2022

SUDHIKSHA Jr. COLLEGE,

KURMANNAPALEM, VISAKHAPATNAM.
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Basic Formulae:
o (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 .
o (𝑎 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 .
o 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏).
o (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 2𝑏𝑐 + 2𝑐𝑎.
o (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3 = 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 + 𝑏).
o (𝑎 − 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 − 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 − 𝑏 3 = 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 − 3𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑏).
o 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ).
o 𝑎3 − 𝑏 3 = (𝑎 − 𝑏)(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2 ).
o If 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0, then 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 𝑐 3 = 3𝑎𝑏𝑐.
o 𝑎3 + 𝑏 3 + 𝑐 3 − 3𝑎𝑏𝑐 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎).
1
o 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎 = 2 {(𝑎 − 𝑏)2 + (𝑏 − 𝑐)2 + (𝑐 − 𝑎)2 }

o 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎 ≥ 0 ∀𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅.
o 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑐𝑎 = 0 ⟺ 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐.
o If a, b and c are real, then
(𝑖)𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 0 ⟺ 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 0.
(𝑖𝑖)𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 = 0 ⟺ 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 𝑐 = 0.
o 𝑎4 + 𝑎2 + 1 = (𝑎2 + 𝑎 + 1)(𝑎2 − 𝑎 + 1).
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑
o If 𝑏 = 𝑑 , then (i) = (Componendo rule)
𝑏 𝑑
𝑎− 𝑏 𝑐− 𝑑
(ii) = (Dividendo rule)
𝑏 𝑑
𝑎+𝑏 𝑐+𝑑
(iii) = 𝑐 − 𝑑 (Componendo and Dividendo rule)
𝑎−𝑏

SUDHIKSHA Jr. COLLEGE,

KURMANNAPALEM, VISAKHAPATNAM.
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Polynomial:
An expression of the form 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 where
𝑎0 ≠ 0, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . , 𝑎𝑛 are complex numbers and indices are whole numbers is called an ʽn’ th
degree polynomial in the variable x.
Real polynomial :
An expression of the form 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑛 − 2 + 𝑎3 𝑥 𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛 where
𝑎0 ≠ 0, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … . , 𝑎𝑛 are real numbers and indices are whole numbers is called an ʽn’ th
degree real polynomial in the variable x.
Eg: 5𝑥 4 − 2√7𝑥 3 + 16𝑥 − 73.

Types of polynomial:
• First degree polynomial is called linear expression.
• Second degree polynomial is called quadratic expression.
• Third degree polynomial is called cubic expression.
• Fourth degree polynomial is called biquadratic expression.
• Fifth degree polynomial is called quartic expression.
• Sixth degree polynomial is called quintic expression.
Note:
3
The expression of the form 𝑎𝑥 −2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 and 6𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 + 35 are not polynomials
and they are called as algebraic expressions.
Zero of a polynomial:
Let f(x) be a polynomial. If f(α) = 0 then ʽα’ is called the zero of the polynomial.
Eg.1: ʽ2’ is a zero of polynomial x3 – 6x2 + 12x – 8.
Eg.2: ʽ1’ is a zero of the polynomial x5 + 8x3 + 105x2 - 96x - 18.
Polynomial equation:
An equation of the form f(x) = 0 where f(x) is a polynomial is called polynomial equation.
Eg: x3 + 11x2 - 6x + 8 = 0.

SUDHIKSHA Jr. COLLEGE,

KURMANNAPALEM, VISAKHAPATNAM.
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Solution or root:
If f(α) = 0 then ʽα’ is called solution or root of the polynomial equation f(x) = 0
Eg: 1. 1, 2, 3 are roots of x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6 = 0.
Eg.2. 2, 3 are roots of x2 – 5x + 6 = 0.
Note:
Root of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0 is same as the zero of the polynomial f(x).
Euclidian Algorithm for polynomials:
When a polynomial f(x) is divided by another polynomial g(x) (degree of g(x) ≤ degree of f(x))
there exist unique polynomials q(x) and R(x) such that f(x) = g(x)q(x) + R(x) where remainder
R(x) is either 0 or a polynomial whose degree is less than that of divisor.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra:
Every polynomial equation f(x) = 0 of degree n ≥ 1 has at least one root real or complex.
Theorem:
Every polynomial equation of degree n has n roots and no more.
Quadratic equation:
An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a (≠ 0), b and c are complex numbers, is called a
quadratic equation in the variable x.
Root or Solution :
A complex number 𝛼 is called root or solution of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 if
𝑎𝛼 2 + 𝑏𝛼 + 𝑐 = 0.
Quadratic formula:
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
The solution or roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by 𝑥 = 2𝑎

which is called the quadratic formula.

• A quadratic equation cannot have more than two roots.
• If a quadratic equation has equal roots, then the root is called a double root.
• If a quadratic equation has more than two roots, then it is called an identity in which
coefficients are zeroes. If ax2 + bx + c = 0 is an identity in x, then a = b = c = 0.
(𝑥−𝑎)(𝑥−𝑏) (𝑥−𝑏)(𝑥−𝑐) (𝑥−𝑐)(𝑥−𝑎)
Eg. (𝑐−𝑎)(𝑐−𝑏) + (𝑎 −𝑏)(𝑎 −𝑐) + (𝑏 −𝑐)(𝑏 −𝑎) = 1.

SUDHIKSHA Jr. COLLEGE,

KURMANNAPALEM, VISAKHAPATNAM.
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Nature of the roots:

(I) D = b2 – 4ac is called discriminant of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b and c
real numbers.
(i) If D > 0, then the quadratic equation has two distinct real roots.
𝑏
(ii) If D = 0, then the quadratic equation has two equal real roots and equal to − 2𝑎.

(iii) If D < 0, then the quadratic equation has complex roots and they are conjugate complex
numbers.
(II) Let a, b and c are rational numbers in the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.
(i) If D > 0 and D is a perfect square then the roots of the equation are rational and distinct.
(ii) If D > 0 and D is not a perfect square then the roots of the equation are irrational and
conjugate surds.
𝑏
(iii) If D = 0, then the quadratic equation has two equal real roots and equal to − 2𝑎.

(iv) If D < 0, then the quadratic equation has complex roots and they are conjugate complex
numbers.
Miscellaneous results:
(i) In a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0,
o If a and c have like signs, then both the roots have same signs.
o If a and c have unlike signs, then both the roots have opposite signs.
o If b = 0, then both the roots will be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
o If a = c, then the roots are reciprocal to each other.
o If a = 1, b2 – 4c is a perfect square and 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍, then its roots are integers.
Relation between the roots and coefficients:
If 𝛼 and 𝛽 are roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, then
𝑏 𝑐
• 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎 and 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 .

• 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ≡ 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽).

Note:
o 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
o 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)3 − 3𝛼𝛽(𝛼 + 𝛽)

SUDHIKSHA Jr. COLLEGE,

KURMANNAPALEM, VISAKHAPATNAM.
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o 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = (𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 )2 − 2𝛼 2 𝛽 2
o 𝛼 5 + 𝛽 5 = (𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 )(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 ) − 𝛼 2 𝛽 2 (𝛼 + 𝛽).

Quadratic equation with given roots:

Quadratic equation with given roots 𝛼 and 𝛽 is 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0.
Condition on roots:
If the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are in the ratio m : n, then mnb2 = (m + n)2ac.
Two Quadratic equations having same roots:
If the quadratic equations 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 = 0 and 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑐2 = 0 have same roots,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
then 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 = 𝑐1 .
2 2 2

Common root:
If the quadratic equations 𝑎1 𝑥 2 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑐1 = 0 and 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑏2 𝑥 + 𝑐2 = 0 have a common root,
𝑐 𝑎 −𝑐 𝑎 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1
then (𝑐1 𝑎2 − 𝑐2 𝑎1 )2 = (𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 )(𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 ) and common root is 𝑎1 𝑏2 −𝑎2 𝑏1 = .
1 2 2 1 𝑐1 𝑎2 −𝑐2 𝑎1

Note:
The number of quadratic equations unchanged by squaring the roots are 4; namely x 2 = 0;
x2 – x = 0 ; x2 – 2x + 1 = 0; x2 + x + 1 = 0.
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SUDHIKSHA Jr. COLLEGE,

KURMANNAPALEM, VISAKHAPATNAM.