MSE 354/METE 362: Physical Metallurgy of Ferrous Metals

(2 credits)

2nd Semester, 2021/2022 Academic Year

Department of Materials Engineering.

Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology.

Daniel N. Ampong
ndampong2015@gmail.com
+233 55 304 1496 (whatsApp), +233 50 863 4823
Rm #: HA Area 1
 KNUST COVID-19 AWARENESS
COVID-19: Caused by a virus known as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-
CoV-2). Spreads very easily from person to person.
Signs and symptoms: Fever or chills, cough, difficulty in breathing, cold, headache, diarrhoea, loss
of taste/smell, and several non-specific symptoms.
Transmission: Respiratory droplets, airborne, contaminated surfaces.
Prevention: Adhere to the KNUST COVID-19 safety protocols
• Respiratory hygiene: Wear a nose mask, cough etiquettes
• Hand hygiene: Frequent hand washing, hand sanitizing
• Maintain ‘safe’ physical distancing
• Avoid crowds and confined/poorly ventilated spaces
Virus is changing itself with even more serious ramifications, so it is important we all
adhere to the safety protocols

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 Class Policy
▪ ATTENDANCE IS COMPULSORY and you are required to sign at each class section.

▪ Only those with tangible permission will be allowed to miss a class. Permissions will
only be granted BEFORE the class.

▪ Those who MISS three or more classes will not be permitted to write the Final Exam.

▪ All ELECTRONIC APPLIANCES must be turned off and stored away (should not be seen)
during all lectures. Failure will lead to CONFISCATION. They will only be released at the
end of the semester. NO excuses will be allowed.

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 Homework
▪ Homework will be assigned roughly once a week.

▪ You may discuss homework with fellow classmates. This is encouraged.

However, you are expected to individually write up (handwritten) your
solutions.

▪ Handwritten homework solutions must be submitted to the TA by the deadline.

Scanned copy of the homework solution must be uploaded on the VIRTUAL
CLASSROOM.

▪ No LATE homework will be accepted.

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 Objectives and course content
Objectives:
This course is aimed at helping students to
▪ know the definition of steel and cast iron
▪ to know the types of steels and cast iron
from iron-carbon phase diagram
▪ to understand the heat treatment and
properties of steel and cast iron
▪ to know the effects of alloying elements
in steels and cast iron
▪ to know the structure-property relation
of steel and cast iron and their
applications.
Course content:
In this course students will cover the
following topics:
▪ Metals and alloys; Solidification of
metals and alloys; Single-phase and
multiphase
▪ Ferrous and non-ferrous alloys
▪ Steels: Plain carbon steels (PCSs); Heat
treatments of PCSs; Surface hardening
methods; Alloy steels, Heat treating
techniques
▪ Cast irons: Types and structure of cast
irons.
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 Reference Materials
▪ John Campbell, (2012), The New Metallurgy of Cast Metals (Castings) Second Edition.
▪ Mikell P. Groover, (2010), Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing, (Materials,
Processes, and Systems). 4th Edition.
▪ Callister, W. D., Rethwisch, D. G. (2018), Materials Science and Engineering, An
Introduction, 10th Edition, Wiley & Sons
▪ R. E. Smallman, A.H.W. Ngan., (2007), Physical Metallurgy and Advanced Materials,
Butterworth-Heinemann.
▪ Lecture Slides

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 General Instructions
Attendance: It is expected that every student attend all lectures. Attendance records will be
kept and used to determine each person’s qualification to sit for the final examination
(page 109 of Students’ Guide and Code of Conduct). In case of illness or other unavoidable
cause of absence, the student must communicate as soon as possible with the course
instructor indicating the reason for the absence.

Assignments and Group Work: Students are expected to submit assignments as scheduled.
Failure to submit an assignment as and when due will earn you zero for that assignment.
Only under extenuating circumstances, for which a student has notified any of the
instructors in advance, will late submission of assignments be permitted.

Code of Conduct in Lecture Rooms: Students should turn off their cell phones during
lectures. Food and drinks are not permitted in the lecture room. You can not enter or leave
the lecture room 10 minutes after the start and before the end of the lecture unless
permission has been sought.
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 Grading

Quizzes 10
Assignments 5
MidSem Exam 15
Final Exam 70
Total 100

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 QUIZ 1
1. What is a ferrous metal

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 Steel
▪ Steel making involves the removal, by oxidation, of the impurities from pig iron or a
mixture of pig iron and steel scrap.

▪ Pig iron contains 3-4% carbon, together with smaller amounts of manganese, silicon,
sulphur and phosphorus.

▪ These elements make the iron weak and brittle and their partial removal is necessary to
produce a stronger and more ductile product for commercial use.

▪ The chief processes available are open-hearth and Bessemer (reading assignment).
➢The electric-arc process is also used for making high-grade alloy steels, usually from a charge
of scrap steel, although a certain amount of refining is involved.

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 Steel
▪ Steel-making processes are usually classified as either ‘acid’ or ‘basic’ depending on the
furnace lining and consequently the nature of the slag.
➢acid process: furnace lining usually silica.
➢basic process: magnesite or dolomite as furnace lining.
➢Magnesite consists of magnesium carbonate, MgCO3, whereas dolomite is essentially a
mixture of the carbonates of calcium and magnesium (CaCO3 and MgCO3)

▪ Deoxidation: at the end of the steel-making process some iron will be in the oxidized
condition and detoxification is necessary before pouring the melt into ingot mould.
➢eg of deoxidants used are ferro-manganese and aluminium.
➢these additions have strong oxygen affinity and form insoluble oxides which normally
enters into the slag but if they do not, they will form non-metallic inclusions in the
steel.
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 Comparison of Acid and Basic Steel-making Processes

ACID BASIC
Refractory lining Silica Magnesite, dolomite

Composition of pig iron used High silicon High phosphorus

Low phosphorus Low silicon

Slag Acid (high silica) Basic (high lime)

Elements removed by C, Si, Mn C, Si, Mn, P, S
oxidation

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 Killed and Rimming Steels
▪ Steels that have been completely deoxidised are referred to as ‘KILLED’ steels.

▪ The steels are free from blow holes and are characterised by ‘piping', a term used to
describe the normal solidification shrinkage cavity.
➢This can be minimized by using a wide-end up mould together with a refractory ‘hot
top’ or feeder head

▪ RIMMING steels are cast in an oxidised condition, deoxidation not being complete.
▪ The control of deoxidation is very important in the manufacture of rimming steels.
▪ A thick of rim of pure metal solidifies and the residual liquid is enriched sufficiently in
carbon to react with the oxide.
▪ FeO + C = Fe + CO

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 Rimming Steels Continued
▪ The carbon monoxide, CO, evolved
causes a risen surface which
counteracts the piping and gives rise
to a core which contains numerous
blow holes.

▪ Rimming steels are usually low carbon

steels, especially suitable for sheet
and plate, due to their pure rim.

▪ Due to the low carbon content, the

blow holes are welded up during
subsequent hot rolling.

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 Structure of Plain Carbon Steels
• Pure iron exhibits allotropy (exist in more than one physical form)

• This can be seen by plotting the volume of the unit cell of pure iron against the
temperatures as shown (next page).

• A crystal structure exists between the temperature range (937 – 1400 0C), different from
that of other temperatures

• This is the allotropic form known as 𝛾 iron and possesses a face-centered cubic lattice.

• At other temperatures, a body-centered cubic lattice exists, this being the crystal
structure of 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛿 iron with various transition points A1, A2, A3 and A4
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 The steel portion of Iron-carbon Diagram
▪ The steel portion refers to that part of the iron carbon diagram of use in the heat
treatment of plain carbon steels.
▪ It will be noticed that the addition of carbon lowers the A3 point until at 0.83% carbon it
merges with the A1 point this is the eutectoid point at 695 oC associated with pearlite
formation.

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Hypo-eutectoid Steels Hyper-eutectoid Steels

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 The steel portion of Iron-carbon Diagram
▪ Hypo-eutectoid steels are those with carbon content less than 0.83%
▪ Hyper-eutectoid steels have more than 0.83% carbon content.
▪ The various micro constituents present in plain carbon steels may be as follows.

▪ Ferrite: A solid solution of carbon in body-centred cubic 𝛼 iron, containing a maximum of

0.4% carbon at 695 oC.
➢it is soft, ductile and readily cold worked.

▪ Cementite: A hard brittle compound of iron and carbon with the formula Fe3C. It may
exist in the free state usually as a grain boundary film, or as a constituent of the eutectoid
pearlite.

▪ Perlite: This is the eutectoid structure consisting of alternate laminations of ferrite and
cementite.
➢It consists of 0.83% carbon and is formed by the breakdown of the austenite solid
solution at 695 oC . 19
 The steel portion of Iron-carbon Diagram
▪ Austenite: A solid solution of carbon in face-centered cubic 𝛾 iron, containing a maximum
of 1.7% carbon at 1130 oC.
➢It is soft and non-magnetic and only exists in plain carbon steels above the upper
critical range

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 Mechanical Properties of Plain Carbon Steels
▪ The mechanical properties of slowly cooled PCSs will depend upon the proportions of
each of the constituents present.

▪ After 0.83% carbon, free cementite appears in the microstructure and the linear
relationship exists no longer.

Micrconstitue TS El HB
nts N/mm2
Ferrite 340 40 100
Cementite 45 Nil 658
Pearlite 930 5 280
Table Showing the Mechanical Properties of the Constituents Present in Slowly Cooled PCSs

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Effect of carbon on the microstructure and mechanical properties of plain carbon steels in the
normalized condition

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▪ A simple empirical formula can be obtained from the slope of the TS curve in the graph.
▪ This gives the relation between carbon content and tensile strength for the hypo
eutectoid normalised steel as,
➢Y=700x + 340
➢y=TS in N/mm2
➢x= carbon%

Relationship between carbon content and microstructure

▪ For hypo eutectoid steels
%𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑥 100
% 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒 =
0.83

0.83 − %𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑥100

%𝐹𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 =
0.83

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 Effect of Other Elements Present in PCSs
▪ In addition to carbon, all plain carbon steels contain the following elements:
Manganese – up to 1%
Silicon - up to 0.3%
Sulphur – up to 0.05%
Phosphorus – up to 0.05%

Manganese
▪ It ensures freedom from blow holes and combines with the sulphur present.
▪ Raises the yield point, TS and impact test values.
▪ It increase the depth of hardness.
▪ It increases the tendency to distort or crack upon quenching.
➢The manganese content should be kept below 0.5% in medium and high carbon steel
which have to be heat – treated in this manner.
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 Effects of the Various Elements in PCSs
Silicon
▪ In most commercial mild steel the silicon content is of the order of 0.1 – 0.2%.
▪ In this amounts, it has little effect on mechanical properties.
▪ In high-carbon steels, it should not exceed 0.2% since it assists the breakdown of
cementite into ferrite and graphite.

Phosphorus
▪ It has a pronounced tendency to segregate in steel.
▪ Average composition should be kept below 0.05% to prevent the brittle compound Fe3P
as a separate constituent.

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 Effects of the Various Elements in PCSs
Sulphur
▪ It may exist in two forms in steel:
a. As manganese sulphide inclusions
➢These are soft dove-grey inclusions which are readily elongated in the direction of working.

b. As ferrous sulphide inclusions

➢This occurs as a brown grain boundary film.
➢It is hard and brittle and possesses a low melting point thereby giving rise to cracking during
hot- and cold- working of the steel.
➢In order to avoid the formation of ferrous sulphide inclusions, a manganese : sulphur ratio of at
least 5:1 is maintained.
➢Generally , sulphur content should be kept below 0.05% but certain free- cutting steels contain
about 0.2% of sulphur and 1.5% manganese.
➢This ensures the formation of numerous manganese sulphide inclusions which aid in
machinability. 26
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 Classification and Applications of PCSs
Carbon% Type Use
0.07 - 0.15 Dead Mild Steel Hot and cold – rolled strip for pressings.
Rod and wire for nails , rivets and mattresses.
Solid – drawn tubes.
0.15 – 0.30 Mild Steel Case – hardening steels. Boiler and ship’s plate;steel
sections ,e.g. joists,channels,angles.
0.30 – 0.6 Medium– Carbon Steel Forging for general engineering purposes.
Connecting rods , axles ,crankshafts ,fishplates.
0.6 – 0.8 High – Carbon Steel Railway rails and tyres. Laminated springs.
Wire ropes , cast –steel die blocks.
Band saws , small forging dies.
0.8 - 1.4 Carbon Tool Steel 0.85 – 0.95% C. Small cold chisels. Shear blades.
Punches.
0.95 – 1.1%C.Drills ,axes ,files , hand saws.
1.1 – 1.4%C . Razors, Turning and planning tools
,drills 28
 The Complete Iron – Carbon Diagram
▪ The complete iron – carbon extends only up to 6.68% carbon, which is the carbon content
of cementite.
▪ The diagram is therefore, more strictly the iron/iron carbide diagram.

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The Complete Iron – Carbon Diagram

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 The Peritectic Portion
This occurs at 1492oC when 𝜹 solid solution containing 0.05% carbon reacts with liquid
containing 0.55% carbon to form a new solid solution, austenite, containing 0.18% carbon.

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 The Eutectic Portion
▪ Liquid containing 4.3% carbon solidifies at 1130oC to form a eutectic consisting of
austenite + cementite

The Solid - solution Portion

▪ Two solid solutions are formed.
➢Austenite is a solid solution of carbon in 𝛾 iron, containing a maximum of 1.7%
carbon at 1130oC.
➢Ferrite is a solid solution of carbon in iron containing a maximum of 0.04% carbon at
695oC

The Eutectoid Portion

▪ Austenite containing 0.83% carbon transforms at 695oC to give a eutectoid consisting of
ferrite and cementite known as pearlite.
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 Heat-treatment of Plain Carbon Steels
▪ The mechanical properties of plain carbon steels can be varied considerably due to the
structural changes that occur during heating and cooling of such steels.

▪ There are four conventional methods of heat treatment:

➢Annealing
➢Normalizing
➢Hardening
➢Tempering

▪ In addition, there are processes such as Martempering and Austempering depending

upon the isothermal transformations of austenite.

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Heat-treatment for Steels

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Heat-treatment Ranges for Plain Carbon Steels

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Heat-treatment Ranges for Steels

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 Annealing
▪ It is a general term applied to several softening operations which include

Process Annealing/sub-critical
annealing/recrystallization annealing
▪ This is carried out on cold worked low-
carbon steel sheet or wire in order to
relieve the internal stress and soften the
material.
▪ The steel is heated to 550-650oC, which
is just below the lower critical point.
▪ Prolonged annealing causes the pearlite
to ‘ ball up’ or spherodise.
▪ Ferrite grain growth also occurs and the
annealing temperature and time should
be closely controlled. 37
Full Annealing
▪ It is carried out on hot-worked and cast steels in order to obtain grain refinement in
combination with high ductility.

▪ For hypo-eutectoid steels the treatment involves heating the steel to 30-50oC above the
upper critical point, holding it at this temperature for a time depending on the thickness,
followed by slow cooling, usually in the furnace.

▪ For hyper-eutectoid steels the temperature is about 50oC above the lower critical point.

▪ If temperature is not closely controlled, certain defects may occur which are, overheating,
burning or under -annealing.

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Overheating
▪ If the steel is heated to above the correct annealing temperature or if it is maintained too
long at the annealing temperature, austenite grain-growth will occur.
▪ Upon cooling from this temperature, ferrite is deposited first at the grain boundaries and
then along certain crystallographic planes giving rise to the structure known as the
Widmanstatten structure.
▪ The structure is associated with weakness and brittleness, but can be remedied by re-
annealing to the correct temperature.

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Burning
▪ If a steel is heated far above the upper critical point to temperatures approaching the
solidus, fusion and subsequent oxidation occur at the grain boundaries.
▪ Brittle films of oxide are formed which make the steel unsuitable for further use.
▪ The steel is said to be ‘burnt’ and must be remelted.

Under Annealing
▪ Under annealed structures are mostly observed in the heat-affected zones of the parent
metal in the welding of mild steel.
▪ The steel is heated to within the critical range, that is, between the upper and lower
critical points.
▪ At this temperature the original pearlite will have changed to several small austenite
grains.
▪ Upon cooling, ferrite is deposited at the austenite grain boundaries, the residual austenite
transforming to pearlite at the eutectoid temperature. 40
Spheroidising Annealing
▪ High-carbon steels may be softened by annealing at 650–700oC, when the cementite of
the pearlite balls up or spheroidises.
▪ The resulting structure is one of cementite globules in a ferrite matrix.

Normalizing
▪ For hypo-eutectoid steels, normalising consists of heating the steel to 30–50oC above the
upper critical point, holding it at this temperature for a time depending upon the section
thickness, followed by cooling in still air.
▪ Normalizing produces maximum grain refinement, and consequently the steel is slightly
harder and stronger than a fully annealed steel.
▪ Properties vary with section thickness.
▪ For hyper-eutectoid, normalising temperature is above the upper critical temperature.

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Hardening
910C nin
g Acm
Har de
Hypo-eutectoid steels A3
den
ing Ha
r

▪ Heat to 30-50o above upper critical temperature 723C Full Annealing

A1

▪ Hold for sometime depending on thickness


▪ Quench in water, brine or oil. T

Wt% C
0.8 %
➢With slow cooling rate the austenite transforms to lamellar pearlite.
➢Increasing the cooling rate results in a finer, harder pearlite, until a second transformation
occurs at 150-350oC, where martensite is formed.
➢When a certain cooling rate, known as the critical cooling rate has been exceeded, the
austenite transforms direct to martensite.
➢Martensite is the hardest structure in a given steel, and therefore to harden a steel fully
the critical cooling rate must be exceeded.

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Effect Of Cooling Rate On The Transformation Of Eutectoid Steel

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Lamellar Pearlite
▪ A coarsely laminated structure, consisting of alternate laminations of ferrite and
cementite, obtained upon very slow cooling.

Sorbitic Pearlite/Fine Pearlite

▪ It is obtained by a faster rate of cooling.
▪ Hardness and strength increase as the fitness of the pearlite increases.

Troostitic Pearlite/ Primary Troostite

▪ It consists of dark-etching nodules of pearlite, obtained by a more rapid rate of cooling
such as oil quenching.

Martensite
▪ This is the hardest structure in a given steel. The hardness depends on the carbon 44
 Hardenability ‘Mass Effect’
▪ It refers to the ability of a steel to be hardened by quenching, and is related to the depth
and distribution of hardness throughout a section
▪ Maximum hardness depends almost entirely on carbon content.
▪ Cooling rate depends on
➢quenching medium and
➢the diameter

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 The End-Quench Test For Hardenability
▪ The Jominy end-quench test involves heating a test specimen to just above the upper
critical range until it is fully austenitic

▪ Transfer to a frame and quenched under standard conditions by a water jet which
impinges on one end of the specimen only.

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Tempering
▪ It involves reheating to just below the lower critical point.
▪ Tempering is done to;
➢Relieve internal stresses induced by quenching
➢To toughen the steel

▪ 100oC-200oC: tempering is sufficient to relieve quenching stresses

▪ 200oC-400oC: martensite decomposes into ferrite and the precipitation of fine carbon
particles occur forming secondary troostite.
➢This results in some toughening at the expense of hardness.
▪ 450oC-650oC: the carbide particles coalesce thus producing fewer and larger particles
which provides fewer obstacles to dislocations.
➢The results is a decrease in strength and hardness while further increasing toughness.
➢This granular structure of ferrite matrix is known as Sorbite. 47
Effect of tempering on the hardness and microstructure of a quenched eutectoid steel

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