Solar Energy, 1972, Vol. 13, pp. 373-3~1. Pergamon Press.

Printed in Great Britain

SOME FACTORS AFFECTING THE ABSORPTION OF

SOLAR RADIATION IN SOLAR STILLS

P. 1. COOPER*
(Received 6 April 1971)

Ai~tr~-t-The performance of a solar still can be affected to a significant degree by the build-up of reflecting
layers of salt on the water surface and basin liner. This paper presents a method of quantitatively assessing
the effect of these salt layers, taking into account the band absorption characteristics of water. A revised curve
of the absorption of the solar spectrum in water is given.
R6sume- L'accumulation de couches de sel r6fl6chissantes h la surface de I'eau et sur le rev6tement int6rieur
du bassin affecte, d'une mani~re assez importante, la performance d'un distillateur solaire. Cet article
pr6sente une methode quantitative d'6valuation de l'effet de ces couches de sel, en tenant compte des
caract6ristiques d'absorption des bandes de I'eau. On donne une nouvelle courbe de ['absorption du spectre
solaire dans l'eau,
Resumen-El rendimiento de un alambique solar puede verse affectado sensiblemente par la acumulacitin de
capas de sal reflectoras sabre la superficie del agua y sabre el revestimiento de la cubeta. La presente ponen-
cia indica un m6todo de evaluaci6n cuantitativa del efecto ejercido par estas capas de sai, tomando en
cuenta las caracteristicas de absorci6n de banda correspondientes al agua, Se presenta una out'ca revisada
sabre la absorci6n del espectro solar en el agua.
INTRODUCTION
APPROXIMATE figures have normally been assumed to estimate the amount of solar
radiation which is productively absorbed in solar stills. The term "productively
absorbed" refers to that portion of the incident solar radiation which takes place in heat
and mass transfer from the body of the basin water within the still envelope. Little
account has been taken of the effects that may be expected from the build-up of mineral
and algal layers on both the basin liner and the surface of the basin water. Without
having a reasonable understanding of the transmission and absorption factors in solar
stills and how they are altered by cleaning processes, the addition of dyes etc., it is
difficult to make a realistic assessment of the gains which may be expected from such
actions. This understanding should result from interrelated theoretical and experi-
mental programmes.
It is generally agreed that the use of shallow water depths within a solar still should
result in a greater production rate for a given set of ambient conditions, but there is
little information available as to the change in absorption characteristics with decreased
water depths, especially with regard to algal and mineral films which are often present
in practical solar still installations. O f course, continuous cleaning of solar stills and/or
elimination of the cause of these deposits will keep the still in an "ideal" condition, but
normally at the expense o f increased labour costs, increased design costs in allowing for
effective cleaning and greater running and maintenance costs. It is important with solar
stills to retain the conceptual simplicity with which they are characterized.
MECHANISM OF TRANSMISSION AND ABSORPTION
The solar radiation incident on the outer c o v e r surface of a solar still suffers reflec-
tion and absorption in passing through the cover system, which normally includes a
*The author is a Research Scientist at the Division of Mechanical Engineering, CommonwealthScientific
and Industrial Research Organization, Highett, Victoria. Australia.
373
374 P. 1. COOPER

thin film of condensate on the underside of the cover. The attenuated radiation is
nominally transmitted through the air-water vapour mixture with no absorption, it
then undergoes reflection at the basin water surface, absorption within the water, and
absorption and reflection at the basin liner. The reflectivities at the water surface and
the liner will vary not only with angle of incidence, but with the amount and types of
deposits present. The absorption characteristics of the body of the basin water (for a
given angle of incidence) will vary with depth and with both the presence of absorbing
and reflecting impurities in the water and the spectral intensity (energy at a given wave-
length or in a given wave band) of the radiation transmitted through the water surface.
The spectral energy content might be affected by band absorption properties of the con-
densate film on the underside of the cover.
This study was undertaken to make a close semi-theoretical study of some of the
factors affecting the transmission and absorption of radiation in solar stills to gain an
indication as to whether a more comprehensive theoretical-experimental programme is
necessary to resolve this matter.

THE ABSORPTION OF SOLAR RADIATION IN WATER

There is not a large amount of data available on the absorption and transmission
characteristics of clear water covering the solar spectrum from about 0.25 to 2.5 itm.
The data available from some sources is plotted in Fig. l, where percentage absorp-
tances for the solar spectrum are given for various water film thicknesses in millimetres,
Each source will be treated in turn.
lO0

(DY) Dorsey
90

80

70
o.LsP~ s~e,d~ .t oL
w.o.°.. LDC
........... i m= I
x (MS) x Morris et a l . _ .,
-6 60

50
E
4O
el

/~'/ ~WN

zc Z(// /
I
I
I
IC /

i0-2 i0 °~ tO ° I01 I0 z 103 104 I0 s

Water f i l m thickness, mm
Fig. 1. Percentage of solar spectrum absorbed by different water thicknesses from various
authors.
 Absorption of solar radiation in solar stills 375

The results of B. W. Wilson [ 1] were experimental measurements in connection with

solar pond work. The solar radiation intensity was measured at various depths in distil-
led water with an I.R.C. solar battery, sensitive from 0.4 to 1.1/zm. Some doubt is cast
on the validity of these because of the limited spectral response of the solar battery
used. Figure 2 indicates that for m = l, 17 per cent of the i.r. radiation is above I. l/zm
and 4 per cent of the shortwave is below 0.4/zm.

I00

90

80

70

. 60

u 50

_~ 4o

30

20

i0

• I I 1 J
0-3 05 0'7 0"9 I-I 1"3 1"5 1.7 19
X, wovelength (/J,m)

Fig. 2. Percentage of solar spectrum (rn = 1) associated with wavelengths shorter than h.

Weinbergers' curvet2] was calculated from solar spectrum data given by P. Moon
[3] together with the absorption properties of sea water (pure) presented by Clark and
James[4] over the range 0.37-0.8/zm. He extrapolated the results into the i.r. region,
thus introducing a considerable degree of uncertainty.
Data is presented by Sverdrup e t a/.[5] on the extinction coefficients of sea water for
the solar spectrum at various depths, beginning with one meter. As the extinction co-
efficient varies with depth (as well as wavelength) the values presented are not strictly
applicable to smaller thicknesses of water used in solar stills (up to say 300 mm).
Three curves are given based on the data in Dorsey [6]. This data covered a large
range of water depths and is presented in terms of the fractions of energy absorbed in
particular wave-bands (see Table 1). The absorption in an infinite thickness of water
should represent the fractional energy content of the wave-bands in the solar spectrum.
The energy content of the given wave-bands for the solar spectrum with m = 0 are
also shown in Table 1 in parenthesis [7]. It is obvious that the agreement between the
two spectrums presented is not good, so the spectral results as given in Dorsey are
suspect.
In Table 2, the data from Dorsey is shown in a different form, where absorptions
are expressed as a percentage of the energy content within the indicated wavelength
376 P . I . COOPER

Table 1. From Dorsey,-Properties of Ordinary Water Substance, p. 3 34.

Total input of 1000 units. The following figures represent the fraction of total incident radiation absorbed by
a layer of water of the given thickness and lying within the indicated range in wavelength.
Wavelength Water thickness
band (ram)
,X(~m) I 0 -~ 10 -I IO 0 10 ! 10 z 10 a 10 4 10 s oo

(0"3?) (357)
0.2-0"6 0 0 0 O"1 0.8 7.5 65-0 223" 1 237.0
(277)
0.6-0.9 0 0"04 0.7 6.3 54"8 230" ! 350-2 359.7 359.7
(150)
0.9-1"2 0.08 0-67 6.8 56.0 170.6 178.8 178"8 178.8 178.8
(83)
1.2-1"5 0.54 4'78 23-3 69.5 86.6 86.6 86-6 86.6 86.6
(49)
1.5-1.8 !.82 16-28 53.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0
(26)
1"8-2"1 2.0 14'05 25"0 25.0 25"0 25"0 25.0 25'0 25-0
(17)
2-1-2"4 0.84 6.42 24"2 25"3 25"3 25.3 25"3 25-3 25.3
(11)
2-4-2.7 0"94 5"24 7"2 7"2 7'2 7'2 7.2 7"2 7'2
(8)
2"7-3.0 O"19 0.4 0"4 0.4 0"4 0"4 0.4 0.4 0.4
Sum 6.41 47.88 140.6 269.8 450.7 640.9 818-5 986.1 !000.0

Table 2. Absorption expressed as a percentage of the energy content within the indicated wavelength bands.
These have been compiled from Table 1.
Wavelength
band
~. (/zm) 10-2 10-1 10o 101 10~ 10~ 104 IOn
0-3-0"6 0 0 0 0.04 0.34 3.16 27.43 99-14 108
0"6--0'9 0 0'01 0'I0 1"75 15"23 63.97 97.36 108 108
0.9-1.2 0.05 0"37 3.80 31"32 95"41 100 108 100 100
I "2- I "5 0"62 5"52 26"95 80-25 IO0 IO0 IO0 108 I00
1"5-1"8 2"30 20'35 66'25 100 100 100 108 100 108
1'8-2"1 8"08 56"20 108 108 108 100 100 108 108
2"1-2"4 3"32 25"38 95"65 108 IO0 108 108 108 100
2"4-2"7 13"06 72"78 100 108 100 100 100 108 108
2"7-3"0 47"50 100 100 108 100 100 I00 108 100

bands. Assuming that the percentage absorptions are correct, they can n o w be applied
to any chosen solar spectrum weighted for given air masses i.e. m = 0, 1,2 etc.
Table 3 gives the approximate energy contents o f the solar spectrum (as a percent-
age of the total) for m --- 0 and m -- 1. The percentage absorptions in Table 2 are applied
to the two spectrums in Table 3, and the results are shown in Tables 4 and 5. T w o curves
(m = 0 and 1) are plotted in Fig. 1. (Designated D o r s e y - C o o p e r curves because they
are curves compiled by the author from basic data in Dorsey [6].)
The final curve in Fig. 1, due to the experimental work of Morris e t al.[8], shows
close correspondence with the D o r s e y - C o o p e r curve for m - 1 and it is proposed that
the results for m --- 1 over the range of water depths used are a close approximation for
this initial study.
 Absorption of solar radiation in solar stills 377

Table 3. The following table gives the ap-

proximate energy contents as a percentage
of the total, for the given wavelength bands.
The values for m = 0 are from Thekaekara
and Drummond[7l and those for m = I
from Moon [3].
Wavelength band
h (p,m) m=O m= 1

<0.3 41"~}35.7 35.7

0.3-0"6 3 •
0.6-0.9 27.7 35.0
0.9-1.2 15"0 16-2
1.2-1"5 8.3 6-3
1.5-1-8 4.9 4.7
1.8-2-1 2.6
2.1-2"4 1.7 ]
2-4--2'7 1'1 2"1
2-7-3"0 0'8

Table 4. Amount of energy absorbed in each wavelength band (m --- 0) where the total energy in that band is
indicated beneath the column.

Wavelength Water film thickness

band (mm)
h (p.m) 10-2 10-I i0 ° lOt 102 I0a 104 10 s ~c

< 0'3-0"6 0 0 0 0'01 0.12 1-13 9.79 35-39 35-70

0"6-0"9 0 0 0"03 0"48 4'22 17"72 26.97 27'70 27"70
0"9-1'2 0'01 0.06 0"57 4-70 14'31 15"00 15-00 15'00 15-00
1'2-1'5 0"05 0-46 2-24 6.66 8"30 8"30 8"30 8"30 8-30
1"5-1"8 0-11 1.10 3'25 4"90 4.90 4.90 4-90 4.90 4.90
1'8-2-1 0'21 1"46 2.60 2"60 2.60 2'60 2.60 2'60 2-60
2" 1-2"4 0'06 0"43 1'62 1"70 I '70 1"70 1"70 1-70 1-70
2-4-2'7 0"14 0.80 1.10 I'10 1"10 1-10 1-10 I'10 I'10
2"7-3"0 0-38 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 0-80 0.80 0.80 0.80
Sum 0.96 5.01 12.21 22"95 38.05 53-25 71.16 97.49 97.8

Table 5. Amount of energy absorbed in each wavelength band (m = I) where the total energy in that band is
indicated beneath the column.

Wavelength Water film thickness

band (mm)
h (~m) 10-2 10-t 10° 101 102 103 104 l0 s o,

0.3-0.6 0 0 0 0.01 O"12 1-13 9-79 33"61 35.7

0.6-0.9 0 0 0.04 0.61 5"33 22'39 34.08 35,00 35.0
0.9-1.2 0'01 0.06 0.62 5.07 15-46 16-20 16.20 16,20 16.2
1.2-1.5 0'04 0"35 1.70 5.58 6.30 6,30 6-30 6.30 6'3
1-5-1 '8 O"I0 0-96 3' 11 4.70 4.70 4,70 4"70 4.70 4.7
I-8-2.1 0'13 0.90 2.10 2.10 2.10 2.10 2-10 2-10 2-1
Sum 0.28 2.27 7-57 18.07 34.01 52.82 73.17 97.91 100

INITIAL ANALYSIS
T h e idealized system under study consists of a horizontal c o v e r glass with a thin
layer of condensate on the underside covering a horizontal basin of water of 3 cm depth.
It is assumed that m = 1, the w a t e r film thickness is 0.1 m m and the extinction coeffi-
cient of the c o v e r glass is substantially independent of wavelength. T h e c o v e r system
378 P. I. COOPER

transmissivity is assumed to be 0.9 for all the spectrum after band absorption in the
0.1 mm thickness of condensate is considered.
It is assumed that there is little "scattering" of the solar radiation within the basin
water and all reflectivities at all surfaces are assumed to be independent o f wavelength.
T h e reflectivity of "clean" water surfaces is taken as 2 per cent specular and the liner
reflectance is assumed to normally be equivalent to 5 per cent specular. In the case of a
"clean" water surface and basin liner the reflection will probably be a combination of
specular and diffuse. Where extensive White deposits are apparent, the reflection will
approach the state of being totally diffuse. With largely diffuse reflection from the basin
liner, there will be a significant amount of total internal reflection at the water-air inter-
face. T o simplify the analysis the reflectances quoted are the equivalent specular
reflectances.
Consider 100 units of direct solar radiation (m = 1) incident normally on the "still".
F o r clarity, the following analysis is presented in tabular form in Table 6.
It is assumed that subsequent to column 8 in Table 6, there is no further absorption.
T h e following are expressed as fractions of the incident radiation
Amount transmitted by cover system (2 col. 3) = 0.878
Amount penetrating basin water surface (2 col. 4) -- 0.861
Amount absorbed in 3 cm water, first pass (2 col. 4 - 2 col. 6) = 0.205*
Amount absorbed in liner (~r col. 6 - Y~col. 7) = 0-623*
A m o u n t absorbed in 3 cm water, second pass (2 col. 7 - 2 col. 8) = 0-003*
T h e total amount (fractional) of incident solar radiation productively absorbed in
the basin water and liner is the sum of the expressions marked with an asterisk (*).
Therefore
Productive ,4 bsorptance = 0.831.

Assume that there is some scale or deposits on the liner of the still, but the basin water
surface is still clean (i.e. 2 per cent reflectance). Assume that these deposits give a 20
per cent reflectance, again independent of wavelength. The band absorption analysis is
shown in Table 7, where the column numbering follows on from column 6 in Table 6.
For the case above, the productive absorptance is 0.205 + 0.525 + 0.014+ 0.002.
Therefore
Productive Absorptance = 0.746.

N o w consider the case of 20 per cent basin water surface reflectivity and a 5 per cent
liner reflectance. Performing calculations as above

Productive A bsorptance = 0.678.

Consider now the extreme of 20 per cent basin water reflectance and 20 per cent liner
reflectance. F o r this case

Productive A bsorptance = 0.608.

Thus, tentatively it appears that the productive absorptances shown in Table 8 are a
reasonable indication o f what might be expected for the assumed reflectances.
 Absorption of solar radiation in solar stills 379

e~
t~q
eq~

.o

<

e~

e~e~
~99999
t.-

II o

e-

¢¢
t.-

t-
O

t-,

e~

k-
380 P. I. COOPER

Table 7. Band absorption characteristics for the solar spectrum (m = I) following on

from column 6, Table 6, with a surface reflectance of 2 per cent and a basin reflect-
ance of 20 percent.

Column 7(a) 8(a) 9(a)

Wavelength band After 20% After another After 2% back
~,(p,m) liner refl. 3 cm of water refl. at surface
0'3-0"6 6.2 6" I O' 1
0'6-0-9 5'7 5'2 O"I
0'9-1"2 1"1 0'4 0
1'2-1-5 0'1 0 0
1"5-1"8 0 0 0
I-8-2"i 0 0 0
Sum 13" i II-7 0'-~

The assumption is made that all in column 9(a) is absorbed in the liner.

Table 8. Productive absorpt-

ance of 3 cm of water in a solar
still for various surface and
linear reflectances. Normal
incidence is assumed.

"•SurfaceR
LinerR ~ 20% 20%

5% 0-831 0678
20% 0.746 0.608

CONCLUSIONS
T h e r e s u l t s f r o m this r u d i m e n t a r y initial a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e that the p r e s e n c e o f de-
p o s i t s on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e b a s i n w a t e r a n d b a s i n liner m i g h t h a v e a d e t r i m e n t a l effect
o n o u t p u t , p r o v i d i n g no o t h e r f a c t o r s b e c o m e significant. A s w a s e x p e c t e d , s u r f a c e
r e f l e c t a n c e a p p e a r s to b e m o r e d e t r i m e n t a l t h a n liner r e f l e c t a n c e b e c a u s e o f the
a b s o r b i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f the b a s i n w a t e r . O f c o u r s e , this a n a l y s i s h a s b e e n r e s t r i c t e d to
n o r m a l i n c i d e n c e . F u r t h e r a n a l y s i s at o t h e r a n g l e s o f i n c i d e n c e w o u l d s h o w s o m e varia-
tion, b u t it is not e x p e c t e d to a l t e r t h e r e l a t i v e effects s h o w n .
In s u p p o r t o f this s e m i - t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k , s o m e s i m p l e t e s t s c o n d u c t e d b y T. A .
L a w a n d at the C S I R O r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n , Griffith, N . S , W . , A u s t r a l i a , i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e
is an i n c r e a s e o f 8 - 1 5 p e r c e n t in t h e m e a s u r e d a i b e d o as t a k e n on s o m e b l a c k s u r f a c e s
r e l a t i v e to s c a l y s u r f a c e s in s o l a r stills. F o r e x a m p l e a r e f l e c t a n c e o f 21.7 p e r c e n t w a s
f o u n d with a thin, floating, w h i t i s h s u r f a c e scale. T h e r e f l e c t a n c e o f an i d e n t i c a l l o c a t i o n
at a p p r o x i m a t e l y the s a m e time. b u t with a r e a s o n a b l y c l e a n w a t e r s u r f a c e a n d a b l a c k
b u t y l r u b b e r l i n e r g a v e a m e a s u r e d r e f l e c t a n c e o f 13.7 p e r cent.
It is c o n c l u d e d t h a t the r e s u l t s o f t h e s e t w o w o r k s i n d i c a t e that m o r e d e t a i l e d
theoretical and experimental analyses are required.

REFERENCES
[I] B. W. Wilson. CSIRO Division of Chemical Engineering. Clayton, Victoria, Australia, Personal com-
munication.
12] H. Weinberger, The Physics of the Solar Pond. Solar Energy 8, (21, 45 ( 19641.
 Absorption of solar radiation in solar stills 381

[3] P. Moon. Proposed Standard Radiation Curves for Engineering Use, J. Franklin Inst. 230, (5), 583-617
(1940).
[4] G. l,. Clarke and H. R. James, Laboratory analysis of the selective absorption of light by sea water.
J. Opt. Soc. Am. 29, 43 ~1939).
[5] H. V. Sverdrup. M. W. Johnson and R. H. Fleming, The Oceans. Their Physics. Chemistry and General
Biology. Prentice- Hall, New York ( i 942).
[61 N. E. Dorsey. Properties of Ordinary Water Substance. Reinhold. New York (I 940).
[7] M P. Thekaekara and A. J. Drummond, Standard Values for the Solar Constant and its Spectral Com-
ponents. Nat. Phys. Science 229, p. 6, Jan. 197 I.
[8] L. G. Morris, E. S. Trickett. F. H. Vanstone, D. A. Wells, The Limitation of Maximum Temperature in
a Glasshouse by the Use of a Water Film on the Roof. J. A g. Engng Res. 3, (2), 121, (1958).
[9] T. A. Lawand, Brace Research Institute, McGill University. Quebec, Canada, Personal communication.