Topic 1 (a) Nat . ‘i ‘ural Topograp! Purpose of this chapter pography This chapter covers Topic 1 of the ten Environment & Devel aE evel lopment Topics in the sylla for the Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level Bangladesh Studien CGyllabus 9004 Besos i” the syllabus for th tt imtroduces candidates to. aper2) a natural topography: the location and characteristics of th plains, deltaic plains and coastal plains) (Topic 1a)” "4 a the drainage system (Topic 1b) a. the names and locations of the five main rivers characteristics and formation of the main features of these rivers ihe a ox-bow lakes and deltas). (flood plains, mean landforms (uplands, hills, flood ders, bra Acknowledgment: The source material used and adapted for this om Banplapedic (Asiatic Society of Bangladesh) and Geography of ips by Hina Er anes og Press Ltd, Dhaka) Y Natural Topography Introduction Location Bangladesh is a transition zone between Southwest and Southeast Asia. Bengal forms the caps ofan arch formed by the Bay of Bengal, and because of the Tibetan massif to the north tc comparatively narrow land bridge between the subcontinent of India and the subcontinent cr Southeast Asia. More precisely, Bangladesh stretches latitudinally between 20°34 N and 26°33’ N. and longitudinally between 88°01' E and 92°41’ E. It is bounded by India on the west (West Bengal), on thenorth by Meghalaya and Assam, and on the north-east by Tripura and Mizoram, and it shares « South-eastern border with Myanmar (Burma). The Bay of Bengal is to the south Som Figure 1:1 Location of Bangladesh or Of the largest rivers in the world flow through the country and form the largest delta in the oD, \ ‘ihterapny of Bangladesh Physic! peabuie oun: Phy is a configuration of a land surface including its relief and contours, the distribution of lodssms and valleys, the patterns of rivers, and all other natural features that produce the =115 Scanned with CamScannerBangladesh is a small country it has considerable topographic diversity although Bans re three distinctive natural features in Bangladesh Phere ae Hallaval plain subject to frequent flooding 5 slightly elevated relatively older plain {small hill region drained by fast flowing rive J Location and characteristics of the main landforms iaanaladesh can be classified into three distinct topographical regions Physiography of Bangladesh {iplandsPleletocene Terracs ( ~~ Feriany Fils event toons ———— aa (aes C= ranger) | Mehtatefnounsin ranges: Figure 1:2 Physical map of Bangladesh (NB Also see clearer colour map in Graphosman 4ilas) Tertiary hills ‘The hills in Bangladesh were formed at the same time that the Himalayan mountains were formes Therefore, they are called Hills of Tertiary Age. The hilly areas of the south-eastern res Chittagong, the north-eastern hills of Sylhet and the highlands in the north and northws!* included in this region. aie Chittagong Hills are the only significant hill system in Bangladesh. They rise steeply '© a ridges (average 36m wide), with heights between 600 and 900m above sea level In betwee! =116= Scanned with CamScannerridges lie the valleys that gene ys that general hilly I How, wet coastal plain lying pa ly run north to south We Fi ying parallel to the shoreline th, West of the Chittagong Hills 1s illy areas of Banglade: _ i he hilly igladesh comprise two main kinds of ¢ of topography Jow hill ranges é & 3 high hill or mountain ranges, pow hill ranges: occur betwee ‘ tam slat afinastone ancl Se outside the high hill ranges. They are mainly formed of ar heir summits are generally less than 300m above sc@ level (MSL). Most areas are strongly dissected, with short steep sh steep slopes, in the Chittagong region, the topograph almost isolated hillocks are cork erat eroded and rounded; the valleys are curved and five broken ranges of hills between I akunda peak, there are several hot springs. There are High hill or mountain ranges: Karnafuli River and the southern tip of Bangladesh ree pesouth and with aa These comprises an almost parallel ridge running approximately ated in Bandarban is the ni ae 300-1000 m. above sea level. Keokaradang (1,230 ™) Blemeiran/ 40%, oft € highest peak of Bangladesh. These hills have steep slopes - generally 6, often 100% and are subject to landslide erosion ‘ untain ranges of the Consolidated shales, siltstones and sandstone mainly underlie them. All the mot ss, whose Hill Tracts are almost hogback ridges, They rise steeply, and extend in long narrow ridge topsare barely 30m wide Tie region is characterized by a huge network of trellis and dendritic drainage, major rivers draining, into the Bay of Bengal. The major rivers are Karnaful, Sans and Feri bt \s/Pleistocene Terrace Fe Pleistocene Terrace is a bench-like structure bordering an undersea feature These types of Terraces were formed by the flood of snow-melt water during the Pleistore"™ epoch about 25,000 seats ago. These terraces are slightly clevated from the adjacent active floodplains. The sediments Arthese terraces are deeply weathered and strongly oxidized Pleistocene uplands, comprising the Barind Tract, the Madhupur Tract and the Tippera Surface, form three individual blocks in Bangladesh. Pleistocene uplands cover an area of about 10% of Bangladesh, with an average elevation of more than 15m above mean sea level (MSL). ’-Bafind Tract: comprises mid and lower western part of Rajshahi division, between the Ganges and Brahmaputra, In the south, the Barind Tract is ‘older Pleistocene Terrace forming a small plateau with a flat or, in some sectors, @ slightly undulating ‘surface. This terrace consists of reddish and Yellowish and partially mottled clays and is characterised by a dendritic drainage pattern Bom fron Tevel . copisisting of some Matamuhuri Dendri A tern occurs When the treutary system 3ub-divides headway like the limbs of «tree. +3 Dendritic drainage patterns Figure 1 —117= Scanned with CamScannerAnother Pleistoc ne upland block in the SASIN, It 1s Ais M18 located in th rene Madhupur Tract: art of Bangladesh comprising greater Dhaka and Mymensingh districts, between the ¢ ry Pvd Brahmaputra and the Jamuna rivers Like the Barind Tract it consists mainly of req are cultivated. The Madhupur jungle contains set ontains Shale and mottled clays. The valleys, mostly flat, (Shorea robust). een the Meghna floodplain in the west and the Tripura hil inthe The area betw \ 1 of Lalmai terrace consists of red, mottled led ely Tippera Surface: ° " Saat was uplifted in early recent times. This area has a dendritic drainage pattern The surface is slightly undulating, except the Lalinai hills, ee heights ranging from 6 to 50m above sea level Comprehension Questions 1. Explain the following terms: a topography a Bengal Basin tertiary hills 2 How does the topography of the Barind Tract differ from Chittagong Hills? Resource Skills Activity On a map of Bangladesh mark the Pleistocene Terrace. % 0- Recent floodplains- 0-122 g covered by floodplains formed by different rivers 4s, significant part of Bangladesh (around 90%) is cc fe in the country in the context of agriculture of the country. It is a very important type of landscaps and culture, Most of the fertile, cultivable lands belong to this physiographic region, and the cultue of the country is very much influenced by the landscape. The floodplains of Bangladesh have bess divided into 15 sub-units: Ganges Tidal Floodplain Old Himalayan Piedmont Plain Tista Floodplain Sundarbans Old Brahmaputra Floodplain Lower Atrai Basin Arial Beel Jamuna (Young Brahmaputra) Floodplain Haor Basin ‘Surma-Kushiyara Floodplain Meghna Floodplain Ganges River Floodplain Gopalganj-Khuina Peat Basin Chittagong Coastal Plain Northern and Eastern Piedmont Plain. Cecoocooo Oooc000 Old Hi 7 in: / alluvial Cains eas eee sloping land at the foot of hills, formed aluvia s. A portion of th Pisin stretches into Bangladesh at the north-western corner of the iy This es the Dinajpur region. This region is covered by Piedmont Pi alluvial fans ofthe Mahananga and Karatoya vers nt eaves which were cae Weleda he Loot of “sta Floodplain: This is a big sub-re; i -region stretching bet i Plain ee and the right bank of the north-south flowing Brahm Fne Raa iallowly flooded during monsoons. ipaaiaiuorenets Most of the ant Old Brahmaputra Floodplain: The ‘ahmaputra flo 8 fro aha plain: The Old Brahmaput dplain stretches from th h es from the south-wes! comer of the Garo Hills, along the castern rim of the M rT 9 the M re ¢ . the castern rim of the Madhupur 1; s : rp wr e Meghna | looded to a depth of mo roth ‘Omposed of broad ridges and depressions ° The ate ce al fone meter, wh in Whi ee the monsoon season rereas the ridges are subject to shallow flooding 0% o lerg norras elevahen of land ; ME ac ona oo Scanned with CamScannerYoung Bralonaputra) Floodp qi un the mspin) is Part Of the bigger Aoodain 1 ank floodplain sin: is a large, gentle, depressional f: fa tle, depressional feat ter the Meghalaya Plateau’ foothills in mn estuarine Nloodplain on the south Me qkushiyara Floodplain: compri ‘weds the Sylhet Basin (Haor Basin wiyded within the boundaries. Elsewhe ins, but it is locally i © right-bank of the J lamuna (once a part af the Tista Several distributaries : f the Jamuna flow through the lure, bounded by the Old Bra a Ser) y the Old Brahmaputra floodplain in Sylhet High Plain in the east and the and piedmont areas near Sylhet are ly is smooth, comprising broad ridges n chonnel of the Meghi Meghna upstream from its junction with the Dhaleshwari and Ganges as far asp) i floodplain of this river occupies a ae Bazar is known as the Middle Meghna. The meandering channels. lying landscape of broad islands and many broad Jower Meghna floodplain: Southwar d fi Bepeeleionithe TER bank of th fom the junction of the Meghna and Ganges, the le lower Meghna comprise mixed alluvium from the Ganges, Jamuna and Meghna. These deposits are predominantly silt. This floodplain area has a slightly irregular ridge and basin relief, but also has large mounds used for settlement and cultivation. 2 Old Meghna estuarine floodplain: The landscape in this extensive unit is quite different from that on the river and tidal floodplains. The relief is almost level. with little difference in elevation between ridges and basins. Meghna estuarine floodplain: This sub-unit occupies almost the level land within and ing the Meghna estuary. It includes both island and mainland areas. New deposition and erosion are constantly taking place on the margins, continuously altering the shape of the land areas, Ganges River Floodplain: Comprises the active floodplain of the Ganges and the adjoining meander floodplain, The latter mainly comprises a smooth landscape of ridges. basins and old channels, The relief is locally irregular alongside the present and former river courses, especially in the West, comprising a rapidly alternating series of linear low ridges and depressions. The Ganges channellis constantly shifting within its active floodplain, eroding and depositing large areas of new tharland each flood season, but it is less braided than that of the Brahmaputra-Jamuna. Ganges Tidal Floodplain: The tidal landscape has a low ridge and a basin relief crossed by many lid rivers and creeks, Local differences in height are generally less than 1m compared with 2-3m ft Ganzes Nop lndarbaus: S6uthyEnd southwest of the Ganges tidal floodplain, there is a broad belt of land, ly fevel with a height of only 0.91m. This very low land contains the Sundarbans WSLand the reclaimed estates (cultivated land. (RHE? Atrai Basin: A small physiographic unit occupies a low-lying area where mixed sediments fimthe Atrai and Ganges and from the Barind tract overlie the down-warped southern edge of the a trac. The landscape north of the Atrai is mainly smooth, but floodplain ridges and extensive {e_'® Occur south of the river. Heavy clay soils predominate, Seasonal flooding was formerly Angy nt extensive areas in Chalan bee! used to remain wet throughout the year. a large depression lying between the Ganges and the Dhaleshwari south of Dhaka, lays occupy almost the whole landscape. Despite the proximity to the two major river ® the deep seasonal flooding is predominantly by accumulated rainwater that is unable to Fivers when they are running at high levels. Much of this area remains wet in the dry Scanned with CamScanneroccupies a number of low-lying areas hetween the Ganges i foodplain. Thick deposits of peat occupy perennially wer bash, nd the edges. This is the largest peat stock basin of Banglades The basins are deeply Hooded by clear rainwi-cr during the monsoon. Chittagong Coastal Plain: extends from the Fent River to the spony " the Matamuhuri delta, 4 comprises gently sloping piedmont plains near the hills, river a ope plains alongside the Fey; anata, Halda and other rivers tidal floodplains along the lower courses of these rivers. a smal ves of a youns,eghuarine Hiboenlain inineuoe, Sediments nese the hills are mainly silt. locally sandy. with clays more extensive in Noodpla basins. The whole of the mainland area is subjected to Mash floods. Northern and Eastern silt or sandy deposits near Noodplains. The whole area Gopalganj-Khulna Peat Basin: Floodplain and the Ganges tidal but they are covered by clay arow alluvial fans. mainly have hboring Piedmont Plains: These plains. which comp’ to the hills, gradi ag into clays in the basin adjoining the ne is subject to flash loods during the rainy season. Deltaic plains and coastal plains According to the special characteristics of formation. the flood plains ean also be classified into tw. types in Bangladesh. They are: 2 deltaipplains that the development of the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, that began some 125 million years ago. is stil continuing. The Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers y together with a non- Tlimalayan river. the Meghna, have built one of 2 STS ertelas iabthe world known as the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta of the Bengal Delta. ‘These delia-building activities of the rivers have, contributed tothe} formation of some 60% off the total Bangladesh ine. As the delta is rated, ai I influ coast tide dom strong Nuvi the — sediments were \, ' ha deposited more on the sk : py Pre floor rather than : ie redistributed by ocean waves and currents, As a. ‘ anit consequen the \ tous 9109 depositic rose. . { While the w active | 2 © delta is relatively old. the sa Ray of Bengal Meghna deltaic is geologically very young. a Figure 1:4 The Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta the delta due to the hig ngladesh are densely populated. with a predominance of agricultural actiy ities Fertility of the se Scanned with CamScannerfain: Relatively rapid change MU pPoestal areas. Physical evidee ol anks: areas OF Rew deposition ang count’ : a and consequer ete, 200 Years. tHe estuary has on i a F le through change ine orisiands. The coastal are, ih changes in shape, owt! of is! areas with Mangrove ph : Hors due t0 erosion of ch and sedimentation have ‘anging conditions is Apparent in eroding I changes in | th landforms are also present, Within channel migration and southyal regularly inundated during high ; tations ar We spranges fFOM Silty loam to silty soil ihe coastal Soils are lay loam. PH varies bet slightly to moar ates between 7.5 and 8.2, Due to environmental fat ye e saline , rately saline on the ce i Highly saline in sul- ste TaYeTS The saline soils are mainly: found sy IALRIS Ban Ty PARE EAT i sisiriots of the consal and offshore nie Barisal, Patwakhali. Noabhtli sit hv IaTgCSLTANETOVe ecOSystems. the Se (it The coastal pla zone isthe home of th oF larbans mangrove forest Topic 1 (b) Drainage System purpose of this section jpisection covers the ‘drainage system’ of Bangladesh, You will lean: the names and locations of the five main river systems the characteristics and the formation of the main features of these rivers - {0 9 yeanders. braiding, ox-bow lakes and deltas (introduction ry and ype rivers of Bangladesh are very extensive and affect both the physiography of eis - fe lif of the people. Bangladesh is called a land of rivers as it has about 700 river At WS tiuais. Most of the river drainage basin is located in the neighbouring countries and Bengal Basin. 2d plains ure 1:5 Bengal Basin The rivers are not. however, evenly distributed. For instance, they inerease in number and size trom A horthwest of the northern region to the southeast of the southern region. Snien Scanned with CamScannerth and volume of discharge, some of these rivers ms of eatehment size, river lene! Ae AM In 1 ter flow through Bangladesh is tremendous, Moreoyey the largest on the earth, The rate of water Me earry to the Bay of Bengal each yea TEOVer. i us volume of sediments that the rivers year (approxima. errr ons) builds new land alone the sea front, Keeping, hope alive for future extensie? 2.4 billion tons’ Is i 's principal reso a On of settlement. Thus, this great river system 1S the country's principal ource as well as its rea hazard. The main rivers of Bangladesh Th sn of the rivers can be divided into five major networks as follows he s 4 Brahmaputra-Jamuna river system Tista river system 2 Ganges-Padma river system a Karnafuli river system @ Surma-Meghna river system Figure Resource Skills Activity Study a map showing the main rivers of Bangladesh. 1B i el 1. On Figure Sa, label the 5 major rivers. 2. Then, on an outline map of Bangladesh, draw and name the 5 major rivers. Brahmaputra-Jamuna river system ~~ {The Brahmaputra River is one of the largest rivers in the world, with its basin covering art in Tibet, China, India and Bangladesh) At the point where Brahmaputra meets the isi!" in Assam and in Bangladesh is famous for its braided natuyé, shifting sub-channels, and for Bangladesh, called the Jamuna\The Brahmaputra-Jamuna throughout its broad valley sectiot formation of Chars (sandbars) within the chann geek macs ana Rivers are 280 kms long within Bangladesh and from 280m t© How the Brahmaputra River shifted its course h i ra d ¢ itee the aa been eau tic feature of the Bengal Basin} affecting small sections or even < enti ae as the shifting ofthe courses of the Tist, the old Brahmaputra, Old BrahnsP\" Barind tract in the year 1787) In that" ing followed a major flood in the sameGanges-Padma river s Me aes, the Ge ystem jesh, the Gange: Pear eee anon oe eeRetary known as the Padma ton 2 a Du Heed othe pe AG Upazila, Nawalgan) it Ms pout of entrance at marron met ia Janges as far up as the po district, This name (Padma or Podda) |S je padma is 120 kilometres long ae nt Point at which the Bhagirathi leaves its right bank. yirod ys sone of the w A oy eae ; re of the world's largest del and also a gre; 's largest delta complexes covering a major * Ba So a greater part of We: Poe r Jovelopment of the Ganges Delta, the river aren a Bengal in India. For a long period of penal Basin southeast surma- Meghna river system that for Ihe Ganges-raama 1s wie HK! nd has reached its present position in river originates in the hills of Shillong a A me fom jmirigan)}is often pe ae aa of India, The downstream of the Surma. The Nee e two distinct parts: the Upper Meghna (Kuliarchar to Shatnol) and the Lower Meghna (Shatnol to estuary mouth). Sixteen kilometers from Shatnol, the combined flow of the Ganges and Brahmaputra-Jamuna, known as the Padma, meets the Meghna at an 11 km wide confluence in the rainy season near Chandpur. From this point southwards, the Meghna is marked asthe Lower Meghna, becoming one of the broadest rivers and largest estuaries in the world rhe Lower Meghna is the major outlet of the combined Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers. Tista river system Tihe Bangla name Tista comes from Tri-Srota or three flows (flows of the Karatoya. Awat and Jamuneshwari rivers)/It originates in Chitamu Lake in the Sikkim Himalayas at an altitude of about 7,200m and enters Bangladesh at the Kharibari border of Nilphamari district. Upto the close of the 18th century, it flowed directly into the Ganges. The excessive rains of 1787 ‘created a vast flood and choked the original Atrai channel. This resulted in the Tista bursting into the Ghaghat, which at that time was a very small river. After passing through Lalmonithat. Rangpur, Kurigram and Gaibandha districts, this deluge falls into the Jamuna south of Cl i riverport. The total length of the river is about 315 km, of which nearly 115 km lies within Bangladesh, The present Tista is the result of land movement, earthquakes, floods and geological structural changes in the northern part of Bangladesh and the accumulated flows of the Karaotoya. Atrai and Jamuneshwari rivers. | Karnafuli river system ‘The Kamafuli River is the largest and most important river in Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tres, originating in the Lushai hills in Mizoram State of India. Ittayels through 180 km of mountainous wildemess making a narrow loop at Rangamati and then follows a zigzag course before it forms two other prominent loops, the Dhuliachhari and the Kaptai The Rangamati and the Dhuliachhari loops are now under the reservoir of the Kaptai earth-filled dam, After coming out from the Kaptai loop the river follows another torttious course through the lapahar hill range and flows across the plain of Chittagong after emerging from the hills near Chandraghona. The tiver therefore drains into the Bay of Bengal cutting across several hill ranges. It is navigable lighout the year by sea-going vessels UP to Chittagong Port and by large boats, shallow “aughis and all sorts of freighters and launches up to Kaptai River. Comprehension Questions load. Explain the terms: drainage system, river dischai Study figure Are the rivers of Bangladesh in the upper, middle oF lower course? Give =123 Scanned with CamScannera Lower course ‘i 2 Middle course Upper course 1 ' 1 Doposition i 0p Valley widening ' Deposition of alluvium 1 Vory gently sloping ‘Opan, gait sloping valley ‘Stoop V-shaped vallay profile and valley cross-sections Figure 1:6 Typical river reasons for your answer. how a river changes its characteristics when it reaches the lowland EA Describe, with an example, d Why do the rivers deposit their loads in the lowlands of Bangladesh?. Characteristics and formation of the main features of these rivers Meanders Padin tchanns 5 wo ves Figure 1:8 Changing meander pat("™ on the Mississippi River, USA Figure 1:7 The development of meande rs A meanderi ing stream is o Am Stream is one that consi reg ends 10 eliminate irregularities and fo Approaches base level, vert ical erosion is pepe Btedient from | iS replaced by teat from erosion, a eae Scanned with CamScannerP ed and valley and de velops a sinuous course that forms exaggerated loops and bends called sanders. There are me many meandering rivers in Bangladesh, especially the Ganges. Meghna and the rivers of Barind tract area e.g, Karatiya, Gorai Dapesitian f 1 it hank Goncavebanks aK Figure 1:9 Cross. The water flowing around a bend is fastest on the outside as there is | swung to the outer bank by centrifugal force. This causes greater erosion at this point resulting ina concave bank. As this bank is undercut it collapses and forms a river cliff ion of a meander 5 friction and the € Oxbow lakes An oxbow lake is a crescent-shaped lake formed when a riverbank meets across the neck of a well- developed meander. It is found on the floodplain of a river. Figure 1:10: The formation of an oxbow lake When a meander is very pronounced, erosion is concentrated on the outer concave banks. The continued undercutting and collapse of the outer banks causes the neck of the meander to become Harrower. With continued erosion, and usually in times of flood, the river breaks through causing the outer banks to merge. The river then flows straight across the neck leaving a loop of stagnant Water. The ends of the former meander silt up and it becomes scaled off from the main river forming an oxbow lake. These lakes are usually only temporary features and eventually may fill up With sediment and be colonized by vegetation. M Bangladesh, oxbow lakes are quite visible in the older floodplains (moribund delta). Locally. the qetlure is also known as heel, and jheel. These abandoned channels are rich in organic matters. Me aise-aqimne Veco Growth in the clay to fine ilty-clay sediments. Ustally xbow lakes are deeply flooded during the monsoon, either through local rainfall and runol? \yatler™ iver Nood. Once the lake gets filled with alluvium, it comes under rice cultivation 24 food pl ‘food Meg ins Plain is a wide area 1. low-lying land either side of a river channel. It is formed by n and is composed of alluvium deposited by repeated flooding: =12s5 Scanned with CamScanner‘ ‘© ayers ol Sap, tui vA section of a flood plain and levees Figure 1:11: Cross- At times of high discharge, 4 river carries large amounts of material in suspension. When the river foods it overflows its banks and the water cove! the surrounding flat land. The increased friction between the water and the land reduces the velocity of the water and the sediment is deposited, vers time the river floods, another layer of alluvium is added, forming a flat flood plain, The heaviest and coarsest material is deposited first along the banks of the river whilst the fine Myuvium is carried further away before being deposited. Repeated flooding results in the cumulation of the coarse silt next to the river, forming a natural embankment known as a levee Braided streams from each other by bars. It is characterised by a A braided stream has multiple channels separate network of constantly shifting channels around channel sandbars. The main channel is divided into cveral channels, which meet once, re-divide and again mee! each other. The channel's pattern in a braided stream constantly changes with fluctuations in discharve Channel bars, which divide the stream into several channels at low flow, are often submerged during high flow. Braiding occurs when a river has not enough energy to carry its load. The rv Sometimes deposits so much sediment in its channel that it becomes ‘silted up. It is then forced o split into several channels to find a way through the deposited material. This braiding offen ocsis when the river's load varies from season to season. "Phe Brahmaputra-lamuna in Bangladesh is a typical example of one of the rivers. After its entry into Bangladesh, its gradient falls sharply and as a result a heavy sediment Toad brought in from the source areas in Nepal, China-and India are deposited in the channel a braid bars, locally known as chars. During the monsoon most of the chars are submerged and all the braided channels become of very wide channel, more than 10 km wide in places. Flooding and riverbank erosion become ¥° prominent during the monsoon. Deltas A delta is a low-lying area of lan i arc re ieee ra ng ea {lanitoes at the mouth of a river where thé stream loses v*! Oo sistrioutaries C— world’s largest braided locity & x Layers of sediment Asa river enters the sea, its speed ei po: A 5s a, is ly Morel Ruhicn ihe: Gade Nemec ete checked suddenly and it begins to deposit its load. A del y time. the deposits build leposited more quickly than the sea's currents and tid emmove it, ON accumulate and block the pat ; (or ‘ae ‘ ie ‘i x sb eumulate and block the path of the main ri ing it to split i fe known as distributaries. Gradually, the delta iaecloRtzstlby, Bas ili _ 8 to stabilize 126 move rows, sediment aller strea® Scanned with CamScannerDelta is a c ali @ compound del ; peltas is delta, i pat) are linked together to form a ptrntinent aNd COVETS MOSK Of Bangla abbas cover about 65% Of Bangladesh ne Mgengal Delta is one of the most dence The distributaries compound de and West Ben, id the remaining f two large rivers (Gian *. It lies on the eastern side of the Indian eal in India. Ancient and modern deltaic 35% is alluvial plain and hilly terrain st a populated are Pivided nto mon und, immature, mature and ache ae Wert. The Bengal Delia can Be " penoreun > Mature and active del Bene mor ur deltas, Sta as are in the south-w: tern part of the country, south of the Ganges and there are mar ‘ are many oxbow lake: South of the : ve 4 Rivers where tributaries are highly silted ‘The immature delta is on the Me : moribund delta a zac a] ally influenced lands, ‘The Sumicg tS moribund delta and mainly consists of sea beach and nature delta. longs to this region, Subsidence is high in the The mature delta part is towards the rae ntral part of souther sladesh (Patuakhali. Barguna. a Pi ‘outhern Bangladesh (Patuakhali. Barguna. Tie active delta is situated maint | 4 Bengal (Bhola, Hatiya, Sand: ip, islands are its characteristics, omprehension Questions / Resource Skills Activities (0 ct In detail the shape of a cross-section of a meander. Explain why it is asymmetrical in shape. ¥ al the estuary of the Meghna River entering the Bay of Cte). Regular flooding and the formation of chars and offshore ‘a With the aid of labeled diagrams, explain how an oxbow lake is formed. Listthe characteristics of a flocd plain, Drawa labeled diagram to show a braided river: b Bangladesh is growing southwards. Explain how this is happening Copy Figure 1:12. On it name all the features shown, (Bangladesh is an example of a deltaic plain of three major rivers’. Explain this statement in your own words. Looking ahead Your knowledge of Topic 1 (Physical Features) will be useful when you study other Topics in the Hilabus - for example, Topic 6 (Agriculture). Start to think how the physical features of Smgladesh are linked to agriculture. Topic 2 (a) Characteristics of tropical monsoon climate - temperature, rainfall, seasonal variation *urpose of this chapter Cong et covers Topic 2 of the ten Environment & Development Topics in the syllabus for the GCE Ordinary Level Bangladesh Studies (syllabus 7094, Paper 1). Candidates to the: istics of a tropical monsoon climate, including seasonal, temperature and tons (Topic 2a) * OF different types of rainfall (monsoon, depression and thunderstorm), as well as (Topic 2b). ainfall 27 Scanned with CamScannerDelta is a c ali @ compound del ; peltas is delta, i pat) are linked together to form a ptrntinent aNd COVETS MOSK Of Bangla abbas cover about 65% Of Bangladesh ne Mgengal Delta is one of the most dence The distributaries compound de and West Ben, id the remaining f two large rivers (Gian *. It lies on the eastern side of the Indian eal in India. Ancient and modern deltaic 35% is alluvial plain and hilly terrain st a populated are Pivided nto mon und, immature, mature and ache ae Wert. The Bengal Delia can Be " penoreun > Mature and active del Bene mor ur deltas, Sta as are in the south-w: tern part of the country, south of the Ganges and there are mar ‘ are many oxbow lake: South of the : ve 4 Rivers where tributaries are highly silted ‘The immature delta is on the Me : moribund delta a zac a] ally influenced lands, ‘The Sumicg tS moribund delta and mainly consists of sea beach and nature delta. longs to this region, Subsidence is high in the The mature delta part is towards the rae ntral part of souther sladesh (Patuakhali. Barguna. a Pi ‘outhern Bangladesh (Patuakhali. Barguna. Tie active delta is situated maint | 4 Bengal (Bhola, Hatiya, Sand: ip, islands are its characteristics, omprehension Questions / Resource Skills Activities (0 ct In detail the shape of a cross-section of a meander. Explain why it is asymmetrical in shape. ¥ al the estuary of the Meghna River entering the Bay of Cte). Regular flooding and the formation of chars and offshore ‘a With the aid of labeled diagrams, explain how an oxbow lake is formed. Listthe characteristics of a flocd plain, Drawa labeled diagram to show a braided river: b Bangladesh is growing southwards. Explain how this is happening Copy Figure 1:12. On it name all the features shown, (Bangladesh is an example of a deltaic plain of three major rivers’. Explain this statement in your own words. Looking ahead Your knowledge of Topic 1 (Physical Features) will be useful when you study other Topics in the Hilabus - for example, Topic 6 (Agriculture). Start to think how the physical features of Smgladesh are linked to agriculture. Topic 2 (a) Characteristics of tropical monsoon climate - temperature, rainfall, seasonal variation *urpose of this chapter Cong et covers Topic 2 of the ten Environment & Development Topics in the syllabus for the GCE Ordinary Level Bangladesh Studies (syllabus 7094, Paper 1). Candidates to the: istics of a tropical monsoon climate, including seasonal, temperature and tons (Topic 2a) * OF different types of rainfall (monsoon, depression and thunderstorm), as well as (Topic 2b). ainfall 27 Scanned with CamScannerearth's surface over a long span cli atmosphere near the Oe 4 vemperature, precipitation, humidity, air refers to many elements, including wile Aa ee coos eiwement and ditection:-Geographical : ental positio ita ence hysical settings (e.g. mountains) 10 MOTE 6 SONRAN to 26°38N latitude and from Fi to the north and by the Bay of Bengal i BO esis ; te ey passes throug S 8 pic of Cancer passes thro he So ay asses py strong that as a whole, the climate of Banglades influence of the monsoon Wi hig Known as a tropical monsoon climates Characteristics of a tropical monsoon climate ical monsoon cl ef: characteristics of a tropical ee high annual temperature (about 26°C) ¢ is the average state of the the climate of any country. Ban; 92°41'E longitude. It is bordere a tropical climate prevaily c masons with alow rainfall: S te ary (wine) a seasonal distribution of rainfall é Ba nd dry (surnmer) 3 high annual rainfall (more than 1800 mm) seeinyeets a high humidity & rainy season with very high rainfall Seasonal variations Season is the climatic type, of season is mainly due to 1 sun at a particular place. ith a particular time of the year. The change at any place, associated wi arth's axis in relation to the position of the fhe change in angle of the e% sons (Sadaritu). It has a tropical climate because of its ris traditionally divided into six seasons: Bangladesh is called the land of six sea: physical location. The Bangla calendar yea Grisma (summer) Hemanta (late autumn) Barsa (rainy) Shhit (winter) Sarat (autumn) Basanta (spring). Fach season last on average two months, but some seasons merge into other seasons. W hile other are short. More broadly, Bangladesh has three distinct seasons: the hot and dry pre-monsoon season, from March to May 4. the rainy monsoon season, from June to October 5 the cool and dry winter season, from November to February. The seasons of Bangladesh regulate its economy, communications, trade and comm culture and, in fact, the entire lifestyle of the people. The influence of the tropical monsoon climate is clearly evident in Bangladesh dur season and the cool, dry winter season. Characteristics of the hot and dry pre-monsoon season a high temperature 2. the oceurrence of thunderstorms. Api sual th hotest month inthe county: After April increasing cloudconet Towers the nd direction changes from time to time in this s i 1 its earl part. Rainfall which takes place during this ti eso teapscielly dina This Be rey eve a ielacsourts ox 10 1025 percent of the annual (04 ‘aracteristics of the rai iver High ROI aaa season a heavy rainfall Oo yeree, art and ing the rainy long consecutive days of rainfi south to south-westerly winds. The rainy season coii 70 w 8S ason accounts for enters the country front {he Scanned with CamScannernaracteristics of the cool and dry winter season 5 low temperature emcleaet pete car skies 5 cool west or northwesterly winds Glow rainfall ge temperature in J ic 4 i yeas i Sec eee from 17°C in the northwest and northeast of the country, to ac? a ‘as. The minimum temperature in the extre r eo eme northwest in late pevember and early January can be as low as 3°C to 4C oe Comprehension Questions 5 What are the characteristics of a tropical monsoon climate? 5. List the differences between the weather conditions of the rainy season and winter seson pesource Skills Task Look at the data below. Construct a climate graph for Dhaka, and on it label the features of a tropical monsoon climate. DHAKA J | OF OMNES! icp 2081824 28.4925 2 Rainfall 7 zi 2 on! roe i Total mm 48) 553 | 282| 361 368 13 oO 2374 ‘Temperature variations ‘Temperature January is the coldest month in Bangladesh. However, the cold winter air that moves into the country from the northwestern part of India loses much of its intensity by the time it reaches the northwestern corner of the country. ‘Average temperatures in January vary from about 17°C in the northwestern and northeastern parts {0 20°-219C in the coastal areas. In late December and early January, minimum temperatures in the extreme northwestern and northeastern parts of the country, such as Rangpur and Sylhet, are as low as 47°C 07°C. As the winter season pro} maximum in April, which is April vary from about 27°C in 1 places in Rajshahi and Kushtia 40°C or more. Afier April, the temperature d rainy season, Widespread cloud cover lowers th monsoon season. ‘Average temperatures in July vary from about 27°C in th country. = Source - Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh Rainfall variations Rainfall ~ Water that is condensed from the aqueous vapour in the atmosphere and falls in drops from the Sky to the earth ie called rains and the total amount of rain that falls in a particular area within a certain time is called rainfall. The single most ‘dominant element of the climate of Bangladesh is the rainfall, Because of the country's location in the tropical monsoon region, the amount of rainfall is Nery high, ‘The rainfall in Bangladesh varies, depending upon season and location. Winter (November through ‘bruary) is very dry and accounts for only less than 4% of the annual rainfall. Rainfall in this season varies from 20 mm in the west and south to 40 mm in the northeast, which is caused by the Westerly disturbances that enter the country from the northwestern part of India. =129-- gresses into the pre-monsoon hot season, temperatures rise. reaching the he middle of the pre-monsoon hot season. Average temperatures in fhe northeast to 30°C in the extreme west of the country. In some districts the maximum temperature in summer season rises up to lecreases slightly during the summer months, which coincides with the ¢ temperature during the later part of the pre- 1¢ southeast to 29°C in the northwest of the Scanned with CamScannerhot season (March-May) accounts for ‘od is caused by convectional storms (thund ), Average rainfall of this season varies fr mm in the northeast region such « heast is caused by the additiona Rainfall in the pre-monsoon rainfall. The rain in this peri (locally called Kal Baishakhi central part of the country to 800 divisions. Higher rainfall in the nort uplifting provided by the Meghalaya plateau. ber) accounts for 70 to 85% of the annual rai The rainy season (June-Octo 5 to about 80% in the south 70% in the eastern part of the country t The amount of rainfall during this season varies from 1000 mm country to over 2000 mm in the south and northeast, Rainfall in th tropical depressions that are brought from the Bay of Bengal into Ba winds. Again, higher rainfall in the northeast is caused by the additio Meghalaya plateau. After the withdrawal of the wet monsoon, October, rainfall diminishes at a rapid pace. The average annual rainfall in Bangladesh varies from 1500 mm in th 3000 mm in the northeast and southeast. In Surma Valley and neighbou very high. At Sylhet the rainfall average is 4180 mm, near the foot of the al at Sunamganj it is 5330 mm, and at Lalakhal 6400 mm, the highest in Bang Source : Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh Resource Skills Task |. Using the data below, construct climate graphs of the following three illustrate the varying temperatures and rainfall amounts. <93/ Describe the rainfall distribution at each station. Sylhet _ L M| J) J) A] S O N D Temperature ee) R | 28] 27| 28] 29) 29} 29 28 25 22 Rainfall mi 207) 7B) 472| 775| 503; 253: 344 0 0 To Rajshahi__ ion D Temperature es malt oe | 32| 30) 30| 29 28 28 24 20 i it = - 1 a Rainfall | on gam ol o| 9 | 9) 144) 348) 349 354) Oa ISS 1} 0 1. Chittagong — Temperature N D cc = 26 22 Rat ainfall mm ai 21107. 5194 Reeurce Skills Task Look at a map in an distribution of the ee ae the average annual rainfall for Bangladesh. Describe th Scone ment on the areas which receive the highest and lowes! 2. Look at a map i p in an atlas that sh whe tat shows the f were the highest and lowest temperatures eno al mean temperatures for Bangladesh. Deseribe Scanned with CamScannerTopic 2 (b) Factors which contribute to rainfall and cyclones section depression rainfall and thunderstorm rainfall - and also of cyclones Monsoon rainfall ‘The word ‘monsoon’ is derived from the Arabic word ‘mauism" which means seasons, The wind that changes. direction with the change of seasons is known as the monsoon wind, Seasonal changes of this wind direction are caused by the differential heating and cooling of landmass and oceans between summer and winter, The monsoon wind blows from the northeast (towards the sea) in winter (the dry monsoon) and fro m the southwest (towards the land) in summer (the wet monsoon). Figure 2.1a The winter monsoon: Distribution of pressure systems and monsoon winds (January) During the winter months in the northern hemisphere, the land is colder than the sea and so a high-pressure system develops over the Asian Jandmass. At the-same time, a low-pressure system develops over Australia Winds blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, This means that the cold winds from Asia's high-pressure area | blow towards the low-pressure system in the Southern hemisphere. These are the north- €ast monsoon winds. Since the wind in this Season blows from the land to the ocean, almost dry conditions prevail and very little Tainfall occurs at this time. They are cool and dry as they blow over the cool land and Pick up little moisture. Figure 2.1b The summer monsoon: section explores the causes of different types of rainfall in Banglades and the Indian Ocean where it is warmer. | sh - monsoon rainfall Prsnae ‘80°N 2aaN | 408 | TSS ean Distribution of pressure systems and monsoon winds (July) The converse happens during the summer months. The high temperatures of the Asian landmass reate an area of low pressure. “ooler Indian Ocean. This differ area to the low- | Sree rence ii At the same time, high pressure develops over the comparatively | in pressure causes the winds to flow from the high-pressure ‘Pressure area - that is, from the ocean to land area, This flow of wind is known as =1B4. Scanned with CamScannerthe summer monsoon circulation, As a result, the summer monsoon winds bring in a hu oon winds bring in a hue of moisture and cause heavy rainfall, especially in B ce : angladesh and the neighbouring states of tng; Itenters Bangladesh in late May or early June. y Depression rainfall Depressions A depression isa region of low atmospheric pressure. A depression forms as warm, moist air fry the tropics mixes with cold, dry polar air, producing warm and cold fronts. The warm air being less sure on the ground. The rising warm dense rises above the cold air to produce the area of low pre air cools rapidly, condensation occurs, clouds form and rain falls (see Figure 2.2). Depressions occasionally develop over the Indian’ Ocean or in the:Bay of Bengal. The timing of such depressions coincides with the southwest monsoon wind. During such depressions. continous heavy rainfall occurs in Bangladesh for 7 to 10 days. At times more than_ two to three weeks of rainfall may occur in Sylhet and Cox's Bazar areas. My A y Source : Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh’ “ Figure 2.2 Rain caused by depressions: Section through a depression Thunderstorm rainfall Thunderstorms ‘Thunderstorms are tropical storms with thunder and lightning accompanied by heavy rain or hail On hot, humid days, the air near to the ground is heated up. As a result, warm moist air expands and rises rapidly. This rising air cools, condenses into water vapour, forming cumuloniimbus clouds. This results in heavy rainfall (see Figure 2.3), These storfa clouds are usually 5 km wide and 8 km high. Usually an individual thunderstorm is just ongdéell’/in a group of storms, which may be 30 km wide, lasting for more than five hours. A singl form can also become a supet storm covering an area of 50 km. This produces large hailstones, strong winds. thunder and lightning. : In Bangladesh, in early summer during March/April and late monsoon in October/November, this type of thunderstorm occurs in the evening with great intensity, This is popularly known as Al Baishaki in the early summer and Ashshiner Jhor during late moi cell One updleall/ deanaralt complet. Comprehension Questions 1. During which months does Bangladesh receive rainfall from: a, monsoons > sipgle cell slorm: Typically last 20 b. depressions storm CON preduce cevere creak elevents deonbues, hail, some heavy rink & oceasionaly derviadacs =132 30. mindes, Rolse such ocak c. thunderstorms? Scanned with CamScannerhy do you think depressions form in Bangladesh? Why does a thunderstorm occur? 4 What are the effects of a thunderstorm? source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh 4. Condensation ‘and clouds: Condensation seve! 5. Heavy rain Figure 2.3 Rainfall due to a thunderstorm Cyclones: A cyclone is a tropical storm or atmospheric turbulence involving circular motion of winds. Technically, a cyclone is an area of low pressure where strong winds blow around a ceiitre in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and a clockwise direction in the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones occurring in the tropical regions are called tropical cyclones. The tropics can be regarded as the region lying between 30°N latitude and 30°S latitude. All the tropical seas of the carth, with the exception of the south Atlantic and southeast Pacific, give birth to this atmospheric piienomenon known as tropical cyclones, Bangladesh is part of the humid tropics, with the Himalayas on the north and the funnel-shaped coast touching the Bay of Bengal on the south. This peculiar geography of Bangladesh brings not only the life-giving monsoon but also catastrophic cyclones, nor’ westera, tomadoes and floods, The Bay of Bengal is an ideal breeding ground for tropical cyclones Cyclones develop over warm seas when the surface temperature is more than 27°C. The air above the sea is heated, it expands and rises very rapidly creating an area of intense low pressure, The warm, moist air spirals upwards, condenses and forms clouds and rain. Air from the surrounding area spirals inwards to replace the rising air. This spinning air can reach speeds of 200 kmv/hr and absorbs large amounts of moisture forming cumulonimbus clouds which result in heavy rain. The cold air then sinks, The center of the cyclone is calm and is known as the eye (see Figure 2.4). Among all the atmospheric disturbances, cyclones are the most destructive. The diameter of a cyclone may range from 300 km to 600 km. ‘The most striking feature of a cyclone is its ‘eye’. That can be seen clearly in satellite pictures case ofa Palesciclaned cyclone. is small and almost circular; it coincides with area lowest pressure has diameter ranging from 8 km to 50 km. warmer than rest storm area. more violent storm, eye. winds are very light eye, usually not 25 30/hr rain practically absent. contrast, strongest heaviest occur Just outside this central eye. The life cycle of a cyclone ends soon after the cyclone reaches land (‘landfall’), because it is cut off from its moisture source. In addition to the waves associated with winds, abrupt surges of water known as storm surzes associated with cyclones. They strike the coast nearly at the same time that the centre of the stor? Scanned with CamScannercrosses the coast. In Bangladesh the maximum value of this ws surge bas been reported ia 4, high as 13m. Most of the damage during a cyclone is done by the s FEES, Which soni wash over entire offshore and large areas on the coast, MP ye There ie The most destructive element of a cyclone is its rn pe ee ae tle ry withstand a great mass of onrushing water often as hig) pee. alate textos " April-May and also in September-December. On oe a ee ae700 Rac st Pee are eee pea ede aR a een ealides in combination With ope heights increase with the increase of wind speed. i h €yclong surges lead to higher water levels and hence severe flo . Source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh ‘cay CCU in Or i ‘Sea surlace temperature over 27°C > ma so city Coal a snes Figure 2.4 Cross-section through a cyclone Comprehension Questions r 1. Describe the weather conditions as a cyclone passes overhead. 2. When do storm surges strike the coast? Discussion/Reflection Questions \. 1: Why do you think a cyclone is termed as a ‘disaster’? What are the adverse effects caused by a cyclone? Resource Skills Task |. Study the map above. Name two high- tisk areas to be hit by cyclones, What wi : h . What will the surge heights be in those areas? F 2. How far inland is likely to be aifected by a cyclone? ~ Ts Dhaka likely to be affected by a eyelone? Justify your answer, Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal The funnel-shaped coast neat the Bay of cyclones. The Bay cycl ecru wena ; Occasionally into’ Sih Tanya S2, MOVE towards the eastern cena eCoMeS the landing ground of i Lanka, By le eastern coast of Indi: id Bare . But they ca a India, towards Myanmar an sladesh, This is because of Y sause the maximum damage ‘whee Rep coine: into Scanned with CamScannerCYCLONE AFFECTED AREA Ps O _ 100m ————9 Aereerneterein o high density of population ©. poorly built houses. Most of the damage caused by the cyclones occur in the coastal regions of Khulna, Patuakhali Barisal, Noakhali and Chittagong and the offshore islands of Bhola, Hatiya, Sandwip. Manpura. Kutubdia, Manieshkhali, Nijhum Dwip, Urir Char and other newly formed islands. From 1981 to 1985, 174 severe cyclones (with winds speeds of more than 54 km/hr) formed in. the Bay of Bengal. The monthwise occurrence is as follows: Nos. of cyclones 3 number ‘Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun dul Figure 2.6: Frequency of cyclones in Bangladesh, =1as— Scanned with CamScannera Source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh Iris apparent from figure 2.6 that severe clones occur mostly during and post-emonsoon (September-December) periods and they are destruction. Resource Skills Task/ Discussion Questions Look at the graph above. Pre-Monsoon (Ap the ones that cause th, I-Mayy |. In.which month is the frequency of cyclones the highest in Bangladesh? Explain wh Jones happen then. 2. In which three months are there the least amount of cyclones? Why do you think thi Looking ahead Your knowledge of Topic 2 (Climate) will useful when you study other Topics in the example, Topic 4 (Environmental Challenges) and Topic 6 (Agriculture). Start to think is linked to these other Topics. Topic 3 (a) Forests and Biomass Purpose of this chapter ‘This chapter covers Topic 3 of the ten Environment & Development Topies in the sy llalbus tin Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level Bangladesh Studies (syllabus 7094. Paper 2) It introduces students to the im sustainable development: portance of the following natural resources to Bangladesh sj 2 forests and biomass (Topic 3a) 2 fish (Topic 3b) Q water (Topic 3c) 2 minerals (Topic 3d). Acknowledgment: The source material used and (Asiatic Society of Bangladesh) Press Ltd, Dhaka). Introduction: natural resources adapted for this section is trom uel . ) and Geography of Bangladesh by Haroun Er Rashid! (| The people of Bangladesh are dependent on the natural resources of the country. In ever aspeet of life, we find various uses of these resources. However. many of the ; are non-renewable -- that is, once they are deplet 5 important that our resources are used carefully anc ‘This is why we need the sustainable development Discussion/Reflection Task teSOUeES led they are lost to us forever Thus, it id in ways that prolong their availability of resources. Discuss or find out what the following terms mean: 3 natural resource Forests and biomass The tropical climate and fertile soil provide fav i fe ourable conditions tor the Witeition in Bangladesh. Forestry is one of the main. noncrenee tet Me which contributes to the economie and ecological sahility, " earth's ecologi and the manage r r anaveMENt of anisms. all of which have roles in the ec sustainable development rOwth of natu Wable resources in 13 Forests are vital for maintaining the stabilisation of the global climate They are essential tor innumerable species of or nd and water ecologic Scanned with CamScanner4, Why are new enterprise’ having difficulties in raising investment money from the nationalised banking sector? 5, Why are the private sector banks not keen to provide long-term industrial loans? 6, Define ‘micro-credit’ 7, What is the secret of the Grameen Bank success? 8. Why can’t the micro-credit model be used for bigger businesses? piscussion/Reflection Questions 1, Do you think micro-credit programmes have been able to contribute substantially to the eradication of nationwide poverty in Bangladesh? 2. ‘NGOs have failed to play a significant role in the national development in the last three decades.’ Argue in ceo this proposition. \- Topic 9 (a) Population structure Purpose of this chapter This chapter covers Topic 9 of the ten Environment & Development Topics in the syllabus for the Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level Bangladesh Studies. The aims of this section are to enable students to develop an understanding of different aspects of the demography of Bangladesh. It will introduce students to: © demographic concepts of birth rate, death rate, dependency ratio, infant mortality, life expectancy and natural increase, and help them to build up a statistical profile of the population structure in terms of age/sex, rural/ urban and ethnic/religious (Topic 9a) o the reasons for the changing rates of growth of population, the problems arising from such growth and possible solutions (Topic 9b) Q the reasons for and consequences of population movements in terms of rural. and international migration (Topic 9c). Topic 9a: Population structure Demographic concepts -urban migration What is demography? Demography is the branch of knowledge that deals with human populations, especially the statistical analysis of births, deaths, migrations, disease etc, in order to illustrate the conditions of life in communities, In Chapter 5, you read about trends in birth rates, death rates and population growth. You will come across these terms, and other demographic terms, in statistics such as those produced by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics: ms emer tt {CxuDe oBxTH RaTE(per Nous) area as a as as as a as a a mm nz wo omg 23 WRB D tes mse iss) 93) fas Wi ts Ya 1a!) ira eta as ~ INFANT MORTALITY RATES (er thoutsnd) Rois zp Dts) DoD Wom sats wow Scanned with CamScanneree ER PECTANCY AT HTH (ys¥rn) aE BE OT mm eT von 3m wD {CRUE WIRTH RATE(por Bourn) oe | eR eo mo A PH von to wo FERTIATY RATE (par oom 49) a Ra 7 aT on up oats aoa Figure 9.) Bangladesh Population Statistics. Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics But what do these terms mean? Opening Activity: Discussion/Reflection Questions 1, Discuss what you think the following terms mean: birth rate a death rate natural increase in the population © infant mortality a dependency ratio © lifeexpectancy a fertility rate. Look quickly at Figure 9.1. Between 1983 and 1992, the death rate went down nationally. Which other things went down, nationally, and which things went up? Was this good for Bangladesh? Do these figures indicate a better situation in the rural or the urban areas? We will now briefly define these key demographic terms and look at them in the context of Bangladesh, before moving on to consider the statistical profile of Bangladesh's population Birth rate S@ ee s- The birth rate is the average number’6f births during a year per 1000 people in the population estimated at mid-year. It is commonly identified as the cade Binh Tate-Tris he ominan factor in éstablishing the Fale f population growth in a country and is determined by the level of fertility as well as the age structure of the population. In Bangladesh, the birth rate was 31.4 per thousand in 1992; it fell to around 25.2 per thousand in 2002 and is expected to fall to around 18 per thousand in 2020, Death rate : The death rate is the average number of deaths per 1000 People in the population estimated at mid- year. It is an approximate reflection of the mortality situation and is referred to as the crude death fate. It indicates the impact of the existing death rate on population growth piven the ace distribution of the population. In Bangladesh, the death rate was 11.2 per thousand in 1992, it fell to 8.9 per th in 2002 and fs projected to fall further to around 8 per thousand in 2020, adigieer 7 2002 Infant mortality M@- Infant mortality is the number of infants dying between birth and the a f sed per 1000 live births. eames CXPTESSC In Bangladesh, the infant mortality rate (per thousand) reduced from 88.0 in-1992 to 64.9 in 2002 Itis projected to decline to 40.1 by the year 2025. | Life expectancy LA Life expectaney is the number of years that an average person is expected to live as determined by the mortality rate. =202= Scanned with CamScannerexpressed as a percentage of the base population. In Bangladesh, the rate of natural increase of the i %i 3 i population was 2,02 % in 1992. It fell to 1.63 % 2002. It is expected to further decline to 1.07% by the year 2020. E ii. 2 The dependency ratio 7 The dependency ratio is the propo! to 64 years). It gives an estimate o stion of the economically dependent part of the population to the productive part (aged 15 f the share of dependents that the fconomically active population has to support. ‘The dependency ratio in Bangladesh has fallen from 85.4 in 1992 to 64.9 in 2000. It is projected to further decline to around 44.6 in 2025. This reflects the ‘growing number of peopl group as 2 result of high birth rates in the past. The jarge numbers who were born in the | sve and as a result, the dependency ratio is falling the 1980s are now becoming economically active an ’ fortunate position because the port. We can expect more SUCCESS I the coming few decades if ie in the 15-64 age 960s to For the time being, therefore, Bangladesh is in economically active population has a relatively small number of dependents to sup} rising the savings and investment ratio (needs explanation)) in policies and institutions are approp! tn Bangladesh, life expectancy at birth was 56, : 3 yea a fi 2 aynere the life expectancy in 2002 was 64 and 63 years nny as ae ‘The natural increase in population : poe Bear in population is defined as the rate at which a population cohort g in any given year. It is the difference between the birth rate and death rate if riate. "government Total Fertility Rate~ > The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is the projected average number of children born to each woman s the total number of children a woman will bear in her lifetime on the assumpli man will be replaced by placement level fertility. over the course of her life. It measu™ jon that the current level of fertility continues. Given average mortali rates, a TFR of 2.1 roughly indicates that a wo! her daughter once her child- This is referred to as the re} bearing period ends. Resource Skills Activities the changes from 1992 onwards in: jife expectancy \e Ss natural increase in population a a Drayline graphs to show t 2 birth rate“ b, death rate ¢. infant mortality A profile of the pop’ ‘The present population ©! has fallen from around 3.1 % in 19 ifsc reams until epproximately te YA million. pipe fers 10 the population size that will remain constant given the birth and death rates, and the age distribution of the population. ‘ Sex Rip eey : @) females in the total population is nearly equal, with the males slishtly £ dependency ratio. ucture in Bangladesh d. 130 million. Even though the annual rate of growth level of 1.6%, it is projected that stabilisation ulation str fthe country is aroun 71 10 the current I 2050 when the population may be as large as 250 The share of males and ales an male population was 55.7 million whilst that of fem: ae ales w 2 This is projectes J million males and 88.6 females in 2025. The SERRE TPencies to females may indicate a bias against ae car atacceeMMrvGTGa ana! KOalIReh an snd healthcare was equal, we, would expect to see a slightly hi aes ireh: eithe population given that the average lifespan of wor ee te ahead. In 1990, 'd to increase to 91 million m: access to nut ratio of women to men that of men in developed countries. A ethan > Scanned with CamScanner -- es sauna:2000 2003 HMales mFemales Figure 9.2 Population by Gender Bangladesh 1990-2015 (millions). Figures after 1995 are World Bank projections). Source: World Bank Research Task Build up a profile of the population structure in Bangladesh, by finding out what percentaye are male and female, are in different age groups, are urban and rural, are of particular ethnic/tribal groups, and of different religions. Fill in the table below. [% of population (e.g. in 2000) _ Reli Discussion/Reflection Task , 1. Discuss the data you have collected. Are you surprised by any of the figures? 2, Do you think there are any issues for society — e.g. a high proportion of the population in * particular age group? 3, We looked at changes in the rural/urban population in Chapter 5. Can you remember how '¢ is changing? Do you think the proportion of the population from different religious srounds has changed over the last century? eae eet Topic 9 (b) Population growth Purpose of this section ic i ca hat over the Chapter 5, we looked at the trend in population growth in Bangladesh, We Teart that ove! In Chapt ades. population control strategies have been # Huge success. From an annual £2 past two Sots 1 96 in 1971, the rate of population growth has de ined to its pres ri =204= Scanned with CamScannerand is projected to further fall to 1.06% b aon mt 06% by 2020. The maj decline in the fertility rate from an average of 7 oj ie main factor behind this has been 2.9,in 2001. ‘Midten per mother in the 1960s to dramatic verage of Reasons Why is the population growing? Success in reducing population growth should be viewe Bangladesh was the world’s eighth ed with some caution. In the mid-1970s, ™ost populous country and remains so today. This is because. 5 High fertility rates in the past, coupled with falling death rates, have meant that Bangladesh still has tremendous inbuilt growth potential given the age structure of its population @ As much as 43% of its total population was below 15 years of age in 1997, and 46% of the female population was of reproductive age (15 to 49 years). Nevertheless, the success of family planning measures has meant that the potential population explosion has been contained and population growth rates have actually come down, even though the number of people of childbearing age has gone up dramatically. Why is the population now growing more slowly? There are several reasons behind the decline in the population growth rate. We looked at some of the reasons in Chapter 5. For example: © First, greater education and health a 1as meant that women are more willing and able to take advantage of the -eness, particularly amongst the female population has increased. This hi greater availability of family planning methods, Secondly, the slow but steady improvement in economic prosperity also has an impact on the calculations of some parents who can now look forward to educating their children for a better life rather than relying on a large family for economic security. Problems caused by growth Even with the reductions in population growth that have been already achieved, the size of the population means that even relatively small percentage growth rates translate into large numbers of new individuals every year. Education The immediate effect of this is felt in the educational sector where, in 1995, enrolled students in Primary education were 17.3 million, with an enrolment rate (enrolled students as a percentage of the total population of the appropriate age) of 92% and a teacher student ratio of 1:70 (1 teacher for 70 students on average). According to the Bangladesh Planning Commission, if universal primary “ducation is to be achieved and if the teacher-student ratio is to be improved even to 1:50, the “Mount of resources dedicated to primary education would have to be doubled, Scanned with CamScannerBec. th ision of healthcare. Around the year 2000. the i a impli \¢ provision 4 ce So eo Beate sgo( liboiae for. 5,506 people in the population), the hospital bed- eee ae was 1:3231 and the per capita health expenditure (total health expenditure in the ae vided by the population) was 135 Taka per annum. According to the Bangladesh Panning ‘Commission, to maintain existing healthcare facilities at a minimum level will require a doubling of per capita health expenditure. Rural economy i i i he rural economy by raising the number ‘An increase in the population also has a direct impact on t of landless individuals. In 1997, the population density of Bangladesh was 850 persons per eave Kilometre. This increased to around 900 persons by 2002. It is projected to rise to 1130 persons p« square kilometre by the year 2020. ‘As small farms get subdivided amongst many children, many of them become economically unviable, and the owners have to sell their tiny plots and become landless labourers. They are forced to go into non-agricultural activities in the rural areas, or work for other farmers. or to migrate to the cities or abroad. At the same time, while the yields on the existing farms are going up because of improvements in technology and the spread of new seeds and fertilizers, there is inevitable pressure on food availability, as the same amount of agricultural land has to support an ever-increasing population. Employment ‘The growing population that has to find employment opportunities outside agriculture also creates Pressure on the non-agricultural sectors. The working age population (defined by the Bangladesh Planning Commission as the population between the ages of 15 and 59 years) was 66.6 million in 1997. It increased to around 80 million in 2002. It is projected to increase to 98 million in 2010 and 109.1 million in 2020. Much of this increase will have to find jobs outside the agricultural sector in manufacturing, industry, and services. Possible solut ns Given the demographic profile of Bangladesh, it is clear that keeping the low as possible is the best strategy for the country at this tine, accelerate again, it is obvious that this would seriously affect the eco, of the country. 8rowth of population as If population growth was to nomic and social development » | ‘There is no set of measures that is likely on its own to low, . : “the existing reduced rates of population growth, Family Meee on Srowth further or maintain . availabjlity of bi is combined with edu Seep oMerktit the “ oy : a —ucation, employment opportunities for women, and growing economic prosperity that induces parens top children rather than maximizing family Fi _ lan educatior i size as an economic survival Thus, population control is a multi n and investment in strategy. -Pronged strate; educational changes. = 8y that has to depend on economic, social, and Here, there is an important debate about family planning. Many people believe that without will not be possible. Some observers have ever Planning, since most important world religi Bangladesh shows that attitudes are much mor t r re flexible than rapidly and dramatically if economic opportunities and so ions favour |; t the experience of ‘sts think, and can change change, han many analy: cial possibilities Scanned with CamScannereee fatenheat that attitudes and beliefs are not important, Rather, it warns us that to earn a fa es beliefs may be misunderstanding the problem of why poor families Dees ave ls Be families. Historical observation across countries (and the experience of Bees 8roups within countries) shows us that fertility behaviour and family size r ly change as economic and educational opportunities change. Comprehension Questions 1, Draw three star diagrams to summarise the: @ reasons for population growth problems causcd by a growth in population _ solutions - ways to reduce the birth rate Discussion/Reflection Question © Why do you think death rates have decreased in Bangladesh? Topic 9 (c) Population movements Purpose of this section In Chapter 5, we looked at trends in migration. In this section, we look more closely at the reasons for people moving and the consequences. Before 1971, there were no significant movements of population within Bangladesh and hardly any migration outside the country (apart from the population transfers that followed the partition of India in 1947). The population of Dhaka remained fairly static between 1947 and 1971. Since then, the population of Dhaka has grown exponentially and is now considered a mega city with over. 13 million inhabitants. Over the next two decades, its population is projected to rise to over 20 million people. Following independence in 1971, intemational migration also increased. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was some migration (not more than a few tens of thousands) from Sylhet district to the United Kingdom, In contrast, today an'estimated 3 million Bangladeshis are working in the Middle East aeee south Bast Asia, In addition, another million Bangladeshis are estimated to be permanent residents of other countries. ral-urban migration {i ie not possible to study the extent of intemal migration within Bangladesh from the information available in the Census data. What is available in Census data is some limited information about the place of birth of respondents and it is difficult to deduce any movement patterns from this. To get tn iden of the extent of internal migration, we have to rely on micro level studies of rural-urban migration focusing on particular regions (such as Comilla district) and studies of the informal sector in Dhaka where a majority of the migrants appear to converge. Reasons “The reasons for rural-urban migration identified in these studies can be grouped into: “a push factors -c pull factors ‘marily refer to issues at the point of origin that propel individuals to move. In contrast, pull factors are defined as features at the ‘point of destination that attract migrants to particular places. P Out-migration is generally higher from villages that are characterised by land scarcity, an unequal distribution of land and a high proportion of landless tabour. Most come from the districts of Faridpur, Barisal, ComillaNoakhalitand Since both push and pull factors operate in driving people to look for jobs elsewhere, migration Ofien does not relate significantly to the skills level-of the rural inhabitants who migrate, Very =207= migrants in Bangladesh Scanned with CamScanneroften, it is the unskilled who have to leave looking for jobs because of push factors; at other times more skilled people leave because there are, pull factors in the form of better job opportunities elsewhere. Thus, overall we can find migrants of all skill levels who migrate The ain FeO elatc to: more diversified livelihood opportunities higher probability of finding work, higher wages pt the existence of a network of friends and relatives in the target destination greater educational possibilities the greater availability of informal sector activities. ! It is estimated that as much as 40% 6f the recent urban growth/in Bangladesh is due to this i flow of people. : ; The emergence of garment industties)has introduced the new phenomenon of female migration, Barring severe food crises or natural calamities, the move to urban areas has initially been very largely male dominated, with female members of the household following later. In contrast. the new garment factories that have been set up in urban areas in Bangladesh in large numibers since the 1980s have attracted primarily female migrants. It is estimated that 30%) of the f Dhaka are populated by migranitsi/The accompanying ooooo nal a) environmental degradation and the pressure on infrastructure, such as water, sewerage and \ sanitation systems, is obvious. y} Q There are also fears that large-scale migration can lead to étitfiinality/ if jobs-are not available for the new migrants. On the other hand, migration has led to a great deal of economic vitality and allowed the growth of new manufacturing industries and service sectors. The recent high rates of growth of the Bangladesh economy have been driven by the many sectors that have drawn on hardworking rural migrants. Historically, the growth of manufacturing and the transition from agricultural to industrial societies has always been associated with periods of large-scale migration, the growth of cities and, for 2 time, the growth of slums. Only later have slums been transformed into residential areas for a growing urban working population. Itis not desirable to try to reverse this historical pattern in contemporary Bangladesh, but the pace of migration has to be matched by investments in urban infrastructure, sanitation and housing. International migration More recently, intemational migration has become more important than internal rural-urban migration within, Bangladesh. Some micro-studies have shown that in the mid- 980s, 37% of rural migrants were going outside the country to the d to South’ East Asia, while around (82% were migrating to Dhaka The process of Bangladeshis migreting to the UK and other western countries has also:been superseded by people moving to the Middle Best 1 and to South East Asia in the 1980s and the 1990s, ieecramenemaaics sc 2205 Reasons Scanned with CamScannerConsequences The skill distribution of Bangladeshi: gladeshis migrating to th Tr rand early 19800 ce celadeshis migrating 1 the Middle semi-professionals, skilled, semi-ski from Bangladesh in the late ‘igure 9.3. Four skill categories are id ssi id Fo a Bi ¢ identified: professionals an a Professionals and semi-professional: en, college teachers, ssionals includ ors, engineer: lude doctors, engineers, university/ college teach Q Skilled and semi-skilled include workers such as masons, carpenters, fitters, and mechanics a Unskilled consists of construction workers, cleaners, helpers to masons and municipal workers 79 (24,430) 1% (36.974 ure 9.3 Skill Distribution of Bangladeshis Migrating to the Middle East. ‘Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Manpower, Employment and Training. Table 9.3 that the majority of international migrants going from Bangladesh to the Me east ere ‘unskilled workers. In contrast, the number of professionals and semi- professionals was less than 10%, As a consequence: Bangladesh has been rather limited because most Bangladeshi Figi a the foreign exchange eamed by migrants were working in seetors where they earned relatively litte a workers in categories that were least likely to find jobs within Bangladesh have succeeded in going abroad and contributing to the well-being of their families © the number of professionals and skilled workers within Bangladesh is limited because of relatively poor educational infrastructure and low levels of literacy compared to neighbouring countries, This has meant that even with the relatively small numbers of skilled and professional migrants leaving the country, the impact on the Bangladesh economy from losing these skills has been significant. ‘the migration patterns from Bangladesh point not only to the need to accelerate ree erat creation and the growth of non-agricultural employment, but also to the shortayes of Sees ne Lars and professionals in Bangladesh. The patter of migration is therefore coneee, skilled workers ie of low educational standards in Bangladesh, and points to the mecene et proving skill creation and strengthening higher education in particular. Se from the period shown in Table 9.3, the extent of international m; ration H f inter gt =209= Scanned with CamScannerIn 2002, the total spending on health in Bangladesh was 3.1% of Bangladesh's total GDP (gros; domesti¢ product). But publie health spending was only 0.8% of GDP, the remaining 2.3% of Gop working overseas, As with rural-urban migrants, the overwhelming majority of intemationa| migrants are male. The economic benefits of international migration, both for the families of the migrants and for the Bangladesh economy, are demonstrated by the growth in annual remitta flows of around 10% per year over the past 25 years. Comprehension Questions © Explain why some Bangladeshis migrate overseas and describe the benefits and problems such a movement creates. ‘© List the main causes of rural migration and describe the effects this movement has on urban areas. Topic 10 (a) Health care delivery systems Purpose of this chapter This chapter covers Topic 10 of the ten Environment & Development Topics in the syllabus fo ‘the Cambridge GCE Ordinary Level Bangladesh Studies. The aims of this section are to develo) an understanding of the following issues: health care delivery systems in Bangladesh, as well as disease control and ways of improving the quality of life (Topic 10a) © the provision and delivery of primary, secondary and tertiary education, as well as diffi rent educational challenges, such as improving literacy, developing occupational skills and professional skills (Topic 10b). ‘opic 10a: Health care delivery systems The constitution of Bangladesh clearly stipulates securing for its citizens “.... basic necessities of life. including food. clothing. shelter, education and medical care.” All governments have recognised the importance of improving health care provision in Bangladesh nd have pledged to ensure that there is universal access to essential health of an adequate quality for all its citizens. Health care in a developing country raises a number of important issues and Qo the provision othe debates: a First, recognises. T! care improves over time. 5 2 Secondly, the health of a society's citizens is critical for the performance of the economy and the eapacity of the economy to compete intemationally. Therefore, health care is also a means for achieving the broader development goals of the country. The debates and policy discussions are about determining the priorities for allocating health care. given that in a relatively poor economy the resources available for health care are necessarily going fo be limited. It then becomes important to determine where to spend these resources and how to spend these resources most effectively to achieve the joint goals of universal health cover as 2 constitutional right, and the goal of improving health to move ahead in terms of economic access to health care is a fundamental right in itself, as the constitution of Bangladesh therefore, as an end in itself, the government has to ensure that the quality of health development. Who delivers heath care? _ The health care delivery system in Bangladesh can be broadly divided into the public sector and private sector, and each has a number of tiers of delivery. This structure has been developing and Ghanging over time, and recently, the role of the private sector has increased with the rapid growth Gf private clinics and hospitals. This has increased the quality of health delivery overall, but has also meant that access to health has not improved rapidly for the poorest people who do not have the means to access a private health sector. =21 Scanned with CamScanner