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 “Copynight © 1981 by van Nostrand Rembold
Library of Congress Cabsing Care Number 90- 2h0e4
ISBN O-442-23498-8 (pbk)
ISBN 0-442-00895-S (hard)
the
All righbe reserved. No part of thie work covered by form
or vsed in any or
copyright hereon may ve reproduced
incivaing
by any means — graphic, electronic, or mechanical,
phobocopying, recording, baping, oF information ebor age and
t written permission af the
retrieval sysbeme ~ withou
publisher.

Manvtactured in the United Sbabes of America

Published by Van Nosbrand Rembold

We Fifth Avenve
New York, New York 10003
Chapman and Hall
2-6 Boundary Kow
Londen, £1 BHN
Thomas Neleon Avsbralia
“ 102 Poads Street
= Sovbh Melbourne 320%
~ Vieborta, Avebraha
Neleon Canada
20 Birchmound Road
Scarborough, Ontario MIK 864, Canaaa
io Ip 4 13 12 1 19 9 B77 G6 8 4 Ge

Library of Congress Cabaleging-mn- Publication Pata

i
Ching, Francie DK., 1943 ~
Building construction illuebraked / Francie DK. Ching ;
with Caseandra Adams, — 2nd ed,
; com.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN O-442-25498-8 (pbk.)
ISBN 0-442-00895-3 (hard)
s, Building. 2. Howse construction. 1, Adams, Cassandra,
i. Title.
THI4G, C82 199,
GO0- 4c 20

SBRBIR Gta unite aatenanie came aminnmenencanaemeinan ret Te ae testa fies MURA sing creel treme
 eivraturnmntiantmnnnetins on ag Fee ante emante ete ene fant a Et ai oi Am oR See ge eo ee teammate ey in

PREFACE
cee it wo ain

The original edition of this illustrated guide te building conatruction

intreduced the student of architecture and interested lay people te the
basic principles of how buildings are built. Ib provided an overview of the
major systeme of a building, how each 16 conetrueted, and how each i¢
infivenced py ibe relationship to other aystems, While thie second edition
retains thie perspective, + updates information where appropriate, and
includes coverage of basic structural ebeel, reinforced concrete, and
curtain wall systems. It presente ae clearly 26 possible the material and
structural choices available to the desqner, arid how these choices affect
a building's form and dimensions, and ite relabionohip to ibe site. Since
thie visual imagery ie implicitly a very important element in the pre-
sentation of the material, nformation in this second edition continues
to ve conveyed primarily through graphic ijlvetrations,
Thia handbook 16 organized according te a bulding’s major components
and gyotems. | begins with a lock at the vuilding sibe and the factors
that infivence 2 building’s location, organization, and orientation.
Foliowing this 16 a description ot a building’s major systems, how
they relabe to each other, and the structural forces a building must
ve designed and conebructed to resist. Each succeeding chapter
then deoribes a major building system according to type of building
material, structural geometry, and how each component interfaces
with adjaining systems. The |aet chapter and the appendix provide
reference information on building materials and space planning. The
biviiography late sources which, if one is interested in pursuing a
subject further, can provide more in-depth information.
Ib would be nearly impossivle to cover all building materiale and
construction techniques, but the information presented here should
be applicable to mest residential and light conebruction situations
encountered today. Construction techmaves continve to change with
the development of new building materials, products, and standards,
What does nob change are the fundamental princivles which underlie
the desiqn and construction of a building. This illuetrabed guide
focuses on these principles, which should provide a veeful context
for the application of new information in che preliminary planning
and design of a building.
Zach building element, component, or system 16 described in terme
of 66 end use, The specific form, quality, capability, and availability
of an element or component will vary with manvtacturer and iecale.
ke theretore important to always fallow the manvfacturer’s rec-
ommendations in the use of a material and 40 pay careful. attention
to the building code requirements in effect fer a building's vee and
location, \4 16 the user's responsibility to judge the appropriateness of
the information contained in bhié book and how it 1@ ba be used. Seek
the expert advice of a professional when needed, On the follewing
page io an outline of the basic considerations which may ve avphed bo
almoet any building material, component, or system to measure ibe
appropriateness tor a aven design or conetruction situation,
the information in tise book can be categorized according to the following tactore:
MATERUALS. oo ccc eccee ¢ Strucbural properties (ge€ STRUCTURE below)
° Physical properties of ...., » Weight and denerby
© Thermal expanoien and conductivity
o Permeability to water vapor
° Fire pesiotance
» Acouebical vaive-
° Form, dimensional characherietice, and vieval proverties
° Durability - resistance to » Physical wear and gerasion
o The effecte of oun, wind, and rain
° Corrosion caused by moisture or chemical action
ofinish and maintena nce reauirem enes
e Method of manufacture and supply
volymednic
STRUCTURE op ee eceee «Form and geometry: lmear, planar, orsive,
+ Forces to be regolved..... » Compres tensile, shear
» Vertical (downward or upiift), lateral, or angled
» Concentrated or uniformly alstribubed
e Sbabic dead and live loads; dynamic wind ane
gelemic forces
© Strength, stiffnes s, and elastici ty of the materiale veed
o Tyves of connections required
> Finned, rigid, or roller joints .
o Butt, lap, or inberiacking connect ion®
° Foundation, vearing, and support requirements
and openings
° Structural requirements for cantilevers, avepended construction,

CONSTRUCTION ,......-. Number and a1zes of the pieces to be sesembled

* Modular constraints, if any
* Method of fastening required
o Mechanical (nals, screws, belts, rivets, clipe)
o Welded
» Adhesive
+ Equipment, toole, and workmanship required
«Place of assembly: on-sibe or ab the factory
» Sbandardization of parte and pretabricabiwn where advantageous
» Work coordination, erection time, and labor requiremente
THE CONSTRUCTION
ASSEMBLY, ....0,.142.8 Control of the flow of Heab © Thermal conductivity 3nd reflectivity
o Thermal expaticion characteristics
Air Ventilation and infiltration
Waters Permeability to water vapor
° Waberproofing requiremente
o \ce and enow protection
Fire resistance and acovetical rating.
econetruction thickness or depth
° Accommodation of mechanical and electrical equipment and eyetems

GENERAL FACTORS .....°Fikness for use and purpose

» Safety, comfort, and health reqviremente
Compliance with applicable building codes
e intial and lite coste
 NECN
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 Teme I Shr

THE BUILDID
In vlanning the design and construction of a building, we should
carefully coneider the environmental forces which the physical
context for the puilding—ibe site— presents, A site’s
qeoaraphic leeatien, vopography, plant materiale, climate,
and orientation te the oun and prevailing winds all influence
deciaione at a very early stage in the déaign process, These
environmental forces can hélp shave a building’s form,
articulate its enclosure, establieh ibe relatiwnehip te the
grouné Plane, and ousggeot the way ive inberier Spaces are
aid out,
In addition te envirenmental forces, there may exiet the
requlatery forces of zoning ordinances, These regulations
may prescribe acceptable vsee for a puilding site ae well ae
limit the eize and shape of the building maeo and where
it may ve located on the aie,
Included in thia chapter are eite improvements which medity
a building site for access and use, define the boundaries oF
exterior spaces, and relate the building to the surrounding
ground plane, These construction detaile typically are
closely related to the design of the building iteelf and can
be seen to be logical extensions of the way the building 12
constructed, .
Sanne ire mavtach eatatinydiaieds pipe |
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1, .@ |THE BUILDING SITE: ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS: BIL The soil type atfects:
© the type and aize of a building’ foundation syetem
® the drainage of ground and surface water
© the types of plant material able te qrow on a eibé
TOPOGRAPHY Land forme and ground slopes affect:
© tne building foundation type.
o the building tor ana ibe relationship to the ground plane.
© oibe drainage.
® the site’s miero- climate: wind, temperature, oolar radiation
VEGETATION The types and locations of plant materiale affect:
the site's micro- climate: solar radiation, wind, humidity,
air temperature and purity
@ the definition or visual screening of exterior spaces
© the abeorption or dispersion of sound

The following climatic factore aftect a buildings form,

orientation, and construction.
SUN The oun 12 the source of;
© solar radiation (heat gain)
@ natural light
WIND The prevalence, direction, and velocity of wind attect:
© air infiltration inte a building (potential heab joes)
© the ventilation of interior spaces and outdoor courts
® the lateral load on a otructure.
The prevalence and amount of precipitation affect:
© the rect form, 6 conebruction, and tne resulting
gravity load on the abructure-
e the presence and drainage of water on a ote
6 the chaice of building materiale
TEMPERATURE Air temperature and thermal comfort are affected by all
of the above climatic factors.

PENSORY FACTORS: VIEWS The consideration of desirable and undesirable views will
help aebermine:
© the building form and orientation
© the building’s fenestration (door and window openings)
e the plant materiale used in landecaping the eite
SOUND The level, quality, and source of sounde aftect:
e the dietribution and omentation of the building mass
e the choice of building materials and their assembly
° the sound contrel methods used
_ | REGULATORY FACTORS 1.3
. Zoning ordinances govern the use and bulk af ZONING ORDINANCES REGULATE
guildings and structures within a muntetpality or
land use district, These ordinances typically requlate:
° the tyes of activities which may occur on a given LAND USE
piece of land .
© how much of the land can be covered by a building THE BULK OF BUILDINGS ~
: @ how far a building must be set back from each of ae me
‘ the proper by HES ce at
' © how tail the vurlding structure can be ps wy
e the total floor area that can be conebructed pO : a PO”

A zoning ordinance may also contain opecifie

3 requirements for access and off-street parking, “
accessory obructures ouch 26 fences and outdoor
Geeks, ana tne projections from a vuilding’s |
facades such 36 balconies and root overhangs,£

. faa oa st,
The cumulative effect of zoning ordinances | PATTERN OF DEYELOPME
management of the density and pattern of
development within varioue land use zones,

Other requlatery inetruments exiet which affect the BUILDING CODES

way buildings are orbed and constructed, These sbatutes [OO
~~ commanly referred to 26 the building cede—
estapliah the relationship between:

@ the tyge of occupancy a building houses

e the fire- resistance rating of ibe ebructure and enpreton
oe ena
conetructien Parga
® the ailowavle neiaht and floor areas of the building,
and ite separation from neighboring structures
See Appenalx for more infermation on puilding codes,

ghia tan ree ante et eR ERNE deen e t« foo pane ap mena dete ILIAa et oo

Te oupport plant life, a geil muet:
¢ be capable of absorbing meiebure.
e supply the appropriate plan’ nubrients
° be capable of aeration
e be free of concentrated salts
Practically all buildings rely en set) for their
ultimate supper The inbegriby ef a building
atructure therefore depends ultimately on
the type of soil underlying the foundation and
the gotl’s strength under loading,
There are +wo broad classes of saile—
coarse-grained and fine-grained oaile,
Coaree-arained e0tl6 include gravels ana
sande which coneleb of relatively large
articles. The individual particles of tine-
grained sellé are much emalier and often
cannot be seen by the eye, The oil under-
lying 2 building site may acbually cone
of superimposed layers, each of which
containe a mix af gail types.
A eal stability and etrength under
leading depende largely on ite résistance
$0 shear, which 6 a function of beth ibe
internal friction and ite cohesiveness,
Coarse-grained oil with a relatively low
percentage of void spaces are more stable
as 2 foundation material than silt or clay.
Clay ool, in particular tend to be unstable
gince they shrink and ewell considerably
with changes in moisture convent,

SOIL CLASSIFICATION Sieve | Particle Relative gradiente for

ize Size (mm) bare oail embankments

Cobblee > 3" | > oo.

®
= | Cearee gravel > 4! I> 12,

3 Fine gravel oN24 [> 8.6

sy

© | coarse oand DNe10 |? 2,0

Q

x Medium and DNS 40 1 > 8.@

Sa
Fine sand >No 200 | >) 8.08
Si¢ CNS 200 | On eloping eites, and during the excavation of
8 Fines (allt and clay) 1 6NE200 <0 08
~— a flat site, a eail’e potential tor lateral
© dieplacement should be considered, The
5 natural angle of repose for ary, granular
> goils tend to be shallower than for more
& cohesive soil like compacted Clay.
=
 asa etnainetnanananmnmermerrriirsenpmonmienim ea cesas = sayaey So rman a snag anes

[ Sail MECHANICS
the usual measure of a sal strength 16 te bearing
capacity in pounds per square fob, A foundation
system must distribute a buiidina’s loads in eucn a
way thab the resultant unit lead on the sail does not
exceed the sails vearing capactby. and ie unifarm under
all portions of the abructure, While high pearing
capacity eal present few problems, law vearing capac-
ty sole may aichate the type of foundation and” load
giabribubion pattern fer a yuilding, which in turn affect]
the builaing’®s form, Unetable sailé usually rendera oibe-
unvuldable unless an elaborately engineered and expensive-
foundation gyetem 16 pub in place.
{3
@ In cold weather, the freezing ard
aubsequent thawing of sail can cause
ground heaving, which places stress
ona buildina’é foundation and sbruc-
ture, The extent of thie frost action
depends on the site's geographic
region and the eail type, Fine-grained
g0i|9 are more sueceptible to treet
action than coarse-arained salle,
In any case, 2 building's fookinge
should always be placed weil below
| the ere froat line.

the table below outlines, for reference only, the relative
gtrenathe of varigue goil types, Refer to the local
building code for the allawabie bearing capacities of
general classes of salle, Most salle aré in fact a
combination of afferent aol types, The sbratitica-
tun, composition, and density of the sali ved,
Yar lation® im particle ai2e, and the presence
aboence of water are all important factora In
determining a ooil’s bearing capaciby, When
designing a sizable obructure or when there are
unusual lead conditiona, ib 6 advigable te have a
goile engineer test borings taken trom the actual
abe,
0 A gail’ vermeability should alge be
taken inbo account ta enoure that
gurface and ground water can ve
properly channeled away from the
building etructure. Proper drainage,
19 required to avoid deberiaration of
or a 0% bearing capacity and to mini-
mize the possibility of water leaking
into a building’s interior: Coarse
grained sale are more permeable
and drain vebber than fine-grained
goils, Fine ailte and clays alee have.
greater capillariby which can cause
water bo migrate vpward above a
site's waber table,

SOIL TYPE Presumed Bearing Capacity | Susceptibility te |) Prainage

(eone/#t.2)+ (ka/mn 2? Freat Action (permeability?

Compact, partially cemented gravels

well graded wite Little ar ne fines 10 97 650 nene excellent
6 69 Boo mane acellent
Compact gravel; gravel and gand

| Grare compact sand, leese gravel; 4 | 99 060 hight Fair to good

| Coarse, loose aand and grave!

| od Eine, in@, | loose sand; : Ary, stiff clay 2, ' 19 630 high fair 0 poor
a

Soft clay, soft, broken shale

+ a £
LB | 14 GAB high poor
Organic e0le Unouitable 26 a foundation materials can be highly wnevable
Aué te bacterial Aécormposition and changes in melsture
centent
 TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
All of the following factors
affect variations in local climate:

e around elevation ® temperabure in the abmoophere decreases war

« land forms with albitude—approximately i°F fer every 1 hee
e site erientation and slope 400 feet in elevation (1°F= o-BpRe °¢) wy /
® types of ground cover we |
e large bodies of f water
wate oky glare / Uo ff
4d
“% a“ FA /
a oo /‘ ‘t
on 4 i
oe va /
warm gir rece a / i
a, ” 7 /
Rm a f /
m KN 5
Ke 4
/
cool Zane nw. bemperabe zone 4 glare /
Sais : / off water |
ea Wap. f
e heavier cool air will bend te (Fhe
settle into low-lying areag

Soli ils Gane

Soe ate dala
© large bodies of water ack as
heat reserveire and tend
@ grass and other around e hard surtaces bend te moderate bemperature
covers tend te lower tem- elevate temperatures; varlabione
peratures by absorbing light-colored ourfaces © they are generally warmer
ingelation and encouraging reflect solar radiatien than land in winter and cooler
cooling by evaporation while dark surfaces In summer
absorb and retain o they are generally cosler than
ingelation land during the day ana
warmer at night, generating
oftehore breezes
@ the extent of thie moaerating
influence depends an the gize-
evening breeze and egurtace area of the body
x 5 of water
\ be replace updraft of warm ever
land; can have cooling effect of up
® disturbance of natural arainage te 10°F (46)
patberne should be avoided
e particular attention should be
vald to iscal fload vlaine
e giwaye check for the height
o a abe’s water table and
ite seagonal variations, a6
well a6 for voseible under~
arovnd etreame,
 TOPOGRAPHY AND BUILDING FORM 7
seetideug alti

STEEP SLOPES : structures may

© Sit elevated on plers or columne for minimum dieburvance of the around pe [|

© be terraced or sheppad with the slope

e ve cut inte the slope Pa 7
wR
Fak

= point ioade

+ adequate provision shauld

TT Tereety pemade for channeling of
arourid and surface waber
eee of retaining walla and the use of plan’ mate-
1 required rialé, te prevent oil
eroslen
THTTTT TTT It?~~ altountt
af cob
» Structure i6 subject should approximate > natural angle of repooe
t@ Above-normal earth = amount of Fill for the sail type should nat
leads pe exceeded

MODERATE SLOPES! structures may

® ve elevabed an piere or “my @ be cur inte the slope ~

tT thet
linear or planar ioads
t t
pond |oaag

FLAT SLOPES: structures may

® be slevated on piers or columns ———— @ aibon a rateed vad —@ ve dug inte earth and bermed

Leh tate lara i } q

LT | | ples and pera may be» earth pads aid in eneight of site's seasonal
:

pe used not otily boelevate = draining surface water tavie should ve onecked
oe a otructure above the = water away fram to avoid the need be water-
2 Structures gver ground viane but aise etructure proot the velow-arade
water may be to supper’ obructures atructure
surrerbed vy aituated over unsuitable
fleatation or an bearing 201i + earth verme may act 26
calseone ot piles the puilding’s sae waile
Yeebindon 2 éub-
BUYTACE ~aGe
 ad
a
&
PLANT MATERIALS
Use
Factores to consider in the oelection and
3 “th bY
Ny Avy of trees in land scap ing include:

e form, deneity, bexbure, and color of the touage

ram
tet
pee
e potential growth height and Sp rena
ANS
Pies
eel foe
7 iI e oveed or rate oF growth
© gize and depth of the roe ebructure alr
Bae
mo
Ny,

e requirements for sali, water, aunlighy,

‘i

and temperature:

Vase
-« the reot eyeteme of treee lanted tov
clooe te a vullding may dieburb the |
foundation system ‘
e similarly, 2 tree’s root abructure m2y
interfere with underground utility lines

:
‘zi
fe
e
e the manner in which trees and other plant
g
gZ
life adapb their forme to climate provides
Z
clues to the waye buildings might do the
eame

Gr2e6 and other ground cover:

© can reduce ai temperatures py absorbing
ingolation and encovraaing cooling by evap-
a A

Ce
TR TATU ALAR
eee

oration
e aid in stabilizing eel and preventing
eA \ iN 4
ee
etn:

eee
Sore
Se

er
tara 2 eee%
=

erosion
Dae — en
ae

eae
emer

e increase a ooil permeabiity te air and

ae
eo
=

aSmeterS

rege
ae oe

water
ce
nF

e Vines can reduce the heab tranemiseier

through a eunlit wall by providing ehade
and cooling the immediate enviranment
by evaporation
 _ [TREES AND ENVIRONMENT 1.9

Trees affect the immediate environment * trees shade a building most

af a puilding by: effectively fram the southeast,
and the gouthweet when the
pat tsi

‘ oe providing shade morning and late afternoon

the amount of shade depende on the tree’ sun hae a lew altitude and
° orientation te the oun caste long shadows
° proximity vo the building ° south-facing overhange
° shape, epread, and heaht provide move efficient
© density and branch otructure shading auring the midday
° deciduous trees provide shade and glare ord “3 Se hone ohade aah
provection during the oummen ana let

Ae
golar radiation (a6 well ae glare) throvgh
during the winter
e evergreens provide shade throvghavt
the year and help reduce snaw glare
during the winter
A partially penetrable windbreak
2 reducing eky, ground, and snow glare can actually extend leeward shadow

@ providing wind protection

° foliage reduces wind-blewn duet ,2-BH [ i@-1BH |
& 7
0 evergreens can form ettective windbreaks windward if treed are dense leeward wind shadow
during the winter and reduce a building’s
heat 4 poses a the apyroximate area of protection indicated above
varies with the height and denorty of the trees,
eintercertina vrecipitation and and with wind yélocity
filberin ue ir F 2 the protection provided @ primarily a reduetion in
wind velocity pradveing an area of relate calm
© aiding in eal stabilization, Increaging ite
verméability to waber and gir, and
preventing erosion

2 defining apace and directing views

® providing vieval acreening and privacy

e avbenvating airvorne Son ae

{| A0| THE SUN
A building's location, orientation, and form ehauid take
advantage of the eun’s thermal, hygienic, and pavcholegicz!
benefits, The our’s radiation, however, may ner always be
beneficial, depending on vine buliding site’o climate. In
determining 3 building's form and orientation, the objectve
should ve te maintain 2 balance between underheabed
periade when colar radiation 1 beneficial and overheated
periode when radiation should be avalded, The iong face of
3 bunlaing oheuld normally face eouth if possible, East and
summer weet exposures are generally warmer in 6ummer and
oblstioe cooler in winter than. eoubhern exposures,
Y (June 21)
The suns pab> through the sky varies with the seasone and a
f . (Eyequinex site's labibude, lhe altitude and bearing angle range should be
pearing angle winter eoletice determined vetore calculating solar heat gain and ohading
(December 21) requiremente for a specific sive,

The table below pertaine primarily bo wolated buildings, The information presented should be considered
along with other contextual and programmatic requirements,

OPTIMUM SHAPE LOCATION GENERAL CRJECTIVES ORIENTATION

COOL REGIONS
eincrease eolar radiation abeoretion
+ reduce radiation, conduction, and
2] @D| 4D
evaporation neat lose
low temporabtpres encourage epravide wind probvection
minimizing of 2 buildings
eurtace area

TEMPERATE REGIONS
¢ valance Golar heat gain with shade
protection on a seasonal basis
e encourage air movement in hot weather;
temperate climate allowe protect from wind wi cold weather
fer elongation along ‘ne
east- weet axe

HOT- ARID REGIONS

Ze
ee
¢ reduce celar radiatwn and
conduction heat gain
e promate cooling by evaporation
closed forme; building mage veing water and plantings
enclosing cool air Ponds « provide shade.
deetravle

HOT- HUMID REGIONS

* reduce solar heat gain
eubilize wind to promote cooling
form may be freely elongated ¥y evaporation
« provide shade
along eash-west axis te mini-
mize east and weet expooure
 a
et RRRTidak ie aed
SOLAR SHADING DEVICES
Ghading devices shield a building’s exterior
surfaces and interior spaces from selar radiation.
their effectiveness devende on their form and
orientation relative te the oun’s angles, Exterior
es a
shading dévices are more efficient than these
D she welt teh Se dso eee
located within a building’e spaces since they
nberceph the oun’6 radiatin before it can reach
the buildina’s aurtaces,
Below are illuebrabed basic types of golar
fA
shading devices, Their orientation, term,
maberiale, and construction may vary te suit
specific altuations, Their visual qualibies
(pattern, fexture, rhythm, and the shadows
they cast) contribute much te a building’s
appearance.
HORIZONTAL OVERHANGS
¢ trast effective when
iney have southern
orlentabione
HORIZONTAL LOUVERS
¢ horizontal louvers parallel
to wall permit air circulation
near the wall and reduces
conduction heat agin
may ve operable vo adapt
te gun's angle
HORIZONTAL LOLYERS
«slanted louvers provide
more protection than thege
paraliel te wall
* angle varies according te sun's
altitude range.
BLINDS + GLASS
oblinas and drapes can provide
up to 50% reduction int radiation
devenging on reflectiviby
+ heat-abserving glaes can
absorly up te 40% of the
radiation reaching 1bo surface
{04
Since a puildina’e exterior walle and roof are ibe
primary sheltering clements againet solar radiation,
the materiais used in their construction shauld be.
considered in terme of their reflectivity and
thermal conductwity, A material’s reflectwity
depends on ite color and bexture. Light esiere and
shiny gurtaces tend te reflect more radiation
than dark, textured ones, Effective meulating
materiale veually incorporate seme form ef captured
dead air pace, Masse ilateriale such ae masonry
abeorb and store heat for a peried of time, thue
delaying heat tranemiesion,
HUNG LOUVERS
elouyers hung from a galid
overhang provide protection
tor low gun angles
may inberfere with view
VERTICAL LOUVERS
o most effective for edetern
or weabern exposures
«may be overable to adapt bo
gun® angle
« separation from wall reduces
conduction Heat aan
EGGCRATES
* eggcrates combine the
characteristics of herizental
and vertical louvers and
nave a high shading ratio
e efficient in het climates
TREES- ADJACENT BUILDINGS
*trees and adjacent
Structures may vroviaé
ghadé devending en their
proximity, height, and
orientation
 PASSIVE SOLAR
e doubie-giazing and
ingulakion required be
minimize nightbhime.
heat loge
2 approximabery 0,20
- 0.38
square feet of glazing
required tor each square
fook of Floor area
¢ aiazing material should
be resioban’ te degradasion
caved by eun’e vibraviviet
raye
DESIGN
Frese oolar design refers te veing te oun’s enerey
to heat a building’s interior spaces through honme -
chanical meane, Passiv e solar syebe ms rely on the
natural heat tranefer processce of conductien ,
convection, and raaiabion for the collection, svorage,
distribution, and control of goiar eneray. There are
we basi elements in every pasowe oolar system:
() south-facing glace or traneparens vlaptic tor
sear collection
G@ thermal mass tor heat collection, etované, ana
distribution, oriented be receive maximum
solar expooure
concrebe: 12-10" the thermal mass allows the sun's heat bo be
brick: lia” absorbed and retained until i 16 needed, and alse
helps to reduce interns! temperavure fiucbusbions.
adove: p"-12"
water: 6 or mere
Based on the relabionchiv between the oun, rt,one
interior epace, atid the heat collection eyove
there are three ways in which passive ealar
heating can be accompliehed: direct gain, ina rect
gain, and isolated gain.

INDIRECT GAIN!
vert for cooling
m~

“pace for’ air

circulation

Direct gain syatemes collect heat directly within an indirect gain syeteme conbral heat gain at the
interior apace. The surface ares of the aterage building's exterior skin, The un’ radiation first
mase, whieh ie Incorporated mte the space, 6hou esnkes the thermal wall mase which ie located te
ine vn, to 2/8 oF the tobal surface area of the bebween the oun and the living epace, Solar heat
apace, Operable apeninge are used for cooling vy aleorbed by the thermal wali and then to the opace
ventilation,
by conduction, and to some extent by convection,

INDIRECT GAIN:
yi

storage

A eunroom or solarium can be introduced as 2
inecium for heat gain. This sunepace io separates
from the main living space Wy 2 thermal storage
wall from which heat io drawn ae needed, For
coolmg, the eunepace can be vented te the
exterior,
\eolated gain aysbeme collect and store heav away
From the living pace. A air or water in 2 collector
w warmed by the oun, tb rises to the living apace or
to a thermal mass, Simultaneavely, cooler air or
water 16 pulled from the sterage bottom, creating
a natural convection loop.
 DAYLIGHTING
The 6un’s radiation provides not only heat but aleo
light fora vulding’s interior epaces, This dayhaht
nas paychological benefit ae well a6 practical utility, snorth:-facin windewe let in
While intense, the sun’s ight will vary with the soft, diffusé skylight
time of day, from season te season, and from place
70 placé, i can be diffused by cloud cover, haze, and
precipitation, ana reflected from the ground and
other surrounding avrfaces, The quantity and eeast and west: facing
quality of daylighting ina space. are determined windows require
primarily by the size and orientation of ite shading devices
window apeninge, (vertical leuvers or
eqgcrates) te aveld
the bright early
morning and late
afternoon gun
2 Sevth-facing windows are ideal sources
for daylight if horizontal shading devices
can control excessive salar radiation and
glare

The levei of iilumination provided by daylight falle

off a6 ib penetrates an interior apace, Generally, }
the larger and higher 2 window is, the more.
daylight will enter a room. A vsetul rule of thumb
19 that daylighting can be effective for task
iliumirtation up toa depth of twice the height
ASN
TY
WI

af a window, \
WL

the ceiling and vack wall of a space are more.

effective than the ode walls or the floor in the :
wy

retlection and distribution of daylight, Light-

Ly

colored surfaces reflect and distri dite light ‘ (AC \\

KL

more efficiently vut large areas oF shiny surfaces

can cause alare,
Excessive prightnese raties can lead to glare and
Pa

impairment of vival verformance. There are two

types of glare, Direct glare is caused by the
excessive contrast between light in our normal
field of vision and the subject ofa vieval task.
indirect glare 19 caused vya task surface evlace windews adiacent
retiecting a light source into our eyes, Glare twede walle for addisional
can ve controlied by the use of shading devices, reflectance
the proper smentation of task surfaces, and
ailowina dayiight to enter a apace From 2t leaot
two directions,
fi
2 allow light te penetrate trom at leaet two directions
‘|| ide WIND
a high inlet would direct air flaw upward, Wind prevalence, velocity, temverature, and
reeulting in @ lees af cooling ettect direction gre importante eibe conederatiené in
ANNAN all climatic requne. In evaluating bre wind’s
“pp
potential effect on 2 vuilding, We seaeonal
NL
—, and daily variatiene should be carefully
conoidered.
high e & directs low low pressure
preacura\ at eccupanve Wind- induced ventilation of interior space? aide
se in the air exchange necessary for health and
AN SMU odor removal, In heb weather arid €ovecially in
humid climates, ventilation ie beneficial ter
convective or evaporative coding,

Nabural ventilatun in buildings i generated

roof overhange increase overhatia over opening by differences in alr pressure ae well ae
incoming flew of alr directs flow upward which temperabure, The resulting air fiaw pabterne
may be vndesirable are affected mere by puuld Ing geometry trzh

——
ry alr epee,
e pootnon of sublet has little effect on air flow
pattern, bub should be high $0 let rising warm
alr eacape
alot in everhang lovvere can beneficially « avblet should ve ae larye or larger than
equalices external redirect and diffuse inlet for maximum air Flow
preseure air flow e interar partitions and largé furmehings
may adversely aiter air flow pabberne

The ventilation o& concealed reef and crawi

spaces i required to remove moiobure and
central condensation, In he’ weather, abtic
ventilation can aleo reduce overhead radiant
heat gain.

A building should be buffered aqgainet cold winde

to reduce air infilbration inbe ibe interior and
lower heat lees, A windbreak may be in the form
> 2 a — of ari earbh beam, 2 gatden wall, or dence frees.
a+ turbulent
FO wake oS NY oe 5 Ue
wns “) 0 =
a Soe
oath eddy ,
pressure auctioneddy oy TTA a
2-54 , | \Q-1B HB ‘ plereed ecreen incomplete barrier

Windbreaks reduce wind veloety and produce an area oF A partially penetrable windecreen creates
rélatwe calm on their leeward side, The extent ef thie leas presoure differential, resulting in a larger
wind shadow depends on a windbreaks height, denaihy, __.wind shadow te the lee ide of the screen,
depth, and crientation to the wind,

Wind creates presevre on the windward

eldé of 2 building and auction on ite obher
three odes, Wind alee produces suction on
flat reefs, on the leeward side of sloping
itd

roofs, and even on the windward side of

fat reef slopes up to 7:12 slopes > 7112 roote witha piteh |ees than 7:12,
gare
we

| PRECIPITATION a8

SOE AA
\
ALATA
AA VSM ON
AS

* flav roots require either interior roof drain or a moderately pitched —® steeply pitched roofs
scuppere along their perimeber reote zasily shed rain have fast runoff of
2 e water-cooled reote used in hot-dry chmates must put may held show rain water, and if the
i support above normal reef jaade angle of the slope is
- esn cela climates, Hat reofe are subject to heavy greater than co°, can
aiow loade; layer of snow can act 26 additional alee elaugn of F snow
éulation

3 sverhange provect a building's exterior walle fram

one weathering effects oF sun and rain

2 damperooting or waberprooting ie required for pelow-

grade spaces when ground water lo present
@ ground water should be drained away from a obructure’
tourdation va a nabural outfall, ary well, or storm
Arainage eyobem

: natural surface drainage patterns are leash disturbed

Pe

§ vy thing a structure off the ground plane with plere

» 8 alway slope the ground plane away from a building te

avoid water leakage probleme
® to preven? geil erosion, planted ground covers should ve
sroviaed for syales with arades over 3% and for
around glepes with aradea over 33% Ss
‘
pteeeneeenenert
= |
wiseuspevsibal a Shas tn gh

f i
minimum arssé cer planted > mimnwaum grade fer
arovid cover aréas: 2% paved areas! 0,6 fo
(3% recommended? {1% recommended) ee

& \
oS

9 vedies of waber can moderate temperature vart- ~N \

abione and temper cher immediate environment
ain noG-ary cimates, even amall bodies of water are
aesiraue, zecn peychelagicaily and ghysically, fr
vheir evanarative caoing effect
> proveccion from reflected glare should be provided
 rena Ln aniemiameimar tenth ASIN
thnaaes
ha copmyRAAT

ld be positioned nov
A building's window openings shouvent ilation requiremento |
only to oabety natural light aud Depending on a ibe
but also fe frame desirable views. :
digbant in
context, these views may ve close ov nonexietent,
rabl e views are
nature. Even when desi ted wibhin 3
4 pleasant oublook ean often be cres
buriding eite .
wall in a number oF
A window may be created wibhin 2the view and tne way
of
ways, depending on the nabure hian, it io impertant
bo framed in the wall’ conebruc & Windows Bie
bo nobe that the ize and locationdaylighting, and
attects a room's epatia avality,
pobential heal lees or gain.

a Ft framed view6 resoricted

restricted view 1 upward

MA
Fon ched window
rH.
Lf

< window wall larqe view tosbere wiaoor- ° fe

aub door relavionehip
eee
rire

3
ho

ra
aoe ere
3
“

ap af

Jy) tf4 .

Zp
e~

yiew | hinted at
corner window view 6 diagonally amented Bide window
#2)

I
t

5 Wa

ylew If aiffused
cach [he

eakyligite/areen house panoramic View exbende

interior epace oubward
 | | SOUND
&
| Sound requires a source and 2 patn, Undesirable
: exterior 4ound or neise are caused by venicular
traffic, direratt, and other machinery. The
sound energy they generate traveld Ghrovah
the air autward from the source in alt directions
ia continuavely expanding wave, Thie sound
energy, nowever, lessens in intenarty as ib
Algperses over a wide area. Te reduce the
impact of exterir noise, therefore, the firet
consideration ohould ve distance locating a
A
ri building ae far from the noiwe source a9 poooible,
@ When a eite’s conebrainte donot make thie
poooivie, bhen the interior spaces of a building
may be ooreened trom the nage gource vy:

® physical nase ouch ae earth berme

® building zones where nae can be tolerated:

eg. mnechanical, service, and utility areae

@ the construction of exterior walle and reef,

whieh are a building’ primary varriere
againet exberier nelge; door and windew
Openings are the weak opote in these.
parriers and ohauld, if possible, ve oriented
away from undesirable nase sources
Oy
SPRANG
Hiatal oka aig oP SEAS MeN dee Shy tl

@ dense plantings of trees and ohrube, witch can

ve effective in diffuging or scattering sound
@ 429% oY Around cover, whioh are more
aboarptive than the nara, reflective ourfaces
of pavement mS
wT eta nh
| 4&8! ZONING ORDINANCES
Within a municipality or land-use dietmich, zoning
oréimances are generally intended te manage arowth,
requlate land-use patterns, contral building density,
direct development te areas with adequate services
and amenities, probect environmentally gertetive
areas, and conserve open space,
For any single building site, a zoning ordinance will
regulate both the tyres of activity that may occur
(s) constructed te
ov tt and the bulk of the building
hovee euch activities, A special type .
of zoning
ordinance i he Planned Unit Develoyment, which
allows a fairly large tract of land te be developed
ao a single entity tor added Hexibility in the
placement, grouping, siz2, and use ot structures,

£1e important te understand howa zoning orainance

might conetrain the allowable size ard shape of a
% allowable total floer area = Mex) + (ExF) + (@xH) buiidirig. The bulk of 2 vuilding % reaulated
Axe
ca by specityina:
how much of the land can be covered by 2 building
“% etructure ahd the total flor area that 2 may ve
ai conebructed, expressed a6 percentages of the let
% allowable widbh or depth Mao % . ares
e the maximum widti and depth 2 building may have,
~ expressed a6 percentages of the sibe’s dimensions
AX

7
e hew tall the building ebructure can be
\— The size and shape of 2 building are alse conbroiled
indirectly by specifying how far a building must be
set back from each of the property lines,
in addrbion, existing easements and right-of waye
may further lit the buildable area of a site,

All of the above reauirements, together with any

restrictions on tyve and density of use, define 2
three-dimensional envelope beyond which a
building's volume may net extend, Check the
applicable zoning ordinance for specific require-
ments.
 [ _[eas
Exclusions to the general requirements of a
zoning ordinance may exiet in the form of eveauired setback
exceptions ot allowances, Exceptians to the.

on ae
5
normal setback requirements are typicaily

tt
xx made for:
a8
| possible
@ projections of architectural features such
Pshnests

exceptiong
a roof overhangs, cornices, bay windows, and
baicomes
® accessory struotures such ae low-level decke,
fences, and detached carports
® precedents set by exoting, neighboring
structures

Exceptions are often made tor sloving sites, or

for sites adjacent ta puble apen spaces,
® sloving roofs, chimneys, and other ro
projections may be allowed to extend beyond
AUS

the nermal hewht limitation

@ the height limit may be directly related be
the slove of a site
© a reduction in the sebvack requirements may
ve made tor sloping sibes or for sites fronting
on open space * possible
reduction
for elope
eerste
semana Sf erry

ln order to provide for adequate light, ain and space, setback 2

and to enhance the streetecape and vedestrian P
enviranment, requirement may exist for setbackt
® open svace accessible te the public
® additional sebbacks if a structure rises
abeve a certain height
® maduiabion of a building’s facades
© vehicular access and parking
ER ah
RRA

Zoning ordinances may alée contain requirements

toe Bie

that apply only to specific use categories 26 well as

procedures fer requesting a variance from the
regulations,
7] 80) VEHICULAR ACCESS AND FARKING
Ea Providing for vehicular access and parking are
important aspects oF ote planning which influence
both the location of a building on ite eite and the
onventation of 1 entrances, Oubiimed on these
® foo: * > (jenn
fe
pages are game tundamental criteria fer
esbimating the space required for read ways and
surface parking, Any planning of veticular
access and parking must take inte coneiderabior
the eafe and convenient movement of pedestrians a

ee
1
about 2 site and from parking be building Bs
ibe

entrances, ee
Re

sg
Maite, Looe
ve
neidé turning radive
j oubeide turning rade

on
= '
x we eteeereetreheenuinemel

oPLANNING CONSIDERATIONS + wall line cars i |

1. number of parking space required vy Zoring * ah. 1B’

ordinance 1 based on bype of occupancy; may be yoo! 32
related te number of living units or te floor Fire truck: 34!
area of building eemi-truck/trailer: 28°
2, number, size, and location of epaces tor the car: 2!
|
handicapped; curb cuts and ramps for ambulance: 3¢'
weelonair access bue: 54!
pedestrian access be building entrances from fire truck: 45!
arKing areas seml-truck/traier: 50!
Ss

loading zone® for buses and other public

transportation vehicles
separation of service ard truck loading areas @ lanes: 22’ (e'min)
wl

access for emergency vehicles ouch ae fire trucks 4 lane +s 19) fia'min)
fp

allowable width and location of curb cuts, ard

aS

distance from public street inbersections

clear sight lines for vehicles entering public roadway
control of access te parking areas
SB Ss

space for jandecaping; ecreening of parking areas

may be required by zoning ordinance
drainage of parking ourtaces; space tor onow
=*
—

removal
18" (13! win.)
zo'r Ge min

Be

it! merging larie-

4ir
 4 zoho" ial
3 2 care (car
5 9! min, From =
£ .
wheel stop to
: wall ar erage! ; =, es
F oH
A ipa
i:m h‘Lio a _,
2-6" min, =

slope elab be 24" min,

4 = Arainage
a % ! :
Averaaeé car dimensions L
3 _is
; tpl “l=
3 Z-@ overhang, - a.
: 5 RESIDENTIAL DRIVES AND GARAGES : a

: | ©
: G curb or |
: recep = | |
~
Basic parking space io B64xi6-o, Ql
Ad pot width for compact are =
and allow far opening of car doors, = “S| ~b———
\ carrying of parcels, and handtea ed & Bin
| s0cers, oar ° pre B'-6" or 9! preferred
8 (2' for handicayped
oe
wl AL
cs cose

— = ;
ee a e
5 $a16% 10° ta |e ia?
oh,
i heereece
provide additional width for
column (a
se) 8 jee
sho a wi width of
ebruetural column

CAR RAMP SLOPES PARKING LOT DIMENSIONG

aa tia nen ne cam Rete wee ect Ate TRA on er RN ag NE me ET CORN pi Nena
 || 2%) PAVING
Paving praides a wearing surtace for pedeotrian
ov vehicular traftic on a sive, Ib 19 2 composite.
structure whose thickness and construction
are directly related bo the type anc intensiky &
Sas YASS
a

KSE
SEa AS
WY AN
E oan we RAR a sions
SSS
eons
traffic and leade te be carried, and the bearing
capacity and permeability ef the eubgrade.
. 2 etn SS

D Tne gubarade, which must ultimately carry the

pavernent load, should be undieburbed sail or
compacted fill. since it sige recewes moroture
from infiltration, 1¢ hovld ve eloped te drain,

® the base 16 3 foundation of well-graded aggre-

gate that tranefere the pavement lead to the
gubarade. |b aloo prevents the upward mgravion
of capillary water, Heavy-duty loade may require
go SRILA
Ss SOLE EEE
ae
TO EAN BE RS
Ee. Joe
an additional layer— a suvbase of coarser
aaqregabe euch a6 crushed stone.
RRR CURR
PII
—LKKE_KAK{CLEQRMIRSS
SRR CANS ERE RGR EES
@)
The vaverrent receives the trattic wear,
probects the vase, and tranefere ibs lad ve
the base obructure, There are two types of.
pavement: flexible and rigid, Flexible pavements,
ouch a& pibuminove canorebe or unit pavers en a
gand setting ved, are somewhat reoitient and
dietripube loade to the oubgrade in 2 radiating
Rigid pavements, such a6 reinforced
ef
SANS manner
CORR | ae concrete elabe or paving unite morbared over 4
a
rd

i
we zr
concrete olab, distribute their leade internally
and transfer them be the eubgrade over a
raised cure = WS broad area, Rigid pavements generally do nee
fluo divider raised pavement require 26 thick a base a6 flexible pavements,
EDGE CONDITIONS
Flexible pavements require wood, ateel, obone,
masonry, or concrete edging be restrain vhe
horizontal movement of the paving marerial.
SLOPE FOR PRAINAGE Rigid vavements require reinforcement and ar
PORPREE
ES SS TETRA ES extension of the base material alona therr edges.
0.5 % min; 1% preferreds
hiahly textured pavements may require a
goseper (2%) slope for drainage. Additional notes:
@ fayement coler and texture are important
aesthetic coneiderations which aleo affect the
pavement’e absorption or reflection of heat
Bh and light,
@
5 ennnf
anmeen nat
20
e Provide traction for rampe and pavements in
oe MEE LEILA LLELLELLLLELITLLILE, TELL TE EAE NOT NEE ELLE ELE areas subject te icy conditione,
o Avoid surface irregularities for wheelchair
Ve
SLOPES! O%- 3% preferred; 3% maximum
traffic,
e Provide tactile warning stripe for the vievaliy
impaired ab grade changes and hazardove
12,6
a ff x | i
WILLA WLLL TOE CELL LLL ddlAEE vehicular areas.
RAMPS! 3% - B% ; use only Where chmabic
conditions permit
 apie .
aa i eee
|| UNIT PAVING DETAILS
Ya" te 34
a et Pear ce ere Lecter

~ ri
~ vd 4
& risk kK Pp. Payer oa
he
“hy
orid or Turf Block B o>
Cenerete Unit Paver

Interlocking Favere Granite Cobble Ke

eee eee

PAVING MATERIALS: Consult lacal supplier for availability

of shapes, sizes, colors, bextures, absorption properties,
compressive strength, and installation recommendations,
persis

etl

Qe
a@e@crOrGe
eres

CLA
running vend herring bone
oho Sere

vasket weave herrinavene

od

basketweave stack bend

yee

basket weave dtaaenal sauare running bend

Unit Favere Interlocking Pavere Cub Stone
sauSn stherneiseniwarndstes SANs

PAYING PATTERNS

prick or cone, pavers w/ handtight paving unit on merbar

or Vp". V4" sand swept jonbe bed, get on edge or
i 2" sand setting ee laid flat
a
2"-6" compacted aggreaate 2
aa

cone, grade beam

where required in high traftic detec if exp, jbo,
ArEAS oF over expansive soil CA
compacted guba rade or d INS NS NAN,
BSG ,
undieturbed sail ROGER RING
FLEXIBLE BASE paving unk set
vertically on mortar , of
Unit pavers a6 above bed ~ may extend up
4" ibuminaus sétbing ved Jarre te Ve of va ver nt, te
form curl a
4".6" conc, olab ~ Tag
Pag ag Be wae ge
oa aS

compacted agaregate, if read, cote, or mortar fy.

:
Cer
CA cf
bits,
RE Aye
2 See (provide gravel under
ON II x Footing Ff frost depth :
NARA le deeper than feoting
RIGID BASE
surf plock 2x, 4x, of 6X pressure+
treated woad edge—7
depth varies w/
vaving material
Ly ROE cs 2x2 or 2x4 pt, * SCT Is ZINE
URINE
LINING wood atakes, 24" long, pe SST QNA
er t3
@ 3-4! a0. — NW jrae!
PAVING DETAILS
EDGE CONDITIONS
i

Be eee ee tener cement nen el th MCCUE I BGM ep eee

 | 24] RETAINING WALLS
line of thrust paraliele < Retaining walle are used to create relatively leve,
slope of eurcharge \ areas and te allow changes in elevabion which
cannot be accomplished by gradine wishin tne
horizontal dimensiones of a site. Trey must ve
constructed to reget the thrust of vse eel!
being rebained, Thie turvet can cause 2 revaining
wall te fail in three ways. .

© Qverturning: The overturning moment (td,) of the

soi! thrust (Tx H/a) must be countered wy the
resieting moment (Mr) of the composite weight
ii of the wall and any gall bearing on the base
Te 0,653 38 (Wxd), Vena a safety factor of 2, Mr 22M,

S= weight of sail (oo lh/Ft? bypical? @ Sliding: The leberal thrust on the wali (7) must
W= composite weight of wall acting through be reaieted by the composibe weight of the wall
centroid oF section times the coefficient of Friction for the eet,
Re resultant of T and Ww supporting the wail (Wx GF.) Using 2 aafety
~ w father oF 18, Wx OF. 2 LOT
ARAN
\ ® Settling: The bearing capacity of the geil (BC)
Wy met nob 7 be exceeded by the vertical force (We
weight of the wall and any soil bearing on the
. Over turning vase plue the vertical component of the sail
thruet fora wail with eurcharge), Uemg a safety
© Thrust (1) bende te overturn factor oF 13, BC > LB WA.
wall about toe of base

Drainage ie required te
Sliding reheve waber pressure
® Satin front of wall alde
behind wail
. in resisting lateral force of T W
pabber ,
optional Z
te| Pee, } porsue atave! |
® Settling s temperature —T backfill
2 4
2 TTTT BS. = oP, “ge filter fabric
=) gbructural wel \
= eveel reint. : 2" weepholes &
3 ° ee ror oR
x OSI bs drain pipe eloped
a| “S Sy otmin. $2 sublet away
Footing shevld extend 2! below J Yo ] erin. from wall
the lower grade om te belaw the eae Pint
itez treat line, whichever ie sreater) Sy? °
“ST os 6

s Batter refers te the sloping face of ee facing page for | xprovide vertical
a wal! which can offset. the illveion proportioning control jinte 26°96:
of a vertical face leaning forward guidelines

REINFORGED CONCRETE RETAINING WALL