanges are the cause of the smaller absolute value of drop charge density
as well as the positive ux of drops. The charge interchange due to collisions has a
stronger inuence on case 4 (Q Q
mx
) than for case 3 (Q < Q
mx
) , because of the
greater Coulombs attraction for the case with the greater amount of drop charge.
4.4. Inuence of the Initial Conditions on Spectra Changes
The model sensitivity to dierent initial conditions can be tested through the
analysis of the radar reectivity factor, which is related to the 6
th
power of the
particle size. Figure 6 presents variations of the radar reectivity factor with
temperatures for three chosen values of control parameters. For all ve subgraphs
parameters from case 3 (L=2g/m
3
, D
m
= 200 m, E
0
=10
5
Jm
)2
/m, Q < Q
mx
,
= 15 m) were used as default values.
In general, it is discovered that the inuence of AECT on droplet change becomes
more signicant as the liquid water content, mean diameter or drop charge enlarges.
The energy of the lightning discharge also increases the eects of AECT, except when
too much energy exists and all drops are liquid with unstable conditions. In Table 2
the results for the 15 cases of the AECT are summarized. This table shows that,
under the model conditions, the strongest inuence of AECT on increasing the radar
reectivity factor (dZ 13 dBZ) is when the droplet mass-weighted mean diameter is
100 m, cases 8 and 9. While the maximum relative increase in mass-weighted mean
diameter (dD
m
45%) is for the larger value of the cloud liquid water content (3 g/
m
3
), the modest value of the droplet mass-weighted mean diameter (200 m), and the
modest initial energy density of lightning channel (10
5
Jm
)2
/m), case 2. For both
space averaged variables, dZ and dD
m
, the intensity of the AECT eects decrease
with temperature.
Figure 5
The variation of total charge from all unfrozen and frozen droplets with the radial distance from the
lightning channel for case 3, Q<Q
mx
, (a) and case 4, Q=Q
mx
, (b).
Figure 6
The variation of the dierence in the averaged radar reectivity factors after and before the AECT, for ve
main parameters that control the initial conditions of the AECT: (a) liquid water content L, (b) mean
spectra diameter D
m
, (c) energy of lightning E, (d) charge drops area , and (e) amount of drop charge Q.
5. Discussion and Conclusions
The real impact of the acoustic-electrostatic coalescence due to lightning could be
seen only in interaction with other complex microphysical and dynamical processes
that are included in a 3-D model. From the presented study, the following
conclusions could be obtained from the results:
1) The AECT causes the shift of the cloud droplet spectra toward bigger droplet
sizes.
2) When there are water droplets, the additional frozen droplets are formed due to
AECT in the area with negative temperature.
3) The amounts of newly frozen droplets are relatively small compared to the total
number of droplets, around 5%.
4) The range of inuence of AECT on droplets spectra is on the order of tenths of
meters.
Conclusions one and two lead us to better understand the observed phenomena
of the very fast, almost immediate, freezing of a portion of the supercooled water
drops in the vicinity of lightning. The present model results can be used to explain
some characteristics inferred from LOPEZ and AUBAGNACs polarimetric radar
observations (1997). They observed that temporal uctuations in the mass of
supercooled liquid water, graupel, and small hail, and their vertical distributions, are
related to the uctuations in the number of ashes. Also, their results show that the
conversion of supercooled drops into ice can occur very rapidly. In the recorded time
Table 2
Summary of the space averaged AECT model outputs for the variations of the radar reectivity factor (dZ)
and mass-weighted mean diameter (dD
m
) for the total cloud content (frozen and unfrozen drops) for ve
temperatures and 15 combinations of the input parameters (cases)
dZ (dBZ) dD
m
(%)
Case 0C )5C )10C )15C )20 0C )5C )10C )15C )20
1 3.0 2.9 2.8 1.5 1.7 9.0 8.7 8.6 5.6 5.6
2 10.3 10.1 10.2 6.2 6.5 45.6 44.2 44.3 23.9 24.1
3 7.2 7.0 7.0 3.7 4.0 24.9 24.1 23.9 14.0 14.3
4 11.2 10.5 10.5 10.8 10.8 39.1 34.9 35.9 37.7 36.7
5 7.2 6.9 6.8 3.0 3.9 24.4 23.5 23.1 12.1 14.0
6 3.4 3.3 3.2 1.9 1.9 12.6 12.1 11.9 7.9 8.3
7 6.2 7.2 6.9 3.5 3.1 10.5 13.2 14.6 9.1 8.4
8 13.1 12.8 13.0 12.0 12.9 28.2 28.2 27.3 24.2 28.0
9 13.1 12.8 13.0 12.0 12.9 28.2 28.2 27.3 24.2 28.0
10 3.0 2.9 2.8 1.6 1.7 13.5 13.1 12.8 7.4 7.5
11 6.3 6.3 5.8 1.6 1.5 17.0 19.7 21.6 6.1 6.0
12 6.3 6.3 5.8 2.0 1.5 17.1 20.0 22.1 7.3 5.8
13 5.6 5.4 5.9 3.0 2.7 18.2 21.2 31.0 12.8 11.8
14 7.2 7.0 6.9 3.8 4.0 24.7 23.8 23.6 14.3 14.2
15 7.3 7.0 7.0 3.6 4.0 25.0 24.0 23.8 13.9 14.3
series for the scan volume between the level of )10C and )20C, the mass of the
graupel starts to increase while liquid water in that layer disappears, and it
corresponds to an overall increase and decrease of lightning frequency. In contrast,
the graupel and liquid water time series below the freezing level are out of phase with
the lightning series.
Conclusions three and four point out that newly frozen droplets are formed in
relatively small amounts and in the relatively restricted area around the lightning
channel. Even so, the eect of this kind of perturbation due to AECT eect could be
very important in the further microphysical and dynamical development of the cloud
(VUKOVIC and CURIC, 2004; VUKOVIC and TELENTA, 2004), and could noticeably
change the precipitation eld and the dynamics of the cloud.
For a correct understanding of the model results the model limitations should be
known. At this stage the model can primarily estimate the nature of the inuence of
electrical discharge on supercooled drops. However, the above results from the
polarimetric radar observations and preliminary 3-D simulations with integrated
AECT, assures further investigation and improvements of the model.
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Appendix 1
The meanings of parameters and symbols are given in the list of symbols.
a) Water-water interaction (Fig A1a):
The moment of inertia of two water droplets about the center of collision is equal to:
I
2
4 3
D
3
i
D
3
j
5 3
w
15
The dierence of the total electrostatic energy of the two coalesced water drops
before and after the collision is given as
DE
surf

w a
D
2
i
D
2
j
D
3
i
D
3
j
2 3
and, the dierence of the total electrostatic energy of the drop pair is
DE
el
10
9
2Q
i
Q
j
D
3
i
D
3
j

1 3
The threshold of droplet stability, E
xy
c stab
, of the drop pair is determined from the
assumption that fragmentation following coalescence will occur if the rotational
kinetic energy (E
rot
) of the coalesced drop pair exceeds the surface (DE
surf
) and
electrostatic (DE
elst
) energy required to reform the original two drops from the
coalesced system (see section 2.6., eq. (19)) is equal to
E
ww
c stab

8I
D
i
D
j
2

DE
surf
DE
el
2
V
i
V
j
2
E
ww
c stab

24D
3
i
D
3
j
11 3
5
w
D
i
D
j
2
D
6
i
D
6
j
V
i
V
j
2

w a
D
2
i
D
2
j
D
3
i
D
3
j
2 3

10
9
4Q
i
Q
j
D
3
i
D
3
j
2 3

And similar for the water-ice (b) and ice-ice collisions (c), as follows.
b) Water-ice interaction (Fig A1b):
I
w
1
120
D
5
w

1
32
D
4
w
d
1
12
D
3
w
d
2

1
8
D
3
w
D
2
f
3

D
5
w
5

D
3
w
x
2
c
3

arcsin
D
w
D
f

1
16
x
c
D
w
D
f
D
4
f
2
arcsin
D
2
f
D
2
w
D
f
D
w
D
2
f
2D
2
w
D
2
f
D
2
w

f

D
5
f
120

D
2
f
x
2
c
6

2D
6
w
3D
4
w
D
2
f
2D
3
w
D
3
f
2D
3
w
3D
6
f
0
X
c

3
2 D
3
w

f
w
D
3
f

9
4
D
4
w

8
3
D
3
w
D
2
f
D
2
w
2D
2
w
D
2
f
2D
w
D
2
f
D
2
f
D
2
w

Youngs relation:
w f

f a

w a
,
Figure A1
A1a. The initial and nal stage of the water-water collision. D
i
and D
j
are the diameters of the original
droplets, D = (D
3
i
D
3
j
1 3
is the diameter of the new droplet, and X
c
is the mass center of the coalesced
pair. A1b. The initial and nal stage of the coalesced of unfrozen and frozen water droplets. D
w
and D
f
are
the diameters of the original unfrozen and frozen water droplets and X
c
is the mass center of the coalesced
pair. A1c. The initial and nal stage of ice-ice collision. D
i
and D
j
are the diameters of the original frozen
droplets and X
c
is the mass center of the coalesced pair.
DE
surf

1
2

w a
2D
2
w
D
2
w
D
f
D
2
f
D
2
w

DE
el

10
9
2Q
w
Q
f
D
w
D
f
c) Ice-ice interaction (Fig A1c):
I

f
6
x
2
c
D
3
i
D
3
j
x
c
2D
3
j
D
i
D
j
D
3
j
D
i
D
j
2

X
c

D
3
j
D
i
D
j
2D
3
i
D
3
j
DE
surf
0
DE
el
10
9
2Q
i
Q
j
D
3
i
D
3
j

1 3
E
ff
c stab

576I
2
f
D
3
i
D
3
j
5 3
10
9
Q
i
Q
j
D
6
i
D
6
j
D
i
D
j
2
V
i
V
j
2
List of symbols
0 04 Correlation parameter that reproduces Czyss experimental results
(C
)1
)
a
a
Air acoustic attenuation coecients (m
)1
)
a
c
Acoustic attenuation coecients due to the cloud droplets (m
)1
)
0 3 Correlation parameter that reproduces Czyss experimental results
Dynamical coecient of viscosity (poise)
Parameter that represents a characteristic radial domain of the existence of
positively charged drops around the lightning channel (m
)1
)
Reduced mass of the coalesced pair of drops (kg)
0 65 Parameter for volume correction from Czyss experimental results (C
)1
)
=3.141592
w
Density of water (kg/m
3
)
,
w a
Surface tension of water-air (N/m)
f a
Surface tension of ice-air (N/m)
w f
Surface tension of water-ice (N/m)
The typical time duration of the air motion caused by a thunder clap (sec)
AECT Abbreviation for the acoustic-electric coalescence with phase transfor-
mation
D droplet diameter (m)
D
0
=3 10
)3
Diameter of the water drops in Czyss experiment (m)
D
m
Mean spectra diameter, mass-weighted mean diameter (m)
E
0
Coecient of droplet stability after collision
E
o
Initial energy density of the lightning channel (Jm
)2
/m)
E
c
Collision eciency of two collided drops
E
el
Electrical energy that occurs as the drop moves from innite to minimal
separation from the coalesced drop (J)
E
ki
Kinetic energy of the drop relative to the coalesced one (J)
E
rot
Rotation energy of the coalesced drop pair around the center of mass (J)
E
xy
c stab
The threshold for the droplet stability created in the collision of one of the
combinations between unfrozen (w) or frozen (f) water drop
E
xy
ij
Coalescence eciency between drops with diameters D
j
and D
i
in the x and y
water phase, unfrozen (w) or frozen (f) water drop
DE
elst
Dierence of the total electrostatic energy of the coalesced drop pair before
and after the collision (J)
DE
surf
Dierence of the total surface energy of the coalesced drop pair before and
after the collision (J)
I Moment of inertia about the center of the coalesced pair (kg m
2
)
K
ff
ji
Acoustic-electric coalescence kernel for frozen-frozen water drops with
diameters D
j
and D
i
(m
3
sec
)1
)
K
wf
ji
Acoustic-electric coalescence kernel for coalescence between unfrozen and
frozen water drops with diameters D
j
and D
i
(m
3
sec
)1
)
K
ww
ji
Acoustic-electric coalescence kernel for coalescence between water-water
drops with diameters D
j
and D
i
(m
3
sec
)1
)
L Cloud liquid water content (kg/m
3
)
L
0
,L Angular momentum of the coalesced system before and after the collision,
respectively (J s)
mD Mass of particle of diameter D (kg)
N Total concentration of drops in a unit volume (#/m
3
)
N
f
D x t Concentrations of frozen water drops with diameter D(#/m
3
)
N
Re
Reynolds number
N
w
D x t Concentrations of water drops with diameter D(#/m
3
)
N
, N
Concentration of positive and negative charged drops in a unit volume,

respectively (#/m
3
)
P
d
Probability of dynamic drop freezing
P
f
D T Probability of drop freezing
P
n
Normalization factor for the probability of the drop freezing
Q Amount of electrical drop charge (Coulomb)
Q
max
Maximum theoretical amount of drop charges, Rayleighs limit, (Coulomb)
Q
,Q
Amount of positive and negative electrical drop charges, respectively

(Coulomb)
T droplet temperature (C)
t Time (sec)
Dt Time increment in the numerical calculations (sec)
Ux t Air velocity in the unit volume on radial distance x from the lightning
channel in the moment t (m/s)
U
0
x Air velocity immediately after the acoustic shock wave pass the unit
volume on radial distance x from the lightning channel (m/s)
V D, V D x t Velocity of drop of diameter D on radial distance x from the
lightning channel in the moment t due to the acoustic shock wave (m/s)
V
x
i
Discrete form of velocity of the drop with diameter D
i
on radial distance x
from the lightning channel in the moment t due to the acoustic shock wave (m/s)
V
max
D Maximum drop velocity before the drop become unstable (m/s)
x Distance of the unit volume from the lightning channel (m)
Dx Spatial grid interval in the numerical calculations (m)
X
c
Mass center of the coalesced pair of drops (m)
(Received July 16, 2004; accepted February 1, 2005)
Published Online First: August 23, 2005
To access this journal online:
http://www.birkhauser.ch

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The Inuence of the Acoustic-electric Coalescence on Phase and Mass

Transfer of Supercooled Drops

and the initial perpendicular distance between the drop centers Y

Concentration of positive and negative charged drops in a unit volume,

Amount of positive and negative electrical drop charges, respectively

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