CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Abrasive machining of advanced aerospace alloys and composites

Fritz Klocke (1)a, Sein Leung Soo (2)b,*, Bernhard Karpuschewski (1)c, John A. Webster (1)d,
Donka Novovic e, Amr Elfizy f, Dragos A. Axinte (1)g, Stefan Tönissen a
a
Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering, WZL, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
b
Machining Research Group, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
c
Institute of Manufacturing Technology and Quality Management, Otto-von-Guericke-University of Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
d
Cool-Grind Technologies, Ashford, CT, United States
e
Rolls-Royce plc, Derby, United Kingdom
f
Pratt and Whitney Canada, Longueuil, QC, Canada
g
Rolls-Royce University Technology Centre (UTC), Faculty of Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The aerospace industry has experienced significant growth over the past decade and it is estimated that
Abrasion
nearly 30,000 new commercial passenger aircraft will be required by 2030 to meet rising global demand.
Grinding
Abrasive machining is a key material removal process utilised in the production of aeroengine
Material removal
components. Current industrial practice and perspectives relating to grinding in the aerospace sector are
presented including general workpiece surface integrity standards/requirements, fluid delivery systems,
wheel preparation options and machine tool designs/configurations. Corresponding academic research
on the machinability of aerospace alloys and composites are critically reviewed together with recent
developments involving novel/innovative grinding processes.
ß 2015 CIRP.

1. Introduction turbomachinery parts [123], grinding is still one of the primary

The worldwide market for civil aircraft is rising in line with
increasing global population and affluence. Growth in new
airplane deliveries is expected to be at an average of 3.6% per
annum up to 2030 [114]. This naturally translates to a greater
demand for gas turbine engines, which places significant strains on
current as well as future supply chain and production capacity.
Commercial pressures for continuous improvement in aeroen-
gine performance and fuel efficiency have driven the development of
materials with increasing temperature limits at affordable cost
[65]. This is evident from the evolution of materials composition in
engines, with the trend moving towards alloys with higher
temperature capability (from steels to nickel and titanium alloys)
and materials with lower density (aluminium to carbon fibre
composites). Although not fully mature, ceramic and metal matrix
composites (CMC and MMC) are showing evidence of replacing some
of the high temperature alloys that dominated engines towards the
end of the 20th century. The constantly changing state of aeroengine
materials technology is another factor that will considerably stretch
the limits/capability of established manufacturing processes and
therefore further emphasises the critical need to develop more
advanced and robust production techniques.
Despite the rapid development and increasing acceptance of
non-conventional machining processes for the manufacture of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1214144196.
E-mail address: s.l.soo@bham.ac.uk (S.L. Soo (2)).
operations in the finish machining of critical gas turbine engine
components. This is due to the strict requirement for achieving
tight dimensional tolerances of <10 mm and superior surface
finish with roughness in the order of <0.5 mm Ra together with
acceptable workpiece quality/integrity.
The keynote will discuss the latest developments in academic
research together with current state-of-the-art relating to abrasive
machinability of key aerospace alloys and composite materials,
fluid delivery and wheel preparation strategies, machine tool
technologies and innovative process configurations, as well as
example case studies and perspectives from practitioners in the
aeroengine manufacturing sector. The paper complements a sister
keynote to be presented in STC-C relating to the ‘High performance
cutting of advanced aerospace materials’ as well as the keynote
delivered last year (2014) in STC-E [123].
2. Workpiece surface/sub-surface integrity requirements
Aeroengine discs are categorised as critical components and are
therefore subject to highly stringent dimensional accuracy, surface
integrity and fatigue requirements. It is well documented that the
functional performance of parts subject to machining processes is
strongly affected by the resulting material surface/subsurface
integrity conditions [111]. Publications detailing investigations
relating to the influence of material removal processes on
workpiece residual stresses initially appeared in the 1950s.
However, Field and Kahles [66] were the first to define the
concept of surface integrity and propose associated methodologies

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2015.05.004
0007-8506/ß 2015 CIRP.
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for assessment, with particular application to machining processes

[67,68].
While specific standards of workpiece surface integrity and
acceptance criteria for aerospace components exist, they are
commercially sensitive and closely guarded, which precludes full
disclosure in the public domain. Nevertheless, surface integrity/
metallurgical assessment of the workpiece condition following
grinding is typically undertaken to confirm the absence of various
anomalies including cracks, amorphous/recast layers, re-deposited/
foreign material, contamination and work hardening, none of which
would be acceptable. In addition, the analysis can also encompass
residual stress measurement and cyclic life assessment.

3. Abrasive machinability of aerospace materials

Fig. 1. Ground features on a high-pressure turbine blade [228].

3.1. Stainless steels
Stainless steel is typically utilised for the manufacture of jet
engine shafts and aircraft structural components such as fasteners
and landing gears requiring elevated strength, high fracture
toughness and exceptional ability to withstand stress corrosion
cracking. The first stainless steels employed in the aviation industry
were the low-alloy martensitic steels, AISI 4130 and AISI 4340
[245]. In 1978, Little and Machmeier [143] patented the secondary
hardening ultra-high strength steel AF1410, which was based on
HY180 but with increased toughness and corrosion resistance
[245]. This was further improved through the introduction of
AerMet 100 in the 1990s by Carpenter Technology Corporation,
which is currently widely utilised in the aviation industry due to its
superior fracture toughness and corrosion stress resistance [245].
Xu et al. [242] studied the abrasive machining of AerMet
100 using white Al2O3 vitrified grinding wheels. Tensile residual
stresses were detected in the top surface layer, which crossed over
to the compressive regime when moving deeper into the
subsurface zones. The influence of single and white Al2O3 as well
as cubic boron nitride (CBN) wheels on resulting force and
temperature when surface grinding AerMet 100 (vw = 8–14 m/min,
vs = 20–30 m/s, ap = 5–25 mm) was assessed by Yao et al.
[245]. Both grinding force (up to 290 N) and temperature (up
to 735 8C) were highest when utilising the single Al2O3 wheel,
while tests with CBN resulted in reduced forces and temperatures
of up to 75% and 100% respectively, as well as smaller heat
affected zones. The superior performance was primarily attributed
to the higher thermal conductivity of the CBN grain (133 W/m K)
compared to Al2O3 (35 W/m K) abrasive. Subsequent trials also
highlighted that compressive residual stresses up to 1000 MPa
extending to a depth of 30 mm was obtained when surface
grinding AerMet 100 using CBN wheels at a workpiece feed (vw),
wheel speed (vs) and depth of cut (ap) of 18 m/min, 14 m/s and
10 mm respectively [246]. In contrast, the majority of trials
involving white Al2O3 wheels exhibited tensile residual stresses
similar to that reported by Xu et al. [242]. The feasibility for creep
feed grinding of AISI 420 stainless steel using a vertical high-speed
machining centre was demonstrated by Dewes et al. [51]. Despite
grinding forces of up to 650 N, no problems occurred with regard to
spindle power or vibration/instability. The alumina-based wheel
utilised achieved a maximum G-ratio of 41, with no apparent signs
of workpiece burn.
equiaxed parts. This is because the grain boundaries of DS blades
are aligned along the principal stress direction parallel to the airfoil
length [39]. A further 25 8C boost in allowable blade operating
temperature can be achieved by single crystal (SX) airfoil castings,
which do not contain any grain boundaries [189]. While modern
high-pressure turbine airfoils are either DS or SX cast, the rear
sections/cooler stages of the turbines are manufactured from
equiax grained alloys. Structural components such as engine
casings are similarly produced via investment casting while
wrought processes involving cast ingots or consolidated superalloy
powder preforms are applied to fabricate turbine discs [180].
Grinding is a key process for the manufacture of blades and vanes
as economic machining of cast nickel-based superalloys using
defined cutting edge operations is difficult. Depending on part
design, up to 12 distinct abrasive cutting operations are required to
machine a blade, see Fig. 1 [228], including face, plunge, profile and
arc grinding. Arguably, the most important feature on a blade is the
‘fir tree’ shaped profile at the root that locates it into the rotor [86].
The process of turbine blade grinding in the aeroengine
industry has seen significant evolution over the past 60 years.
Use of creep feed grinding (CFG) at low table speeds and large
depths of cut with soft and porous Al2O3 wheels at low cutting
speeds (15–30 m/s) was predominant in the 1950s. Intermittent
dressing using formed diamond rolls was the principal method for
wheel preparation. The advent of continuous dress creep feed
(CDCF) grinding in the 1980s allowed for much higher material
removal rates, with roll dresser infeed levels of between 0.5 and
2.0 mm/rev preserving wheel profiles and keeping Al2O3 grits
sharp. An alternative configuration when operating at wheel
speeds of up to 80 m/s is high-speed continuous dress (HSCD)
creep feed grinding. Infeed levels in HSCD are a factor of 5 to
10 larger compared to CDCF [166]. Unfortunately, the radically
faster wear rate of grinding wheels and dressers when using HSCD
has thus far prevented any widespread industrial application.
Fig. 2 shows a metallographic cross-section of an IN738LC
workpiece following creep feed grinding using an intermittently
dressed Al2O3 wheel. A 5 mm thick white etch layer is clearly

3.2. Nickel based superalloys

Nickel based superalloys constitute 40–50% of engine weight in

current commercial aircraft and are deployed particularly within
the combustor and turbine sections where operating temperatures
can exceed 1250 8C [189,201]. Turbine blades and nozzle guide
vanes (NGV) are formed through complex investment casting
processes capable of precisely controlling the grain boundary
structure. Components that contain columnar grains fabricated
through directionally solidified (DS) casting generally have a
25 8C higher operational temperature limit compared to Fig. 2. Machined subsurface of IN738LC following CFG [173].
 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 3. Influence of creep feed grinding conditions on residual stress depth profiles of IN738LC [174].
observed on the machined surface and is devoid of any of the
coarse cuboidal g0 particles present within the bulk material.
This amorphous zone most likely formed due to the elevated
temperatures generated during the grinding process. When
grinding with intermittently dressed wheels, the white etch layer
was found to be minimal for a dress overlap rate (Ud) of 3.8. In CDCF
grinding, the depth of the white etch layer was shown to decrease
steadily with increasing dressing infeed velocity [173].
Österle et al. [174] evaluated the influence of four distinct
operating conditions on workpiece residual stress when creep feed
grinding cast IN738LC; see Fig. 3. Grinding dry resulted in large
tensile residual stresses of up to 1800 MPa both parallel and
orthogonal to the grinding direction; see Fig. 3(a). The damaged
surface/subsurface region was also characterised by cracking while
thickness of the white etch layer was greatest. The residual stress
depth profile after grinding using an Al2O3 (corundum) wheel with
intermittent dressing (single crystal diamond tool) is detailed in
Fig. 3(b). Surface residual stress was tensile in nature and peaked at
about 5 mm into the subsurface, which corresponds to the
thickness of the nanocrystalline white etch layer detailed in
Fig. 2 [173]. The residual stresses crossed over into the compressive
region at 15 mm beneath the machined surface, with a maximum
of approximately 400 MPa observed at a depth of 50 mm. This
was counterbalanced by equivalent tensile residual stresses at a
depth of 100–120 mm below the machined surface.
Operating with continuous dressing reduced the magnitude and
depth of tensile residual stresses near the workpiece surface in
comparison to intermittent dressing, as highlighted in Fig. 3(b) and
(c) respectively [174]. A possible explanation for the lower tensile
residual stresses is the significantly smaller specific force when
creep feed grinding with continuous dressing [204]. Compressive
residual stresses was extended to a depth of 60 mm with a
maximum of 800 MPa recorded 10 mm below the machined
surface and orthogonal to the grinding direction [174]. The trend in
residual stress variation following CFG using a CBN wheel was
similar to that when grinding with a continuously dressed
conventional wheel. Surface residual stresses were marginally
tensile with compressive subsurface residual stresses extending to a
583
depth of 90 mm [174]. The relatively low tensile residual stresses
were attributed to the high thermal conductivity of CBN compared
to Al2O3 [173]. Österle et al. [174] also suggested that white layer
formation occurred as the melting temperature of the IN738LC alloy
was exceeded during grinding. In order to verify this assumption,
maximum temperatures in the grinding zone (Tmax) were calculated
as a function of stationary (DTs) and flash temperatures (DTf)
according to the relationship shown in the following equation:
T max ¼ 300 þ DT s þ DT f (1)
Stationary temperatures DTs relates to the difference between
the overall heat input into the workpiece and heat transfer to the
coolant, whereas flash temperatures DTf describe the peak
temperature resulting from cutting edges passing over the
workpiece material. The temperature calculations indicated that
the melting temperature (1427 8C) of the workpiece material was
indeed exceeded whenever white layers were formed [173]. Un-
fortunately, relevant experimental temperature data was not
available to validate the predicted values and associated hypothe-
sis regarding white etch layer formation. Experimental tempera-
ture measurements obtained via grindable foil/workpiece
thermocouple-based techniques were reported in the literature
when surface grinding K417 [240] and DZ4 [40] nickel based
superalloys using conventional abrasives. In contrast to the
calculations by Österle et al. [174], initial signs of workpiece burn
were evident at temperatures of 990 8C and 950 8C for the K417
and DZ4 workpieces respectively [40,238,240]. The relationship
between surface colour and maximum temperatures as deter-
mined by Xu et al. [240] for K417 are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1
Relationship between surface colour and maximum temperature [240].
Material K417 Maximum temperature at contact zone, u (8C)
95 990 1215 1440 1600
Colour Normal Beige Brown Puce Hyacinthine
584 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Upon initiation of workpiece burn, the ratio of tangential and
normal forces (Ft/Fn) dropped significantly [238], which can be
used as an indicator for process monitoring [39,40]. Grinding burn
generally leads to subsurface softening (lower microhardness) of
the workpiece together with formation of transfer films compris-
ing Ni2O3, Cr2O3, Al2O3 and TiO2 on the machined surface. With
increasing cutting temperatures, the workpiece material becomes
sufficiently ductile to weld onto the grinding wheel. The adhered
layer is then typically re-deposited onto the workpiece surface as
plastically deformed/smeared material in successive revolutions of
the grinding wheel. Consequently, workpiece surface roughness
generally increases at elevated temperatures [238].
When grinding nickel-based superalloys using CBN super-
abrasives, three different bond systems are normally utilised,
including single layer electroplated, vitrified or brazed wheels. The
main advantage of electroplated wheels is that dressing is not
required [86]. Gift et al. [72] compared the performance of three
water-based coolants (emulsion and synthetics) against a straight
oil fluid when creep feed grinding a nickel-based superalloy using
electroplated CBN wheels. All of the wheels tested with water-
based fluids exhibited rapid failure due to severe clogging from
adhered chips leading to a drastic increase in cutting forces.
Conversely, no sign of wheel loading was evident when grinding
with oil as exemplified by stable force progression over the
experiment duration. Similarly, Liu et al. [144] observed that
electroplated CBN wheels performed poorly when grinding CMSX4
and Inconel 718 nickel based superalloys with emulsion, as the
CBN grits were prone to react with water especially at elevated
temperatures. While electroplated diamond wheels demonstrated
superior G-ratios over equivalent CBN wheels, the benefits were
somewhat negated by the higher cost of diamond abrasives [145].
A further disadvantage of electroplated CBN wheels is that large
variations in wheel life and transient grinding behaviour [84] are
commonly observed, which imposes considerable challenges in
terms of effective wheel utilisation and process control. The end of
wheel life is generally denoted by a sharp increase in grinding
power due to grain fracture, pullout and attrition, which leads to
elevated grinding temperatures and risk of white layer formation.
This can to a degree be mitigated using process control tools such
as the model derived by Guo et al. [77] to predict the power
consumption of new and worn wheels.
Unlike electroplated wheels, vitrified CBN wheels can be
intermittently dressed, which generally leads to more consistent
grinding behaviour. Additionally, water based coolants have been
reported to provide acceptable performance when grinding with
vitrified CBN wheels [85] although wheel life remains an order of
magnitude higher when employing straight oil fluid. Wheel life
was further enhanced when employing CBN grain coatings, which
increased the adhesion strength between the grains and vitreous
bond system [223].
Shi et al. [195,196] identified optimal dressing conditions for
grinding using vitrified wheels. It was found that low depths of cut
(maximum of 0.5 mm) and high work feeds were preferred over
creep feed conditions in order to increase material removal rates
when utilising vitrified bonded wheels. In addition, grinding
parameters for roughing had to be adjusted accordingly to prevent
generation of excessive cutting temperatures for newly dressed
wheels and to suppress chatter when operating with worn wheels.
Ichida et al. [103] evaluated the grinding behaviour of Nimonic 80A
when using vitrified bonded ultrafine-crystalline CBN (CBN-U) and
conventional monocrystalline CBN (CBN-B) wheels. The former
exhibited a 10-fold increase in wheel G-ratio together with
correspondingly lower grinding force components (Fn and Ft) and
specific energy (ec) compared to the CBN-B product. Likewise,
Sunarto and Ichida [207] concluded that CBN-U was better suited
for grinding applications requiring high dimensional accuracy.
More recently, Zeng et al. [247] showed that varying depths of cut
(5–40 mm) had a significant influence on workpiece surface
integrity when surface grinding GH4169 nickel based superalloy
using a Al2O3 wheel. Although surface residual stresses remained
Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of ground GH4169 nickel based superalloy surfaces at
depths of cut of (a) 5 and (b) 40 mm [247].
tensile (700 as opposed to 1200 MPa), workpiece roughness
decreased (to 0.284 from 0.896 mm Ra) with no indication of
material cracking and minimal subsurface microstructural alter-
ation (3 mm) when operating at the lowest depth of cut of 5 mm,
see Fig. 4(a). However, when depth of cut was increased to 40 mm,
cracking was evident on the machined surface perpendicular to the
grinding direction together with material overlap/smearing as
detailed in Fig. 4(b).
3.3. Titanium alloys
Titanium alloys account for approximately 33% of the weight in
civil aircraft engines due to their high specific strength, moderate
elevated temperature performance (350 8C) and good corrosion
resistance [27]. The most widely used titanium alloy is the alpha-
beta Ti–6Al–4V (Ti-64), which is employed in various fastener
components as well as for airfoils, discs and casings in the fan and
low pressure compressor [56,87,202]. Other common alloys
include Ti–6Al–2Sn–4Zr–2Mo (Ti-6242) and Ti–6Al–2Sn–4Zr–
6Mo (Ti-6246), which possess higher strength as well as
temperature resistance (up to 400–500 8C) and are therefore
applied in rear low pressure and front high pressure compressor
parts [56,202]. However, conventional titanium alloys can
potentially ignite and burn when subject to temperatures
significantly above 350 8C [227], which prevents their use in latter
stages of the high-pressure compressor where conditions are
generally beyond the ‘fire line’ [167]. In recent years, alloys with
increased operating temperature limits such as burn resistant
titanium (BuRTi) Ti–25V–15Cr–2Al–0.2C wt% (at least 500 8C) and
gamma titanium aluminides (700–750 8C depending on composi-
tion) have been proposed as potential replacements for heavier
nickel based superalloys in the hotter regions of the engine.
Following several decades of research together with limited use in
military and land-based gas turbines, gamma titanium aluminide
(g-TiAl) turbine blades have recently been implemented within
various low-pressure stages of commercial aeroengines [87].
The thermal and mechanical properties of titanium alloys
however present serious difficulties for abrasive machining. In
particular, the thermal diffusivity of Ti-based alloys is considerably
lower compared to other common engineering materials/alloys;
see Table 2 [87,130,194]. For similar energy input levels,
temperatures are expected to be 3–4 times greater when grinding
titanium as opposed to nickel alloys [87]. Furthermore, titanium
alloys have a strong affinity for compounds containing nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon and halogens, which trigger chemical reactions at
elevated temperatures [130].
Table 2
Heat diffusivity of various engineering materials and abrasives [194].
Material Heat diffusivity (kcr)1/2 [103 J/(m2 s1/2 K)]
Carbon steel 15.7
Stainless steel 9.7
Nickel based superalloy 18.9
Aluminium alloy 23.0
Ti-6Al-4V 5.0
g-TiAl 4.0
Diamond 60
CBN 48
Al2O3 12.5
SiC 8.7
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Much of the fundamental work on abrasive machining of Ti-64
was initiated in the 1950s. Several researchers demonstrated that
Ti could be successfully ground using conventional aluminium
oxide (Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC) abrasives when operating
with inorganic water soluble coolants and relatively low wheel
speeds of the order of 10 m/s [87,193,209,243]. In belt grinding
experiments, Cadwell et al. [35] showed that SiC was approxi-
mately 10 times more effective than Al2O3 under an organic fluid
environment. This was attributed to the ability of SiC abrasives to
form shaper cutting edges in comparison to Al2O3 grains, thereby
promoting lower cutting forces at comparable material removal
rates [74,89]. Therefore, Olofson et al. [170] recommended
significantly lower cutting speeds when grinding Ti with Al2O3
wheels in order to mitigate the risk of workpiece thermal damage.
Turley [220] found that Ti workpiece material was more
inclined to adhere onto Al2O3 as opposed to SiC wheels. When
grinding Ti-64 with SiC abrasives at temperatures between
800 and 1140 8C, SiC can react with atmospheric oxygen (O2) to
produce SiO2 and C according to the following equation:
SiC þ O2 ðatmosphereÞ ! SiO2 þ C
Subsequently, the loose carbon reacts with the titanium
element to form TiC as detailed in the following equation:
Ti þ C ! TiC
For workpiece temperatures above 500 8C, oxidation of the
titanium can also occur; see the following equation:
Ti þ O2 ðatmosphereÞ ! TiO2
Tang et al. [208] identified the presence of TiC and TiO2 within
the burnt surface layers of Ti-64 following surface grinding. The
interfacial diffusion due to the chemical reactions results in strong
bonds between the workpiece and SiC grains [79,239,241]. Addi-
tionally, the ductility of Ti-64 encourages material adhesion onto
the grain surfaces. Subsequent growth of the adhered layer leads to
eventual detachment (due to increasing loading) from the grits,
which is re-deposited onto the workpiece surface as a film of
smeared ‘coating’ [239]. Under high temperature conditions
(1000 8C), the detached layer of material can also result in
scarring of the machined surface, as well as corresponding wear of
the abrasives [239,241].
In the early 1980s, Kumagai et al. [129] demonstrated that the
grinding efficiency of titanium can be enhanced by supplying
cutting fluid at elevated pressure (2 MPa) in combination with use
of superabrasive diamond instead of conventional SiC wheels.
Results from a comparative evaluation of various resin-bonded
superabrasives (diamond and CBN) against vitrified SiC wheels
confirmed the superior performance of diamond for grinding Ti-64,
with G-ratios of up to 150 and low specific grinding energies of
<30 J/mm3; see Fig. 5 [130]. Furthermore, wheel G-ratio and
specific energy (ec) were also found to be influenced by the
mechanical properties of the superabrasives, with the medium
toughness diamond grits (CSG-II and MBG-II) showing enhanced
grinding characteristics over the low toughness RVG-W diamond
abrasive; see Fig. 5 [130].
Kumar [130] explained that the poor performance of CBN
relative to diamond was due to the greater tendency of Ti-64 to
react chemically with the former. The principal damage mode of
the CBN grains was attrition leading to the formation of large wear
flats, which is indicative of a chemically assisted wear mechanism
[130]. The possible chemical reactions that can occur during
grinding of Ti-64 with CBN are outlined in the following equations:
2BN þ 3=2O2 ! B2 O3 þ N2
N2 þ 2Ti ! 2TiN
B2 O3 þ TiO ! TiB2 þ 2O2
However, Xu et al. [241] showed that temperatures when
grinding Ti-64 with CBN were approximately 1000 8C and thus too
585
(2)
Fig. 5. Grinding characteristics of superabrasives compared to SiC [130].
low to trigger the chemical reactions detailed in Eqs. (5)–(7). Instead,
(3)
they argued that chemical reactivity was not the dominant wear
mechanism as adhered material was significantly lower in CBN
compared to SiC wheels. Consequently, there were fewer instances
of re-deposited material evident on the workpiece surface ground
(4) with a CBN wheel [241]. Severe adhesion of Ti-chips on single layer
brazed CBN wheels was also observed when grinding under dry and
cryogenic assisted (liquid nitrogen) conditions [213]. Nevertheless,
subsequent work revealed that both tangential and normal force
components were typically 25–40% lower when employing the
CBN over brazed diamond (natural and synthetic) wheels, except
when operating dry [214]. Li et al. [137] compared the performance
of brazed, vitrified and electroplated CBN wheels when grinding
Ti-64. Highest specific material removal rate (Q0 w) was achieved
using the brazed wheels. Furthermore, monolayer CBN wheels
brazed with an amalgamated Ag–Cu–Ti + 0.5 wt% lanthanum filler
was shown to provide reduced tangential forces and lower specific
grinding energy compared to straight monolayer CBN wheels
brazed with a pure Ag–Cu–Ti filler [244].
Ding et al. [55] investigated the grinding behaviour of brazed
polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) compared to mono-
crystalline CBN abrasives. The former demonstrated higher
material removal rates and lower wheel wear (up to 30% longer
tool life), as the latter suffered from severe microcrystalline grit
fracture. Shi and Attia [197] showed that it was feasible to grind
titanium alloys with electroplated CBN wheels when applying
high-pressure wheel cleaning. Under such conditions, the specific
energy in creep feed grinding of titanium alloy was considerably
lower than that of nickel superalloy grinding, due to the effective
elimination of wheel loading.
The use of an innovative self-inhaling internal cooling CBN cup
wheel enabled surface temperatures when grinding Ti-64 to be
reduced by 30% and 50% when utilising oil and water-based semi-
synthetic fluid respectively, as opposed to conventional external
cooling [139]. Similarly, the application of minimum quantity
lubrication (MQL) with vegetable and synthetic ester based oils led
to a two-fold decrease in forces compared to flood cooling when
grinding Ti-64, albeit at the cost of increased workpiece surface
roughness [187]. Conversely, only a marginal reduction in
tangential forces (15%) was recorded when surface grinding
(5) Ti-64 under cryogenic cooling environment in contrast to wet
soluble oil conditions [191]. However, cryogenic cooling was
(6)
rendered ineffective at higher wheel speeds (25 m/s) as the liquid
N2 mist failed to penetrate the grit-chip interface.
(7)
Another solution reported to improve the grindability of Ti-64 is
the use of wheels treated with solid lubricants such as molybde-
num disulphide (MoS2) and graphite [208,224]. Here, friction
586 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 6. Surface of BuRTi following CFG with (a) SiC and (b) diamond [167].
Fig. 7. SEM micrographs of BuRTi surface/subsurface damage [167].
between the workpiece and abrasives is minimised resulting in a
corresponding reduction in grinding force and specific energy.
More recently, Butler-Smith et al. [33,34] developed a novel laser
ablation processing technology in order to produce diamond
micro-grinding tools with ordered cutting edges. The geometri-
cally defined superabrasive grits exhibited superior performance
when grinding Ti-64 over traditional electroplated diamond
micro-grinding tools, due to the improvement in chip flow over
the grain surface and considerable decrease in wheel loading.
The grinding of BuRTi (Ti–25V–15Cr–2Al–0.2C wt%) has been
assessed by several researchers using different abrasives and
operating conditions [91,92,167,202]. Novovic et al. [167] evalu-
ated the performance of conventional and porous SiC wheels
against a vitrified bonded diamond superabrasive wheel when
creep feed grinding BuRTi. Severe surface burn was apparent when
utilising the conventional SiC wheel, while high wear rates and
increased workpiece surface roughness were characteristic of the
porous SiC product, see Fig. 6(a). The diamond wheel outperformed
both SiC wheels and exhibited minimal wheel wear, reduced
surface damage and comparably lower workpiece roughness, see
Fig. 6(b). The considerable improvement when employing the
diamond wheel was attributed primarily to its higher thermal
conductivity of up to 2000 W/m K.
However, the presence of brittle TiC particles within the
workpiece microstructure meant that surface/subsurface damage
in the form of material pullout, smearing, fractured carbides and
crater formation remained prevalent, see Fig. 7. Later work by Hood
et al. [91,92] revealed that low operating parameters involving a
wheel speed of 15 m/s, feed rate of 150 mm/min and depth of cut of
1.25 mm were required to obtain crack free surfaces when CFG
BuRTi with SiC wheels. Equivalent conditions were necessary to
ensure burn free surfaces using vitrified diamond wheels [202],
although the corresponding G-ratio was poor (between 2 and 6).
Intermetallic g-TiAl alloys are characterised by a combination
of low room temperature ductility (typically 2%), low fracture
toughness (20 M Pa m1/2), steep crack growth rates and relatively
flat fatigue response [4,18,134,152,192,222]. The low material
ductility however presents less of a problem for grinding than
turning [14]. There is a considerable amount of research literature
available on the abrasive cutting of g-TiAl, which include studies
relating to centreless grinding [112], creep feed grinding
[15,93,250], reciprocating surface grinding [16,17,21,162–164]
and speed-stroke grinding [73,120,121,249], as well as abrasive
waterjet machining outlined by Kong and Axinte [125]. It has been
reported that g-TiAl is easier to grind than Ti-64, with specific
energies typically 2–4 times lower [14,19]. Equally, g-TiAl alloys
such as Ti–45Al–8Nb–0.2C wt% also exhibit better grindability
Fig. 8. Wheel G-ratio curves when grinding orthorhombic TiAl, g-TiAl and Ti-64
[19,198].
Fig. 9. Micrographs of g-TiAl surfaces produced following grinding using (a)
diamond and (b) CBN wheels [94].
than BuRTi when using SiC wheels (10-fold increase in wheel G-
ratio, 10% lower maximum power, 25% lower specific energy, 28%
lower tangential forces and 15% lower average workpiece surface
roughness) [91,92]. Simao et al. [198] compared the plunge
grinding of an orthorhombic TiAl alloy (Ti–23Al–25Nb–0.35Si at%)
against Ti-64 and g-TiAl (Ti–48Al–2Mn–2Nb) using a conventional
SiC wheel. Wheel G-ratio when machining the orthorhombic TiAl
material was marginally higher compared to Ti-64, but signifi-
cantly lower with respect to g-TiAl, see Fig. 8 [19,198].
The performance and selection of different abrasives for
grinding g-TiAl has been discussed in several publications
[7,74,90,92,120,160,185,206]. Gröning [74] carried out extensive
single grain planar scratch tests and associated grinding experi-
ments to assess the suitability of Al2O3, green SiC, CBN and
diamond abrasives for machining g-TiAl. In terms of conventional
abrasives, SiC generally formed sharper cutting edges compared to
Al2O3, which was prone to wear flat formation. This led to lower
thermal and mechanical loads when grinding with SiC. As for
superabrasives, the CBN grains displayed greater chemical and
mechanical wear rates coupled with considerably larger specific
forces (F0 n) in comparison to diamond. Additionally, surface cracks
together with workpiece tempering/burn were visible even when
operating at parameters corresponding to low specific material
removal rates (Q0 w = 5 mm3/mm s) when using CBN wheels
[74]. This corroborated the results of Hood et al. [94], who
observed extensive burning and fracture in all trials involving CBN,
whereas no visible macro cracking was detected on surfaces
ground using diamond wheels, see Fig. 9. Stone and Kurfess [206]
also reported that workpiece surface damage was most severe
when grinding g-TiAl with CBN. This can be partly explained from
the higher grinding specific energy of 400 J/mm3 measured for
CBN, compared to only 40 J/mm3 for diamond abrasives as outlined
by Razavi et al. [185].
Hood et al. [92] suggested that the preferred wheel speed for
CFG of g-TiAl using SiC abrasives is 15 m/s. The higher thermal
conductivity of diamond (2000 W/m K) and CBN (1300 W/m K)
in comparison to SiC grains (40 W/m K) allowed increments in
cutting speed up to 50 m/s before onset of surface burn [94,127]. A
typical surface defect that occurs after grinding of g-TiAl is bending
of the lamellae due to mechanical loading, see example in Fig. 10
[248]. Zeppenfeld [248] showed using single grain scratch tests,
that it was possible for cracks to initiate from regions of bent
lamellae and therefore workpiece microstructural deformation
should be minimised as much as possible.
Bentley et al. [16] investigated the influence of single point
diamond dresser infeed levels (0.1 and 0.3 mm/rev) on cutting
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Fig. 10. Deformed lamellae of Ti–45Al–2Mn–2Nb + 0.8%TiB2 after surface grinding
[248].
forces and workpiece surface integrity when surface grinding g-
TiAl with SiC wheels. Increasing infeed had no appreciable
influence on the tangential force and workpiece microhardness,
but resulted in lower normal forces and increased surface
roughness (due to sharper grits). Similar trends were obtained
in trials involving continuous dressing [20].
3.4. Composites
A range of state-of-the-art composite materials encompassing
metal matrix composites (MMC), ceramic matrix composites
(CMC) and polymer matrix composites (PMC) are increasingly
being utilised in aerospace applications [205]. Within the family of
MMCs, particulate metal matrix composites (PMMC) and fibre-
reinforced MMCs are the most widely researched [226]. The two
most common metallic elements used as the matrix phase in
MMCs are aluminium (Al) and titanium (Ti) [95]. Aluminium based
MMCs that display the greatest potential for aerospace applica-
tions are those reinforced with fine SiC particles (<12 mm), which
provide a good balance of high specific strength, ductility and
toughness. As such, they are viable alternatives to Ti-64 forgings
for manufacturing static and dynamic vanes, offering a possible
weight reduction of up to 35%. However, the strength and fatigue
properties of Al MMC’s are currently inadequate for blade
components [95].
In general, SiC particulate reinforced Al matrix composites
demonstrate better grindability in comparison to conventional
aluminium alloys [52], despite loading of the wheel by the soft Al
material remaining the primary failure mode [53]. Initial studies
on the grindability of Al-based MMCs were carried out by
Chandrasekaran and Johansson [36]. Workpiece surface finish
was found to be independent of grinding parameters, with
superabrasives preferred over conventional abrasives. Similarly,
Cook [43] recommended the use of diamond abrasives for grinding
MMCs, in particular single layer electroplated wheels when
processing low volume fraction MMCs and conversely vitrified
or resin bonded wheels for formulations having high SiC content
(>50%). This contradicted the results by Di Ilio and Paoletti [53],
who concluded that open structured, vitrified bonded convention-
al SiC and Al2O3 wheels were superior to resinoid bonded
superabrasives (CBN and diamond) in terms of lower grinding
forces, surface roughness and percentage of wear flat area. Later
work by Zhong and Hung [252] indicated that SiC wheels were
more suitable for roughing followed by fine-grained resin bonded
diamond wheels for finish operations. More recently, empirical
models to identify preferred operating conditions and predict the
effect of cutting parameters on surface quality when grinding Al
based MMCs have been developed by several researchers [54,131].
Titanium-based MMCs developed for aeroengines are typically
reinforced with large diameter (140 mm) SiC monofilaments or
TiC and TiB particles. Applications envisaged for such materials
include blades, vanes, casings and discs in the compressor section
of aeroengines. Potential benefits include an estimated weight
saving of 40% should Ti MMC compressor blings (bladed ring)
replace conventional Ti alloy blisks (bladed disc) [95]. Miao et al.
[156] however reported that TiC and TiB particulate reinforced
Ti-matrix composites (PTMC) are generally more difficult to grind
than Ti-64, with a higher ratio of normal to tangential force
components (Fn/Ft) at similar process parameters. In an evaluation
587
Fig. 11. Workpiece surface following high-speed grinding of PTMC [251].
of conventional (20 m/s) and high-speed (120 m/s) grinding of
PTMC using a vitrified CBN wheel, both tangential and normal
forces were found to be significantly lower in the latter, albeit at
the expense of higher specific grinding energy and force ratio (Fn/
Ft) [251]. The surface integrity of PTMC following high speed
grinding however was generally characterised by fractured/
crushed particles, voids and micro-cracks as well as re-deposit-
ed/smeared material [80,251], see Fig. 11.
Ceramic matrix composites are composed of ceramic fibres (C,
SiC, Al2O3, Al2O3–SiO2, etc.) embedded within a ceramic matrix (C,
SiC, Al2O3 etc.). The matrix component provides wear resistance,
temperature stability and chemical resistance whereas the fibres
are responsible for increasing damage tolerance and strength over
standard advanced ceramics [69,128]. According to Steffens and
Wilhelm [205], the high temperature capability of CMCs is limited
by the creep endurance of Al2O3 fibres or in case of SiC
reinforcement, its chemical resistance. Therefore, CMCs are only
suitable for certain static parts in low-pressure compressors such
as trailing edge flaps [205]. Ohnabe et al. [169] however envisaged
a wider range of potential applications for CMCs in aeroengines
including blisks, nozzle flaps, exhaust nozzles, combustors and
turbine nozzle vanes.
Although generally classified as a brittle material, CMCs behave
in a more ductile manner than traditional ceramics under grinding
conditions. Conventional and CBN abrasives typically exhibit
excessive wear rates when grinding CMCs and hence the majority
of literature points to diamond as the best choice
[9,110,138,210,235]. Due to the high hardness of the ceramic
matrix, vitrified and resin bonded diamond grinding wheels wear
too rapidly to be economically efficient. Even galvanic or
electroplated bonds are unsuitable for CMC grinding as a result
of heavy grain pullout leading to short wheel life [234,235]. Azar-
houshang [9] recommends the use of metal bonded diamond
wheels for grinding CMC, due to its superior toughness and wear
resistance compared to other bond systems [153]. Tawakoli and
Azarhoushang [212] showed that increased material removal rates
(Q0 w of up to 10 mm3/mm s) are possible when employing a
segmented grinding wheel (T-tool) to grind CMCs. The intermittent
process enhances fluid transport into the grinding zone as well as
facilitates favourable chip flow. Surface roughness can be further
improved by 30–40% through application of spark-out or finishing
passes [9,212].
While polymer based composites have exceptional strength to
weight ratios and high stiffness, they are limited to applications
with operational temperatures below 200 8C. The reinforcement
phase is either a carbon, glass or aramid based fibre while the
matrix is typically an epoxy resin. The majority of literature
involving abrasive machining of PMCs has largely focussed on
carbon fibre reinforced plastics (CFRP) composites [117,177]. Fun-
damental research on traditional grinding of unidirectional (UD)
and multidirectional (MD) CFRP using Al2O3 wheels has been
outlined by Hu and Zhang in several publications [98–101]. Fibre
orientation in UD CFRP composites was found to have a major
influence on resulting grinding force and surface integrity
[98,101]. Forces were higher at the 608 and 908 fibre direction
with severe surface degradation typically observed between 1208
and 1808 orientation. In general, forces when grinding MD CFRP
increased with depth of cut and were higher than in UD CFRP.
Additionally, chip morphologies in MD workpieces consisted of
powder debris and broken fibres while chip shape in UD
588 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 12. Loading of CBN grinding point following roughing [203].
Fig. 13. Abrasive curved sawing process setup [83].
composites varied according to the fibre orientation [100]. Quan
and Zhong [182] reported superior hole quality when drill-
grinding CFRP with 4 mm diameter plated and cemented diamond
core drills over conventional solid twist drills. Use of water or high-
pressure air blast environment however was critical for cooling
and chip removal while low feed rates (0.01 mm/rev) and high
rotational speeds (>5000 rpm) were recommended for the
diamond plated core drills.
Colligan and Ramulu [41] were one of the first to study the edge
trimming of CFRP laminates using small diameter diamond
abrasive cutters/grinding points as an alternative to traditional
routing using end mills. Preliminary results when abrasive
trimming 25 mm thick CFRP were promising, with no signs of
workpiece delamination in any of the tests performed. More
recently, rough and finish edge routing using electroplated
superabrasive (CBN and diamond) grinding points was reported
by Soo et al. [203]. Tool wear, surface roughness and forces were
typically higher when roughing with CBN, predominantly due to
the greater wear rate compared to diamond, which subsequently
led to heavy wheel loading; see Fig. 12. Furthermore, finish
grinding using diamond abrasives exhibited a 20% lower surface
roughness compared to equivalent end milling operations
[203]. Arisawa et al. [2] suggested that the efficiency of edge
trimming CFRP could be improved by using a special dimpled
electroplated diamond tool with chip pockets.
An alternative edge trimming strategy involving a two-step
approach was proposed by Geis et al. [70]. A constant depth scoring
operation using an electroplated diamond tool was initially
performed, followed by a conventional milling process with a
PCD cutter to trim the CFRP laminates. The combined process was
observed to suppress delamination during the milling stage,
thereby possibly allowing increased feed rates. An innovative
process to enable abrasive cutting of curved profiles (radius up to
500 mm) in thin (<10 mm) CFRP components was recently
developed [83]. The technique involves mounting a stiff circular
abrasive saw onto the spindle of a five-axis machining centre as
shown in Fig. 13, with preliminary tests demonstrating good edge
quality (no delamination) and comparatively high productivity.
4. Fluid delivery, cooling and lubrication
4.1. Fluid types
Blenkowski [25] and Irani et al. [108] defined four cutting fluid
categories that are typically used in aerospace grinding processes.
These are classed according to their composition and include (i)
synthetics; (ii) semi-synthetics; (iii) soluble oils; and (iv) straight
oils. The oils utilised in such fluids are generally mineral, vegetable
or synthetic based, with each having its own distinct properties.
Mineral oils are composed of naphthenic and paraffinic hydro-
carbons that are refined from crude oil, while vegetable oils are
derived from plants. In contrast, synthetic straight oils are
comprised of compounds such as ester and polyalphaolefins
(PAO). The function of the fluid chemistry is to provide a base for
other additive molecules to attach themselves in order to refine
and hone specific characteristics of the coolant/lubricant. A
common disadvantage of soluble oils is their poor emulsion
stability, which means that they are prone to the oil separating out
from the solution. Semi-synthetics possess good lubrication for
moderate and heavy-duty grinding. Furthermore, they contain less
mineral oil than soluble cutting fluids, but require high-quality
water as they have a strong tendency to foam very easily. The
formation of foam can inhibit heat transfer as it limits the amount
of fluid in contact with the wheel and workpiece. Conversely,
synthetics are free of mineral oil and can often be recognised by
their water-like appearance.
As a general rule, the industry standard when grinding
aerospace materials is to employ: (i) water-based fluids in
continuous or non-continuous dress creep feed grinding using
conventional abrasive wheels, where thermal input is high and
good heat transfer is required; (ii) water-based or straight oil fluids
when operating with vitrified superabrasive wheels and (iii)
straight oil fluids for galvanic and metallic bonded superabrasive
wheels where high lubricity and minimum wheel clogging is
required especially for single-layer wheels.
4.2. Nozzle designs, configuration and setup
The relatively low thermal conductivity of high temperature
strength superalloys (11 W/m K) means that it is difficult to
transfer heat away from the grinding zone. A typical strategy
employed to reduce thermal damage and increase productivity
when grinding such materials is to improve the efficiency of fluid
application so that the porosity of the wheel transports the fluid
through to the chip-forming zone. Where the applied fluid only
quenches the hot surface following the grinding pass, the resulting
integrity of the finished surface is generally compromised. In
addition, carrying the fluid through the process allows the extreme
pressure additives to lubricate the cutting/grinding zone and
thereby reduce generation of wear flats on the abrasive grains as
well as minimise clogging/loading of the wheel structure from
chips/debris.
The air boundary layer that surrounds the periphery of a
rotating grinding wheel can have sufficient energy to deflect a low-
pressure stream of fluid delivered from a nozzle, which prevents
wetting of the wheel [57]. A common technique utilised to
overcome the air barrier is to match the fluid jet velocity to the
wheel speed [157]. An alternative approach is to ‘peel off’ the air
barrier by directing a high-pressure cleaning jet just prior to the
main tangential cooling nozzle.
A number of researchers [29,30,159,230] have advocated the
use of coherent-jet nozzles (an efficient type of free-jet nozzle) for
delivering coolant/cutting fluid in grinding processes. Solid-stream
round and flat jets that target the ideal position on the grinding
wheel are very effective in wetting the process, at much lower
flowrates and pumping energies than traditional dispersed jets. Cui
and Webster [44] carried out experiments to identify the optimal
design of coherent-jet nozzles and suggested that a concave shape
was preferable to a convex form. This was because concave nozzles
maintained a longer coherent jet before breakup, which is similar
to the use of special elements placed in front of nozzles that
homogenises the fluid flow.
A high efficiency grinding process known as VIPER (Very
Impressive Performance Extreme Removal), which incorporates an
innovative fluid delivery configuration was developed and
patented by Hill et al. [82] around the need for multi-surface
grinding of aerospace components in one clamping, where the
 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 14. (a) Coherent free-jet nozzles mounted on a manifold; (b) reconfigurable
swivel nozzles.
Fig. 15. (a) Needle (courtesy of Grindaix) and (b) programmable card nozzles.
wheel had to index to several positions. Standard positioning of the
nozzle in each case was difficult for clearance reasons and CDCF
grinding was similarly impractical. The VIPER process uses an
indexable nozzle to force water-based fluid at 50–70 bar into
highly porous conventional wheel structures ahead of its entry into
the grind zone [158]. The coolant is subsequently ejected by
centrifugal force just at the point of grind, which also expels
embedded chips/swarf, thus cleaning the wheel. Injecting fluid
into the wheel ahead of workpiece contact was common practice
and indexable nozzles have been used on grinding/machining
centres since the 1980s. However, Hitchiner [86] stated that the
novelty of VIPER was the precise optimised orientation of the
nozzle in order to direct the fluid for each operation. Further details
regarding specific industrial applications of the VIPER process
together with related machine tool characteristics are outlined in
Sections 6 and 7 respectively.
Aerospace components often have complex shapes that need to
be ground. Although coherent free-jet nozzles can either be rigidly
configured on a common manifold to match the complex form of
the wheel (see Fig. 14(a)), or rapidly re-configured using swivel
nozzles such as that shown in Fig. 14(b), a dedicated nozzle
geometry for each wheel form, mounted to a reusable chamber,
can also be used for quicker setup. Examples of such nozzles are
shown in Fig. 15(a) and (b). In both cases, the individual round jets
generated from each of the small orifices are highly coherent due to
their low Reynolds number (Re). Attempts to form radically
profiled jets as a continuous aperture to match the wheel profile
are generally unstable at the transition points and often separate
before hitting the wheel.
4.3. Delivery parameters
With free-jet nozzles, the exit aperture can be determined by
considering the pressure and flowrate required, as well as the
efficiency of the nozzle. Webster et al. [231] advocated matching
the applied flowrate to the maximum grinding spindle power using
the mathematical model of 8 to 10 l/min per grinding kilowatt.
Higher grinding power therefore equates to increased fluid
flowrate required to cool the process. Malkin and Guo [150]
showed that highly porous creep feed grinding wheels are capable
of transporting up to 70% of the applied flowrate through the
process, thereby allowing such wheels to be supplied with coolant
exceeding 10 l/min per grinding kilowatt.
Bernoulli’s equation can generally be utilised to calculate the
fluid pressure necessary to match the jet velocity to grinding wheel
speed. For example, assuming a peripheral grinding wheel speed of
30 m/s, a nozzle pressure of only 4.6 bar is required to achieve an
equivalent jet speed with water-based fluids. However, for a jet
speed of 60 m/s, the fluid pressure increases by a square factor to
589
18.2 bar. With straight oil fluids, a slightly lower pressure is needed
compared to the water-based coolants due to the lower specific
gravity.
5. Wheel cleaning and dressing techniques
5.1. Introduction
The quality of ground parts and corresponding process
productivity depends not only on the selection of cutting
parameters, tool design specifications and machine tool char-
acteristics, but more intimately on the condition (e.g. form
accuracy, cleanliness) of the grinding wheel during operation.
The performance of grinding wheels can be maintained within a
prescribed domain through various conditioning/preparation
processes including: (i) truing—generation of wheel profile/form;
(ii) dressing—refreshing/sharpening of worn wheels and (iii)
cleaning—removal of clogged chips from the wheel structure to
expose active edges of the abrasive grits. In most situations
however, dressing and cleaning are usually carried out simulta-
neously in a single operation.
5.2. Current wheel preparation methods and state-of-the-art
As relatively hard abrasive materials (e.g. Al2O3—9.0 Mohs,
SiC—9.3 Mohs) are used in conventional grinding wheels,
associated truing/dressing operations are typically performed
with diamond tools. For simple (e.g. cylindrical, conic) wheel
geometries, single point diamond dressers are generally employed.
These can encompass a wide range of quality grades (specifications
can contrast drastically between dresser manufacturers, e.g. AA,
SG, A, NS, BCSG, BC correspond to grain grades from higher to lower
quality) and are fabricated in various shapes (octahedron,
dodecahedron etc.) [188]. There is extensive literature available
on the performance limits of such dressers in terms of diamond
wear mechanisms [142,161,199], effects attributable to abrasive
and adhesive wear, grit flattening due to graphitisation as well as
grain breakage and splintering. Furthermore, considerable data
exists regarding the influence of kinematic parameters, for
example depth of cut and feed rate [175,218], on resulting
conditions (i.e. roughness) of the grinding wheel and subsequent
finish quality of the workpiece surface [38].
In contrast, roller dressing of wheels is the preferred option
where the geometry of parts to be ground is complex (such as those
found in aerospace applications). This is generally achieved by
employing dressers comprising diamond superabrasives (examples
of grain size intervals: 16/18 mesh–50/60 mesh, and volume/mass
fractions: C100 = 4.4 carats/cm3) [225] embedded within a metallic
bond (e.g. tungsten/bronze for infiltrated form rolls, nickel for
reverse plated rollers) [199]. Additionally, in the vast majority of
cases, such dressers exhibit a random distribution of abrasives on
their active surface, see example of a profiled roller dresser in Fig. 16.
Fig. 16. Fir-tree profiled roller dresser revealing random distribution of abrasives.
590 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 17. Roller dresser with structured/deterministic grain distribution [courtesy of
EHWA Diamond Ind. Co.].
Nevertheless, roller dressers with controlled/structured distri-
bution (patterns) of diamond abrasives are available commercial-
ly; see Fig. 17, which have been reported to provide superior
dressing performance with improved repeatability and consisten-
cy [109,122]. In this respect, research concerning the influence of
dresser abrasive size and distribution density on efficiency of the
dressing operation [140,147] as well as subsequent grinding wheel
performance [148] and workpiece quality is well documented.
Alternative advanced designs of dressers involving CVD
diamond logs oriented at preferential crystallographic directions
to augment wear resistance have also been developed
[96,104,124]. Similarly, research on incorporating macro-features
onto the surface of abrasives in order to enhance dressing
performance has been reported, particularly in the case of chemical
mechanical polishing (CMP) pads for integrated circuits [219]. Sim-
ple/plain geometry roller dressers are primarily employed to
prepare wheels used for grinding parts without complex profiles,
where the associated kinematics are relatively straightforward
consisting of only rotational and translational components along
the wheel surface. However, the grinding of aerospace components
(e.g. blade root forms) frequently requires conjugate dresser
configurations with the process kinematics somewhat more
complicated, requiring simultaneous consideration of rotation
together with in-feed motion. With regard to rotation, roller
dressers can operate under three different regimes, depending on
the value of the dresser-wheel speed ratio (qd= VD/VW): (i) VW/
VD > 1; (ii) VW/VD = 1 and (iii) VW/VD < 1 [81]. The roller dresser is
typically motor driven (usually at a constant speed); and hence to
realise the necessary velocity ratios, the grinding wheel speed is
altered accordingly.
Dressing to reconstitute the geometry and grit sharpness of
conventional abrasive grinding wheels is traditionally performed
intermittently (in order to preserve both dresser and wheel life).
However, due to the stringent surface integrity and dimensional
tolerance standards of aerospace components, many modern
grinding centres incorporate continuous dress capability, which
usually involves the roller dresser and workpiece arranged in a
diametric position relative to the grinding wheel. Conversely, the
dressing of CBN and diamond superabrasive grinding wheels is
normally undertaken using non-conventional methods.
5.3. Influence of dressing on grinding performance
As previously stated, wheel preparation is a fundamental
element of the grinding process. In order to achieve optimal
grinding performance, wheel conditioning must be carried out
with appropriate selection of dresser design and operating
parameters. In this respect, published literature highlights several
correlations between the dressing setup and grinding process
outputs. Despite the development of numerous analytical models
[28,141], dressing process control techniques used in the
aerospace industry are still mainly based on empirical analysis
and experimental results.
Malkin and Murray [147,148] evaluated the influence of
different abrasive characteristics in rotary dressers together with
associated operating parameters on grinding forces and surface
finish. An increase in dressing infeed corresponded to a decrease in
grinding forces, while for a dresser-wheel speed ratio of unity, the
wheel surface roughness was found to reach a peak value. Such
data can therefore be used together with empirical models to
estimate wheel condition following dressing and consequently the
resulting grinding performance.
5.4. Innovative wheel dressing/cleaning processes
The development of innovative wheel dressing and cleaning
techniques is a key research aim for the aerospace industry
towards achieving tighter part tolerances and greater material
removal rates. Use of (abrasive) waterjets for the truing of grinding
wheels with complex geometries [8] has been reported to reduce
wheel preparation times by a factor of >30, however the extremely
high fluid velocities (1.5  343 m/s) required can be detrimental
to general machine tool setups and therefore this method is only
performed on specialist waterjet systems.
Dressing and cleaning of grinding wheels can also be achieved
through the application of localised energy sources such as laser
[37,97,229] and electrical-discharge [46,119,233] based processes
(see example schematics in Fig. 18), leading to improvements in
terms of grinding performance. For instance, lower grinding forces
were recorded (up to 1.5 times for the normal component)
following laser dressing as opposed to conventional wheel dressing
[183]. While such techniques have been successfully demonstrat-
ed under research/laboratory conditions, further validation trials
within semi-industrial environments are imperative to allow for
more robust evaluation prior to transfer onto actual production
lines.
Fig. 18. Example schematic of (a) laser dressing [97] and (b) wire electrical
discharge dressing/trueing [119].
6. Industrial perspectives of abrasive machining
Gas turbine engine manufacturers are continuously formulat-
ing and introducing new elevated temperature strength alloys
such as those discussed in Section 3 for realising greater fuel
efficiency. This has necessitated the development of more
advanced manufacturing process technologies and strategies to
overcome the increasing difficulty in machining such materials.
6.1. Overview of abrasive machining processes in the aerospace
industry and current practices
Grinding processes are extensively utilised for producing
finished part geometry on a variety of aeroengine components
ranging from root and shroud features on turbine/compressor
blades to vanes, shafts, seal segments etc., whether in the cast,
forged or fabricated state. In addition to demands for achieving
tight tolerances, fine surface finish and high surface integrity
following machining, efforts are continuously directed towards
increasing levels of process efficiency, reducing costs and
improving customer satisfaction. Grinding is often the preferred
option over alternative machining methods, due to its consistent
ability for achieving sub-10 mm accuracies, fine levels of surface
finish below 1 mm Ra and high stock removal with Q0 w generally in
excess of 100 mm3/mm s.
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Fig. 19. VIPER grinding of turbine blades [168].
Apart from geometrical/dimensional and surface quality
requirements, the as-supplied material condition of the compo-
nent has a major effect on grinding process capability. Conse-
quently, numerous grinding process modes are utilised, ranging
from cylindrical, reciprocating, continuous and intermittent dress
(CD and ID) creep feed grinding, VIPER grinding, speed stroke
grinding as well as other more specific applications such as rotor
blade tip grinding, curvic, spline and gear grinding, depending on
the product group and specific manufacturing strategy. The rotor
blade tip grinding process is used to grind blade tips of a rotor
assembly to a very high precision, enabling a tight fit between the
rotating blades and the outer sealing components for increased
engine operating efficiency. Grinding of curvic couplings is
typically performed using a cup-type grinding wheel mounted
on a high precision vertical cylindrical grinding machine. These
types of couplings are commonly used in jet engines for achieving a
positive drive, high component centring accuracy and high load
carrying capacity along the main engine shaft. However, the range
of equipment used for different components can vary from simple
3-axis surface grinders to complex 6-axis integrated grinding cells
as well as bespoke blade tip and curvic grinders. Key characteristics
of machine tools/equipment employed in aerospace grinding are
discussed in Section 7.
The Rolls-Royce plc patented VIPER process [82] is applied
extensively for the manufacture of root profiles and features in
turbine blades as well as vanes and other aerospace components;
see example in Fig. 19. Precise location of the fluid jet is maintained
throughout the wheel life by a programmable coolant nozzle (PCN)
system, with 2-axis NC driven, 3608 positioning capability. High
strength bond systems and induced porosity characteristics of
Al2O3/ceramic wheels employed in the VIPER process provide
enhanced capacity for chip and coolant retention together with
improved form/profile preservation. The method allows machining
at significantly lower temperatures compared to conventional
creep feed grinding, reduced mechanical and thermal loads (lower
risk of workpiece thermal damage), extended wheel life (reduced
wheel cost) and scope for operating at more aggressive parameters
(larger depth of cut, increased feed rate etc.). This leads to a major
increase in productivity, with Q0 w values of up to 100 mm3/mm s
under intermittent dressing mode, rising to 300 mm3/mm s in CD
Table 3
Maximum achievable Q0 w for different grinding processes employed in aerospace applications together with associated benefits and challenges.
Grinding process Q0 w (mm3/mm s) Benefits
Surface grinding 10 Low complexity, equipment investment low
Intermittent dress (ID) CFG 20 Low complexity
Continuous dress (CD) CFG 50 High wheel profile holding capability
CFG with CBN wheels 20 High wheel profile holding capability
ID VIPER grinding 100 Good productivity, low wheel cost per part, multifunctional
machines
CD VIPER grinding 300 Excellent productivity, high wheel profile holding capability.
Multifunctional machines
Speed stroke grinding 100 High wheel profile holding capability, low cutting forces
591
configuration, see Table 3 for the benefits, challenges and typical
specific material removal rates of the various grinding processes
utilised in aerospace applications.
In recent years, use of superabrasives has become more
prominent in the aerospace sector, particularly as it provides
greater flexibility for low-volume production runs. Complex
profiles can be generated with electroplated CBN wheels. These
can be produced through precision machining of wheel hubs for
form grinding. Despite being the most widely employed configu-
ration, electroplated CBN grinding has inherent shortcomings such
as transient performance, large wheel life variations and the need
for oil-based fluids [84]. In contrast, dress-able vitrified CBN
wheels offer greater consistency in terms of grinding performance,
which is suitable for high-volume applications requiring tight
tolerances and smooth surfaces. In addition, vitrified CBN grinding
can be carried out with water-based coolant without any
significant detriment to wheel life [85].
6.2. Workpiece materials and process developments
Achieving acceptable workpiece surface integrity without
adverse effects on material properties is a major challenge when
grinding nickel-based superalloy components such as integrally
bladed rotors (IBR) for high-pressure compressors (HPC) or discs
for high-pressure turbines (HPT) within an aeroengine. Nickel-
based superalloys generally contain fine carbides having complex
compositions (mainly WC, MoC and to a lesser degree NbC) within
a ductile (Co, Ni, Cr) matrix phase. The fine-grained carbides are
usually evenly distributed in the structure, which has low cohesion
with the matrix and are easily torn off even during sample
preparation (polishing and etching), see Fig. 20(a). The typical
composition of a nickel-based superalloy is outlined in Table 4. The
hardness of the alloy is 46–47 HRC and results in elevated
stresses at the tool/workpiece interface during machining.
Fig. 20. Etched micrographs of nickel-based superalloy core material; (a) torn off
carbides; (b) high resolution SEM micrograph.
Table 4
Typical elemental composition of nickel-based superalloys.
Elemental composition, %
Al Ti Cr Co Ni Nb W Ta Mo
14–18 2.5 12–14 18–20 40–44 1 2.5–3.0 1 2
Challenges
Low productivity and poor wheel profile holding
Low productivity and poor wheel profile holding
Moderate productivity, high abrasive and dressing
roll consumption
Low productivity, high wheel cost and need for
high rigidity equipment
Moderate wheel form holding
High equipment investment cost, high abrasive and
dressing roll consumption
Very high wheel and table speeds, equipment
maintenance and lifecycle cost
592 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 21. Variation of white-etch layer thickness vs. cutting speed.
Fig. 22. (a) Schematic of SAM process [71]; (b) SEM of CBN grits on an electroplated
wheel (courtesy of J. Badger).
Conventional machining of nickel-based superalloys has proven
to be challenging as it usually generates WEL (white-etch layer) on
the cut surface, which is composed of a metal-ceramic compound
(Al–W–O). This layer has poor adhesion to the substrate, with very
high concentrations of WC particles. The thickness of the WEL
varies depending on the machining speed and amount of heat
generated. White-etch layers directly impact the fatigue strength/
life of critical rotating parts. Fig. 21 shows the influence of cutting
speed on the thickness of WEL in a nickel-based superalloy.
The relatively high hardness of nickel-based superalloys makes
them more favourable to grinding rather than conventional cutting
processes. Cubic boron nitride superabrasives have been success-
fully utilised to machine various superalloy gas turbine engine
components. The hardness of CBN abrasives (4500 kg/mm2) [149]
leads to significantly lower wheel wear compared to coated
carbide milling tools, resulting in reduced tooling cost and
improved process consistency. Fig. 22 shows a schematic of the
superabrasive machining (SAM) process [71] together with a SEM
micrograph of a CBN electroplated tool. The CBN abrasives on the
periphery of a grinding wheel produce extremely small chips of
varying thickness, width and shape. The typical range of chip
thickness varies from 2 to 50 mm depending on the wheel grit size
and machining parameters. This can lead to considerable plough-
ing and rubbing (particularly at smaller chip thickness), where
energy is expended without any significant material removal. The
specific energy required to grind one cubic millimetre is 10 to
30 times higher than that required to machine the same volume of
material under uniform chip thickness and shape conditions
(efficient/consistent chip formation process).
The expanding use of composite (e.g. MMCs and CMCs) and
intermetallic (e.g. g-TiAl) alloys in the aerospace industry requires
highly engineered solutions based on effective integration of
materials and manufacturing technology. These advanced materi-
als have further driven the application of grinding operations, due
to the increased difficulties encountered by alternative chip
forming processes when trying to achieve high efficiency and
cost effective machining while maintaining appropriate surface
integrity conditions.
Characterised by low density (2.5 g/cm3 for CMC and 4 g/
3
cm for TiAl) and high temperature capability, ceramic matrix
composites and Ti-based intermetallics can potentially offer
significant performance benefits for gas turbine engines. Unfortu-
nately, the advantages of high stock removal grinding processes
cannot be fully exploited here, due to the increased susceptibility
of CMCs and g-TiAl to machining induced damage. While g-TiAl
alloys have been successfully ground using a range of grinding
methods (surface, CFG, VIPER, speed-stroke and high efficiency
deep grinding—HEDG) and abrasives (conventional SiC and Al2O3;
and superabrasive CBN and diamond), the reported metal removal
rates necessary to achieve acceptable part quality are relatively
low (Q0 w < 15 mm3/mm s). Similarly, the unique challenges
associated with grinding of CMC materials have led to investiga-
tion of alternative methods, such as ultrasonic assisted grinding
using rotary diamond abrasive tools [168]. These are two examples
where major improvements in process efficiency and reliability are
required for grinding to become cost effective.
Despite rapid developments in additive layer manufacturing
(ALM) and associated ‘near net shape’ fabrication technologies,
finish machining operations such as grinding are still necessary to
achieve required component surface roughness and topography
tolerances. In such applications, the focus of grinding process
development has primarily centred on stable form/profile genera-
tion capability as well as minimising thermal and mechanical
loads, rather than improving stock removal rates.
6.3. Productivity characteristics/costs
The perpetual drive for continuous improvement in grinding
performance is largely aimed at reducing process costs and lead-
times, while improving component quality. While the reduction in
grinding lead times is generally reliant on high process/equipment
availability and reliability, understanding the costs of each process
element allows development activities to be targeted at areas that
provide maximum returns. Key to achieving predictable and
desirable outputs (component quality, process capability, opera-
tional efficiency and cost), is strict control of grinding process
inputs that directly influence both the capability and overall cost,
which is illustrated in Fig. 23. These include: (i) process parameters
and cut strategy; (ii) machine axis alignments (setting variation,
environmental impact), accuracy of part alignment to machine tool
datums (loading repeatability, fixture to fixture, part datum and
setting variations); (iii) fixture capability to hold components
accurately and rigidly; (iv) coolant application parameters (nozzle
geometry, position, condition, coolant flow, pressure, temperature,
concentration) and (v) operator intervention in part, fixture and
dresser settings on machines, inspection of repeatability and
reproducibility, operator touch-time required to complete process,
dresser and wheel wear/life etc.
Recent grinding strategies adopted in the aerospace industry,
particularly in high-cost economies, are based on a ‘single machine
visit’ approach, with the aim of minimising the number of
machining operations, throughput time and operator intervention.
This commonly involves fully automated, integrated machining
cells (based on latest generation multifunctional machining
platforms) and adaptive close loop feedback grinding and
inspection processes. An essential part of this strategy is the
application of advanced high efficiency grinding methods, cut
Fig. 23. Grinding process inputs and outputs (courtesy of Rolls-Royce).
 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 24. Holistic approach to grinding process design [168].
strategies, wheels and dressers, robust intelligent fixturing
solutions, process variable monitoring and control, advanced
inspection techniques as well as integrated mechanised edge
profiling and de-burring operations; see Fig. 24. Such an approach
has been shown to result in significantly improved process
capability, reduced lead times and cost [138].
Future aerospace industry requirements include process
improvements based on minimising total life cycle investment
costs and establishing a flexible operating environment capable of
meeting the constantly evolving landscape of the business.
6.4. Industry case studies
Grinding with superabrasives has been successfully utilised as a
viable alternative to conventional cutting operations for the
manufacture of several components in gas turbine engines. The
following sections detail two industrial examples; (i) SAM of
nickel-based superalloy IBR airfoils previously machined by
conventional milling and (ii) turn-grinding of HPC and HPT parts,
which replaced conventional turning.
6.4.1. SAM of nickel-based superalloy IBR airfoils
Superabrasive machining is an enabling technology for the
efficient and economic manufacture of nickel-based superalloy IBR
airfoils [63,64], which has been developed as a replacement for
conventional milling. Fig. 25(a) shows a single layer electroplated
CBN roughing wheel performing an open pass in-between the rotor
airfoils. Cutting speeds of up to 100 m/s are employed to achieve
specific metal removal rates of 10 mm3/mm s or higher. The
process however requires an oil-based grinding fluid supplied at
pressures up to 60 bar, which has proven to be more efficient with
electroplated CBN wheels and quills [72]. A combination of straight
and cup-shaped wheels are utilised to allow the production of
593
Fig. 25. SAM of nickel superalloy IBR airfoils using electroplated CBN (a) wheels for
roughing; (b) quills for finishing.
Fig. 26. SAM process modelling and simulation of (a) tool-workpiece engagement;
(b) cutting forces; (c) tool design optimisation.
complex-shaped airfoils. An example of a SAM finishing operation
is shown in Fig. 25(b), which utilises electroplated CBN quills. The
quills perform a combination of flank and point SAM operations in
order to fabricate the complete airfoil shape. Here, spindle speeds
of up to 120,000 rpm are used to control chip load while achieving
the required metal removal rate.
Under multi-axis SAM using wheels and quills with complex
geometries, the tool–workpiece contact geometry is highly
complicated and non-uniform, hence difficult to model analytical-
ly. A generalised process simulation and multi-constraint optimi-
sation technique has been successfully developed for five-axis SAM
to increase material removal rate while avoiding problems such as
damage to machined surfaces and premature tool failure [78]. The
tool–workpiece contacts are extracted from a CAM system by
geometrically processing the NC program. The geometric data is
then used to predict physical process parameters such as forces,
power, and temperature using the grinding models as illustrated in
Fig. 26. Multi-constraint optimisation strategies are subsequently
applied to identify preferred process parameters in order to reduce
cycle time.
Spindle monitoring systems play an important role in the
success of SAM for manufacturing nickel IBR airfoils. The
application of such techniques provides protection against process
and machine failures during part production. Fig. 27 shows an
example of a spindle monitoring system, which employs multiple
embedded sensors that continuously assess the conditions of the
cutting process and spindle. It applies real-time data analysis and
decision-making algorithms to provide the machine controller
with appropriate corrective measures when necessary. The system
tracks variables such as power consumption, bearing vibration,
spindle growth, motor temperature as well as spindle coolant
Fig. 27. Example schematic of a SAM spindle monitoring system.
594 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 28. Active coolant flow control system [136].
temperature and flow. The system has the ability to flag any
deterioration in spindle performance and instructs the machine
controller to protect the machined part in case of any operational
abnormality. It also plays a role in the integrated machine
maintenance system.
As the application of SAM progresses from grinding of simple
geometries to 5-axis machining of airfoils, the need for intelligent
programmable coolant delivery systems with accurate control of
flow becomes imperative. Similarly, it is critical to monitor for
faults that may occur in the coolant supply system during
machining. The active coolant flow control strategy detailed in
Fig. 28 utilises programmed logic to avoid workpiece and/or
machine destruction due to inefficient fluid supply or hardware
failure caused by fire [136]. The system can detect nozzle blockage
or leakage where the controller issues various levels of alarms
depending on the severity of the problem. It also allows
programmable coolant nozzle setups to accommodate different
configurations on the machine tool. Each nozzle’s flowrate can be
specified individually based on functionality and nozzle profile.
6.4.2. Turn-grinding of HPC and HPT rotors and discs
Conventional single point turning has proven to be inefficient
for the machining of newly developed materials/alloys with
advanced mechanical/physical properties. It is characterised by
excessive tool wear (tip breakage and chipping), low cutting
speeds/productivity and poor workpiece surface integrity, see
examples shown in Figs. 29 and 30. This has led to the development
of an abrasive based process known as turn-grinding [60]. This
operation can be used for processing several part families in gas
turbine engines such as HPT and HPC rotors, where the functional
life is heavily influenced by the quality of the machined surface.
A variety of abrasive wheels such as single layer electroplated or
vitrified CBN or diamond wheels can be used for turn-grinding.
Fig. 31 details a schematic of a turn-grinding operation for inner
diameter machining together with an example of a turn-grinding
wheel. The wheel is mounted on a spindle, which can produce
Fig. 29. Typical surface defects due to torn and dragged carbides when using
conventional turning inserts.
Fig. 30. Typical failure patterns of conventional turning inserts.
Fig. 31. (a) Schematic of turn-grinding operation; (b) example of turn-grinding
wheel.
peripheral surface speeds of up to 100 m/s. Conversely, the
workpiece rotor is installed on a rotary axis, which is capable of
rotational speeds up to 2000 rpm. The turn-grinding wheel is then
traversed along the workpiece surface to produce the desired
geometrical feature.
Amongst the principal advantages of abrasive wheels used in
turn-grinding compared to single point tools include the higher
hardness of the grains, greater number of cutting edges on the
wheel circumference and increased speed of chip removal. In turn-
grinding, the chip load on each grit is very small, which limits the
machining forces and heat generated, resulting in components
with superior surface quality and lifing characteristics. Further-
more, the high cutting speeds employed leads to an optimum shear
rate of chips.
Fig. 32. Turn-grinding of HPT rotor.
Fig. 32 shows the variety of features on a HPT rotor that can be
produced via turn-grinding. Feature dimensions and part geometry
largely determine the wheel size/shape, cutter path and orienta-
tion used during machining. Extension shafts can be attached to
increase wheel reach and avoid collisions, with wheel tapers
adjusted to clear part geometry. Similarly, wheel tip radius can be
modified to match the required final fillet radii on the workpiece.
Typically, wheel diameter is dependent on spindle rotational speed
capacity in the case of outer diameter turn-grinding while for inner
diameter operations, accessibility within the workpiece is the
governing factor.
Turn-grinding however requires a more efficient method to
facilitate coolant delivery into the machining zone compared to
conventional cutting processes. Fig. 33 shows the application of a
centrifuge-assisted, coolant-through superabrasive grinding
wheel for turn-grinding of a HPC impeller [59]. The flexible fluid
delivery technique can be applied to wheels with varying shapes/
sizes or configuration. Coolant is supplied as close as possible to the
machining zone at velocities equal to the wheel circumferential
speed, which effectively disrupts any air barrier that forms around
the wheel. The method also overcomes the limitation of
conventional spray nozzles that require line of sight operation.
 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 33. Centrifuge-assisted coolant-through superabrasive wheel in turn-grinding
of HPC impeller [59].
Fig. 34. Near-surface workpiece microstructure post turn-grinding of a nickel-
based superalloy.
Fig. 34 shows sample cross sectional micrographs of nickel-
based superalloy surfaces produced following turn-grinding. The
workpieces were found to be free of surface defects such as
distorted grain structures, WEL or fractured carbides, which
enhanced the fatigue life of gas turbine engine components.
7. Machine tools and related aspects
As discussed previously, the most suitable materials for
aerospace applications are those with excellent mechanical
strength and resistance to surface degradation particularly at
elevated temperatures. Such materials however pose considerable
challenges for manufacturing. Grinding is still the most efficient
method for achieving the tight profile tolerances and accuracies
typically required in aerospace components [216]. In recent years,
significant effort has been invested to increase productivity and
process stability when grinding aerospace alloys, although
published technical information by original equipment manufac-
turers (OEM) are rare. With this in mind, the following section will
discuss the current state-of-the-art relating to dedicated grinding
machine tools in the aerospace industry as well as ideas and
monitoring concepts that advance grinding technology.
7.1. Specific machine tool configurations
In combination with near net shape casting technology, high
volume components such as turbine blades in particular are often
machined to final shape via creep feed grinding. The principal
operating characteristic of CFG is the combination of slow table
feeds and relatively large depths of cut (1–10 mm). The grinding
allowance is generally achieved in a few passes, which enables
increased specific material removal rates (Q0 w) in comparison to
reciprocating grinding [116,181]. To stabilise the process and
reduce heat generated during grinding (that can result in
undesirable thermal fluxes into the workpiece), the wheel profile
is constantly maintained during machining using a diamond roller
in a continuous dress creep feed (CDCF) grinding configuration,
which is illustrated in Fig. 35.
The diamond roller is positioned above the wheel and is
controlled by a separate CNC axis, which removes a thin layer of
abrasives from the active surface of the wheel with each increment
in radial infeed. Consequently, the wheel topography remains
effective and clean. This results in good form accuracy and high
stock removal rates coupled with low cycle times as well as
reduced heat flux into the component. The CNC control also
actively compensates for the continuous reduction in grinding
wheel diameter [217,232]. In order to achieve greater flexibility for
595
Fig. 35. Example and schematic of continuous dress creep feed (CDCF) grinding
operation (courtesy of Blohm).
dressing different grinding wheel topographies and decrease set-
up times (by up to 75%), a dual-spindle dressing system can be
implemented on the machine tool [26,154].
External grinding of complex aeroengine components in
association with CDCF configuration increases process versatility
combined with an improved Q0 w that optimises productivity.
However, because of the different engagement conditions between
the abrasive wheel and workpiece, heat transfer into the material
surface can vary significantly. Therefore, the coolant supply must
be suitably adapted so that the pressure angle of the fluid jet during
grinding is correctly aligned. This ensures the performance of the
grinding process and surface integrity of the workpiece [88]. Fur-
ther increase in productivity is possible by incorporating a twin-
wheel concept for turbine blade creep feed grinding [118].
Several machine tool suppliers including Makino have licensed
the patented VIPER process [82] that enables simultaneous cooling
and cleaning of the grinding wheel during operation. The Makino
machine incorporates a special programmable nozzle system
capable of accurately controlling fluid direction and orientation
relative to the wheel circumference together with precise
regulation of coolant pressure; see Fig. 36. The design further
allows an appropriate angle of contingence for the coolant jet
hitting the abrasive wheel and hence controls the gap between the
wheel and exit tip of the nozzle [184].
Another dedicated machine tool for grinding advanced
aerospace materials was recently developed by Blohm, which
exploits the combination of high grinding speeds (160 m/s) and
worktable feeds (up to 200 m/min) to reduce heat generation
during operation [249]. This process is commonly referred to as
‘speed stroke grinding’ (SSG). The original concept was introduced
in 1988 by Inasaki [105], followed by the first joint European
project to develop a suitable machine tool platform [215] that
initially involved ball screw-nut based table drives. This has since
been largely replaced by advanced linear direct drives that have
enabled higher feed speeds as well as increased oscillating
Fig. 36. VIPER grinding machine tool and operational configuration [184].
596 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 37. Automatic tool changing system and continuous path controlled grinding
on a Blohm Prokos machine tool (courtesy of Blohm).
frequencies, which are fundamental requirements for SSG [216]. In
comparison to creep feed grinding (typical feed rate of 0.1–1.0 m/
min) [1], SSG involves much faster feed rates and shorter wheel-
workpiece contact lengths. Hence, cutting forces and friction are
reduced while chip thickness increases, which leads to greater
transport of heat away from the grinding zone. Consequently, less
energy is conducted into the surface of the component and hence
the risk of surface integrity damage even when grinding with low
volumes of coolant is reduced [171]. In addition, wear of the
abrasive wheel was reported to be up to 80% lower than
conventional CFG processes [107].
A further advantage of SSG relates to the resulting surface
quality. Due to the higher amounts of heat generated at the cutting
zone, CDCF grinding can result in workpiece damage that extend
up to 80 mm below the machined surface. In contrast, the depth of
defects in surfaces produced by SSG does not exceed 8 mm.
Therefore even under roughing conditions, SSG is capable of
achieving relatively close tolerances with respect to the final
dimension, which minimises the remaining stock allowance for
finishing and reduces overall process time. Additionally, specialist
machine tools designed for SSG such as the Blohm Prokos has been
constructed with a mineral cast bed to provide appropriate
damping characteristics in order to eliminate vibrations caused by
the high dynamic process kinematics, and to absorb high
acceleration pulses, see Fig. 37 [171].
More recently, Zeppenfeld [248,249] developed tool wear,
energy and crack formation prediction models when speed stroke
grinding of g-titanium aluminide (Ti–45Al–2Mn–2Nb + 0.8% TiB2).
It was shown that wheel wear was minimised by reducing depth of
cut and increasing table feed (vw), with 120 m/min identified as the
critical value. Specific grinding energy was also seen to decrease
with increasing table feed up to 200 m/min. Additionally,
corresponding workpiece surface residual stress shifted from an
initially tensile mode at vw = 50 m/min to a compressive regime as
vw rose above 100 m/min. This was due to the reduction in cutting
temperatures as a result of shorter tool-workpiece contact times at
elevated table feeds. However, despite the presence of compressive
residual stresses, workpiece cracking was evident when operating
at increasing specific material removal rates.
Although based on contrasting operating principles, both creep
feed and speed stroke grinding have found their way into industrial
aerospace manufacturing applications due to their respective
advantages described previously. However, the rate of grinding
wheel consumption in both process configurations is considerable,
necessitating frequent tool replacement and increases machine
down time especially under manual operation. Therefore, auto-
matic grinding wheel changing systems were introduced as a
solution to enhance process productivity. A combination of
different conventional and CBN grinding wheels are generally
stored in the tool change magazine to facilitate complete
machining of complex parts in one set up, as highlighted in the
top left image of Fig. 37. Indeed, this approach not only improves
Fig. 38. Machine tool for grinding landing gear struts (courtesy of Danobat).
machine tool flexibility, but also substantially reduces cycle and
idle times.
A number of grinding centre manufacturers currently offer
production machines with up to six simultaneous axis operations.
Equipped with powerful CNC processors, such systems provide the
capability for precise path controlled contour grinding of complex
aeroengine components combined with enhanced productivity.
Even parts with larger radii can be ground using a continuous-path
controlled grinding cycle as demonstrated in the example shown
on the right of Fig. 37 [171].
Fig. 38 shows a customised grinding machine tool designed for
the precision manufacturing of aircraft landing gears. Forged gear
struts are highly unbalanced due to the asymmetric section of the
wheel-mounting axis, which requires the installation of counter-
weights together with an extremely large working diameter for
machining. The grinding machine shown in Fig. 38 allows a
swivelling diameter of up to 4 m [49].
The turbine blade tip grinder is another example of a special-
purpose grinding system developed for aerospace component
manufacture [50], with the operating set-up detailed in
Fig. 39. Here, the machine tool grinds the blade tips as the rotor
is rotated at high speed, thereby providing appropriate operating
conditions between the wheel and workpiece feature. The process
ensures a high degree of accuracy with reported diametric
tolerances down to 0.025 mm. This level of precision is deemed
essential as the clearance distance between the rotor blade tips and
outer housing has a critical bearing on engine performance [50].
Apart from innovative machine tool systems, productivity in
aerospace grinding can also be enhanced via efficient abrasive
wheel cleaning technology as discussed in Section 5. In several
processes, continuous dressing can be substituted with an interval
plunge dressing (IPD) strategy. Consequently, grinding processes
that utilise conventional abrasives such as corundum or silicon
carbide can be improved in terms of optimised material removal
rates and lower wheel wear [172]. In addition, environmental
issues relating to abrasive machining in production are important
considerations. While reducing energy consumption is an increas-
ing priority within the aerospace industry, this must be balanced
against the specific boundary conditions of precision grinding
processes [6].
Fig. 39. Machine tool designed for grinding turbine blade tips (courtesy of Danobat).
 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
It is likely that many more specialised machine tools for
aerospace grinding applications exists, however as previously
stated, related information in the public domain is limited. This is
largely due to the highly competitive nature of the aerospace
industry where technological developments tend to be proprietary
or classified.
7.2. Work holding and fixturing
Proper part fixturing and work holding during grinding is
essential to achieving desired surface finish and component quality.
In general, greater workpiece holding rigidity corresponds to higher
attainable material removal rates [184]. Therefore, two principal
methods for securing workpieces during machining have been
established in recent years. The first is the hardpoint procedure that
requires a device to clamp the component at various locating
surfaces while the second technique involves encapsulation of the
turbine blade with a specific zinc alloy that subsequently secures
the cast part at defined positions. This allows for easy and precise
transport of cast-in components between different process stations.
The latter technique however imposes additional working steps
including casting and cleaning of the component [154].
For loading and unloading of the machine, a conveyor system in
conjunction with a suspended positioned robot arm represents an
efficient approach for workpiece handling. In comparison to
conventional solutions, this reduces the need for rigorous safety
regulations. It also improves accessibility to the workspace of the
machine and optimises the loading process when employed in
tandem with a conveyor equipped with video-based component
and fixture recognition. Consequently, the shorter path from the
conveyer via robot to the machining area reduces time for loading
and unloading of parts [154].
7.3. Monitoring of aerospace grinding processes
Considering the fact that grinding is a relatively complex and
demanding operation, sensor systems to detect malfunctions are
essential. Many of the process monitoring techniques used in
general abrasive machining can also be applied to aerospace
grinding applications. The details and characteristics of various
grinding monitoring systems have been reviewed in several key
publications [106,115].
As with most complex manufacturing operations, the preferred
option for investigating the influence of grinding on resulting
properties of the workpiece material is through direct non-
destructive measurement of the machined surface [106]. Unfortu-
nately, even to date, there are very few detection systems capable
of meeting this demand. Of the available instruments however, the
technique based on eddy currents has demonstrated the greatest
potential especially for the inspection of fractures in turbine
blades. The principle of eddy current measurement is based on the
theory that any cracks present in the workpiece surface (placed
within the measurement region) will disturb the eddy current field
generated from an alternating-current excited coil. This method-
ology is applicable on any electrically conductive workpiece
material.
Eddy current sensors were first introduced approximately
20 years ago to monitor cracks generated during profile surface
grinding of turbine blade fir-tree roots, see Fig. 40. The system
employed a bridge-type measuring gauge equipped with a suitable
sensor that scanned over the ground surface [236]. While crack
detection was possible, the apparatus response time was
considerably slower compared to the grinding table speed, which
prevented real time assessment and meant that measurements
had to be performed post operation. Furthermore, only cracks on
the ground workpiece surface could be reliably identified.
Nevertheless, the concept proved to be valid and has led to the
development of geometry adapted sensors for fir-tree discs, which
are commercially available for fast post-process crack inspection
[58], as shown in the bottom right image of Fig. 40.
597
Fig. 40. Eddy current crack inspection.
In addition to surface integrity evaluation, sensors for assessing
complicated geometry features are also available and currently in
use. The measurement of blade tips on fast rotating assembled
turbines (see Fig. 39) can be performed either by laser based
methods [146] or via non-contact capacity based systems
[186]. Where a more sophisticated approach is necessary,
monitoring and control through a model-based simulation sup-
ported by in-process measurement is a potential option. For
instance, when grinding fir tree profiles on blade root sections, it is
essential that resulting grinding forces be maintained within a
critical threshold during the process in order to avoid damaging the
special coating on the blade airfoils as well as to ensure acceptable
surface integrity. Consequently, grinding force and heat flux can be
indirectly estimated from the recorded spindle power, with
deviations from the normal process signature profile indicating
possible process issues [76]. Based on results from grinding models
together with in-process data, it is possible to assess form errors
through correlations between monitored tangential grinding
forces/power and workpiece material characteristics as well as
predictions from finite element (FE) simulations. This leads to
enhancement of grinding process stability and quality [133].
8. Innovative abrasive processing operations
8.1. Point grinding of blade root slots in discs
The majority of modern aeroengine designs still incorporate
rotor components with detachable blades. The series of mounting
slots that locate and secure the blades to the turbine/compressor
discs principally comprise two main geometry configurations,
dovetail and fir-tree [102]. The former is a relatively simple shape
and can be employed in an axial or circumferential orientation,
while fir-tree profiles are more complex and used primarily under
high blade loading conditions. The profile of the latter slot offers
multiple areas of contact in order to accommodate much larger
loads [155].
Industrial production of blade root mounting slots in nickel
based superalloy discs is currently dominated by broaching.
Despite being a mature and validated technology, the process has
several significant disadvantages including high capital costs,
complex and expensive tool design/regrinding, long setup times,
large floor space requirements together with high process forces
and poor flexibility. A potential alternative to broaching that has
been developed over the past 15 years is point grinding, which
employs profiled superabrasive grinding wheels/points (also
commonly referred to as quills).
Preliminary research to investigate the feasibility of using small
diameter (15 mm), plain electroplated superabrasive (CBN and
diamond) grinding wheels for plunge edge grinding Inconel
718 and Udimet 720 nickel based superalloys was reported by
Burrows et al. [31,32]. The grinding points were held in a retrofit
60,000 rpm spindle mounted on a prismatic high speed machining
centre, see Fig. 41. A Taguchi fractional factorial design was
598 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 41. Retrofit high speed spindle on machining centre and plain superabrasive
grinding point [32].
employed to assess the influence of different process variables
including wheel speed, feed rate, depth of cut, grit size, friability
and fluid pressure, each at 2 levels. Tangential and normal grinding
forces were relatively low, which varied between 20–30 N and 60–
80 N when employing new tools, irrespective of grit type.
Volumetric material removal achieved at wheel failure however
ranged between 3.6 and 120 cm3 depending on operating
conditions. Workpiece surface roughness down to 1.2 mm Ra on
Inconel 718 was obtained following spark-out passes when
utilising fine-grained CBN abrasives.
Subsequent work to assess resulting workpiece surface
integrity following machining of Inconel 718 and Udimet 720 using
plain grinding points were reported by Soo et al. [200] and
Aspinwall et al. [3]. The confirmation trial utilising the combina-
tion of preferred operating parameters achieved a volume removed
of 130 cm3 with a corresponding surface roughness of 1.5 mm Ra
for Udimet 720. Analysis of workpiece subsurface microstructure
revealed minimal plastic deformation, although microhardness
measurements indicated a softened layer at the machined surface
extending to a depth of 50 mm; see Fig. 42. This however did not
appear to affect surface residual stresses, which were compressive
(up to 700 MPa) in all of the specimens evaluated [3].
Initial 4-point bend trials were undertaken to compare the
fatigue performance of point ground surfaces against correspond-
ing high speed milled and polished Inconel 718 samples. The
results clearly showed that at a maximum stress level of 700 MPa,
the number of cycles to failure for the ground specimen (1  107)
was 5 times longer than the milled surface (2  106); see S–N curve
in Fig. 43 [200].
Fig. 42. Cross sectional micrograph of point ground Udimet 720 sample and
corresponding microhardness plot [3].
Fig. 43. Fatigue S–N curve for point ground, high speed milled and polished surfaces
[200].
Based on the initial work with plain tools, finishing trials
utilising fir-tree profiled grinding points were carried out by
Aspinwall et al. [5]. The influence of grit size (B46, B76 and B91),
abrasive type (B46 and D46) and spindle rotational speed
(60,000 rpm and 90,000 rpm) on wheel wear and workpiece
surface roughness following machining of Udimet 720 with
synthetic PAO oil was investigated. The CBN abrasive showed
considerably lower wear rates compared to diamond, although
workpiece surface roughness improved with the latter. Wear rate
of the B46 tool was gradual after an initial spike at trial
commencement, which can be eliminated by ‘pre-conditioning’
the wheel prior to use. Workpiece surface roughness typically
decreased with increasing volume of material removed while
increasing spindle speed from 60,000 to 90,000 rpm led to a
reduction in wheel wear rate. Further development of the
process resulted in surface roughness down to 1 mm Ra after
finishing, with associated material removal rates up to 860 mm3/
min [45]. Curtis et al. [47] proposed a possible machining
strategy/route for point grinding of fir-tree root slots. This
involves a 4-stage procedure beginning with a plain pre-slot
machined by CFG or an alternative process. A rough point
grinding operation (large grit size) to generate the fir-tree profile
is then carried out, with final sizing and surface finish/integrity
requirements achieved through successive semi-finish and finish
passes using grinding points having appropriate grain sizes and
dimensions.
While point grinding is deemed as a viable process for the
machining of blade root mounting slots in aeroengine discs, there
have also been parallel developments of competing technologies to
address this application. Examples include abrasive waterjet
cutting [62], wire electrical discharge machining [61,123], milling
with profiled cutters [12,13], abrasive machining with specially
shaped wheels [132] and other adaptations of the point grinding
process. The latter is exemplified by numerous patents
[75,151,176,190] recently filed by major aeroengine manufac-
turers, which suggests a high probability of current industrial
application of the technology.
8.2. Ultrasonic/vibration assisted CFG of aerospace alloys
The earliest recorded application of ultrasonic actuation for
assisting material removal was outlined by Wood and Loomis
[237], where ultrasonically vibrated glass rods were employed to
etch and rapidly drill glass plates submerged in an oil bath.
Subsequent research of the technique led to one of the first patents
granted to Balamuth [10], after which terms such as ‘ultrasonic
machining’ (USM) or ‘vibration assisted cutting’ were coined and
came into general use. Industrial application/take-up of ultrasonic
(vibration frequencies typically in the range of 20 kHz) assisted
machining technology followed in the 1950s, particularly in the
USA, Japan and England [165]. Research on vibration assisted
machining operations have since been extended to a wide range of
conventional (turning, milling, drilling, broaching etc.) as well as
non-conventional (electrical discharge and electrochemical ma-
chining) processes [11,135].
The primary benefits of vibration assisted processes relate to
lower cutting forces and improved workpiece surface integrity,
which translates to the possibility of increasing operating speeds/
productivity. The development of ultrasonic assisted abrasive
machining can be traced back to the mid-1950s, where reported
advantages included reduced grinding temperatures and work-
piece tensile residual stresses [42]. The majority of published work
relating to ultrasonic assisted grinding (UAG) however has largely
centred on hard/brittle materials such as ceramics and glass
[179,221], with very limited literature available on UAG of nickel
based superalloys or titanium alloys. Furthermore, much of the
studies on UAG have involved surface grinding configurations with
depth of cut typically limited to 0.3 mm [211], with relatively few
papers addressing UAG under a creep feed arrangement (depths of
cut 1 mm).
 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
Fig. 44. Transducer-table sonotrode assembly and UACFG experimental setup [22].
Fig. 45. Surfaces following (a) straight CFG; (b) and (c) UACFG [23].
More recently, research has been undertaken to assess the
feasibility of ultrasonic assisted creep feed grinding (UACFG) of
aerospace alloys. Bhaduri et al. [22] investigated the influence of
wheel speed (30–40 m/s) and feed rate (200–300 mm/min) when
UACFG Inconel 718 using a porous alumina wheel at a depth of cut
of 1 mm. The workpiece samples were clamped onto a bespoke
transducer-booster-table sonotrode assembly connected to a high
power ultrasonic generator (1 kW), see Fig. 44. Vibration frequency
was fixed at 20 kHz with corresponding maximum amplitude of
4 mm under no load conditions. In general, grinding forces were
lower by 26 to 43% under ultrasonic assisted operation compared
to straight CFG. While a rising trend in cutting forces was observed
with increasing feed rate, this was not apparent when varying
wheel speed. Grinding wheel wear was found to decrease in the
majority of trials (G-ratios improved by 7 to 45%), although the
ground surfaces typically exhibited higher roughness values due to
greater smearing, side flow/ploughing and overlapping grit marks
compared to standard CFG operation.
Experimental work was further extended to evaluate the effect
of varying depth of cut (0.1–1.0 mm) and amplitude of vibration
(4 and 8 mm) at constant wheel speed and feed rate of 30 m/s and
600 mm/min respectively. Grinding forces were similarly lower by
up to 37% when machining in ultrasonic assisted mode, although
this led to a drop in wheel G-ratios by 30–60%, which was
attributed to greater mechanical impact on the grits as a result of
the vibration [23]. Increasing the amplitude of vibration to 8 mm
led to a further reduction in forces of 30–43%, albeit at the
expense of surface roughness, which deteriorated by 24%
resulting from a higher degree of workpiece smearing/side flow
and overlapping cuts, see Fig. 45. A similar process setup was also
utilised to investigate the UACFG of g-TiAl [24]. Despite the
demonstrated benefits of UACFG for machining aerospace alloys,
vibrating the grinding wheel would be the preferred arrangement
from a production standpoint, in order to accommodate varying
feature shapes and component dimensions.
8.3. Hybrid electrochemical point grinding (EPG)
Electrochemical grinding (ECG) is classed as a hybrid machining
process, where material removal is realised through simultaneous
abrasive and electrochemical dissolution mechanisms [126]. Fun-
damentally, the process involves a metal bonded grinding wheel
with sufficient grit protrusion of non-conductive abrasives
connected to the cathode (negative pole) of a DC generator, while
the workpiece is linked to the positive pole (anode). The
electrolytic circuit is completed via supply of an appropriate
electrolyte between the electrodes.
The application of ECG for the production of blade root slots in
discs was recently proposed as a means to increase productivity or
599
Fig. 46. EPG test rig and spindle-commutator arrangement [47,48].
to reduce the number of process stages compared to straight point
grinding. The premise works on the fact that the bulk of material
removal will be borne by the electrochemical erosion mechanism,
while slot accuracy and surface integrity requirements will be
achieved through the profile grinding operation. The concept of
electrochemical point grinding (EPG) of root slots were first
detailed by Aspinwall et al. [3] based on preliminary experimental
work carried out on a modified test rig (spindle speed of 5300 rpm)
previously employed for arc sawing [178]. Initial results for
machining a 7 mm wide pre-slot in a 15 mm thick block of Inconel
718 using a 10 mm diameter plain electroplated CBN grinding
point (depth of cut of 1.5 mm) were promising. A maximum feed
rate of 3 mm/min was attained, giving a slot cut time of 5 min [3].
Design and development of an improved EPG test platform was
undertaken on a vertical machining centre with a retrofit
40,000 rpm spindle and commutator assembly [47]. Current was
supplied from a 500 A DC generator while an electrolyte tank with
appropriate extraction systems was mounted on the work table
and machine area, see Fig. 46 for the EPG test rig setup together
with a schematic of the spindle and commutator arrangement
[47,48].
Mainstream experimental testing using plain electroplated
grinding points for machining Udimet 720 showed that both the
bond system (electroplated, resin and metal) and abrasive type
(CBN and diamond) had a significant influence on EPG process
performance [48]. Trials with the metal bonded wheel had to be
terminated prematurely as no electrochemical machining (ECM)
occurred (pure grinding) due to the low grit protrusion (short
circuit). In contrast, the resin bonded wheel exhibited stable
operation throughout the test duration with relatively low forces
(<100 N) indicating a strong ECM action. Wheel G-ratio however
was low (33), which was attributed to the comparatively weak
resin bond strength. In terms of the electroplated tools, increasing
forces (up to 300 N) were observed as the experiment progressed,
suggesting reducing ECM contribution possibly due to greater
abrasive wear (smaller gap size), although G-ratio was 307. The
electroplated wheels also showed the largest overcut at the
conditions employed, which can have knock-on effects with regard
to dimensional control. Workpiece surface roughness (0.8 mm
Ra) was lowest with the metal bonded tool, although the
electroplated wheel matched this at high feed rates (16 mm/min).
In general, CBN grits outperformed their diamond counterparts
by a factor of 3 in terms of G-ratio. Heavy wear flat formation was
observed with the diamond abrasives while grit pullout and
Fig. 47. Wear mechanism for (a) diamond and (b) CBN wheels [48].
600 F. Klocke (1) et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 64 (2015) 581–604
References
Fig. 48. Fir tree profiled electroplated CBN grinding point and EPG machined slot
entry [48].
fracture was the primary wear mechanism for the CBN wheels; see
Fig. 47 [48]. Preliminary EPG tests using a fir-tree profiled CBN
grinding point were subsequently performed using appropriate
operating conditions. Feed forces were low (average of 37 N) with
good definition of the formed profile (except for some minor
rounding at the edges) and no evidence of burr formation; see
Fig. 48 [48].
In similar work, Joslin [113] detailed the development of a
special fir tree quill tailored for ECG, with relief specified at the
base of the tool to avoid ploughing/zero cutting speed and the
capability for through tool electrolyte delivery. Reported feed rates
for roughing from solid using the new quill design were
approximately 12 mm/min, while finishing was possible up to
150 mm/min.
9. Summary and conclusions
The paper provides a comprehensive overview of the current
technology capability and developments with regard to grinding/
abrasive machining of advanced aerospace alloys and composite
materials. Grinding is a key manufacturing process in the
aerospace industry, in particular for the finishing of critical high
temperature strength nickel-based superalloy components used in
gas turbine engines. The abrasive machining of conventional
titanium alloys (e.g. Ti-6Al-4V) however remains problematic, due
to the material’s affinity for loading/clogging grinding wheels,
although recent advancements in fabricating abrasive tools having
grits with defined cutting edges appears to be a potential solution.
Conversely, grinding is the most suitable operation for the
machining of new generation g-TiAl intermetallic alloys and there
is also growing interest in abrasive cutting of polymer matrix
composites.
While enhancement of fluid delivery and wheel cleaning
strategies have enabled significant productivity benefits in
conventional abrasive grinding (e.g. VIPER), there is also an
increasing trend towards adopting superabrasive machining to
replace conventional cutting operations. Machine tool develop-
ments have also progressed apace, with specific/bespoke designs
formulated to support new grinding process configurations.
Furthermore, there are indications that academic research relating
to innovative/novel grinding operations is translating into
commercial applications, as evidenced from the increasing levels
of associated intellectual property registrations by industry.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the following people for their
assistance and support in putting the keynote paper together: Mr.
Peter Oppelt (Blohm), Mr. Florian Schade (IFQ, University of
Magdeburg), Prof. Wolfgang Hintze (IPMT, Technische Universität
Hamburg), Dr. Fukuo Hashimoto (Timken Company), Prof. David
Aspinwall and Dr. Richard Hood (University of Birmingham), Mr.
Donald McIntosh (Pratt & Whitney, Canada), Mr. Matthias Rasim
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