CHAPTER -01

Introductory Part

1
1.0.0 ORIGIN OF THE REPORT

This report on “Manufacturing 3phase Transformer, LT Switchgear and HT Switchgear” is

prepared by Ripon Matubbar for the Bachelor of Science in Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, under IUBAT- International University of Business Agriculture and Technology as
an integral part of the internship. He has done this practicum report based on Manufacturing
3phase Transformer, LT Switchgear and HT Switchgear at Asian Powertec Co.LTD under the
instruction of Engr. Shamsur Rahman, Asst. Manager of Asian Powertec Co.LTD.

1.2.0 OBJECTIVE

The main objectives are to extrovert my theoretical knowledge to the practical field with
adequate conceptualization and understanding the performance of the parameters in case of
Manufacturing Transformer and LT, HT Switchgear to electricity supply systems or etc.

1.2.1 SPECIFICATION

The specification of this report is:

To focus on the overview of Asian Powetec Co. Ltd.

To focus on the work environment, employee behavior and have a quick glimpse of the
corporate culture of Asian Powetec Co. Ltd.

1.3.0 SCOPE

For preparing this report, I have studied vastly about the process of installation power
transformer and its operational system. This will increase my electrical engineering knowledge
about different parts of substation equipments as well as help me learn more about more in
future. This report will, without any doubt, be very helpful for my future life.

1.4.0 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

I have studied about 3.5 years at IUBAT- International University of Business Agriculture and
Technology Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. I have learned theoretical
about my subject. So I have applied my knowledge in the practical life.

2
1.5.0 METHODOLOGY

Both primary and secondary data are being collected for the purpose of this report. The report is
concentrated of Asian Powertec Co.LTD.

1.5.1 PRIMARY SOURCE

I have taken all the rating from my project such as transformer rating, coil rating, core rating,
transformer tank rating etc.

1.5.2 SECONDARY SOURCE

I have collected secondary data from internet such as some photos, text and information and
some data taken from my teachers etc.

1.6.0 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

1.6.1 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

I have used primary data collection instrument such as megger, Volt-meter, A-meter, Watt-
meter, temperature meter, camera and etc.

1.6.2 SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION

I have used secondary data collection instrument such as laptop, internet, books, teachers and etc.

3
 Chapter-02

Organization Part

4
2.1.0 COMPANY PROFILE

Switchgear and Transformer manufacturing plant of Asian Powertec Co.LTD has been
founded of BSCIC Industrial Area, Tongi, Gazipur, Bangladesh. The factory inside area is 10000
Sft space reserved for production facilities Transformer & Switchgear manufactured under the
brand name is NATCO.

Our products are cost effective, safe, international Stander.

Asian Powertec Co.LTD Transformer is low losses and has long service life and are the creation
of competent Asian Powertec Co.LTD Engineers. Our Transformer products are manufactured in
compliance with operating and climatic condition in our countries and international standards
IEC, BS, ANSI and VDE.

Our R and D has been increased to ensure products are developed using advanced technology,
higher quality and safer competitive in price. The company also invested in upgrades to
production facilities is order to fully stringent process and quality control requirements building
relationship with a “ZERODEFECT” and Unbeatable product rang day after day.

2.2.0 OUR VISION

To be the leader in the quality of products and services be ready for place emphasis on
utilizing innovative technologies and mechanics, be eager to implement policies on environments
sensitivity measure our success on terms of customers satisfaction be the leader and pioneer
company in the relevant sector without making any confessions on quality and business aching.

2.3.0 OUR MISSION

To be customer first preference with our established reliability based on our production,
solutions and after sales service and together with our supreme business ethics. To offer
expeditiously competitive products that can meet our customers‟ expectations by way of Asian
Powertec Co.LTD and synergy.

5
2.4.0 LOCATION
Corporate Office

Roots Inizio Hosneara, House No. 149 (4th Floor- A4)

Ranavola Avenue, sector-10, Uttara Model Town, Dhaka 1230

Factory

BSCIC,

Tongi, Gazipur, Bangladesh.

2.5.0 CONTACT DETAILS

Tel: 8982141

Mobile: 01724306028

E-mail: asianpowerteccoltd@gmail.com, apcobd@gmail.com

2.6.0 APPROVED BY
BSTI, PWD, BUET, MATA, CHIEF ELECTRICAL INSPECTOR, BPDB, DPDC, DESCO,
REB etc

2.7.0 MEMBER
MATS- Manufactures Association of Transformer & Switchgear.

6
 Chapter-03

Introduction & Operation of Transformer

7
3.1.0 BACKGROUND

The method of transferring electrical energy by a transformer is done indirectly.

Electrical energy is first converted into magnetic energy and then reconverted back into electrical
energy at a different voltage and ampacity. Because of this conversion process, the transformer
can perform duties which have made it invaluable in the field of electricity.

Around 130 years ago a technical revolution took place that was to be a vital step in the
development of modern society. That revolution was the commercial generation, transmission
and usage of electrical energy. Nobody today can imagine a world without electricity.

First invented the transformer is Otto Blathy, Deri, Karoly Zipernowsky. The Austro-
Hungarian Empire first designed and used the transformer in both experimental and commercial
systems. Later on Lucien Gaulard, Sebstain Ferranti and William Stanley perfected the design.

The property of induction was discovered in the 1830's but it wasn't until 1886 that
William Stanley, working for Westinghouse built the first reliable commercial transformer. His
work was built upon some rudimentary designs by the Ganz Company in Hungary (ZBD
Transformer 1878), and Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs in England.

Nikola Tesla did not invent the transformer as some dubious sources have claimed. The
Europeans mentioned above did the first work in the field. George Westinghouse, Albert
Schmid, Oliver Shallenberger and Stanley made the transformer cheap to produce, and easy to
adjust for final use.

 1830 - Joseph Henry and Michael Faraday work with electromagnets and discover the
property of induction independently on separate continents.

 1836 - Rev. Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland invents the induction coil.

 1876 - Pavel Yablochkov uses induction coils in his lighting system.

 1878 - 1883 - The Ganz Company (Budapest, Hungary) uses induction coils in their
lighting systems with AC incandescent systems. This is the first appearance and use of
the toroidal shaped transformer.
 1880-1882 - Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti (English born with an Italian parent) designs one
of the earliest AC power systems with William Thomson (Lord Kelvin). He creates an
early transformer. Gaulard and Gibbs later design a similar transformer and loose the
patent suit in English court to Ferranti.

 1884 - Use of Lucien Gaulard's transformer system (a series system) in the first large
exposition of AC power in Turin, Italy. This event caught the eye of William Stanley,
working for Westinghouse. Westinghouse bought rights to the Gaulard and Gibbs
Transformer design. The 25 mile long transmission line illuminated arc lights,

8
 incandescent lights, and powered a railway. Gaulard won an award from the Italian
government of 10,000 francs.
 1885 - George Westinghouse orders a Siemens alternator (AC generator) and a Gaulard
and Gibbs transformer. Stanley begin experimenting with this system.
 1885 - William Stanley makes the transformer more practical due to some design
changes: "Stanley's first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft
iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the EMF present in the secondary winding. This
design was first used commercially in the USA in 1886". William Stanley explains to
Franklin L. Pope (advisor to Westinghouse and patent lawyer) that is design was salable
and a great improvement. Pope disagrees but Westinghouse decides to trust Stanley
anyway.
 1886 - William Stanley uses his transformers in the electrification of downtown. This was
the first demonstration of a full AC power distribution system using step and step down
transformers.
 Later 1880s - Later on Albert Schmid improved Stanley's design, extending the E shaped
plates to meet a central projection.
 1889 - Russian-born engineer Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky developed the first three-
phase transformer in Germany at AEG. He had developed the first three phase generator
one year before. Dobrovolsky used his transformer in the first powerful complete AC
system (Alternator + Transformer + Transmission + Transformer + Electric Motors and
Lamps) in 1891.
 1880s - Today - Transformers are improved by increasing efficiency, reducing size, and
increasing capacity.
 1895 - Air cooled transformers built by William Stanley for a three phase AC power
station.

The first AC power system that used the modern transformer was in Great Barrington,
Massachusetts in 1886. Earlier forms of the transformer were used in Austro-Hungary 1878-
1880s and 1882 onward in England. Lucien Gaulard (Frenchman) used his AC system for the
revolutionary Lanzo to Turin electrical exposition in 1884 (Northern Italy). In 1891 mastermind
Mikhail Dobrovsky designed and demonstrated his 3 phase transformers in the Electro-Technical
Exposition at Frankfurt, Germany.

1891-Transformer used on the Lauffen to Frankfurt demonstration line.

3phase alternating current, 40Hz. Oerlikon Company used 8KV and 25KV transmission line.
This transformer was created for the longest power transmission to date:109 miles from Lauffen
am Neckar to Frankfurt, Germany. Mikhail Dobrovolsky (aka Mihail Dobrovolsky).

Early made three phase transformer (circular core type) Siemensand Halske company
5.7KVA 1000/100V. This transformer was created at the beginning of the modern electrical grid,
the same year as the Frankfurt Electrical Exhibition which demonstrated long distance
transmission of power.

9
3.2.0 SIGNIFICANCE

Electricity and Energy has become an important part of everyday life, and without
electricity we can‟t imagine life today. Most of the appliances work. We are facing various
problems due to voltage fluctuations. Sometimes, our equipment malfunctions due to voltage
problems. The solution to all these problems can be corrected only by a processor. Power
transformers and transformer is an electronic device that is used to change alternating current
from one circuit to another by electromagnetic induction. These adapters will work in different
mechanisms to reduce the input voltage or increase the voltage of electrical equipment.

Transformer are using various place and system, such as-

Power grid: For the power grid, transformers are essential for power transmission over long
distances. Without them, our power grid simply would not be able to scale up to meet growing
demand. This is because long lines enable power generation to be located at its energy or cooling
source hydroelectric dam or nuclear facility. The generated power can then be efficiently sent to
where it's needed major population centers.

Transmission line: During transmission there is a power loss due to the effective resistance of
wires especially if it is a very distant transmission. So at normal voltage power loss cannot be
paid! So if it is changed to very high voltage, even if the loss occurs the remaining can be
utilized. Step Up transformer means induction coil. There are used to change a low valued AC
current to high valued AC current.

For industries: In this present world, two things are very important and they are electricity and
vehicles and without these things. In our daily life, electricity has become the major part of a life
and life without electricity can‟t be imagined. Industries definitely need continuous supply of
electricity and they definitely need transformers for avoiding voltage fluctuations and thee
malfunction of some machines is due to voltage problems. A transformer is a solution for all
these problems and it has the capacity to rectify it.

Transformer is the most important unit in an electrical distribution network. All

transformers are subjected to thorough tests at the manufacturer‟s works before dispatch to the
destination of erection. Transformers do not contain any moving parts, which mean these do not
require intensive attention unlike other types of equipment. However, it is still important that
power transformers undergo regular maintenance as this is critical to the life and functioning of
this equipment. Unfortunately, maintenance and proper care are sometimes neglected largely
because of the reliability of the transformer. This leads to a decrease in the life span of the
transformer, which eventually results to failure and downtime.

10
3.3.0 BASIC OPERATION OF TRANSFORMER

A transformer uses the principles of electromagnetism to change one A.C. voltage level
to another. Faraday's work in the 19th century showed that a changing current in a conductor
(e.g. a transformer primary winding) sets up a changing magnetic field around the conductor. If
another conductor (secondary winding) is placed within this changing magnetic field a voltage
will be induced into that winding.

The alternating current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or
alternating flux that surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the previous
one, obviously some portion of this flux will link with the second. As this flux is continually
changing in its amplitude and direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second
winding or coil. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, there must be an EMF
induced in the second. If the circuit of the later winding is closed, there must be a current flowing
through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power transformer and this is the most basic of
working principle of transformer.

“Transformer is a static device which transforms electrical energy from one circuit to
another by same frequency without electrical connection, but it can raise or lower the voltage”.

In a transformer there are two coils possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is
connected to a source of alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core,
most of which is linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced e.m.f according
to Faraday‟s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction e=MdI/dt. If the second coil circuit is closed, a
current flow in it and so electric energy is transferred entirely magnetically from the first coil to
the second coil.

3.4.0 E.M.F. EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER

Let,

11
As shown in flux increases from its zero value to maximum value in one quarter of the cycle.

Now rate of change of flux per turn means induced e.m.f. in volts.

If flux varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying the
average value with from factor.

Similarly, r.m.s. value of the e.m.f. induced in secondary is,

It is seen from and that is-

It‟s means that e.m.f./turn is the same in both the primary and secondary windings.

In an ideal transformer on no-load,

12
 Chapter-04

Rating & Types of Transformer

13
4.1.0 TRANSFORMER RATING IN KVA

Transformer rating is expressed in kVA, not in kW. Rating of a transformer or any

electrical machine reflects its load carrying capability without overheating. Temperature rise
major threat to insulation arises due to internal loss within the machine.

It is a commonly asked question. The reason behind this is: the losses occurring in
transformers depend only on the current and voltage. Cu loss of a transformer depends on current
and iron loss on voltage. Hence, total transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and not on
phase angle between voltage and current i.e. it is independent of load power factor that‟s why it
is rated in KVA / MVA.

Apparent power consists of active and reactive power. Active power is the share of the
apparent power which transmits energy from the source (generator) to the user. Reactive power
is the share of the apparent power which represents a useless oscillation of energy from the
source to the user and back again. It occurs when on account of some »inertia« in the system
there is a phase shift between voltage and current. This means that the current does not change
polarity synchronous with the voltage. But the heat generated in a winding as well as the eddy
current losses generated in a transformer core depend on the current only, regardless of whether
it aligns with the voltage or not.

4.2.0 STANDARD TRANSFORMER RATING

When an installation is to be supplied directly from a MV/LV transformer and the

maximum apparent-power1 loading of the installation has been determined, a suitable rating for
the transformer can be decided, such as-

SL Apparent power or Current in ampere In(A)

No. transformer rating 237 V 410 V
in kVA
1 100 244 141
2 150 365 211
3 160 390 225
4 200 487 282
5 250 609 352
6 315 767 444
7 400 974 563
8 500 1218 704
9 630 1535 887

14
 10 750 1827 1056
11 800 1939 1127
12 1000 2436 1408
13 1250 3045 1760
14 1500 3654 2112
15 1600 3898 2253
16 2000 4872 2816
17 2500 6090 3520
18 3000 7308 4225
19 3150 7673 4436
20 3500 8526 4929
21 4000 9744 5633
22 4500 10962 6337
23 5000 12180 7041

Standard apparent powers for MV/LV transformers and related nominal output currents

4.3.0 SELECTION OF TRANSFORMER RATING

Transformers are used to scale the voltage available from the utility mains up or down to meet
the needs of a load to be driven. While some loads may be suitable to be driven directly from the
120 Volt alternating current (AC) mains, most loads will require a different voltage to drive the
load. The requirement to scale the mains AC voltage up or down does not address the need for
the transformer to support the full load current of the load. In order to support the needs of the
load under all load conditions, the transformer must be sized to be capable of supplying the
power voltage time‟s current needed by the load.

If the load is expressed in wattage, either utilize the formula below to convert to kVA or refer to
the equipment nameplate to obtain amperage requirement.

According to loads calculation total loads=177.36 KW.

So from KVA formula we can fine rating of a transformer.

15
So, we have to select 208.66 KVA rating a transformer but it is equal to load demand in future
may be load will increase that is where we have to select a transformer more than calculate
rating. So in our project we have select rating 250 KVA Transformer.

4.4.0 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER

Basically electrical transformers are two types step-up & stem-down but manufacturing and its
working process transformer are several types-

1. Step-up transformer
2. Step-down transformer
3. Three phase transformer
4. Single phase transformer
5. Power transformer
6. Distribution transformer
7. Two winding transformer
8. Auto transformer
9. Indoor transformer
10. Outdoor transformer etc.

4.4.1 STEP-UP TRANSFORMER

A transformer delivering an output voltage that is higher than the input voltage or if the
secondary winding is more than primary winding then it‟s called step-up transformer.

We can reveal it by voltage transformation ratio-

16
4.4.2 STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER

A transformer delivering an output voltage that is lower than the input voltage or if the
primary winding is more than the secondary winding then it‟s call step-down transformer.

We can reveal it also by voltage transformation ratio-

4.4.3 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Three Phase Power Transformers have been designed because three-phase electricity is
used so often for power distribution systems. It makes sense that there would be a requirement
for three-phase transformers to be able to step voltages up or down. This is only partially true, as
regular single-phase transformers can be ganged together to transform power between two three-
phase systems in a variety of configurations, eliminating the requirement for a special three-
phase transformer. However, special three-phase transformers are built for those tasks, and are
able to perform with less material requirement, less size, and less weight than their modular
counterparts.

4.4.4 Single phase transformer

A single-phase transformer is a type of power transformer that utilizes single-phase

alternating current, meaning the transformer relies on a voltage cycle that operates in a

17
unified time phase. They are often used to step-down long distance and localized transmission
currents into power levels more suitable for residential and light-commercial applications. The
ratio of primary (input) windings to secondary (output) windings determines the change in
current. Single-phase transformers with a 1:1 ratio can be used to isolate circuits. Single-phase
transformers abide by Ohm's law and outside of minor inherent loss due to heat, do not create or
remove power. Single-phase transformers are more popular than three-phase transformers in
non-urban areas, as the cost of a three-phase distribution network is much higher, and the
overall electrical demand is lower. The highest voltage available in a single-phase network is
regulated by utility infrastructure and industrial regulations.

4.4.5 POWER TRANSFORMER

Power transformer is used for the transmission purpose at heavy load, high voltage
greater than 33 KV & 100% efficiency. It also having a big in size as compare to distribution
transformer, it used in generating station and Transmission substation .high insulation level.

4.4.6 DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER

The distribution transformer is used for the distribution of electrical energy at low voltage
as less than 33KV in industrial purpose and 440v-220v in domestic purpose. It work at low
efficiency at 50-70%, small size, easy in installation, having low magnetic losses & it is not
always fully loaded.

4.4.7 TWO WINDING TRANSFORMER

The two-winding transformer is one in which two windings are linked by a common
time-varying magnetic flux. One of these windings, known as the primary, receives power at a
given voltage from a source; the other winding, known as the secondary, delivers power, usually
at a value of voltage different from that of the source, to the load. The roles of the primary and
secondary windings can be interchanged. However, in iron-core transformers a given winding
must operate at a voltage that does not exceed its rated value at rated frequency - otherwise the
exciting current becomes excessive.

18
4.4.8 AUTO TRANSFORMER

Auto transformer is kind of electrical transformer where primary and secondary shares
same common single winding. In Auto Transformer, one single winding is used as primary
winding as well as secondary winding.

4.4.9 INDOOR & OUTDOOR TRANSFORMER

Which transformer is designed and installing for at indoor that called is indoor
transformer & which transformer is designed and installing for at outdoor that called outdoor
transformer.

19
 Chapter-05

Construction of Transformer

20
5.0.0 CONSTRUCTION

The construction of a simple two-winding transformer consists of each winding being wound
on a separate limb or core of the soft iron form which provides the necessary magnetic circuit.
This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the “transformer core” is designed to provide a
path for the magnetic field to flow around, which is necessary for induction of the voltage
between the two windings.

There are three major parts to a transformer:

1. Core
2. Coil and
3. Structural parts

5.1.0 CORE

Core is used to support the windings in

the transformer. It also provides a low
reluctance path to the flow of magnetic flux. It
is made up of laminated soft iron core in order
to reduce eddy current loss and Hysteresis loss.
The composition of a transformer core depends
on such factors as voltage, current, and
frequency. Diameter of the transformer core is
directly proportional to copper loss and is
inversely proportion to the iron loss. If diameter
of the core is decreased, the weight of the steel
in the core is reduced which leads to less core
loss of transformer and the copper loss
increase. The vice versa happen when the
Figure 5.1.0(a) Lamination of core.
diameter is increased.

For 200KVA Transformer-

21
22
23
 A core is made up of many thin laminations of high-
grade electrical sheet steel. These laminations, which are
insulated, are stacked one atop another until the desired stack
height is reached. It usually takes 30 to 40 laminations to
make a 1-in. high stack.

There are two kinds of losses associated with the core:

hysteresis losses and eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses are
directly proportional to the volume of the lamination while
eddy current losses are directly proportional to the thickness of
the lamination.

Figure 5.1.0(b) After complete core

lamination.

24
5.2.0 COIL

The coils are really turns of insulated copper or

aluminum wire (magnet wire) that are wound around a
core. There is at least one coil of wire or winding at a
transformer's input (primary) and another for its output
(secondary). These windings are well insulated from each
other and the core to prevent shorts and grounds.

The ratio of turns in a transformer's primary winding to

those in its secondary winding is known as its turn‟s ratio
Shown at (Step-up transformer).
Note# The coil formula is available in core section.

Figure 5.2.0 3phase transformer coil.

5.2.1 SECONDARY COIL

The output is taken from the secondary coil. The

alternating flux produced in the primary coil passes
through the core and links with their coil and hence emf
is induced in this coil.

For 3-phase transformer manufacturing, first winding

secondary coil.

For 100KVA transformer-

Find secondary turns:

√ Figure 5.2.1(a) Secondary coil winding.

25
 Now find secondary conductor area:

In secondary winding can use-

Shown the Figure: 5.2.1(a) .

5.2.2 PRIMARY COIL

The primary coil is the coil to which the source is

connected. It may be the high voltage side or low voltage
side of the transformer. An alternating flux is produced in
the primary coil.

Primary winding starts over the secondary winding

between a perfect insulation.

For 100KVA 3-phase transformer- Figure 5.2.2 Primary coil winding.

Now find primary turn:

Now find secondary conductor area:

26
 √

Conductor area of density-

Connection System

The primary connected in delta connection while the secondary current is connected in star or
wye.

Advantages of Delta-Star connection-

Cross section area of winding is less at Primary side: On primary side due to delta connection
winding cross-section required is less.

Used at Three phase four wire System: On secondary side, neutral is available, due to which it
can be used for 3-phase, 4 wire supply system.

No distortion of Secondary Voltage: No distortion due to third harmonic components.

Grounding Isolation between Primary and Secondary: Assuming that the neutral of the Y-
connected secondary circuit is grounded, a load connected phase-to-neutral or a phase-to-ground
fault produces two equal and opposite currents in two phases in the primary circuit without any
neutral ground current in the primary circuit.

Therefore, in contrast with the Y-Y connection, phase-to-ground faults or current unbalance in
the secondary circuit will not affect ground protective relaying applied to the primary circuit.

27
This feature enables proper coordination of protective devices and is a very important design
consideration. The neutral of the Y grounded is sometimes referred to as a grounding bank,
because it provides a local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated from the
primary circuit.

Harmonic Suppression: The magnetizing current must contain odd harmonics for the induced
voltages to be sinusoidal and the third harmonic is the dominant harmonic component. In a three-
phase system the third harmonic currents of all three phases are in phase with each other because
they are zero-sequence currents. In the Y-Y transformer connection, the only path for third
harmonic current is through the neutral.

In the ∆ -Y connection, however, the third harmonic currents, being equal in amplitude and in
phase with each other, are able to circulate around the path formed by the ∆ connected winding.
The same thing is true for the other zero-sequence harmonics.
Grounding Bank: It provides a local source of ground current at the secondary that is isolated
from the primary circuit. For suppose an ungrounded generator supplies a simple radial system
through ∆-Y transformer with grounded Neutral at secondary as shown Figure. The generator
can supply a single-phase-to-neutral load through the -grounded Y transformer.

Let us refer to the low-voltage generator side of the transformer as the secondary and the high-
voltage load side of the transformer as the primary. Note that each primary winding is
magnetically coupled to a secondary winding.

The magnetically coupled windings are drawn in parallel to each other: Magnetically
coupled windings through the second
transformer law, the phase-to-ground load
current in the primary circuit is reflected as a
current in the A-C secondary winding. No
other currents are required to flow in the A-C
or B-C windings on the generator side of the Figure 5.2.2(c) Magnetically coupled winding in parallel
transformer in order to balance ampere-turns. to each other.

Easy Relaying of Ground Protection: Protective relaying is MUCH easier on a delta-wye

transformer because ground faults on the secondary side are isolated from the primary, making
coordination much easier. If there is upstream relaying on a delta-wye transformer, any zero-
sequence current can be assumed to be from a primary ground fault, allowing very sensitive
ground fault protection.

On a wye-wye, a low-side ground fault causes primary ground fault current, making coordination
more difficult. Actually, ground fault protection is one of the primary advantages of delta-wye
units.

Disadvantages of Delta-Star Connection-

28
 In this type of connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with the primary. Hence
it is not possible to operate this connection in parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected
transformer. If secondary of this transformer should be paralleled with secondary of another
transformer without phase shift, there would be a problem.

5.3.0 STRUCTURAL PARTS

There are basic parts of a transformer:

1. Tank
2. Tap changer
3. Buchholz relay

4. Conservator tank
5. Transformer oil
6. Oil level indicator
7. Radiator
8. Silica gel & breather pot
9. Bushing
10. Terminal

5.3.1 TANK

Length of tank=Distance limb centerx2+out dia of HV coil+2x clearance bent HV coil tack.

Width of tack out dia HV winding + 2x clearance bent winding tack.

29
5.3.2 TAP CHANGER

The output voltage may vary

according to the input voltage and the
load. During loaded conditions the
voltage on the output terminal fall and
during off load conditions the output
voltage increases. In order to balance
the voltage variations tap changers are
used. Tap changers can be either on
Figure 5.3.2 Tap changer.
load tap changer or off load tap
changer. In on load tap changers the
tapping can be changed without isolating the transformer from the supply and in off load tap
changers it is done after disconnecting the transformer. Automatic tap changers are also
available.

Many times, line voltages are either higher or lower than the rated voltage of a
transformer's primary. In instances such as these, the secondary voltage will be higher or lower
respectively. So, we have to maintain the voltage by tap changer.
In a tap changer there are 6 points so we have to do tap changer with primary winding. In
our 100 KVA transformer there are 2754 turns of secondary coil-

First tap 2482

Second tap 2482+68=2550
Third tap 2550+68=2618
Forth tap 2618+68=2686
Fifth tap 2686+68=2754
Sixth tap 2754+68=2822
When we taping practically then we have to serial, given below connecting point-

30
 Winding coil point Tap changer point
1 5
2 3
3 1
4 2
5 4
6 6
Table 5.3.2 Connecting point of coil & tap changer.

Every connecting point sealed by Zink to hard joint.

5.3.3 BUCHHOLZ RELAY

A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical circuit and
closes its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil circuit
hence make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the electrical
circuit from rest of the healthy circuit. It is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated
by an electrical current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of
another circuit. Relays are like remote control switches and are used in many applications
because of their relative simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability. Relays are used in a
wide variety of applications throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital
computers and automation systems.

Many type of relay are there, buchholz relay is a different type of relay. It is use only
inside of transformer and it is operated gas actuated relay.

Buchholz relay is a type of oil and gas actuated protection relay universally used on all
oil immersed transformers having rating more than 500 KVA. Buchholz relay is not provided in
relays having rating below 500 KVA from the point of view of economic considerations.

Buchholz relay is used for the protection of transformers from the faults occurring inside
the transformer. Short circuit faults such as inter turn faults, incipient winding faults, and core
faults may occur due to the impulse breakdown of the insulating oil or simply the transformer
oil. Buchholz relay will sense such faults and closes the alarm circuit.

31
 Figure 5.3.3(b) Inter connection buchholz relay of
transformer.

Buchholz relay in transformer is an oil container housed the connecting pipe from main
tank to conservator tank. It has mainly two elements. The upper element consists of a float. The
float is attached to a hinge in such a way that it can move up and down depending upon the oil
level in the Buchholz relay Container. One mercury switch is fixed on the float. The alignment of
mercury switch hence depends upon the position of the float.

The lower element consists of a baffle plate and mercury switch. This plate is fitted on a
hinge just in front of the inlet (main tank side) of Buchholz relay in transformer in such a way
that when oil enters in the relay from that inlet in high pressure the alignment of the baffle plate
along with the mercury switch attached to it, will change.

In addition to these main elements a Buchholz relay has gas release pockets on top. The
electrical leads from both mercury switches are taken out through a molded terminal block.

Buchholz relay operation:

It is mechanically actuated. Whenever there will be a minor internal fault in the

transformer such as an insulation faults between turns, break down of core of transformer, core
heating, the transformer insulating oil will be decomposed in different hydrocarbon gases, CO2
and CO. The gases produced due to decomposition of transformer insulating oil will accumulate
in the upper part the Buchholz container which causes fall of oil level in it.

Fall of oil level means lowering the position of float and thereby tilting the mercury
switch. The contacts of this mercury switch are closed and an alarm circuit energized. Sometime
due to oil leakage on the main tank air bubbles may be accumulated in the upper part the
Buchholz container which may also cause fall of oil level in it and alarm circuit will be
energized. By collecting the accumulated gases from the gas release pockets on the top of the
relay and by analyzing them one can predict the type of fault in the transformer.

32
 More severe types of faults, such as short circuit between phases or to earth and faults in
the tap changing equipment, are accompanied by a surge of oil which strikes the baffle plate and
causes the mercury switch of the lower element to close. This switch energized the trip circuit of
the circuit breakers associated with the transformer and immediately isolate the faulty
transformer from the rest of the electrical power system by inter tripping the circuit breakers
associated with both LV and HV sides of the transformer. This is how Buchholz relay functions.

The Buchholz relay operation may be actuated without any fault in the transformer. For
instance, when oil is added to a transformer, air may get in together with oil, accumulated under
the relay cover and thus cause a false Buchholz relay operation.

Figure 5.3.3(c) Buchholz relay operation system.

That is why mechanical lock is provided in that relay so that one can lock the movement
of mercury switches when oil is topping up in the transformer. This mechanical locking also
helps to prevent unnecessary movement of breakable glass bulb of mercury switches during
transportation of the Buchholz relays.
The lower float may also falsely operate if the oil velocity in the connection pipe through,
not due to internal fault, is sufficient to trip over the float. This can occurs in the event of
external short circuit when over currents flowing through the winding cause overheated the
copper and the oil and cause the oil to expand.

33
5.3.4 CONSERVATOR TANK

This is a cylindrical tank mounted on

supporting structure on the roof of the
transformer's main tank. When transformer is
loaded, the temperature of oil increases and
consequently the volume of oil in the transformer
gets increased. Again; when ambient temperature
is increased, the volume of oil is also increased.
The conservator tank of a transformer provides
adequate space for expansion of oil. Conservator
tank of transformer also acts as a reservoir of oil.

Figure 5.3.5(a) Conservator tank.

Conservator pipe, i.e. pipe comes from main transformer tank, is projected inside the
conservator from bottom portion. Head of the conservator pipe inside the conservator is provided
with a cap. This pipe is projected as well as provided with a cap because this design prevents oil
sludge and sediment to enter into main tank from conservator. Generally silica gel breather
fixing pipe enters into the conservator from top. If it enters from bottom, it should be projected
well above the level of oil inside the conservator. This arrangement ensures that oil does not
enter the silica gel breather even at highest operating level.

Oil-Filled, Inert-Gas System: A

positive seal of the transformer oil may
be provided by an inert-gas system.
Here, the tank is slightly pressurized by
an inert gas such as
nitrogen. The main tank gas space above
the oil is provided with a pressure gauge
(figure 24). Since the entire system is
designed to exclude air, it must operate
with a positive pressure in the gas space
above the oil; otherwise, air will be
admitted in the event of a leak. Smaller Figure 5.3.5(b) Inter system of conservator tank.
station service units do not have nitrogen

34
tanks attached to automatically add
gas, and it is common practice to add nitrogen yearly each fall as the tank starts to draw partial
vacuum, due to cooler weather. The excess gas is expelled each summer as loads and
temperatures increase. Some systems are designed to add nitrogen automatically
from pressurized tanks when the pressure drops below a set level. A positive pressure of
approximately 0.5 to 5 pounds per square inch psi is maintained in the gas space above the oil to
prevent ingress of air. This system includes a nitrogen gas cylinder; three-stage, pressure-
reducing valve; high-and low-pressure gauges; high- and low-pressure alarm switch; an
oil/condensate sump drain valve; an automatic pressure-relief valve; and necessary piping.

The function of the three-stage, automatic pressure-reducing valves is to reduce the

pressure of the nitrogen cylinder to supply the space above the oil at a maintained pressure of 0.5
to 5 psi. The high-pressure gauge normally has a range of 0 to 4,000 psi and
indicates nitrogen cylinder pressure. The low-pressure gauge normally has a range of about -5 to
+10 psi and indicates nitrogen pressure above the transformer oil. In some systems, the gauge is
equipped with high- and low-pressure alarm switches to alarm when gas pressure reaches an
abnormal value; the high-pressure gauge may be equipped with a pressure switch to sound an
alarm when the supply cylinder pressure is running low.
Figure 24 – Typical Transformer Nitrogen System. A sump and drain valve provides a means for
collecting and removing condensate and oil from the gas. A pressure-relief valve opens and
closes to release the gas from the transformer and, thus, limit the pressure in the transformer to a
safe maximum value. As temperature of a transformer rises, oil expands, and internal pressure
increases, which may have to be relieved. When temperature drops, pressure drops, and nitrogen
may have to be added, depending on the extent of
the temperature change and pressure limits of the system.

When volume of transformer insulating oil increases due to load and ambient
temperature, the vacant space above the oil level inside the conservator is partially occupied by
the expanded oil. Consequently, corresponding quantity of air of that space is pushed away
through breather. On other hand, when load of transformer decreases, the transformer is switched
off and when the ambient temperature decreases, the oil inside the transformer contracts. This
causes outside air to enter in the conservator tank of transformer through silica gel breather.

35
5.3.5 TRANSFORMER OIL

Insulating oil in an electrical power

transformer is commonly known as
transformer oil. It is normally obtained by
fractional distillation and subsequent
treatment of crude petroleum. That is why this
oil is also known as mineral insulating oil.
Transformer oil serves mainly two purposes
one it is liquid insulation in electrical power
transformer and two it dissipates heat of the
transformer i.e. acts as coolant. In addition to
these, this oil serves other two purposes, it
helps to preserve the core and winding as
these are fully immersed inside oil and
another important purpose of this oil is, it Figure 5.3.6 Transformer oil loading from drum.
prevents direct contact of atmospheric oxygen
with cellulose made paper insulation of windings, which is susceptible to oxidation. This is a
highly refined mineral oil that is stable at high temperatures and has excellent electrical
insulating properties.

The oil used in transformers is hydrocarbon mineral oil. It is mainly composed of four
generic classes of organic compounds, aromatics, paraffin‟s, napthenes and olefines.
Transformer oil gives a better insulation when aromatics, paraffin‟s, napthenes and olefines are
present at the right proportion. For better insulation Transformer oil is desired to have more of
saturated paraffins and less of aromatics, napthenes and olefines. For more stability, more
aromatics and napthenes are necessary. To get both insulating property and stability at the same
time, there must be an optimum mix of four organic components. This can be obtained by careful
refining of crude oil. Vegetable and animal oils form fatty acids and attack the fibrous insulating
materials and hence cannot be used in transformers.

It is used in oil-filled transformers, some types of high voltage capacitors, fluorescent

lamp ballasts, and some types of high voltage switches and circuit breakers. Its functions are to
insulate, suppress corona and arcing, and to serve as a coolant.

A good transformer oil must have the following Physical, chemical and electrical
properties.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

36
Oil density: The maximum value of density of transformer oil at 29.5 oC must not be more than
0.89 gm/cc.

Viscosity: It is the measure of resistance to the flow of a fluid with the effect of external forces.
This property of the fluids is inversely proportional to temperature. It increases with decrease in
temperature. But in case of transformer oil it is necessary that viscosity remains low at low
temperature. The maximum permissible level of viscosity at 27 oC is 27 cSt.

Flash point: It is the temperature at which oil gets vaporized and when this vapor mixes with air,
forms an ignitable mixture and may cause momentary flash. To prevent the risk of fire the
transformer oil must have a high flash point. The flash point must be greater than 140oC.

Moisture constant: It is the amount of dissolved present in oil expressed in ppm/kg. the
insulating property of the transformer oil will be degraded by the presence of moisture. The
maximum allowable moisture constant is 50 ppm.

Pour point: It is the temperature at which oil just commences its flow under prescribed
conditions. The specified pour point is -6oC.

Physical constants of Transformer oil:

Property Recommended value

Permitivity 2.2
Thermal conductivity 0.12 W/m deg C
Specific Heat 2.06 kJ/kg deg C
Coefficient of Expansion 0.00078/ deg C
Mean density factor 0.00065/ deg C
Table 5.3.6 physical constants of transformer oil.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:

Neutralization value: It is the measure of acidity of oil. It is the measure of organic and
inorganic acids present in the oil. It is expressed in terms of milligrams of base required to
neutralize the total force acid present in one gram of oil. The recommended maximum value of
neutralization is 0.03 mg KOH/gm. Higher the neutralization value, higher the acidity leading to
higher sludge formation.

Corrosive sulphur: The presence of chemicals in the transformer oil will lead to the formation
of black deposits over the copper parts of the transformer. Hence the heat dissipation is highly
affected. Since transformer oil is derived from petroleum it definitely contains traces of sulphur.
The presence corrosive of sulphur in the transformer oil is not recommended.

Oxidation stability: The neutralization value of transformer oil increases on getting oxidized.
The neutralization value must not go beyond 0.4 mg KOH/gm after oxidation and total sludge
after oxidation must not be more than 0.1% of weight of oil used.

37
Sediment and perceptible sludge: Sludge is poor conductor of heat. Sludge deposited over the
transformer parts leads to poor heat dissipation. It blocks the flow of oil in ducts and impairs
cooling. Therefore once sediments or perceptible sludge are detected oil is considered as not
usable.

BDV testing instrument: Transformer oil is placed between a sphere gap and the voltage across
the electrodes is raised gradually till Break down of oil occurs. Break down is characterized by
formation of arc between the electrodes.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES:

Breakdown voltage (BDV): It is the voltage is the voltage at which transformer oil losses its
dielectric property and starts conducting. It represents the electrical property of transformer oil.
The presence of moisture, sludge contaminating agents and sediments decreases the dielectric
property of oil. For a new sample of oil the breakdown voltage of transformer oil is 30kV and for
a sample after filtration must have BDV of 60KV.

Resistivity: It is one of the most sensitive properties of transformer oil. The resistivity of the oil
decreases with increase in temperature. The transformer oil must have a minimum resistivity of
30 x 1012 ohm-cm at 90oC and 1500 x 1012 ohm-cm at 27oC.

Dielectric dissipation factor (DDF): It is numerically equal to the sine of loss angle. A High
value of DDF refers to poor quality of oil. The maximum recommended value of DDF factor of
oil at 90oC is 0.002.

Another name of transformer oil is insulating oil. Transformer oil serves mainly two
purposes one it is liquid insulation in electrical power transformer and two it dissipates heat of
the transformer acts as coolant.

In addition to these, this oil serves other two purposes, it helps to preserve the core and
winding as these are fully immersed inside oil and another important purpose of this oil is, it
prevents direct contact of atmospheric oxygen with cellulose made paper insulation of windings,
which is susceptible to oxidation. Oil filled transformers with a conservator may have a gas
detector relay or Buchholz relay. These safety devices detect the buildup of gas inside the
transformer due to corona discharge, overheating, or an internal electric arc. On a slow
accumulation of gas, or rapid pressure rise, these devices can trip a protective circuit breaker to
remove power from the transformer. Transformers without conservators are usually equipped
with sudden pressure relays, which perform a similar function as the Buchholz relay.

Large, high voltage transformers undergo prolonged drying processes, using electrical
self-heating, the application of a vacuum, or both to ensure that the transformer is completely
free of water vapor before the cooling oil is introduced. This helps prevent corona formation and
subsequent electrical breakdown under load.

38
  Parameters of Transformer Oil: The parameters of transformer oil are categorized as
 Electrical parameters: Dielectric strength, specific resistance, dielectric dissipation
factor.
 Chemical parameter: Water content, acidity, sludge content.
 Physical parameters: Inter facial tension, viscosity, flash point, pour point.

Dielectric strength of transformer oil is also known as breakdown voltage of transformer oil
or BDV of transformer oil. Break down voltage is measured by observing at what voltage,
sparking strands between two electrodes immerged in the oil, separated by specific gap low
value of BDV indicates presence of moisture content and conducting substances in the oil.

The transformer is affected by its operating conditions such as operating temperature,

atmospheric conditions, electric strength, moisture content and other contaminations and sludge
formation. The presence of moisture or suspended particles in transformer oil affects its
dielectric property. Hence transformer oil it should be tested periodically. If the oil is containing
moisture or suspended particles it should be filtered or replaced by fresh oil.

5.3.6 OIL LEVEL INDICATOR

Oil level indicator using a transformer for

monitoring where is oil level maximum or minimum. If oil
level indicates upper side then we understood enough oil
is there in transformer otherwise we have to put more oil
to coolant transformer.

After 1 month of service, and every 3 to 5 years, check the

tank oil level indicators. These are float operated, with the
float mechanism magnetically coupled through the tank
wall to the dial indicator. As level increases, the float

rotates a magnet inside the tank. Outside the tank, another Figure 5.3.7 Oil level indicator.
magnet follows rotates, which moves the pointer. The
center of the dial is normally marked with a temperature of 250C or 770F. High and low level
points are also marked to follow level changes as the oil expands and contracts with temperature
changes. The proper way to determine accurate oil level is to first look at the top oil temperature
indicator. After determining the temperature, look at the level gauge. The pointer should be at a
reasonable level corresponding to the top oil temperature. Calibrate or replace the conservator oil
level indicator if needed, but only after checking the top oil temperature indicator as shown in
the above section. If the transformer is fully loaded, the top oil temperature will be high, and the

39
level indicator should be near the high mark. If the transformer is de-energized and the top oil
temperature is near 250C, the oil level pointer should be at or near 250C.

5.3.7FANS AND RADIATOR

Radiator is a transformer cooling system

which is operate cooler. Inspect all isolation
valves at the tops and bottoms of radiators to
ensure they are open. Inspect cooling fans and
radiators for cleanliness and fans for proper
rotation. Check for dirty or damaged fan blades or
partially blocked radiators. Fans are much more
efficient if the blades are clean and rotating in cool
air. Normally, fans blow cool air through the

radiators; they should not be pulling air through. Figure 5.3.8 Fan & radiator of transformer.
Check to see if fans are reversed electrically i.e.,
pulling air first through the radiators and then through the fan blades. This means that the
blades are rotating in warm air after it passes through the radiator, which is much less efficient.
Place a hand on the radiator opposite the fans; air should be coming out of the radiator against
your hand. Watch the blades as they rotate slowly when they are starting or stopping to
determine which way they should be rotating and correct the rotation if necessary.

5.3.8 SILICA GEL & BREATHER POT

The insulating oil of transformer is provided for cooling and insulating purpose.
Expansion and contraction of oil during the temperature variations cause pressure change inside
the conservator. This change in pressure is balanced by the flow of atmospheric air into and out
of the conservator. Transformer breather is a cylindrical container which is filled with silica gel.
Insulating oil reacts with moisture can affect the paper insulation or may even lead to some
internal faults. So it is necessary that the air entering the tank is moisture free. It consists of silica
gel contained in a chamber. For this purpose breather is used. When the atmospheric air passes
through the silica gel breather the moisture contents are absorbed by the silica crystals. Silica gel
breather is acts like an air filter for the transformer and controls the moisture level inside a
transformer. It is connected to the end of breather pipe.

When load on transformer increases or when the transformer under full load, the
insulating oil of the transformer gets heated up, expands and gets expel out in to the conservator
tank present at the top of the power transformer and subsequently pushes the dry air out of the

40
conservator tank through the silica gel breather. This process is called breathing out of the
transformer.

During the breathing process, the incoming air may consist of moisture and dirt which
should be removed in order to prevent any damage. Hence the air is made to pass through the
silica gel breather, which will absorb the moisture in the air and ensures that only dry air enters
in to the transformer. Silica gel in the breather will be blue when installed and they turn to pink
color when they absorb moisture which indicates the crystals should be replaced. These breathers
also have an oil cup fitted with, so that the dust particles get settled in the cup.

The silica gel breather of transformer is very simple in the aspect of design. It is nothing
but a pot of silica gel through which, air passes during
breathing of transformer. The silica gel is a very good
absorber of moisture. Freshly regenerated gel is very efficient,
it may dry down air to a dew point of below − 40°C. A well
maintained silica gel breather will generally operate with a
dew point of − 35°C as long as a large enough quantity of gel
has been used. The picture shows a silica gel breather of
transformer.

Silica gel crystal has tremendous capacity of absorbing

moisture. When air passes through these crystals in the
breather; the moisture of the air is absorbed by them.
Therefore, the air reaches to the conservator is quite dry, the
dust particles in the air get trapped by the oil in the oil seal
cup. The oil in the oil sealing cup acts as barrier between
silica gel crystal and air when there is no flow of air through
silica gel breather. The color of silica gel crystal is dark blue Figure 5.3.8 Silica gel & breather pot.
but, when it absorbs moisture; it becomes pink. When there is
sufficient difference between the air inside the conservator and the outside air, the oil level in
two components of the oil seal changes until the lower oil level just reaches the rim of the
inverted cup, the air then moves from high pressure compartment to the low pressure
compartment of the oil seal. Both of these happen when the oil acts as core filter and removes the
dust from the outside air.

Silica gel absorbs moisture signaling the saturation degree by changing color as follows:-

Deep blue Silica-gel : Completely dry.

Light blue Silica-gel : Partly humid (absorbed water for about 15% of its weight).

Pink Silica-gel : Saturated with moisture (absorbed water for about 30-40% of its weight).

41
For proper functioning of transformer dehumidification of Silica-gel crystals & removal of dust
particles from breathed air is necessary.

Moisture is removed from Silica-gel crystals by heating it inside a ventilated oven at to 1500C
until the color becomes deep blue again.

Dusts particles are filtered by the oil in the oil cup pressure value for air passage into the breather
are: 0.003Kg/cm inlet or 0.005Kg/cm outlet.

5.3.9 BUSHING
Transformers are essential parts of our electric
power infrastructure. Transformer components such as
bushing is the essential part of transformers, ensuring
operate reliably and safely. This is the common using
parts of transformer. We can say it also insulator,
Figure 5.3.9 Bushing of transformer primary & secondary.

which is mainly used for insulation.

Bushing is an important part of power transformer. It is used to insulate the incoming or

outgoing conductor into or out of a grounded barrier; in power transformer case is the
transformer main tank. The bushings connect the windings of the transformer to the supply line
and insulate the feed through conductor from the transformer main tank.

A bushing must be designed to withstand the electrical field strength produced in the
insulation, when any earthed material is present. As the strength of the electrical field increases,
leakage paths may develop within the insulation. If the energy of the leakage path overcomes the
dielectric strength of the insulation, it may puncture the insulation and allow the electrical energy
to conduct to the nearest earthed material causing burning and arcing. A typical bushing design
has a conductor usually of copper or aluminum, occasionally of other conductive materials,
surrounded by insulation, except for the terminal ends.

1. Solid porcelain bushings: This type of bushing used smaller transformer. Solid
porcelain bushings consist of high-grade porcelain cylinders that conductors pass
through. Outside surfaces have a series of skirts to increase the leakage path distance to
the grounded metal case.

2. Oil filled condenser bushings: This type of bushing used larger transformer. High-
voltage bushings are generally oil-filled condenser type. Condenser types have a central
conductor wound with alternating layers of paper insulation and tin foil and filled with
insulating oil. This results in a path from the conductor to the grounded tank, consisting
of a series of condensers. The layers are designed to provide approximately equal voltage
drops between each condenser layer.

42
H.T. BUSHING:

High Tension (HT) bushing is used in primary terminal or incoming side of transformer.
It‟s look and insulation capacity high because transformer incoming side always high in
distribution transformer.

HT Porcelain Transformer Bushings are manufactured with several material of

construction such as fire porcelain, copper, polymers etc and used in distribution and
Transmission Transformers.

HT bushing rating-

12kv-250A, 12kv-630A and 12kv-1000A.

L.T. BUSHING:

Low Tension (LT) bushing is used in side of secondary terminal or outgoing side or
distribution terminal of transformer. This is small and low insulation capacity type bushing.

43
 Chapter-06

Low Tension Switchgear

Switchgear

44
6.1 Definition of Low Tension Switchgear
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnects switches,
fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. Switchgear is
used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to clear faults downstream.
This type of equipment is directly linked to the reliability of the electricity supply. The very
earliest central power stations used simple open knife switch, mounted on insulating panels of
marble or asbestos. Power levels and voltages rapidly escalated, making opening manually
operated switches too dangerous for anything other than isolation of a de-energized circuit. Oil-
filled equipment allowed arc energy to be contained and safely controlled.LT Switchgear
generally used at low voltage such voltage may be 400 V or 230 V.

Figure 6.1 Low Tension Switchgear Box

45
6.2 Component of Low Tension Switchgear
They are various component situated in LT Panel, such as
1 .Circuit Breaker
2. Bus bar
3. Current Transformer (CT)
4. Ammeter
5. Voltmeter
6. LT Cable
Discussion of the LT Switchgear.
6.2.1 Circuit Breaker
Electrical circuit breaker is a switching device which can be operated manually as well as
automatically for controlling and protection of electrical power system respectively. As the
modern power system deals with huge currents, the spacial attention should be given during
designing of circuit breaker to safe interruption of arc produced during the operation of circuit
breaker.

Classification of Circuit Breaker

Circuit breakers are classified depending upon the medium used for arc extinction. They are

 Air Blast circuit breaker

 Oil circuit breaker
 Sulphur Hexa Fluoride( SF6) circuit breaker
 Vacuum circuit breaker

Air Blast circuit breaker

In the air blast circuit breakers the arc interruption takes place to direct a blast of air, at high
pressure and velocity, to the arc. Dry and fresh air of the air blast will replace the ionized hot
gases within the arc zone and the arc length is considerably increased. Consequently the arc may
be interrupted at the first natural current zero. In air blast circuit breakers, the contacts are
surrounded by compressed air. When the contacts are opened the compressed air is released in
forced blast through the arc to the atmosphere extinguishing the arc in the process. A compressor
plant is necessary to maintain high air pressure in the receiver. The air blast circuit breakers are
especially suitable for railways and arc furnaces, where the breaker operates repeatedly. Air blast

46
circuit breaker is used for interconnected lines and important lines where rapid operation is
desired. In air blast circuit breaker (also called compressed air circuit breaker) high pressure air
is forced on the arc through a nozzle at the instant of contact separation. The ionized medium
between the contract blown away by the blast of the air. After the arc extinction the chamber is
filled with high pressure air, which prevents restrict. In some low capacity circuit breakers, the
isolator is an integral part of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker opens and immediately after
that the isolator opens, to provide addition gap.

Oil Circuit Breaker

Figure 6.2 Oil Circuit Breaker

A high-voltage AC electrical switch whose main contacts are located in a space filled with
mineral (transformer) oil. Upon interruption of the electric circuit, an electric arc forms between
the contacts of the circuit breaker. Because of the high temperature of the arc the oil is
evaporated rapidly and oil vapors are partially decomposed, liberating ethylene, methane, and
other gases. A gas bubble is formed in the arcing zone; the pressure in the bubble may be as high
as several dozen Meganne wtons per sq m. The arc is then extinguished, both because of its
elongation upon parting of contacts and because of intensive cooling by the gases and oil
vapor.In an oil circuit breaker with simple interruption under oil, the duration of arcing is 0.02-
0.05 sec. To extinguish the arc more efficiently, arc-quenching chambers are used. In a
longitudinal blast chamber the vapors and gases evolved travel upward along the arc, thus
cooling it. In addition, the arc is in contact with the cold oil that fills the annular slots of the
chamber, which also accelerates cooling of the arc. In a transverse blast chamber a drastic

47
pressure increase within the gas bubble causes a stream of oil and gases to flow across the arc,
thus accelerating the cooling process.

In terms of design, a distinction is made between tank-type oil circuit breakers and oil-minimum,
or low-oil-capacity, circuit breakers. In the first type, the main contacts and the arc-quenching
devices are located in a grounded metal tank; in the second type they are in an insulating or
ungrounded metal enclosure filled with oil. Tank-type oil circuit breakers are inferior to other
types of high-voltage breakers in many regards. However, their low cost and high reliability have
led to their continued use in the USSR, the USA, and Canada.

In the USSR, tank-type oil circuit breakers are manufactured for voltages from 6 to 220 kilovolts
(kV); maximum rated current, 3.2 kilo amperes (kA); breaking current, 50 kA. For voltages of 10
kV or less and breaking currents of 15 kA or less, all three poles of the oil circuit breaker are
located in the same tank. For higher voltages and breaking currents, each pole is located in a
separate tank. Oil-minimum circuit breakers are used in the USSR, the Federal Republic of
Germany, and France. They are manufactured for 3 to 420 kV; since the late 1960‟s they have
also been manufactured for higher voltage.

Sulphur Hexa Fluroide( SF6) circuit breaker

Fig-5.3 Sulphur Hexa Fluroide( SF6) Circuit Breaker

In such breakers, sulphur hexaflouride gas (SF6) is used as the arc quenching
medium. The sulphur hexaflouride gas (SF6) is an electronegative gas and has a strong tendency
to absorb free electrons. The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high pressure flow
of sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) gas and an arc is struck between them. The gas captures the
conducting free electrons in the arc to form relatively immobile negative ions. This loss of
conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength to extinguish the arc.

48
The sulphur hexaflouride (SF6) circuit breakers have been found to be very effective for high
power and high voltage service

Vacuum circuit breaker

Figure 6.4 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

The main aim of any circuit breaker is to quench arc during current zero crossing, by establishing
high dielectric strength in between the contacts so that reestablishment of arc after current zero
becomes impossible. The dielectric strength of vacuum is eight times greater than that of air and
four times greater than that of SF6 gas. This high dielectric strength makes it possible to quench
vacuum arc within very small contact gap. For short contact gap, low contact mass and no
compression of medium the drive energy required in vacuum circuit breaker is minimum. When
two face to face contact areas are just being separated to each other, they do not be separated
instantly, contact area on the contact face is being reduced and ultimately comes to a point and
then they are finally de-touched. Although this happens in a fraction of micro second but it is the
fact. At this instant of de-touching of contacts in a vacuum, the current through the contacts
concentrated on that last contact point on the contact surface and makes a hot spot. As it is
vacuum, the metal on the contact surface is easily vaporized due to that hot spot and create a
conducting media for arc path. Then the arc will be initiated and continued until the next current
zero.

49
Arc Extinguisher: An arc is created whenever a circuit breaker interrupts a current flow. The
Arc Extinguisher's job is to confine and divide that arc, thereby extinguishing it. Arc
extinguishers are typically made of a stack of steel plates held together by two insulator plates.
When an interruption occurs and the contacts separate, the current flow through the ionized
region of the contacts induces a magnetic field around the arc and the arc extinguisher. The lines
of magnetic flux created around the arc and its force drives the arc into the steel plates. The gas
then goes through deionization and the arc divides, allowing it to cool. Standard MCCBs use a
linear current flow through the contacts. Under short-circuit conditions, a small blow-apart force
is created, which helps open the contacts. The majority of the opening action comes from the
mechanical energy stored in the trip mechanism itself. This is because the current in both
contacts are going in the same direction and attract each other. Newer design breakers use a
reverse loop of current flowing in essentially opposite paths. This creates a repulsion action and
results in a greater blow-apart force. This force assists with rapid arc extinguishing by causing
the contact to open faster. The force is directly proportional to the size of the fault current. The
greater the fault, the greater the force, and the faster the contacts open.

Trip Unit: The Trip Unit is the brain of the circuit breaker. The function of the trip unit is to trip
the operating mechanism in the event of a short circuit or a prolonged overload of current.
Traditional molded case circuit breakers use electromechanical trip units. Protection is provided
by combining a temperature-sensitive device with a current sensitive electromagnetic device,
both of which act mechanically on the trip mechanism. Electronic trip units are now available
and they can provide much more sophisticated protection and monitoring. Most molded case
circuit breakers utilize one or more different trip elements to provide circuit protection for
different applications. These trip elements protect against thermal overloads, short circuits and
arcing ground faults. Conventional MCCBs are available with either a fixed or interchangeable
electromechanical trip unit. If a new trip rating is required for a fixed trip breaker, the entire
breaker must be replaced. With an interchangeable trip unit, only the trip unit needs to be
changed up to the maximum current rating of the breaker frame. Interchangeable trip units are
also often called rating plugs. Some breakers offer interchangeability between electromechanical
and electronic trip units within the same frame.

50
6.2.2 Bus bar
In electrical power distribution, a bus bar is a strip or bar of copper, brass or aluminum that
conducts electricity within a switchboard, distribution board, substation, battery bank, or other
electrical apparatus. Its main purpose is to conduct a substantial current of electricity, and not to
function as a structural member. The cross-sectional size of the bus bar determines the maximum
amount of current that can be safely carried. Bus bars can have a cross-sectional area of as little
as 10 mm2, but electrical substations may use metal tubes 50 mm in diameter (20 cm2) or more
as bus bars. An aluminum smelter will have very large bus bars used to carry tens of thousands
of amperes to the electrochemical cells that produce aluminum from molten salts.

Figure 6.5 Bus Bar

Design and placement
Bus bars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes, as these shapes allow heat to dissipate
more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio. The skin effect makes
50–60 Hz AC bus bars more than about 8 mm (5/16 in) thickness inefficient, so hollow or flat
shapes are prevalent in higher current applications. A hollow section has higher stiffness than a
solid rod of equivalent current-carrying capacity, which allows a greater span between bus bar
supports in outdoor switchyards.

51
A bus bar must be sufficiently rigid to support its own weight, as well as forces imposed by
mechanical vibration and possibly earthquakes, as well as accumulated precipitation in outdoor
exposures. In addition, thermal expansion from temperature changes induced by ohmeic heating
and ambient temperature variations, and magnetic forces induced by large currents must be
considered.

Bus bars are typically contained inside switchgear, panel boards, or bus way enclosures.
Distribution boards split the electrical supply into separate circuits at one location. Bus ways, or
bus ducts, are long bus bars with a protective cover. Rather than branching from the main supply
at one location, they allow new circuits to branch off anywhere along the route of the bus way.

A bus bar may either be supported on insulators, or else insulation may completely surround it.
Bus bars are protected from accidental contact either by a metal earthed enclosure or by
elevation out of normal reach. Power neutral bus bars may also be insulated. Earthling (safety
grounding) bus bars are typically bare and bolted directly onto any metal chassis of their
enclosure. Bus bars may be enclosed in a metal housing, in the form of bus duct or bus way,
segregated-phase bus, or isolated-phase bus.

Bus bars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus by bolted, clamped, or
welded connections. Often, joints between high-current bus sections have precisely-machined
matching surfaces that are silver-plated to reduce the contact resistance. At extra high voltages
(more than 300 kV) in outdoor buses, corona discharge around the connections becomes a source
of radio-frequency interference and power loss, so special connection fittings designed for these
voltages are used.

6.2.3 Current Transformer (CT)

A current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of alternating electric currents. Current
transformers, together with voltage (or potential) transformers (VT or PT), are known as
instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to apply directly to measuring
instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the

52
current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording
instruments. A current transformer isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very
high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and
protective relays in the electrical power industry.

Figure 6.6 Current Transformer

6.2.4 Ammeter
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric
currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to measure smaller
currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or
microammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments which relied on the Earth's
magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments were designed
which could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric power
systems.

53
 Figure 6.7 Ammeter
6.2.5 Voltmeter

A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the
voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog
to digital converter.

Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a panel are
used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable instruments, usually equipped to
also measure current and resistance in the form of a multimeter, are standard test instruments
used in electrical and electronics work. Any measurement that can be converted to a voltage can
be displayed on a meter that is suitably calibrated; for example, pressure, temperature, flow or
level in a chemical process plant.

54
 Figure 6.8 Voltmeter
6.2.6 LT Cable

Owing to our tremendous experiences and expertise in our concerned fields, we offer wide
assortments of LT cable known for their magnificent design. An LT cable comes with polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) which is used for high voltage carrying. These products are extremely durable
and work in all environments. We offer these assortments at competitive prices in the
market. We offer a wide range of LT Cable. These Cables are used in the control of the electrical
distribution system in generating stations, substations, and other industrial applications. High
quality armored as well as unarmored Control Cables.

55
 Chapter-07

High Tension Switchgear

56
7.1 HT Switchgear

The power system deals with voltage above 11KV, is referred as high voltage. As the
voltage level is high the arcing produced during switching operation is also very high. So, special
care to be taken during designing of high voltage switchgear. High voltage circuit breaker, is the
main component of HV switchgear, hence high voltage circuit breaker should have special
features for safe and reliable operation. Faulty tripping and switching operation of
high voltage circuit are very rear. Most of the time these remain, at ON condition, and may be
operated after a long period of time. So CBs must be reliable enough to ensure safe operation, as
when required. High voltage circuit breaker technology has changed radically in the last 15
years.

Figure 7.1 HT Switchgear Box

57
7.2 Component of HT Switchgear

The component and devices is same with compare to LT switchgear except few different
components and high voltage is applied on HT Switchgears. Except components are

1. Vacuum Circuit Breaker.

2. HRC Fuse

3. Potential Transformer

4. High Tension Cable

7.2.1 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

A vacuum circuit breaker is such kind of circuit breaker where the arc quenching takes place in
vacuum. The technology is suitable for mainly medium voltage application. For
higher voltage vacuum technology has been developed but not commercially viable. The
operation of opening and closing of current carrying contacts and associated arc interruption take
place in a vacuum chamber in the breaker which is called vacuum interrupter. The vacuum
Interrupter consists of a steel arc chamber in the centre symmetrically arranged ceramic
insulators. The vacuum pressure inside a vacuum interrupter is normally maintained at 10 – 6 bar.
The material used for current carrying contacts plays an important role in the performance of
the vacuum circuit breaker. But still it is a developing technology.

Figure 7.2 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

58
Advantages of Vacuum Circuit Breaker or VCB
Service life of vacuum circuit breaker is much longer than other types of circuit breakers. There
is no chance of fire hazard as oil circuit breaker. It is much environment friendly than SF6 Circuit
breaker. Beside of that contraction of VCB is much user friendly. Replacement of vacuum
interrupter (VI) is much convenient.
7.2.2 High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Fuse

Figure 7.3 HRC Construction Fuse

The HRC fuse is a fully enclosed cartridge type fuse that has a high rupturing capacity. It is able
to withstand and interrupt high current, short circuit faults safe. A cutaway of the construction of
the HRC is shown above.The fusing element is enclosed in a porcelain body surrounded by silica
sand. The end caps have securing lugs. The element has constrictions and a tin alloy section.

Overload Condition

Modern HRC fuse elements incorporate a tin alloy section. This is known as a eutectic material.
It is used to give the fuse specific operating characteristics. Under overload conditions the
material heats up and if the overload is prolonged, it will melt and break the fuse element.

Short Circuit Condition

Under high current short circuit conditions the smaller area constricted parts of the element will
melt rapidly and vaporize. These will break before the eutectic material.The quartz silica sand

59
surrounding the element is also heated and changes into a glass material called fugurite. This
quenches the arc and prevents any restriping across the element gaps.

Application

Control HRC fuse-links have been designed to meet the requirements set for modern industrial
installations & electrical power plants. Their breaking capacity is sufficient even for the highest
short-circuit levels which are reached in practice.

Breaking Capacity

Breaking capacity of fuse links is 80 kA at 415V & 500V.

7.2.3 Potential Transformer (PT)

Direct measurement of voltage in high voltage system is not possible because of insulation
problem of measuring instruments. It is also not possible to use direct voltage for the system
protection purpose due to its high value and high insulation problem of protective relays.
Therefore, Voltage Transformers or Potential Transformers (PT) is used to step-down the high
system voltage to low standard value accurately in proportion to their ratio.

Basic functions of potential transformers are

 Reduce the line voltage to a value which is suitable for standard measuring instruments,
relays, etc.
 To isolate the measuring instruments, meters, relays, etc. from high voltage side of an
installation.
 To sense abnormalities in voltage and give voltage signals to protective relays to isolate
the defective system.

7.2.4 High Tension Cable

A high-voltage cable (HV cable) is a cable used for electric power transmission at high voltage.
A cable includes a conductor and insulation, and is suitable for being run underground or
underwater. This is in contrast to a conductor, which does not have insulation. High-voltage
cables of differing types have a variety of applications in instruments, ignition systems, and AC
and DC power transmission.

60
 Figure 7.4 HT Cable

In all applications, the insulation of the cable must not deteriorate due to the high-voltage stress,
ozone produced by electric discharges in air, or tracking. The cable system must prevent contact
of the high-voltage conductor with other objects or persons, and must contain and control
leakage current. Cable joints and terminals must be designed to control the high-voltage stress to
prevent breakdown of the insulation. Often a high-voltage cable will have a metallic shield layer
over the insulation, connected to earth ground and designed to equalize the dielectric stress on
the insulation layer.

61
Chapter-08

PROBLEM

62
8.0.0 PROBLEM AND PURPOSE

From the physical and electrical point of view, bushing appears to be the weakest part of
the transformer. The starting of the bushing breakdown process could not be detected easily and
could lead to the sudden failure of the bushing, even the failure of the whole transformer.
Currently, any time-based-maintenance conducted in PLN P3B Jawa Bali based on
manufacturer's manual had been proved not sufficient to recognize any degradation in the
bushing. Sometimes it is very hard to find the real root cause of the failure, and getting only the
suspected cause of failures.

8.1.0 LOSSES IN TRANSFORMERS

Transformer is the most efficient electrical machine. Since the transformer has no moving
parts, its efficiency is much higher than that of rotating machines. The various losses in a
transformer are enumerated as follows:

1. Core loss
2. Copper loss
3. Load (stray) loss
4. Dielectric loss

When the core of the transformer undergoes cyclic magnetization power losses occur in it.
The core losses comprises of two components:

 Hysteresis loss and

 Eddy current loss

When the magnetic core flux varies in a magnetic core with respect to time, voltage is
induced in all possible paths enclosing the flux. This will result in the production of circulating
currents in the transformer core. These currents are known as eddy currents. These eddy currents
leads to power loss called Eddy current loss. Copper loss occurs in the winding of the
transformer due to the resistance of the coil.

8.1.1 HYSTERESIS LOSS

This phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction behind the magnetizing field is called
hysteresis. In the process of magnetization of a ferromagnetic substance through a cycle, there is
expenditure of energy. The energy spent in magnetizing a specimen is not recoverable and there
occurs a loss of energy in the form of heat. This is so because, during a cycle of magnetization,

63
the molecular magnets in the specimen are oriented and reoriented a number of times. This
molecular motion results in the production of heat. It has been found that loss of heat energy per
unit volume of the specimen in each cycle of magnetization is equal to the area of the hysteresis
loop.

The shape and size of the hysteresis loop is characteristic of each material because of the
differences in their retentivity, coercivity, permeability, susceptibility and energy losses etc.

Hysteresis loop: The net unrecoverable energy lost in

the process is area of abco which is lost irretrievably
in the form of heat is called the hysteresis loss. the
total hysteresis loss in one cycle is easily seen to be
the area of one complete loop abcdefa.

If wh indicates the hysteresis loss/ unit volume, then

hysteresis loss in volume V of material when operated Figure 6.1.1 Hysteresis loop.
at f Hz is given by the following equation.

Ph=whVf W

Steinmetz gave an emprical formula to simplify the computation of the hysteresis loss based on
his experimental studies. The formula given by him is as follows:

Ph=khfBnm W

where kh is a characteristic constant of the core material, Bm is the maximum flux density and n
is caller steinmetz constant.

Permissible core losses in transformer:

All the above losses are subjected to positive or negative variation of 10%.

8.1.2 EDDY CURRENT LOSS

When the magnetic core flux varies in a magnetic core with respect to time, voltage is
induced in all possible paths enclosing the flux. This will result in the production of circulating
currents in the transformer core. These currents are known as eddy currents. These eddy currents
leads to power loss called Eddy current loss. This loss depends upon two major factors. The
factors affecting the eddy currents are: Resistivity of the core and
Length of the path of the circulating currents for a given cross section.

64
The eddy currents can be expressed as

Pe = kef2B2 W/m3
ke = ke'd2/p

Where,

d is the thickness of the lamination

p is the resistivity of material of the core

Pe = ke'd2f2B2/p W/m3

Hence from the above equations it is evident that Eddy current loss is directly proportional to the
square of the thickness of the lamination and that of the frequency of supply voltage.

Total core loss:

Total core loss = Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss.

kVA Core loss (W)

16 155
25 195
40 260
50 295
63 350
75 385
88 400
100 500
125 570
160 670
200 800
250 950
315 1150
400 1380
500 1660
860 1980
900 2400
1000 2800
Table 6.1.2 Total core loss of transformer.

Reduction of Eddy Current Loss: Reduction of eddy current loss can be achieved by using
core with high resistivity and increasing the path of circulating currents.

By increasing the length of the path, the resistance offered by the material to the induced
voltages will increase, resulting in the reduction of Eddy current loss.

65
High resistance can be achieved by using silicon steel cores. The resistance of the steel can be
increased by adding silicon to it. The cores can be laminated along the flow of flux. Each
lamination is insulated from the adjoining one. This increases the path length of the circulating
currents with consequent reduction in Eddy current loss.

8.1.3 COPPER LOSS

It is a well known fact that whenever there is a resistance to the flow of current in a
conductor, power loss occurs in the conductor due to its resistance. Copper loss occurs in the
winding of the transformer due to the resistance of the coil. When the winding carries current,
power loss occurs due to its internal resistance. This loss is known as copper loss. The copper
loss can be expressed as below

For primary side- Pcu = I2R

Where is the current through the winding and R is the resistance of the winding.

45 9 4 1 95

Copper loss is proportional to the square of current flowing through the winding.

Permissible copper losses at 750C:

kVA Copper losses (W)

16 500
25 700
40 975
50 1180
63 1400
75 1600

66
 88 1650
100 2000
125 2350
160 2840
200 3400
250 4000
315 4770
400 5700
500 6920
860 8260
1000 11880
Table 6.1.3 Permissible copper loss of transformer.

8.1.4 STRAY LOSS

Stray loss results from leakage fields including Eddy currents in the tank wall and
conductors. The winding of the transformers should be designed such that the stray loss is small.
This can be achieved by the splitting of conductors in to small strips to reduce Eddy currents in
the conductors. The radial width of the strips should be small and they should be transposed.

8.1.5 DIELECTRIC LOSS

This loss occurs in the transformer oil and other solid insulating materials in the
transformer. The major losses occurring in the transformer are Core loss and copper loss. Rests
of the losses are very small compare to these two. All the losses occurring in transformer are
dissipated in the form of heat in the winding, core, insulating oil and walls of the transformer.
Efficiency of the transformer increases with decrease in the losses.

8.2.0 TESTING OF TRANSFORMER

Transformer cannot be tested by connecting it directly to the load. This is because of two
reasons. The first is large amount of energy has to wasted during such a test and the other is for
large transformers it is impossible to arrange large loads enough for direct loading. Therefore
simple tests called non loading tests are conducted on the transformer to determine the equivalent
circuit parameters. From the equivalent circuit parameters the characteristics of a transformer can
be computed. These tests consume very little power which is simply needed to satisfy the losses
occurring in the transformer thus making the testing process more economical.

67
 Two non loading tests conducted on transformers are the Open Circuit Test and Short
circuit test. From these tests the necessary electrical parameters are measured, which corresponds
to the appropriate equivalent circuit from which the characteristics of the transformer can be
determined. Apart from these two tests another test to determine the temperature rise in the
transformer called Sumner‟s test or back to back is also conducted.

There is some type of transformer testing:

 Open circuit (OCC) test

 Short circuit (SCC) test
 Sumner‟s or Back to back test
 Megger test

8.2.1 OPEN CIRCUIT (OCC) TEST

Open circuit test is conducted on the transformer for the following purposes:

 To determine the shunt parameters in the equivalent circuit

 To determine core loss
 To determine the magnetizing current (Im)

During this test, the rated voltage is supplied to one of the winding while the other winding is
kept open. Normally LV side is provided with the rated voltage and the LV side is kept open. If
the transformer is used at voltages other than the rated voltage, then the test should be conducted
at that voltage. The meters are connected to the transformer as shown in the circuit diagram.
After applying the voltage the meter readings are noted. The ammeter reading corresponds to the
no load current Io and the watt meter reading corresponds to the core loss or iron loss Pi.

Pi = Po (Iron loss)

Shunt parameters in the equivalent circuit can be calculated from the following formula.

68
Yo = Gi - jBm

Yo = Io / Vi

Vi2 Gi = Po

Hence,

The conductance Gi = Po / Vi2

The susceptance Bm = √ (Yo2 - Gi2)

8.2.2 SHORT CIRCUIT (SC) TEST

Short circuit test is conducted to determine the following:

 The full load cu- loss (Copper loss)
 Leakage reactance and equivalent resistance
In short circuit test supply arrangements are made at the HV side and the LV side is short
circuited. The voltage needed for the short circuit test is 5 - 8% of rated voltage of the
transformer.
Since the test on the HV side requires less current than that on the LV side supply is provided
on the HV side. The supply voltage is gradually raised from zero till the transformer draws its
full load current.
Voltage = Vs; current = Isc; Power input = Psc
The iron loss during the short circuit test is negligible due to very low excitation voltage.
Therefore power drawn will be sufficient to satisfy the copper loss.
Hence the watt meter reading corresponds to the full toad copper loss.
Psc = Pcu (Copper loss)
Z = V sc / I sc

69
= √ (R2 + X2)
Equivalent resistance R = Pcu/ I sc2
Equivalent reactance X = √ (Z2 - R2)
Since the iron loss is neglected the shunt branch in the equivalent circuit can also be neglected.
The reason for providing supply at the HV side can be clearly understood from the following
example-

For a 200 kV, 440/ 6600 V transformer the voltage requirement for HV side is-

6600 x 5/100 = 330V

And the current required is-

200 x 1000/6600 = 30 A

If suppose the supply is provided on the LV side, then the voltage requirement is-

440 x 5 / 100 = 22V

And the current requirement is-

200 x 1000 / 440 = 445A

8.2.3 MEGGER TEST

Actually megger test2 is called insulation test. The test does have a limit of between 500
and 1000 volts, so it may not always be able to detect some insulation punctures. It will usually
show the amount of moisture the leakage current no the moist or dirty areas of the insulation and
winding faults and deterioration.

Some condition are there in megger, a transformer have to fulfill those condition. We have to
check phase-phase and phase-earth then we got a result. When we checking phase to phase
megger will shown us 0, such as-

SL.NO. Primary& Result

secondary side
01 R+Y 0
02 Y+B 0
03 B+R 0
Table 6.2.4(a) Phase to phase megger test result.

2The megger test is a method of testing making use of an insulation resistance meter that will help to verify
the condition of electrical insulation.

70
Now when we are checking phase-earth the resistance must come out up to 500MΩ otherwise
transformer has some fault. Such as-

SL.NO. Primary& Result

secondary side
01 R+E 2000
02 Y+E 2000
03 B+E 2000
Table 6.2.4(b) Phase to earth megger test result.

We can see those results up to 500MΩ, so the transformer has no fault.

71
 Chapter-09

Maintenance & Diagnostics

72
9.0.0 MAINTENANCE OF TRANSFORMER

Maintenance can either be time based or condition based, depending on the service
strategy selected. The time based maintenance is carried out at predetermined intervals of time or
on the base of prescribed criteria and aimed at reducing the probability of failure or the working
deterioration of the element.

In the condition based maintenance the asset condition is monitored and performance
degradation is tracked. Risk-based (based on asset and risk assessment) and condition-based
(based on either on-site or remote monitoring) maintenance strategies may be applied.
Maintenance based on the control of the performances of an element and/or the main parameters
for its operation and based on the control of the corrective actions consequently taken.

9.1.0 VIBRATION

Vibration analysis by itself cannot predict many faults associated with transformers, but it
is another useful tool to help determine transformer condition. Vibration can result from loose
transformer core segments, loose windings, shield problems, loose parts, or bad bearings on oil
cooling pumps or fans. Exercise extreme care in evaluating the source of vibration. Many times,
a loose panel cover, door, or bolts/screws lying in control panels, or loose on the outside have
been misdiagnosed as problems inside the tank. Every transformer is different; therefore, to
detect this, baseline vibration tests should be run and data recorded for comparison with future
tests.

9.2.0 GAS LIMITS

The table of gases from the Double study seems more realistic, showing gas level average
of 95% of transformers in the study. Note, with the last four gases, limits given by the IEEE (trial
use guide) run over 70% higher than the Double 95% norms. But with the first three gases,
hydrogen, methane, and ethane, the IEEE limits are well below the amount of gas found in 95%
norms-

73
 SL.NO. Gas Double 95% Norm IEEE Limits
1 Hydrogen 511 200
2 Methane 134 100
3 Ethane 26 30
4 Ethylene 17 30
5 Acetylene 0.6 1
6 CO 1749 3000
7 CO2 15485 30000
Total 2024 3360
Table 7.5.0 Gas limitation inside of transformer.

in the Double study. We obviously cannot have limits that are below the amount of gas found in
normal operating transformers. Therefore, it is suggested that we use the Double (95% norm)
limits. The 95% norm limit means that 95% of the silicone oil transformers studied had gas
levels below these limits. Obviously, 5% had gases higher than
these limits. These are problem transformers that we should pay
more attention to.

9.3.0 FANS AND RADIATORS

Figure 9.6.0 Fans & radiators checking.

Inspect all isolation valves at the tops and

bottoms of radiators to ensure they are open. Inspect cooling fans and radiators for cleanliness
and fans for proper rotation. Check for dirty or damaged fan blades or partially blocked radiators.
Fans are much more efficient
if the blades are clean and rotating in cool air. Normally, fans blow cool air through the radiators;
they should not be pulling air through. Check to see if fans are reversed electrically i.e. pulling
air first through the radiators and then through the fan blades. This means that the blades are
rotating in warm air after it passes through the radiator, which is much less efficient. Place a
hand on the radiator opposite the fans; air should be coming out of the radiator against your
hand. Watch the blades as they rotate slowly when they are starting or stopping to determine
which way they should be rotating and correct the rotation if necessary.

9.4.0 AGE

Transformer age is an important factor to consider when identifying candidates for

replacement or rehabilitation. Age is one indicator of remaining life and upgrade potential to
current state-of-the art materials. During transformer life, structural strength and insulating
properties of materials used for support and electrical insulation
especially paper deteriorate. Although actual service life varies widely depending on the
manufacturer, design, quality of assembly, materials used, maintenance, and operating
conditions, the expected life of a transformer is about 40 years.

74
 Chapter-10

Concluding Part of Transformer

75
10.1.0 RECOMMENDATION

Within my internship period, I have realized that at Asian Powertec Co. LTD everything
are perfect, but I think some side may be improved and added some things. This will be very
helpful for them, because everything is update day by day. Now I will share my little knowledge,
may be it will helpful for them.

It is the recommendation for „Asian Powertec Co. LTD‟ that they can change their manually coil
winding by automatic coil winding. They use analog measuring instrument (e.g. Ammeter,
Voltmeter, and Wattmeter). For this reason sometimes transformer‟s KVA rating and voltage
ratio are not accurate. So in this purpose they can use digital measuring instrument. They do not
have transformer oil testing machine. For testing oil they have to depend another way. So they
can buy transformer oil testing machine and also use it before every working purpose. Safety is
an important issue for industrial working area, but some time they do not maintain their safety
rules. So they have to follow their safety rules, especially in transformer open circuit test, short
circuit test.

10.2.0 CONCLUSION
Transformer is an electrical device that transfers alternating-current energy from one
circuit to another circuit by magnetic coupling of the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer. This is accomplished through mutual inductance (M). The coefficient of coupling
(K) of a transformer is dependent upon the size and shape of the coils, their relative positions,
and the characteristic of the core between the two coils. An ideal transformer is one where all the
magnetic lines of flux produced by the primary cut the entire secondary. The higher the K of the
transformer, the higher is the transfer of the energy.

The voltage applied to the primary winding causes current to flow in the primary.

This current generates a magnetic field, generating a counter emf (cemf) which has the opposite
phase to that of the applied voltage. The magnetic field generated by the current in the primary
also cuts the secondary winding and induces a voltage in this winding.

A transformer consists of two coils of insulated wire wound on a core. The primary winding is
usually wound onto a form, then wrapped with an insulating material such as paper or cloth. The
secondary winding is then wound on top of the primary and both windings are wrapped with
insulating material. The windings are then fitted onto the core of the transformer. Cores come in
various shapes and materials. The most common materials are air, soft iron, and laminated steel.

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The most common types of transformers are the shell-core and the hollow-core types. The type
and shape of the core is dependent on the intended use of the transformer and the voltage applied
to the current in the primary winding.

When voltage is applied to the primary of a transformer, exciting current flows in the primary.

The current causes a magnetic field to be set up around both the primary and the secondary
windings. The moving flux causes a voltage to be induced into the secondary winding,
countering the effects of the counter emf in the primary.

When the secondary winding is connected to a load, then it causes flow of current in the
secondary, the magnetic field decreases momentarily. The primary then draws more current,
restoring the magnetic field to almost its original magnitude. The phase of the current flowing in
the secondary circuit is dependent upon the phase of the voltage impressed across the primary
and the direction of the winding of the secondary.

If the secondary were wound in the same direction as the primary, the phase would be the same.
If we found opposite to the primary, the phase would be reversed.

This is shown on a schematic drawing by the use of phasing dots. The dots mean that the leads of
the primary and secondary have the same phase. The lack of phasing dots on a schematic means
a phase reversal.

The TURNS RATIO of a transformer is the ratio of the number of turns of wire in the primary
winding to the number of turns in the secondary winding. When the turn‟s ratio is stated, the
number representing turns on the primary is always stated first. For example, a 1:2 turns ratio
means the secondary has twice the number of turns as the primary. In this example, the voltage
across the secondary is two times the voltage applied to the primary.

The power and current ratios of a transformer are dependent on the fact that power delivered to
the secondary is always equal to the power delivered to the primary minus the losses of the
transformer. This will always be true, regardless of the number of secondary windings. Using the
law of power and current, it can be stated that current through the transformer is the inverse of
the voltage or turns ratio, with power remaining the same or less, regardless of the number of
secondary‟s.

Transformer losses have two sources-copper loss and magnetic loss. Copper losses are caused by
the resistance of the wire (I2R). Magnetic losses are caused by eddy currents and hysteresis in the
core. Copper loss is a constant after the coil has been wound and therefore a measureable loss.
Hysteresis loss is constant for a particular voltage and current. Eddy-current loss, however, is
different for each frequency passed through the transformer.

The amplitude of the voltage induced in the secondary is dependent upon the efficiency of the
transformer and the turns ratio. The efficiency of a transformer is related to the power losses in

77
the windings and core of the transformer. Efficiency (in percent) equals Pout/Pin X 100. A perfect
transformer would have an efficiency of 1.0 or 100%.

A transformer with two or more windings wound on a laminated iron core. The transformer is
used to supply stepped up and stepped down values of voltage to the various circuits in electrical
equipment.

A transformer with a single winding in which the entire winding can be used as the primary and
part of the winding as the secondary, or part of the winding can be used as the primary and the
entire winding can be used as the secondary.

A transformer used in audio-frequency circuits to transfer af signals from one circuit to another.

A transformer used in a radio-frequency circuit to transfer rf signals from one circuit to another.

A transformer used to match the impedance of the source and the impedance of the load. The
mathematical relationship of the turns and impedance of the transformer is expressed by the
equation:

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 Chapter-11

Appendix Part

79
11.1.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

B.L. THERAJA & A.K. THERAJA (1959), Volume 2, “A Text Book of Electrical
Technology”.
GUPTA, P.V, GUPTA, P.S (199 ), “Sub-station Design & Equipment”.
ALEXANDER SADIKU (2000), Fourth Edition, “Fundamentals of Electronic Circuits”.
V.K. MEHTA, “Introduction to Electrical Engineering by”.
“Transformer Maintenance Guide”, J.J. KELLY, S.D. MYERS, R.H. PARRISH, S.D.
MYERS Co. 1981.
V.K. MEHTA & ROHIT MEHTA, “Principle of Power System”.
“Power Transformer Maintenance and Testing”, General Physics Corporation 1990.
http://www.edisontechcenter.org/Transformers.html
http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/delta-star-transformer-connection-overview
http://www.electrical4u.com/buchholz-relay-in-transformer-buchholz-relay-operation-
and-principle/
https://www.pc-control.co.uk/relays.htm
http://goodnews11.hubpages.com/hub/Properties-of-transformer-oil
http://goodnews11.hubpages.com/hub/Parts-of-a-power-transformer
http://goodnews11.hubpages.com/hub/Losses-in-Transformers
http://www.electrical-installation.org/enwiki/Choice_of_transformer_rating
http://www.tpub.com/neets/book2/5k.htm

11.2.0 APPENDIX
A

AC Alternating Current
AVS Automatic Volume Stabilizer
Alternator A synchronous AC generator
AVR Automatic Voltage Regulators

B
BW Bandwidth

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C
CT Current Transformer
CB Circuit Breaker
CC Constant Current
CV Constant Voltage
D
DC Direct Current
D/A Digital to Analog
DAC Digital to Analog Converter
E
EMF Electromotive force
ESR Equivalent Series Resistance

FET Field Effect Transistor

GFCI Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter

GFI Ground Fault Interrupter

H
HRC High Rupturing Capacitor
HTS High Tension Switchgear
HVPS High Voltage Power Supply
Hz Hertz
HV High Voltage

K Kilo (1000 units)

KV Kilovolt
KA Kilo Ampere (1000A)
KHz Kilo Hertz (1000 cycles per second)
KVA Kilo Volt Amperes

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KWH Kilo Watt Hours

LF Low Frequency
LT Low tension
MDAC Multiplying Digital to Analog Converter

OS Operating System
OVP over Voltage Protection

PT Potential Transformer
PF Power Factor
PG Power Gain
PIV Peak Inverse Voltage

Q
QC Quality Control

R
R&D Research and Development
RPM Revolutions Per Minute.
S
SCR Silicon Controller Rectifier
SWG British Standard Wire Gauge

TC Temperature Coefficient

VA Volt Ampere
VAC Volts Alternating Current
VR Voltage regulator

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The End

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