Ecz Grade 10 - 12 Biology Summarised Notes (Locomotion and The Skeleton) With Exam Questions and Answers

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ECZ GRADE 10 - 12 BIOLOGY SUMMARISED
NOTES (LOCOMOTION AND THE SKELETON)
WITH EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
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G10 TO G12 BIOLOGY
ESKULU ZM 6/20/19
(SKELETON) NOTES
Content
unit 9: skeletal system ........................................................................................................... 2
9.1.1 The skeletal system ...............................................................................................................3
9.1.2 Connective tissue ..................................................................................................................4
9.1.2 Functions of the skeleton ......................................................................................................4
9.1.3 Structure of the vertebrate column .......................................................................................5
9.1.4 Types of vertebral column .....................................................................................................6
9.2.4 Internal structure of bones ....................................................................................................8
9.2.5 Types of synovial joint ..........................................................................................................9
9.2.6 Types of muscles ................................................................................................................. 11
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UNIT 9: SKELETAL SYSTEM

9.1 The skeleton
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 Animals such as mammals and other vertebrates possess antigravity

supports in the form of the skeletal systems. The skeleton supports the
vertebrate body and is used in locomotion.
An exoskeleton is the external skeleton that supports and protects an
animal's body.
An endoskeleton is a skeleton that is on the inside of a body.
9.1.1 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

 At birth, the human skeleton consists of over 270 bones. However, in
adults this number reduces to 206 bones due the fusion of smaller
bones into larger structures.
The adult skeleton is made up of the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
 The axial skeleton forms the axis of the body, which comprises skull,
vertebral column, ribs and sternum.
 The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages (“arms and legs”) that
are attached to the body axis, which includes pectoral girdle, pelvic
girdle, arms and legs.
 The upper arm bone is the humerus. It is attached by a hinge joint to the
lower arm bones, the radius and ulna. The thighbone or femur is
attached at the hip to the pelvic girdle by a ball and socket joint and at
the knee it makes a hinge joint with the tibia. The fibula runs parallel to
the tibia but does not form part of the knee joint.
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9.1.2 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Types of connective tissue
1. __________: Very hard because it contains minerals, particularly calcium.
2. __________: soft, serves as a shock-absorber between bones.
3. __________: connect bones to bones. They are elastic and can be

stretched. They hold the skeleton together while allowing muscles to move
the individual’s bones. They consist of tough collagen fibres.
4. __________: connect muscle to bone. They have little elasticity and so they
virtually cannot be stretched. They also consist of tough collagen fibres.
9.1.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON

 The human skeleton is living and performs many functions in the body.
Some important functions are summarised below:
i. Movement: muscles attach to the bones of the skeleton, enabling

movement.
ii. Protection: the skull protects the brain, the ribcage protects the heart and
lungs, and the pelvic bones protect the digestive tract and reproductive
organs.
iii. Support: provides shape and support to the body.
iv. Storage of minerals: bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphate
ions.
v. Hearing: bones in the middle ear, called the hammer, anvil and stirrup,
amplify sound waves and assist in the hearing process.
vi. Red blood cell production: long bones and flat bones contain red bone
marrow to produce red blood cells.
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9.1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE VERTEBRATE COLUMN

 The backbone is known as the vertebral column. It is made up of 33 bones
and each bone is known as a vertebra. Each vertebra is separated from the
one above and the one below by a compressible pad of cartilage,
intervertebral disc.
 A vertebra has a neural canal through which the spinal cord passes. The
neural canal is surrounded by the neural arch.
 The neural arch extends into a neural spine which projects upwards. The
neural spine is used for muscle attachment.
 The lower end of vertebra is a solid bone known as centrum. On either side
of the vertebra are transverse processes, which are also used for muscle
attachment.
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 Other bone projections called facets or zygapophysis are present at the

back and front of each vertebra. These facets are used for articulation.
9.1.4 TYPES OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN

 The bones in the vertebral column can be grouped into five different types.
These are cervical (neck region), thoracic (chest region), lumbar (pelvic region)
and caudal (tail region) vertebrate.
 All vertebrae in the vertebral column have the same basic structure, but they
show variations due to the different regions of the vertebral column where
they are found and the different functions they perform.
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Number of Neural canal Centrum Neural Transverse Features

bones spine process
The cervical One Large in atlas Absent in Small in Absent in The first cervical
vertebra atlas atlas atlas vertebra called atlas
and the second called
axis
One Large in axis Large Absent in Absent in axis They allow free
projection axis rotation movement of
(odontoid the head
process in
axis)
Five Large in other Large in Small in Small in Present a pair of canals
others others others known as
vertebraterial canal
(passage for the blood
vessels)
The thoraic Twelve Present Large Long Short The neutral spine
vertebra projects upward and
forward.
Each vertebra
articulates with a pair
of ribs, except the 11th
and 12th thoracic
vertebrate, which are
not attached to ribs
The lumber Five Large and Long Long The neutral spine
thick project upwards and
forward. The largest
and strongest bone of
the vertebral column
The sacral Five Narrow Large Reduced Present They are fused in a
vertebra form known as sacrum
The caudal Four Absent Present Absent Absent They are fused in a
vertebra form known as coccyx
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9.2.4 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF BONES

 Bone tissues can be classified as compact or spongy. Compact bones are
made up of tightly packed concentric rings of bone known as a Harversian
system, which gives bones a porous appearance in the shaft area.
 Within the porous spaces of the Harversian system are the bone cells and
blood vessels. Spongy bone is less tightly packed and it is made of thin
plates of bone. There is no Harversian system but in between the plates
there is red marrow. The red marrow found at the ends is richly supplied
with blood vessels. Red blood cells are manufactured in the red marrow.
 The marrow cavity also contains yellow marrow for fat storage.
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Structure of harversian system:
9.2.5 TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT

 A joint is a region where two bones meet. It may be a fixed joint as in the
junction of the hip girdle (fibrous joints) and the vertebrate column
(cartilaginous joint) or a movable joint (in other words a synovial joint) as
in the knee.
 Two important types of movable joint are the hinge joint and the ball and
socket joint.
 Hinge joints allow movement in only one plane, e.g. knee, elbow.
 Ball and socket joint allows movement in any plane, e.g. hip, shoulder.
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Important properties of joints

i. Joints allow the bones to move easily without friction, which is
achieved by synovial fluid.
ii. Joints prevent the bones coming apart, which is achieved by the
capsule surrounding the joint, and by ligaments, which connect the
bones together on either side of the joint.
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9.2.6 TYPES OF MUSCLES

 There are three main types of muscles; skeletal muscles (or voluntary
muscle), smooth muscles or (involuntary muscle) and cardiac muscles.
 Skeletal muscle is made up of long fibres. Each fibre is formed from many
cells, but the cells have fused together. Skeletal muscles are composed of
the proteins, actin and myosin. These are responsible for the contractions
of the muscles.
 Smooth (visceral or striated) muscle cells are found in organs, which are
not controlled by the voluntary part of the brain. They line the walls of the
alimentary canal, the uterus and the blood vessels. Each smooth muscle
fibre is made of a single cell with single nucleus and numerous fibrils. The
fibres of skeletal muscle and cells of smooth muscle have the special
property of being able to contract, i.e. shorten, when stimulated by nerve
impulses. However, the fibres and cells cannot elongate; they can only
contract and relax.
 Cardiac muscles are special muscles found only in the heart.
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QUESTIONS
1. 3.
2. 4.
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5. 7.
6.
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answer
1. B 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. A 6. C 7. A
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Ecz Grade 10 - 12 Biology Summarised Notes (Locomotion and The Skeleton) With Exam Questions and Answers

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eskulu.com STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

UNIT 9: SKELETAL SYSTEM

 Animals such as mammals and other vertebrates possess antigravity

9.1.1 THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

9.1.2 CONNECTIVE TISSUE

2. __________: soft, serves as a shock-absorber between bones.

3. __________: connect bones to bones. They are elastic and can be

9.1.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON

i. Movement: muscles attach to the bones of the skeleton, enabling

iii. Support: provides shape and support to the body.

9.1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE VERTEBRATE COLUMN

 Other bone projections called facets or zygapophysis are present at the

9.1.4 TYPES OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Number of Neural canal Centrum Neural Transverse Features

9.2.4 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF BONES

Structure of harversian system:

9.2.5 TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT

Important properties of joints

9.2.6 TYPES OF MUSCLES

 Cardiac muscles are special muscles found only in the heart.

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