Journal of Natural Fibers

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Development of Kapok/Recycled-PET Blended

Needle-Punched Thermal Waddings

Abdul Jabbar, Muhammad Affan Ali, Amir Shahzad, Muhammad Salman

Naeem, Zafar Javed, Muhammad Bilal Qadir, Khalil Rehman, Muhammad
Irfan & Zuhaib Ahmad

To cite this article: Abdul Jabbar, Muhammad Affan Ali, Amir Shahzad, Muhammad Salman
Naeem, Zafar Javed, Muhammad Bilal Qadir, Khalil Rehman, Muhammad Irfan & Zuhaib Ahmad
(2022) Development of Kapok/Recycled-PET Blended Needle-Punched Thermal Waddings,
Journal of Natural Fibers, 19:3, 1024-1032, DOI: 10.1080/15440478.2020.1784816

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2020.1784816

Published online: 25 Jul 2020.

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JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS
2022, VOL. 19, NO. 3, 1024–1032
https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2020.1784816

Development of Kapok/Recycled-PET Blended Needle-Punched

Thermal Waddings
Abdul Jabbara, Muhammad Affan Alia, Amir Shahzada,b, Muhammad Salman Naeema,
Zafar Javeda,c, Muhammad Bilal Qadir a, Khalil Rehmana, Muhammad Irfana,
and Zuhaib Ahmad a
a
Faculty of Engineering and Technology, National Textile University, Faisalabad, Pakistan; bInstitute of Textiles and
Clothing, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong; cDepartment of Design, National Textile
University, Faisalabad, Pakistan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Kapok fiber is emerging as a cheaper natural fiber having excellent thermal
KEYWORDS
insulation properties. Recycled polyester/kapok blended needle punched
Kapok fiber; recycled
nonwoven waddings are prepared where the effect of kapok fiber %, sheet polyester; needle punching;
areal density, and needle punch density on thermal resistance and air perme­ nonwovens; thermal
ability is measured and analyzed with the help of MINITAB®18.1. Three resistance; air permeability
percentages of kapok fiber (20, 40, 60%), four levels of fabric areal density
(150, 300, 450, 600 g.m-2) and two levels of punch density (15, 20 punches.
cm-2) were chosen. The statistical analysis revealed that kapok fiber % and
areal density had a significant effect on both thermal resistance and air
permeability of nonwovens. The thermal resistance was decreased signifi­
cantly with the increase in kapok fiber %, especially at higher punch density.
A significant interaction between kapok fiber % and areal density was
observed for air permeability. It may be concluded that, in the selected
range of input variables, recycled PET/kapok nonwovens with less % of
kapok fibers and punch density display better thermal insulation perfor­
mance, especially at higher areal density. The prepared nonwovens may
find applications in winter coats and wadding layers for quilts, etc., and will
also help to reduce the pollution from the environment.

Introduction
The sustainable environment has become a challenge for academia and industry due to eco disorder,
space shortage for waste disposal, and to save the future of our next generations. Recent studies in
Germany demonstrated that about 1.8 million tons of textile material are thrown away every year.
From all this waste, 23% goes to the secondhand section, 73% is deposited (i.e., burned), and only 4% is
recycled (Radetić et al. 2003; Welle 2011, 2016). Toward the destination of a sustainable and pollution-
free community, strict ecological legislation has been made. These legislations and also limited
resources of raw material led to a consideration of increasing applications of waste and recycled
materials.
Poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) goods such as fibers and bottles have become a significant part
of human life, and their production and consumption are increasing continuously. Recycling of PET is
considered to be the best upcycling way to manage PET waste economically to can also contribute to
the better economy of the country. Recycled PET blends with natural fibers have been extensively used
to produce high value-added textile products, e.g., curtains, table mats, soundproofing sheets, and
thermal waddings (Park and Kim 2014; Santhanam et al. 2019; Welle 2011, 2016).

CONTACT Muhammad Bilal Qadir bilal_ntu81@hotmail.com; Muhammad Salman Naeem salman.ntu@gmail.com

Faculty of Engineering and Technology, National Textile University, Faisalabad 37610, Pakistan
© 2020 Taylor & Francis
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 1025

Thermal properties like thermal resistance and thermal conductivity are essential in many
applications of textiles in apparels, sleeping bags, interlinings, automobiles, and blankets
(Casadesús et al. 2019; Qadir et al. 2018; Shahzad et al. 2019, 2018; Varkiyani et al. 2011).
Thermal properties are rudimentary to decide the transfer of heat through fabrics (Onofrei,
Rocha, and Catarino 2011). Textiles are used in the form of knitted, woven, and nonwoven
structures for thermal insulation. However, nonwovens having more porosity, lightweight, flex­
ibility, and low density are primarily preferred for thermal insulation applications (Malik et al.
2017; Mohammadi, Banks-Lee, and Ghadimi 2003; Nazir et al. 2019; Thilagavathi et al. 2010). The
thermal insulation properties of nonwovens have a strong correlation with the dimensional and
structural parameters of fabrics (Xiong, Yang, and Huang 2015). The fabric thickness, areal
density, bulk density, and porosity are the key parameters that affect the thermal and air perme­
ability properties of fabrics (Atwal 1987; Barker and Heniford 2011; Lin, Lou, and Lin 2009). Bulk
density of nonwovens has a significant influence on thermal resistance as it decides the amount of
air entrapped within the structure (Gnanauthayan, Rengasamy, and Kothari 2017a).
Similarly, fabric porosity is also found to play a vital role to determine the air permeability and
thermal resistance of nonwovens in different studies (Berkalp 2006; Yang et al. 2018). It was also
investigated that the density of nonwoven fabrics and their thermal resistance have a direct
relationship (Jirsak et al. 2000). The thermal conductivity of the nonwoven web is indirectly
proportional to the fiber surface area as pointed out by a study on thermal resistance character­
istics of carded and air-laid nonwovens (Obendorf and Smith 1986). Air permeability and thermal
insulation of needle-punched nonwovens made from jute and polypropylene blends were studied.
The effect of fabric areal weight, needling density, and blend proportion on fabric thickness,
thermal resistance, specific thermal resistance, and air permeability was analyzed (Debnath and
Madhusoothanan 2011). They concluded that fabric weight is the main factor that affects the air
permeability and thermal insulation of fabrics. In another study (Varkiyani et al. 2011), the effect
of punch density and fiber blends on thermal conductivity of needle-punched nonwovens is
studied. The experimental results showed a decrease in thermal conductivity with increasing
punch density and blending fiber types.
Kapok fiber, obtained from the seed hairs of kapok trees (Ceiba pentandra), is one of the natural
cellulosic fibers and it is used conventionally as stuffing for bedding, wadding, pillows, sound
absorption, soft toys, and for oil absorbency purposes (Gokulkumar et al. 2019;Liu et al. 2015;
Govindarajan Thilagavathi, Praba Karan, and Thenmozhi 2018; Zheng and Wang 2014). Kapok is
a unicellular fiber like cotton with unique microtube like hollow structure (Anigo et al. 2013).
Kapok fiber is used in many applications like thermal insulation (Peng and Fumei 2009), sound
absorption (Liu et al. 2015; 2014; Veerakumar and Selvakumar 2012), buoyant material (Zhang
et al. 2013) and oil sorption (Dong, Xu, and Wang 2015; Huang and Lim 2006; Rengasamy, Das,
and Karan 2011). The thermal resistance of kapok filling coats in comparison with duckling down
filling coats was investigated and it was recommended that the kapok filling coat could be used as
a cheaper substitute for duckling filling coats (Wang 2010). On increasing the content of kapok
fiber in the wadding, the warming effect of wadding also increases due to increases in bulkiness.
However, multiple compressions cause the lumen of kapok fiber to collapse, thus affecting the
performance aspects of kapok (Cui et al. 2010).
According to the literature review, several studies have been reported on parameters affecting
the thermal properties of nonwovens, but there is no work reported in the literature which
investigates the effect of fabric areal weight and needle punch density in combination with
different amounts of kapok fiber in recycled PET fiber blended nonwoven fabrics. Therefore, the
objective of this study is to investigate the effect of recycled PET % in blend with kapok fiber,
punch density, and the areal density on thermal resistance and air permeability of needle punched
nonwoven waddings. These nonwoven waddings will not only be the alternate of high-cost
thermal waddings but also reduce the burden of waste PET bottles from the globe.
1026 A. JABBAR ET AL.

Material and methods

Twenty-four nonwoven fabric samples were prepared by using different combinations of input
variables. The selected input variables and their levels are given in Table 1. The properties of kapok
and polyester fibers used in this study are provided in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.
Kapok and recycled polyester fibers were processed by using a laboratory-scale needle punching
setup (Dongwonroll Co. Ltd. Incheon, South Korea) to produce nonwoven fabrics according to the
combination of factor levels presented in Table 4. The fibers were blended manually before feeding to
a fiber opening line and then carded and cross-lapped subsequently to prepare a web for needle
punching at a needle penetration depth of 10 mm to produce all nonwoven samples. All samples were
conditioned in a standard atmosphere (temperature 20 ± 2°C, 65 ± 2% relative humidity) for 24 h
before testing. The theoretical volume porosity of all samples is calculated by using equation 1 (Barker
and Heniford 2011). The nonwoven samples were evaluated for thermal resistance (Rct) with
a permetest instrument by a similar procedure as given in ISO 11092:1993. The air permeability of
samples was measured according to standard test method ASTM D737-96, with an air permeability
tester (M021A, SDL Atlas). The statistical analysis was performed using MINITAB®18.1 statistical
software package.
ρweb
P¼1 (1)
ρfibre

Where;
P = Volume porosity of nonwoven web
ρweb = web density (g.cm−3)
ρfibre = density of component fibers in the web (g.cm−3)
As the prepared nonwovens were a blend of kapok and recycled polyester fiber, so the density of
component fibers is calculated using equation 2.

ρfibre ¼ wa ρa þ wb ρb (2)

Table 1. Selected input variables and their levels with actual values.
Levels
Sr. No. Input variable Symbol 1 2 3 4
1 Kapok fiber % (in blend with recycled polyester fiber) X1 20 40 60
2 Areal density (g.m−2) X2 150 300 450 600
3 Punch density (punches.cm−2) X3 15 20

Table 2. Properties of kapok fiber.

Sr. No. Parameter Value
1 50% span length (mm) 10.70
2 2.5% span length (mm) 18.4
3 Uniformity ratio (%) 58.10
4 Linear density (denier) 2.0
5 Fiber strength (cN/tex) 9.3

Table 3. Properties of recycled polyester fiber.

Sr. No. Parameter Value
1 Fiber length (mm) 38
2 Linear density (denier) 1.4
3 Fiber strength (cN/tex) 26.7
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 1027

Table 4. Properties of nonwoven fabrics with different combinations of input variables.

Factors Responses
Kapok fiber Areal density (g. Punch density
(%) m−2) (punches.cm−2) Porosity Thermal Resistance (m2 K. Air Permeability (mm.
Sr. No. X1 X2 X3 (-) Watt−1) sec−1)
1 20 150 15 0.926697 0.064 ± 0.0018 1100 ± 55.67
2 20 150 20 0.903108 0.048 ± 0.0042 1122 ± 67.97
3 20 300 15 0.908735 0.079 ± 0.0069 488.2 ± 36.74
4 20 300 20 0.853228 0.042 ± 0.0015 491.6 ± 40.12
5 20 450 15 0.911453 0.087 ± 0.0124 274 ± 10.58
6 20 450 20 0.878428 0.062 ± 0.0124 268.4 ± 14.08
7 20 600 15 0.907623 0.089 ± 0.0059 217 ± 12.74
8 20 600 20 0.866183 0.090 ± 0.0033 193.2 ± 6.53
9 40 150 15 0.888885 0.055 ± 0.0015 427.8 ± 17.28
10 40 150 20 0.866587 0.052 ± 0.0024 634.4 ± 19.85
11 40 300 15 0.875313 0.067 ± 0.0019 297.2 ± 3.96
12 40 300 20 0.826314 0.051 ± 0.0025 296.6 ± 3.78
13 40 450 15 0.86829 0.075 ± 0.0036 234.6 ± 20.54
14 40 450 20 0.786179 0.051 ± 0.0046 165.8 ± 7.19
15 40 600 15 0.865567 0.077 ± 0.0030 169.6 ± 5.03
16 40 600 20 0.784137 0.044 ± 0.0052 130.8 ± 11.01
17 60 150 15 0.85809 0.055 ± 0.0016 130.6 ± 33.41
18 60 150 20 0.824556 0.052 ± 0.0022 414 ± 42.72
19 60 300 15 0.844523 0.061 ± 0.0033 207.4 ± 20.99
20 60 300 20 0.826341 0.045 ± 0.0031 78.94 ± 7.50
21 60 450 15 0.835275 0.074 ± 0.0032 111 ± 5.43
22 60 450 20 0.798705 0.036 ± 0.0087 67.48 ± 7.93
23 60 600 15 0.855335 0.084 ± 0.0038 84.22 ± 5.30
24 60 600 20 0.738625 0.035 ± 0.0021 51.98 ± 1.35

where
wa = weight fraction of component fiber a
ρa = density of component fiber a (g.cm−3)
wb = weight fraction of component fiber b
ρb = density of component fiber b (g.cm−3)

Results and discussion

Thermal resistance
The thermal resistance of a textile structure expresses its ability to resist the flow of heat through its
thickness over a unit surface area. The thermal resistance results of nonwovens at different levels of
input variables are given in Table 4, which are used for statistical analysis to know their statistical
significance. The terms with p-values less than 0.05 are considered statistically significant with a 95%
confidence level. The analysis of variance (ANOVA), presented in Table 5, shows significant linear
(p-value = 0.022) and interaction (p-value = 0.026) effects of the selected variables on thermal
resistance. The response surface regression coefficients and p-values of all the terms are given in
Table 6.

Table 5. Analysis of variance by response surface regression for thermal resistance, Rct.
Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value
Model 5 0.006924 0.001385 4.27 0.010
Linear 3 0.004019 0.001340 4.13 0.022
Interaction 2 0.002905 0.001452 4.48 0.026
Error 18 0.005838 0.000324
Total 23 0.012762
1028 A. JABBAR ET AL.

The effect of input variables on the response variable can be directly estimated from the coefficient
values, which show how much each input variable contributes to the response variable. A higher value
of the regression coefficient indicates a higher effect of the corresponding term and vice versa. A minus
(-) sign indicates that the response value increases by a decrease in the input variable value and vice
versa. It is obvious from the regression coefficient values given in Table 6 that kapok fiber % in the
blend has the greatest effect on the thermal resistance, followed by punch density and areal density,
respectively. However, kapok fiber % is the only statistically significant term with p-value <0.05. The
final regression equation, which can be used to predict the thermal resistance of nonwovens by using
uncoded/actual values of predictor variables, is given as follows:
�
Thermalresistance m2 K=Watt ¼ 0:1110 þ 0:00203X1 þ0:000380X2 þ0:01155X3
0:000155X1 �X3 0:000021X2 �X3 (3)

The response surface plot displaying the effect of kapok fiber % in blend and punch density on the
thermal resistance of nonwovens is given in Figure 1a. It is interesting to note that thermal resistance
decreases with the increase in kapok fiber % age at each level of punch density. However, this decrease
in thermal resistance with the increase in kapok % is very sharp at a higher level of punch density.
Kapok is a very light fiber having a density of 0.3 g.cm−3 only as compared to polyester fiber with
a density of 1.38 g.cm−3. There will be a large number of kapok fibers per unit areal weight of the
nonwoven fabric as compared to polyester. Nonwovens possess many void spaces in the structure,
which can entrap a large amount of stagnant air. The thermal insulation ability of nonwoven textiles
can be determined mainly by the amount of air entrapped in the void spaces due to much lower
thermal conductivity of still air in comparison to textile fibers (Yang et al. 2018). The possible reason
for the decrease in thermal resistance with the increase in kapok fiber % age (despite natural

Table 6. Regression coefficients for thermal resistance by response surface analysis (coded units).
Sr. No. Term Coef SE Coef T-Value P-Value
1 Constant 0.06545 0.00368 17.80 0.000*
2 X1 −0.01351 0.00450 −3.00 0.008*
3 X2 0.00084 0.00493 0.17 0.867
4 X3 −0.00674 0.00368 −1.83 0.083
5 X1 X3 −0.00773 0.00450 −1.72 0.103
6 X2 X3 −0.01209 0.00493 −2.45 0.025*
S = 0.0180090 R-Sq = 54.26% R-Sq(adj) = 41.55%.
*statistically significant terms with 95% confidence level.

Figure 1. Response surface plots showing the effect of (a) kapok fiber % and punch density and (b) areal density and punch density
on the thermal resistance of nonwovens.
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 1029

hollowness in the kapok fiber) at each level of punch density may be ascribed to a decrease in porosity
and hence the amount of air entrapped in the structure which decreases more rapidly for nonwovens
with the greater amount of kapok fiber and at higher punch density.
Secondly, the less density of kapok fiber may help to increase the solid volume fraction (packing
density) per unit areal weight, which in turn increases the conduction path through fibrous structures
with the increase in kapok fiber % in blend thus contributing to decrease in thermal insulation
performance (Arambakam, Tafreshi, and Pourdeyhimi 2013). Similarly, the surface plot in Figure 1b
shows the effect of areal density and punch density on the thermal resistance of nonwovens. The
thermal resistance is found to increase with the increase in areal density at a lower level of punch
density. However, the opposite behavior is observed when punch density is increased with the increase
in the areal density of fabrics. These results may be explained by the fact that increasing the areal
weight of fabric at low punch density produces bulkier nonwovens with greater thickness which helps
to increase the thermal resistance due to more air entrapped in the bulky structure. However, the
reason for the opposite trend, with the increase in areal density, may be due to an increase in fiber-to-
fiber contact and packing density at a higher level of punch density. ANOVA showed a statistically
significant interaction of areal density and punch density (p-value = 0.025) but insignificant interaction
of kapok fiber % and punch density (p-value = 0.103) on the thermal resistance of fabrics. Finally, the
thermal resistance of these prepared blended waddings is comparable to the waddings available in the
market which are made of polyester. The areal density of these prepared waddings is also less than the
waddings reported in the literature, which enhances the feasibility for bulk production
(Gnanauthayan, Rengasamy, and Kothari 2017a; Muthukumar et al. 2019). Although the low price
of recycled polyester and kapok fiber make it more viable but the less tensile strength of kapok and
recycled-polyester reduces the strength of waddings but the optimized percentages of fibers could
make these waddings favorable.

Air permeability
Air permeability measures the ability of a fabric to pass air through it under a certain condition of
pressure difference. The results of the air permeability of nonwovens at different levels of input
variables are given in Table 4 and ANOVA of these results is presented in Table 7. The p-values,
less than 0.05, show the statistical significance of linear (0.000), square (0.001) and interaction (0.001)
effects of the selected input variables on air permeability with a confidence level greater than 95%. The
response surface regression coefficients and p-values of all the terms are given in Table 8. It is apparent
from the regression coefficient values that the areal density of nonwovens has the greatest inverse effect
on air permeability, followed by kapok fiber % age in the blend and punch density, respectively.
However, punch density is the only statistically insignificant term with p-value <0.05.
The final regression equation which can be used to predict the air permeability of nonwovens by
using uncoded/actual values of predictor variables is given as follows:
1
�
Airpermeability mm:sec ¼ 2460 23:59X1 6:214X2 9:4X3 þ0:00450X2 �X2 þ0:03783X1 �X2
(4)

Table 7. Analysis of variance by response surface regression for air permeability.

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value
Model 5 2263024 452605 26.14 0.000
Linear 3 1758889 586296 33.86 0.000
Square 1 246520 246520 14.24 0.001
Interaction 1 257615 257615 14.88 0.001
Error 18 311645 17314
Total 23 2574669
1030 A. JABBAR ET AL.

Table 8. Regression coefficients for air permeability by response surface analysis (coded units).
Sr. No. Term Coef SE Coef T-Value P-Value
1 Constant 223.1 43.0 5.19 0.000*
2 X1 −188.0 32.9 −5.72 0.000*
3 X2 −297.5 36.0 −8.25 0.000*
4 X3 −23.5 26.9 −0.88 0.393
5 X22 228.0 60.4 3.77 0.001*
6 X1 X 2 170.2 44.1 3.86 0.001*
S = 131.581 R-Sq = 87.90% R-Sq(adj) = 84.53%.
*statistically significant terms with 95% confidence level.

Figure 2. Response surface plots showing the effect of kapok fiber % and areal density on the air permeability of nonwovens.

The surface plot expressing the effect of kapok fiber % and areal density on the air permeability of
nonwovens is shown in Figure 2. It is obvious that air permeability decreases sharply with the increase
in kapok fiber % in the blend for nonwovens having low areal density. The reason for this fiber-to-fiber
may be attributed to a decrease in porosity of nonwoven with the increased proportion of kapok fiber
in the blend. Kapok is a lighter fiber due to its very low density. The increasing kapok fiber % in
nonwovens with same areal weight may result in a decrease in porosity due to increase in the number
of kapok fibers per unit areal weight and hence large fiber surface area thus offering more hindrance to
the flow of air through the structure which ultimately results in a decrease in air permeability.
However, this decrease in air permeability with the increase in kapok fiber % is low at a higher areal
weight of fabrics. This may be due to a comparatively smaller decrease in porosity with the increase in
areal density at a higher level of kapok % in the blend. ANOVA also showed a statistically significant
interaction between areal density and kapok fiber % in the case of air permeability (p-value = 0.001).

Conclusion
In this study, nonwoven waddings were produced with different combinations of selected input
variables (kapok fiber % in recycled PET/kapok blend, areal density, and punch density) and
investigated for thermal resistance and air permeability. It was reported that kapok fiber % had
a significant effect on the thermal resistance of nonwovens. The thermal resistance decreased sig­
nificantly with the increase in kapok fiber %, especially at higher punch density. The light needle-
punched nonwovens with higher areal density showed better thermal insulation performance, possibly
due to more entrapped air in the structure and high bulkiness. The interaction effect of areal density
and punch density on thermal resistance was also found significant. In the case of air permeability,
 JOURNAL OF NATURAL FIBERS 1031

there was a significant interaction between kapok fiber % and areal density. The increase in kapok fiber
% resulted in a decrease in air permeability, especially for fabrics with low areal density. It may be
estimated from this study that, in the selected range of input variables, recycled PET/kapok non­
wovens with less % of kapok fibers and punch density display better thermal insulation performance,
especially at higher areal density. This development of recycled fiber-based nonwoven waddings will
be a footstep toward a sustainable and eco-friendly environment.

ORCID
Muhammad Bilal Qadir http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4571-5328
Zuhaib Ahmad http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7751-5489

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