Manual For Museums

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Visitor Center, Wright Brothers National Memorial, Kill Devil Hills, N.C., a char
acteristic example of museums in the National Park System.
v
Manual for Museums
Ralph H. Lewis
National Park Service

U.S. Department of the Interior
Washington 1976
NATIO K
SERVICE
As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the

Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands
and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land
and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environ
mental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and
providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The De
partment assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to assure
that their development is in the best interests of all our people. The De
partment also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation
communities and for people who live in Island Territories under U.S.
administration.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Lewis, Ralph H
Manual for museums.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Museums. 2. Museums techniques. 3. Muse
ums—United States. I. United States. National
Park Service. II. Title.
AM5.L48 069’.O973 75-25982
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Ofiice,

Washington, D.C. 20402 -Price $4.70 (Paper)
Stock Number 024-005-00643-5
Foreword
Among the most important contributions the National Park Service has
made since its founding in 1916 has been the development of extraordinary
museum technology and administration—national in scope and interna
tional in influence. This manual, a distillation of what many persons have
learned about the day-to-day operations of museums, is meant to provide cu
ratorial standards and serve as a reference for museum workers everywhere.
This book was written by Ralph H. Lewis, an outstanding museum ad
ministrator and curator with many years of experience in the National Park
Service. It is an outgrowth of an earlier (1941) volume entitled Field Man
ual for Museums by Ned J. Burns, a work that went out of print during
World War II and is, even to this day, in demand by curators and museum
managers.
In this present manual, Mr. Lewis carries on a tradition of excellence in
museum practice that can be traced back to the mid-1930’s when Carl
P. Russell set the basic pattern for museum work in the national parks. In
those early years most park museums could not afford or were too small
to engage a full time professional museum staff. Dr. Russell set up central
ized laboratories staffed by curators and preparators and provided the parks
with exhibition and preservation expertise from this pool. The ordinary
maintenance and operation of the museums were left to the superintendents
who managed the parks, and to the archeologists, historians and naturalists
who interpreted them.
Dr. Russell knew from his experience as a park interpreter that these
superintendents and professionals were badly in need of a ready reference
to help them carry out their part-time but vital museum duties. In Ned
J. Burns, former Chief of the Division of Museums, he found a man whose
depth and breadth of practical knowledge about museums made possible the
preparation of the first manual for this purpose. After the war, Mr. Burns
began to prepare a new edition, but his untimely death in 1953 left the re
vision at an early stage. Before work on it could resume, many changes
occurred. The conservation of museum objects became a field of specializa
I tion approaching professional status. The National Park System also grew,
developing new ways to serve the public and preserve park values. Growth
I3'\('v—'
and change increased the need for a museum manual in the parks, but called
for a rewriting rather than a revision.
V
In this book Mr. Lewis brings the literature of good museum practice up
to date and it is clear from its contents that it will become a standard refer
ence for all museum workers, and will be especially valuable to the student
who wishes to pursue a museum career. An increasing number of small
museums can now afford specialized professional services from an outside
source, but they need to maintain with their own staffs the high curatorial
standards with which this manual is concerned.
In this bicentennial year of American Independence we again focus urgent
attention on the rich heritage of objects in the museums of the national
parks. This year has challenged thousands of other museums across the
country to preserve their collections more carefully and use them more
effectively. As a contribution to the cooperative effort of museums in and
out of parks, it gives me great pleasure and satisfaction on behalf of the
National Park Service to offer this book.
Gary Everhardt
Director
National Park Service
vi
Acknowledgments
Primary responsibility for this manual has rested on the Branch of Mu

seum Operations and its successor, the Division of Museum Services,
Harpers Ferry Center. Staff members who have participated closely in its
preparation include Arthur C. Allen, Division Chief, and David H. Wallace,
former Chief of Museum Operations; curators Vera Craig, Suzanne Fox,
Betsy Bradley, Agnes D. Mullins, Robert W. Olsen, Harold L. Peterson and
Joseph F. Winkler; conservators Edward P. Brown, Allen E. Cochran,
Walter J . Nitkiewicz, Fonda G. Thomsen, Ralph W. Sheetz, James B.
Smith, Jr., Janet L. Stone and the late Harry Wandrus; registrar David
Warthen; secretary Thelma W. McDonald. Museum aide Mike Wiltshire did
the photography for Figures 3, 8, 13-16, 18-26, 31, 34, 42 and 48.
Strong support has come from curators in the national parks and re
gional offices, particularly Elizabeth R. Albro, Kathy Catalano, Edward D.
Jahns, the late Newell F. Joyner, Nan V. Rickey, Franklin B. Smith, Jean
R. Swearingen and Horace Willcox. Knowing that his time was short
Newell Joyner, for example, devoted much of the last two years of his life
to drafting material for certain chapters. Grateful acknowledgment is also
made for essential help and encouragement received from exhibits special
ist Margery A. Updegraff, from many colleagues in the Harpers Ferry
Center including Chief of the Division of Exhibits Russell J. Hendrickson
and Bertha Wood of the Maintenance Division, and in many other units
of the National Park Service; in other Federal agencies including the
Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency and the
General Services Administration; and in museums. The latter include
Robert M. Organ, G. Stansfield, H. J. Swinney and Frank A. Taylor. All
deserve special thanks for their substantive advice. So do Dorothy L. Lewis
and Martha M. Lewis for many voluntary hours of typing and proofreading.
R.H.L.
vii
Contents
Part 1. Museum Collections 1

Introduction 2
Chapter 1. What to Acquire 4
Scope of Collections 4
Exhibit Series 6
Study Series 7
Chapter 2. How to Acquire 19
Field Collecting 19
Purchasing 20
Gifts 2;
Loans 27
Transfers 30
Exchanges 30
Referral to the
Smithsonian Institution 3 '_
Chapter 3. Preparing Specimens for the Collection 34
Organic Material 34
Waterlogged Specimens 37
Rapidly Deteriorating Objects 38
Freshly Collected Biological
Specimens 4l
Identifying and Authenticating
Specimens 55
Chapter 4. Caring for a Collection 62
Basic Steps 62
Agents of Deterioration 67
Climate Control 83
Study Collection Space 91
Specimen Storage Equipment 93
Central Repositories 105
V111
Chapter 5. Using Museum Collections L 13
Exhibition 1 13
Reference ; 23
Research L 24
Documentation ; 25
Chapter 6. Disposal of Specimens '_ 33
Methods __ 33
Clearing House Services '_ 35
Lending Museum Specimens __ 36
Part 2. Museum Records 1 41
Introduction '_ 42
Chapter 7. Accession Records '_ 43
Accession Book '_ 43
Accession File '_ 44
Source of Accession File '_ 45
Tagging and Storing Accessions Q 45
Deaccessioning ; 48
Installing a New System ; 49
Chapter 8. Museum Catalogue L 50
Museum Catalogue Form L 50
Catalogue Folder File '_ 56
Inventory or Location File ; 57
Numbering Specimens ; 57
Exceptions to Standard Procedures ; 60
Report to Finance Office Q 62
Supplies for Cataloguing ; 62
Chapter 9. Classification ; 65
Botany ; 66
Zoology '_ 66
Geology L 67
1X
Archeology 169
Ethnology 170
History 172
Part 3. Furnished Historic Structure Museums 181
Introduction ;82
Chapter 10. Development 184
Criteria for Deciding to Furnish L84
Check List of Procedures L86
Cooperative Responsibilities ;87
The Furnishing Plan 189
Implementing the Furnishing Plan 1.96
Chapter 11. Housekeeping 204
Organization 205
Equipment 212
Methods and Materials 219
Chapter 12. Protection 260
Safe Practices in Housekeeping 260
Protecting Visitors 263
Protecting the Building
and Furnishings 267
Chapter 13. Interpretation 299
Nature of the Experience 299
What to Interpret 301
Interpretive Methods 306
Alternatives to Furnishing 320
Part 4. Exhibit Maintenance and Replacement 323
Introduction 324
Chapter 14. Maintaining the Exhibit Room 325
Cleaning 325
Refinishing 326
Lighting 326
Atmosphere 327
Chapter 15. Cleaning Exhibits 328
Case Exhibits 328
Open Exhibit Panels 331
Exposed Specimens 332
X
Chapter 16. Maintaining Outdoor Exhibits 335
Cannon and Cannon Carriages 335
Statues and Stone Monuments 338
Cast Aluminum Markers 342
Chapter 17. Rehabilitation, Repair, Revision
and Replacement 346
Preventive Maintenance 346
Programming the Work 347
Appendixes 351
A. Laws Affecting Museum Operations 352
mpmmwnw Scope of Collections Statements 359
Collection Inventory 370
Condition Standards for Antique Firearms 372
Specimen Descriptions for Catalogue Records 373
Furnishings Research 377
Fire Safety Self-Inspection Form 382
Bibliography of Park and Countryside Museums 390
Index 395
xi
Illustrations
Frontispiece Visitor Center, Wright Brothers National Memorial

O \IO\§l1-l>uJt\>r—\ Museum donor certificates 24, 25
Receipt for specimens 29
Fumigation tank 36
Fumigation warning sign 37
The packing of paintings for shipment 42
Specimen labels for mammals 47
Dermestid larvae 72
Wood infested with powder-post beetles 73
9 Clothes moths 72
10 Silverfish 74
11 Envelope damaged by silverfish 74
12 Cockroaches 75
13. Instruments for measuring relative humidity and
temperature 84, 85
14. Testing kit for pollutant gases 87
15. Specimen storage cabinet 93
16 Standard cabinet with trays 94
17 Double-size specimen cabinet 95
18 Insect cabinet 97
19 Construction details, Cornell type drawer 97
20 Herbarium cabinet 97
21 Gun rack 99
22 Sword rack 99
23 Textile storage in utility cabinet 99
24 Storage rack for framed pictures 101
25 Print box 103
26 Document boxes 104
27 Parrott rifle, 30-pounder 114
28 Surveying the U.S.-Mexico boundary, an exhibit 114
29 Rock fault exhibit, Pinnacles National Monument 114
30. Participation exhibit, Rock Creek Nature Center 114
31 Museum exhibits, Custer Battlefield National
Monument 115
32 Museum exhibit, Fort Caroline National Monument 114
xii
33 Pistol used in the assassination of President Lincoln 115
34 General Custer’s buckskin suit 115
35 Basketry exhibited for aesthetic values 116
36. The Liberty Bell 117
37 Beaver exhibit 118
38 Learning how a specimen was used 119
39 American military firearms 124
40 Form accompanying loaned specimens 138, 139
41 Sample page from accession book 146, 147
42 Source of accession file 148
43 Sample catalogue form 151
44 Print file card 156
45 Neilson house, Saratoga National Historical Park 185
46 The Great Hall, Grand Portage National Monument 193
47 Examples of successful room barriers 284, 285
48 Room barrier, Arlington House 288
49 Lift-ofi barrier permitting emergency access 289
50 The study, Frederick Douglass Home 302
51 Room where Stonewall Jackson died 303
52. Hospital, Manassas National Battlefield Park 305
53 Entrance sign at the Todd House, Independence National
Historical Park 309
xiii
Part 1 Museum Collections
O\-P-RN Introduction
Chapter 1. What to Acquire
Scope of Collections
Exhibit Series
7 Study Series
19 Chapter 2. How to Acquire
19 Field Collecting
20 Purchasing
21 Gifts
27 Loans
30 Transfers
30 Exchanges
31 Referral to the Smithsonian Institution
34 Chapter 3. Preparing Specimens for the Collection
34 Organic Material
37 Waterlogged Specimens
38 Rapidly Deteriorating Objects
41 Freshly Collected Biological Specimens
55 Identifying and Authenticating Specimens
62 Chapter 4. Caring for a Collection
62 Basic Steps
67 Agents of Deterioration
83 Climate Control
91 Study Collection Space
93 Specimen Storage Equipment
105 Central Repositories
113 Chapter 5. Using Museum Collections
113 Exhibition
123 Reference
124 Research
125 Documentation
133 Chapter 6. Disposal of Specimens
133 Methods
135 Clearing House Services
136 Lending Museum Specimens
lntroduction
Part 1 traces guidelines for managing museum collections. While directed

particularly to museums in the national parks, it applies almost equally to
other museums, especially small ones. Park museums are characteristically
small. In them one person often must carry on most of the day-to-day
curatorial duties, serve as a museum educator, and advise on the applica
tion of sound museum policies. The chapters in Part 1 concern the dis
charge of a trust on which the reputation of the National Park Service as a
safe custodian of the nation’s heritage frequently depends. In a real sense
all museums hold their collections in trust. The public may rightly judge
them by the way museum staff members select, preserve and use the objects
in their care. A collection is well managed when the specimens are:
—chosen purposefully
—readily available for study
—properly preserved
—accompanied by adequately organized information about them
—used to their potential in the museum’s program.
These conditions define the curatorial task.
Museums are a distinctive kind of institution. They have developed in
response to certain enduring needs of civilized communities. The charac
teristics and functions common to all museums fit them to meet these needs
effectively. A museum is, according to the definition adopted as a basis for
accreditation by the American Association of Museums, “. . . an organized
and permanent non-profit institution, essentially educational or aesthetic in
purpose, with professional staff, which owns and utilizes tangible objects,
cares for them, and exhibits them to the public on some regular schedule.”
Reflection on each point of this statement will reveal the underlying nature
of museums. Another useful definition proposed in 1895 by George Brown
Goode also deserves close study. He said a museum is “. . . an institution
for the preservation of those objects which best illustrate the phenomena of
nature and the works of man, and the utilization of these for the increase of
knowledge and for the culture and enlightenment of the people.” Museum
work is a commitment to public service of a demanding and rewarding
sort.
A museum needs a valid purpose to justify its existence, and the public
has a right to know what that purpose is. Every museum should therefore
2
define specific needs in its community that it aims to meet by the exercise
of those functions that make it a museum. A basic guideline, which can be
adapted to other situations, determines when and why a national park
should have a museum: Museums shall be developed, maintained and
operated in areas administered by the National Park Service when they are
required for the preservation of original objects important to the parks or
are needed in the interpretation of the parks. By definition a museum has a
collection of objects to foster and use. These specimens are important for
interpretation, study or documentation. Otherwise they should not be in the
collection. Many of them are valuable in terms of money, some are ir
replaceable. All of them are subject to deterioration or loss from numerous
destructive agencies. So, collections require continual protection and
knowledgeable care.
3
Chapter 1 What_ to Acquire
Authority for national parks to collect museum objects derives princi

pally from three laws. The Act establishing the National Park Service
(1916) does not mention museums, but includes in its statement of pur
pose both the conservation of natural and historic objects, and their en
joyment. Museums are the special institutions devised by society to collect,
preserve, study and interpret such objects when they cannot be safely left in
place. The Historic Sites Act of 1935 does state that the Service shall “. . .
where deemed desirable establish and maintain museums . . .” in connec
tion with historic or prehistoric sites of national significance. An Act of
1955 to facilitate the management of museum properties by the National
Park Service specifies the authority of the Secretary of the Interior to
accept donations, purchase museum specimens with donated funds, ex
change specimens, accept loans and pay necessary transportation costs
involved, and lend specimens. The full text of this law is given in Appendix
A. The authority to acquire or decline, and borrow or lend museum objects
rests by delegation with park superintendents, limited only in a few cases
involving gifts valued above specified amounts. (See Appendix A also for
legal restrictions on acquiring specimens involving endangered or threat
ened species of animals and plants.) This gives superintendents more re
sponsibility in what to acquire or relinquish than many museum directors
who must clear accessions with their Boards of Trustees.
Scope of Collections
The National Park Service gives a superintendent permission and en

couragement to acquire museum objects by field collecting, gift, loan, ex
change or purchase, in accordance with established procedures, when these
objects are clearly significant to the park. This is his basic guideline. He
and his stall have the opportunity and incentive to develop and refine the
museum collections to maximum utility and value. The guideline assumes
4
that park museums will actively collect and preserve those specimens which
really contribute to the understanding and interpretation of the parks, and
which cannot do so if left where they are. The successful application of this
policy requires that the day-to-day decisions on what specimens to acquire
and which to reject or eliminate be wise and well-planned. Therefore, each
park museum needs a clear definition of the proper scope of its collections.
Other museums share this need.
By carefully defining the scope of collections a museum promotes sound
growth while guarding against the very real danger of random expansion.
The definition sets limits to the collections. It specifies the place, time and
subject to which the collections must relate, and also considers the use to
which they will be put. The specimens must truly represent or interpret a
certain geographical area. For a park museum this is usually the park, but
sometimes a larger specific territory is justified. Other museums may set the
boundaries of their interest within a county or other political unit, an
ecological or physiographic area, or even be worldwide in scope depending
on the museum’s stated purpose in each case. The specimens must also
date from, or specifically relate to, the time span the museum seeks to
interpret or preserve. They must clearly pertain to those facets of history or
prehistory, or those natural conditions, processes or events which comprise
the significant aspects of the museum’s field of interest. The collections
must reflect the balance of values in this subject field, neither ignoring nor
overemphasizing secondary aspects. The collections must relate to the
capabilities of the museum for their preservation, and to their potential use
for research, documentation and interpretation.
The scope of collections definition also sets goals. Within the limits of
pertinence and practicality, the goals call for building up thoroughly repre
sentative collections marked by authenticity and quality. In a park museum
the collections shall preserve those features of the park which cannot safely
be left in place. They shall establish and record information needed in the
development, protection and interpretation of the park. They shall serve
the genuine study and reference needs of the staff and visitors. They shall
represent all the fields necessary to accomplish the purposes of the museum.
The museum should revise the scope of collections definition whenever
changed conditions clearly alter needs and purposes. See Appendix B for
examples of scope of collection statements developed for three park
museums.
Guidelines follow to help formulate and apply a scope of collections
statement. They employ the traditional concept of two series of specimens:
one for exhibition and the other for study. This is because somewhat
different guidelines are used in acquiring objects primarily intended for one
or the other function. However, the same specimen often serves both for
exhibition and study, either at once or at different times. So the division is
not a rigid one.
5
6 Manual for Museums
Exhibit Series
The exhibit specimens comprise those needed to illustrate and interpret

the museum’s theme by means of display. Throughout the interpretive
planning process all who help prepare or review the plans should consider
every kind of material object associated with the ideas to be communi
cated. Some objects will relate so closely to the key aspects or events of the
story that they contribute strongly to a better understanding or apprecia
tion. Such specimens in park museums include dinosaur fossils at Dinosaur
National Monument, catlinite pipes at Pipestone National Monument, and
the Liberty Bell at Independence National Historical Park. Other speci
mens will help clarify, vitalize, humanize, personalize or symbolize ele
ments of the story. Codfishing and shipbuilding artifacts at Salem Maritime
National Historic Site, or personal objects associated with President Wash
ington or members of his cabinet at Federal Hall National Memorial, can
add reality and interest to the interpretation.
The decision regarding what specimens will help tell the museum story
comes initially in the exhibit plan, or in the furnishing plan for an historic
structure. The plan specifies the objects to be displayed, thus creating a
“want list”. Objects not already in the collection may need to be acquired
promptly to meet construction schedules. So the exhibit plan want list may
omit some, perhaps many, objects which would help interpret the subject
but are not readily available. For these desirable but currently unobtain
able specimens, the museum needs a long-range want list. This should be
compiled at the time of exhibit planning and used in a continuing acquisi
tion program. Park museums can use a copy of the list in clearing house
operations, and should keep it up-to-date (see Clearing House Services,
Chapter 6). In preparing the long-range want list, review again all the
kinds of objects involved in the story. Be practical still, but this time do not
be bound rigidly by the display space presently available, or by the fact
that you know where such specimens are.
Every specimen acquired for the exhibit series has an educational or
communicative function. It should be the best available example of exactly
the right object to accomplish the interpretive purpose. The following
guidelines may help in selecting specimens for exhibition.
The object must be what it purports to be; it must be authentic (see
Identifying and Authenticating Specimens, Chapter 3). An original object
is almost always preferable to a facsimile. The exceptions are when ex
posure to light or other unavoidable display conditions would harm the
original, or when the original is unique or extremely rare and would be
better protected or be more useful elsewhere. The Star-Spangled Banner
has prime significance at Fort McHenry National Monument, and the
Wright Brothers’ first plane at Wright Brothers National Memorial,
the places where each made unforgettable history. Both are preserved, in the
What to Acquire 7
public interest, at the Smithsonian Institution where professional curators

and expert conservators can keep them under observation, and more mil
lions of visitors can see them. In most cases where the original is unavail
able, an example of the same kind of object is better than a copy. A
specimen actually from the site, or directly associated with the event or
person involved in the story, is more desirable than a similar item without
such association.
Exhibit specimens should be of high quality in terms of their particular
interpretive functions. This requires sound judgment in choosing and apply
ing the criteria appropriate to each situation. A mounted bird, for example,
should be of the proper plumage and the taxidermy should be as fine as
possible in form, posture and finish. For some situations, a cultural object
should be of the finest craftsmanship, for others it should be typical or
average. Some exhibits call for specimens to be in new condition. In this
case, an object should be just as it came from the maker, without scratches
or signs of wear, and with all working parts functional. Sometimes a mu
seum conservator or craftsman can restore a used object to look like new.
This is likely to be expensive, so he should be consulted before the speci
men is acquired. Often exhibits call for specimens in the condition of
everyday use. In such situations, be sure to instruct the staff specialist who
cleans and preserves the specimen to restore it so that it reflects the nature
of use and degree of maintenance provided by the original user. Occasion
ally exhibits use specimens in relic condition. The conservator needs to
know this fact when he applies necessary preservative treatment. The in
terpretive value of a museum depends directly on the quality of the speci
mens it exhibits.
Museums have the opportunity and responsibility to refine the exhibit
series. They not only need to search for and acquire the specimens on the
want list, but should actively replace existing specimens with better ones.
National Park Service museums do not exhibit live wild mammals or
birds in captivity, unless very unusual interpretive circumstances justify an
exception to general practice. Fishes and aquatic invertebrates may be
exhibited when they are significant to the park story. If interpretation
requires the exhibition of other live animals, show them in natural settings
rather than cages. Make the confinement devices as inconspicuous as
possible.
Study Series
The study series consists of the specimens not on display but required
for any of several other purposes. Some specimens need to be gathered and
preserved for research. Some provide permanent documentation of the
resources in the museum’s area of concern or of data used in research.
Manual for Museums
Some are for reference—to guide administrative decisions, to instruct the

interpretive or educational staff and other employees, to assist visiting
specialists, and to answer questions from the public. Some form a reserve
for future exhibition, for illustrating talks and for other interpretive uses.
Measure the value of such a study series by its utility, not by its size. To
make it useful the museum must follow an active, planned acquisition
program based on the scope of collections definition. Selective, purposeful
collecting is required to build up and round out the series, supplemented by
the careful elimination or replacement of inappropriate specimens to refine
it. A well-balanced collection fitted to the museum’s needs will not be
achieved by passively acquiring only what happens to be offered or, on the
other hand, by promiscuously gathering everything that can be obtained. In
a park the superintendent directs the program and the interpretive staff
carries it on, with assistance from other park employees and collaborators.
Under some circumstances, study specimens for research or documenta
tion may be preserved and used to better advantage in another museum.
This may be especially true for parks. Research workers may find a city or
university museum more accessible, better equipped for study purposes,
and with more comparative material in the collections. Take, for example,
a park’s study series of insects. Hundreds of species live in the park. They
form a vital part of the complex biological interrelationships which require
preservation. Thus the park needs to know about them, and this knowledge
can only come from thorough, well documented collections. However, the
staff may need to keep at hand, as specimens for ready reference, only
those insects which are conspicuous enough to excite visitor questions or
which create management problems. All the rest might be more useful in
the entomological collections of a nearby university museum. Obviously,
this arrangement would save curatorial time and money for the park. All
concerned would benefit whether the specimens were on loan from the park
or were collected under permit and belonged to the outside museum. None
theless, the park should maintain an active card file showing what and
where these materials are.
If a park adopts the idea that specimens collected there but preserved in
another museum can actually function as part of its study series, it must
use good judgment to decide what belongs at the park and where the rest
will serve satisfactorily. The interpreters will know what specimens they
want for reference use by the staff and visitors, and resource studies spe
cialists can advise on the collections needed at the park for research and
record. All other specimens within the defined scope of the collections
might be sufliciently useful to the park if preserved elsewhere. But where?
Will they be near enough for the interpreters to consult, and keep an
unofficial eye on their maintenance? Does the institution have professional
curators and adequate facilities to care for them? Can the park borrow
specimens for temporary use or reclaim loaned material readily when
What to Acquire 9
needed? Will the institution supply lists and scientific data concerning spec
imens from the park? Will scholars find the collections convenient to use?
In most instances the safest choice will be one or more well established
museums relatively near the park. With such considerations in mind, the
superintendent encourages and guides the completion of the study series by
the staff and by specialists from outside the Service operating under collect
ing permits. He checks to see that these supplementary collections continue
to be preserved and available. He makes sure that the park knows where
these collections are and what they contain.
The national parks comprise three general categories: natural parks
where the primary values are scenic and scientific, historical parks prin
cipally concerned with human history or prehistory, and recreational parks
which emphasize management of resources for outdoor recreation. The
following specific guidelines for study collections in each type of park have
some relevance to other museums, particularly those concerned with natu
ral history or history.
1. Natural Areas
The ultimate goal is a collection which will completely represent, by

authoritatively and fully identified catalogued specimens, the plant and
animal life, and the rocks, minerals and fossils, that occur within the park.
Justification for such a natural history collection is that sound research,
accurate interpretation and, in many instances, wise management depend
on it. The collection should aim at completeness, not only taxonomically,
but also in the significant ecological, biological and geological aspects.
Each park determines, on the basis of its present and foreseeable needs,
how much of the total collection should be maintained in the park mu
seum. Frequently the park will want:
—well prepared study skins and skulls of an adult male, adult female,
and an immature specimen of each species of mammal found in the
park, and similar series of well made study skins of birds, along with
an example of any noticeably difierent seasonal or ecological variation.
—corresponding representation of the other vertebrate species, preserved
in liquid as a rule.
—good specimens showing the sexual and developmental forms of those
invertebrate species which require interpretation or control.
—specimens forming an inventory of the principal invertebrate families
in the park.
—well mounted herbarium specimens of each species of seed plant. Both
flowers and fruits should be represented, as well as important variations.
—specimens of the ferns, fern allies and conspicuous thallophytes (fungi,
and algae).
—characteristic hand specimens of each rock formation, and additional

specimens illustrating any significant geological factors or events.
—samples of any mineral deposits.
—the species of macroscopic fossils found in the park.
Local circumstances will justify variations in this pattern.
It is established policy that all “type specimens” collected in a national
park be deposited in the National Museum of Natural History.
Game heads and similar hunting trophies are not proper material for the
study series unless they are authentically related to the park, and represent
species no longer found there, or have significant historical association with
the park.
Historical and anthropological study series in natural areas are limited
to those specimens which contribute directly to the preservation, interpreta
tion or management of secondary park values clearly identified in the
Master Plan. Within these limitations, follow the guidelines for historical
areas.
2. Historical Areas
The goal is to collect and preserve those man-made or natural objects

which were significantly associated with the human activities commem
orated by the park. These activities may be historic in the usual sense,
ethnological or prehistoric. They may involve events, particular persons
and ways of life. They comprise the park story and, of course, are basic to
the scope of collections definition. Significant association implies that the
objects were used in important aspects of the activity, were linked by use or
ownership to important participants, or make important contributions to
our knowledge of the story.
How do artifacts contribute to historical knowledge? Some specimens
provide information not available from written records. While this is true
of archeological material in particular, other objects also may reveal new
facts. Such specimens are essential documents for research, and as records.
Some objects verify statements in the written record. These specimens have
value both for recording history and for reference use. Historical objects
also increase and deepen our understanding by giving more concrete and
detailed meaning to parts of the verbal record. They thus become valuable
as reference material for staff and visitors. The study series should contain
a good example of each kind of object which meets the tests of significant
association. If the object actually used in connection with the park story
cannot be obtained, another of the same kind should be substituted.
Search for the specimens that are significantly associated with the park
story. Waiting for people to bring items in is too haphazard a method of
creating a fine collection. When someone does offer a specimen, however,
What to Acquire 11
determine whether or not it fits the museum’s needs. If it represents a

significant association, does not duplicate material already in the collec
tion, is in satisfactory condition and can be acquired without restrictions,
accept the specimen. If there is any doubt concerning any of these factors,
or of the identification or authenticity of the object, decision to accept
should be delayed. The owner may be willing to allow the museum to hold
it on approval, or may agree to retain the specimen and keep his offer
open. The museum can then get expert help to decide whether or not it is
worth acquiring. A good rule of thumb in such cases is to accept only
objects you would be willing to buy. Sometimes the museum is offered
specimens of historic value which are not appropriate to the park. Find out
before accepting or rejecting them if another park needs them. If not, the
Service has a standing agreement with the Smithsonian Institution to let the
appropriate national museum know that the specimens are available. Send
this information promptly through channels.
If specimens preserved in the collections of other museums adequately
serve the research, documentation or reference needs of the park, examples
of the same kinds should not be required in the study series maintained at
the park. Make sure, however, that the objects of concern in the other
museums are safely kept and properly documented. Do not take this for
granted in some local museums. Make sure, also, that the specimens are
where the park can benefit from them. In many cases it will be found that
historical materials pertinent to the park are not concentrated in a single
museum, but scattered in numerous collections. These situations affect the
degree to which you can depend on help from outside museums in reducing
the requirements of the study series the park maintains. Continual close
liaison with the museums concerned is needed.
The historical parks include several groups in which the individual areas
commemorate separate aspects of the same general theme. The Civil War
battlefields are one example, the Oregon Trail sites another. The parks in
such a group can increase the overall value of their study collections by
judicious mutual specialization. If one battlefield assembles a definitive
series of Civil War swords, another of artillery projectiles, a third of medi
cal and surgical materials, each has a unit of scholarly importance without
wasteful competition among the parks for specimens, and without seriously
weakening the general study series. Such cooperative specialization could
strengthen other museums as well.
Manuscripts and historic photographs are especially important for an
historical study series when they clearly relate to the park story. Large
collections of manuscripts and photographs, however, require special facili
ties and stalling for their preservation and proper use. These provisions are
beyond the proper functions of the National Park Service. Therefore, ex
tensive manuscript and photographic collections will normally be deposited
in archives or libraries outside the park. These, or any other collections
that require facilities the museum cannot presently provide, should not be
acquired without consulting the regional director.
The large quantities of artifacts excavated during archeological investi
gations require special acquisition and storage procedures. The archeolo
gist often keeps all the specimens from the excavation until the completed
studies on the project have been published or circulated for review as an
official report. He then retains all the specimens for an additional waiting
period of 12 to 18 months to allow normal consideration of his work by
other professional archeologists, historians or curators. During this time,
the archeologist ordinarily holds the collection in his laboratory, but he
may deposit it in the museum. If he does the latter, see Exceptions to
Standard Procedures, Chapter 8. The museum accessions the whole collec
tion and places it in safekeeping. The outstanding specimens which are
obviously of such caliber that they should be in the exhibit or study series
are catalogued promptly and filed in the museum collections for extra
protection. The rest of the material is held in a temporary uncatalogued
status as a field collection waiting to be culled. As soon as possible after
the post-report interval, whether the archeologist has retained the collec
tion or deposited it in the museum, an expert or team of experts should sort
the specimens into three categories:
a. Material to be kept as part of the permanent collection. This com
prises the specimens of exhibit quality, specimens of scientific significance
including any objects illustrated or specifically referred to in the report,
examples typical of bulk material, and specimens needed for comparative
purposes. Objects in this group become part of the exhibit or study series in
the museum. A park may place them, to the extent desirable, in other
designated museums through loan or exchange procedures.
b. Material saved for possible restudy. This is largely bulk duplication of
common specimens: in historical archeology such items as nails or defini
tive sections of bottles, and in Amerindian archeology such material as
potsherds or definitive stonework specimens. These objects have been stud
ied as far as present techniques or circumstances warrant, but might yield
valuable information when archeologists develop new analytical methods
or raise fresh questions. The specimens in this group are not unique. The
museum has acquired, in the preceding group, one or more catalogued
examples of each kind. These duplicate specimens, properly identified by
their field numbers, should be packed in sealed containers. The outside of
the container should carry a label stating the contents, the archeological
site data, and the catalogue numbers of the specimens representing this
material in the museum collection. Store the containers in a safe, reason
ably accessible place, but not with the museum study series. Enter this
group in the museum accession record, if not previously accessioned. Also
note on the catalogue form how many duplicates have been saved for each
representative specimen, and where stored.
What to Acquire 13
c. Waste material. The material that remains has served its purpose in
the investigation. The experts can conceive for it no further scholarly or
interpretive use. It consists largely of additional duplicates of very common
recovered objects. The archeologist disposes of it in a manner that will
avoid creating future problems. Amerindian material may be packed in
heavy polyethylene bags, for example, and reburied. The archeologist picks
a place with similar soil conditions and keeps the material from different
excavations separate. He marks the site and records it on the archeological
base map. It may be wiser to destroy some excess historical material
altogether. If the objects in this group were accessioned as part of the total
collection from the archeological project, deaccession them by noting the
amount and nature of the discarded material under the original entry.
Record the kind, quantity, manner and place of disposal in the accession
folder.
In dealing with specimens excavated under an Antiquities Act permit
follow the regulations established by law (see Appendix A).
The study series for an historical area may need specimens of the plants
and animals involved in restoring and preserving the historic environment,
in addition to natural objects related to the park story. The park may also
have secondary values in its natural features which require specimens in
the collection for reference or record.
3. Recreation Areas
The objective is to acquire and preserve those study specimens actually

needed in the management and interpretation of the area. The scope of
collections definition must clearly state the local requirements, which may
vary considerably from one area to another. In many cases it will recognize
two principal functions of the study series. The recreational uses of the
land and its resources may necessitate intensive management of the envi
ronment in order to preserve the condition desired. If so, specimens of the
plant and animal species involved will be needed for research and record.
Specialists studying the resources should be consulted on the size and scope
of the research collections required. They can also advise on the need for
research specimens of the soils or rocks included in the environment. These
areas often provide interpretation as a recreational activity. To the extent
that interpretation is an important element, the park needs reference collec
tions as a basis for the natural history or historical subject matter presented.
The interpretive staff needs study specimens of the conspicuous plants
and animals for reference purposes. Beachcombing and other popular
recreational activities involving nature study may tend to increase public
use of the reference series. If the recreation area includes historic or arche
ological features, specimens will have to be placed in the study collections
for preservation, as well as for study. With a good scope of collections
definition to set the limits, the park may safely adopt the guidelines given
above for natural and historical areas. A recreation area, like parks in the
other categories, may also consider collections in well established museums
outside the park as part of its study series, to the extent that they really
function as such.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Directors and curators of small museums in particular must rely on the litera
ture of museum work for guidance. To develop or maintain competence in
deciding questions such as this chapter raises, responsible museum officials will
read the professional journals regularly. These include:
Curator, quarterly, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West
at 79th Street, New York 10024.
History News, monthly, American Association for State and Local History,
1400 Eighth Avenue South, Nashville 37203.
Museum, quarterly, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi
zation, 7 Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris (U. S. distributor: Unesco Publi
cations Center, P. O. Box 433, New York 10016).
Museum News, monthly, September-June, American Association of Museums,
2233 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W., Washington 20007 (to be bimonthly).
Museums Journal, quarterly, Museums Association, 87 Charlotte Street, London
W1P 2BX.
The basic manuals also provide essential background. They include:

Guthe, Carl E. The Management of Small History Museums. 2nd ed. Nashville.
American Association for State and Local History, 1964.
. So You Want a Good Museum? Washington. American Association of
Museums, 1957 (repr. 1973).
MacBeath, George, and S. James Gooding, eds. Basic Museum Management.
Ottawa. Canadian Museums Association, 1969.
Unesco. The Organization of Museums: Practical Advice. Museums and Monu
ments—-IX. Paris. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or
ganization, 1960.
The following list of selected books and articles should give readers a solid
introduction to developing thought in museology:
Allan, Douglas A., et al. Administration. Handbook for Museum Curators Al.
London. Museums Association, 1960.
American Association of Museums. “Code of Ethics for Museum Workers,”
Museum News, 52:9 (June 1974), pp. 26-28 (repr. of 1925 code).
Barzun, Jacques. “Museum Piece, l967," Museum News, 46:8 (April 1968),
. 17-21. The Museum Age. New York. Universe Books, 1967.
BazinI:PGermain.
Burcaw, G. Ellis. Introduction to Museum Work. Nashville. American Associa

tion for State and Local History, 1975.
Burns, Ned J. Field Manual for Museums. Washington. Government Printing
Oflice, 1941.
What to Acquire 15
Cameron, Duncan F. “The Museum, a Temple or the Forum,” Curator, XIV:

1 (1971), pp. 11-24.
, ed. Are Art Galleries Obsolete? Toronto. Peter Martin Associates, 1969.
Colbert, Edwin H. “What is a Museum?” Curator, IV:2 (1961), pp. 138-146.
Coleman, Laurence Vail. Manual for Small Museums. New York. G. P. Put
nam’s Sons, 1927.
. The Museum in America: A Critical Study. Washington. American
Association of Museums, 1939 (repr. Washington. Museum Publications,
1970).
Douglas, R. Alan. “Museum Ethics: Practice and Policy,” Museum News, 45:5
(January 1967), pp. 18-21.
Elliott, James, et al. Museums: Their New Audience. Washington. American
Association of Museums, 1972.
Fitzgerald, Marilyn Hicks. Museum Accreditation: Professional Standards.
Washington. American Association of Museums, 1973.
Fleming, John R. America's Museums: The Belmont Report. Washington.
American Association of Museums, 1969.
Frese, H. H. Anthropology and the Public: The Role of Museums. Leiden,
Holland. E. J. Brill, 1960.
Harvey, Emily Dennis, and Bernard Friedberg, eds. A Museum for the People.
New York. Arno Press (hard cover). Cambridge. Acanthus Press, 1971.
Hellman, Geoffrey. Bankers, Bones & Beetles: The First Century of the Ameri
can Museum of Natural History. Garden City. The Natural History Press,
1968.
Key, Archie F. Beyond Four Walls: The Origins and Development of Canadian
Museums. Toronto. McClelland and Stewart, 1973.
Low, Theodore L. The Museum as a Social Instrument. New York. Metropoli
tan Museum of Art, 1942.
Neustupny, Jire. “What is Museology?” Museums Journal, 71:2 (September
1971), pp. 67-68.
Noble, Joseph Veach. “Museum Manifesto.” Museum News, 48:8 (April 1970),
pp. 17-20.
O’Doherty, Brian. Museums in Crisis. New York. George Braziller, 1972.
Outhwaite, Leonard. Museums and the Future. New York. Institute of Public
Administration, 1967.
Parker, Arthur C. A Manual for History Museums. New York. Columbia Uni
versity Press, 1935.
Parr, Albert E. Mostly About Museums. New York. American Museum of
Natural History, 1959.
Rainey, Froelich. “The New Museum,” The University Museum Bulletin, 19:3
(September 1955), pp. 2-53 (University of Pennsylvania).
Richardson, Edgar P. “The Museum in America 1963,” Museum News, 42:1
(September 1963), pp. 20-28.
Ripley, S. Dillon. The Sacred Grove. Essays on Museums. New York. Simon
and Schuster, 1969.
Southeastern Museums Conference. “Standards for Museum Practices,” Mu
seum News, 38:1 (September 1959), pp. 43-47.
Tomkins, Calvin. Merchants and Masterpieces: The Story of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art. New York. E. P. Dutton & Co., 1970.
Turner, Evan H., et al. Professional Practices in Art Museums. New York.
Association of Art Museum Directors, 1971 (repr. in Museum News, 51 :2,
October 1972, pp. 15-20).
Washburn, Wilcomb E., et al. “Three Schools of Thought,” Museum News,

40:2 (October 1961), pp. 16-29.
Whitehill, Walter Muir. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston: A Centennial History.
Cambridge. Harvard University Press, 1970.
, ed. A Cabinet of Curiosities: Five Episodes in the Evolution of Ameri
can Museums. Charlottesville. University Press of Virginia, 1967.
Wittlin, Alma S. Museums: In Search of a Usable Future. Cambridge and
London. MIT Press, 1970.
A number of the references cited contain useful bibliographies leading deeper

into the literature. Among other sources offering valuable guidance in this
direction are:
American Association of Museums. Index to Publications of the American
Association of Museums. Publications. New series 2. Washington. AAM,
1927.
. “Index to Special Articles: Volumes l to 30," Museum News, 30:20
(April 15, 1953), Supplement, 19 pp.
American Museum of Natural History. “Cumulative Index, Volume I-XV,”
Curator, XV:4 (1972), pp. 261-340.
Borhegyi, Stephan F. de, and Elba A. Dodson. A Bibliography of Museums and
Museum Work, 1900-1960. Publications in Museology l. Milwaukee.
Milwaukee Public Museum, 1960.
, and Irene A. Hanson. Bibliography of Museums and Museum Work,
1900-61, Supplementary Volume. Publications in Museology 2. Milwau
kee. Milwaukee Public Museum, 1961.
International Council of Museums, “Bibliography of Basic Museographical
Literature,” ICOM News, 22:2 (June 1969), pp. 29-36.
. International Museological Bibliography for the Year I967 (and suc
ceeding years). Supplements to ICOM News. Prague. Office of Museology.
Majewski, Lawrence J. “Every Museum Library Should Have . . . ,” Museum
News, 52:3 (November 1973), pp. 27-30.
Midland Federation of Museums and Art Galleries. Technical Index to the
Museums Journal, I930-I955. Nottingham. W. H. Knapp, 1957.
———. Technical Index to the Museums Journal, 1956-1966. Nottingham.
W. H. Knapp, 1968.
Rath, Frederick L., Jr., and Merrilyn Rogers O‘Connell. Guide to Historic Pre
servation, Historical Agencies, and Museum Practices: A Selective Bibliog
raphy. Cooperstown. New York State Historical Association, 1970.
Ritterbush, Philip C. Museums and Media: A Basic Reference Shelf. Stanford.
ERIC Clearinghouse, Stanford University, 1970 (microfiche).
Smith, Ralph Clifton. A Bibliography of Museums and Museum Work.
Stansfield, G. Sources of Museological Literature. Information Sheet 9. London.
Museums Association, 197 l.
In addition, ICOM News (International Council of Museums, Maison de

l’UNESCO, l rue Miollis, 75015 Paris.), Museum News and Museums Journal
regularly review or note new books or pamphlets of museum interest.
The following references apply more specifically to museum accession
policies:
American Museum of Natural History. “Science Policy Report,” Curator, XIV:4
(1971), pp. 235-240.
What to Acquire 17
Bavin, Clark R., and Alan Levitt. “A Hank of Hair and a Bag of Bones,”
Museum News, 52:8 (May 1974), pp. 39-41.
Boston, D. M. “Purpose and Discrimination in Acquisition,” Museums Journal,
69:3 (December 1969), pp. 110-113.
Cohen, Daniel M., and Roger F. Cressey, eds. “Natural History Collections,
Past-Present-Future,” Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington,
82 (1969), pp. 559-762.
Faul, Roberta, ed. “Cool Thoughts on a Hot Issue,” Museum News, 51 :9 (May
1973), pp. 21-49, 52:1 (September 1973), pp. 232-235.
Fleming, E. McClung. “Early American Decorative Arts as Social Documents,”
Mississippi Valley Historical Review, XLV:2 (September 1958), pp.
276-284.
Ford, W. K. “Reference Collections in Museums,” Museums Journal, 60:6
(September 1960), pp. 146-149.
Halls, Zillah, “Costume in the Museum,” Museums Journal, 67:4 (March
1968), pp. 297-303.
Harrison, Richard. “The Need for a Collecting Policy,” Museums Journal,
69:3 (December 1969), pp. 113-115.
Harvard University News Oflice. “Harvard University Approves Policy Govern
ing Acquisition of Art Objects from Foreign Countries,” Curator, XIV:2
(1971), pp. 83-87.
Hindle, Brooke. “Museum Treatment of Industrialization: History, Problems,
Opportunities,” Curator, XV:3 (1972), pp. 206-219.
Holmes, Martin. Personalia. Handbook for Museum Curators C8. London.
Museums Association, 1957.
International Council of Museums. “Icom International Committee for Museums
of Ethnography,” ICOM News, 26:1 (Spring 1973), pp. 40-41.
. “Ethics of Acquisitions,” ICOM News, 26:2 (Summer 1973), pp. 77-80.
Irwin, Howard S., et al. America’s Systematics Collections: A National Plan.
Lawrence. Association of Systematics Collections, 1973.
Kramer, Eugene F. “Collecting Historical Artifacts: an Aid for Small Mu
seums,” American Association for State and Local History Technical
Leaflet 6, History News, 25:8 (August 1970).
Lindsay, G. Carroll. “Museums and Research in History and Technology,”
Curator, V:3 (1962), pp. 236-244.
Lowther, G. R. “Perspective and Historical Museums,” Museums Journal,
58:10 (January 1959), pp. 224-228.
Mason, Brian. “Mineralogy and the Museum,” Curator, V:4 (1962), pp.
387-395.
Mayr, Ernst, and Richard Goodwin. Biological Materials, Part I. Preserved Ma
terials and Museum Collections. Publication 399. Washington. National
Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, n.d. '
Meyer, Karl E. The Plundered Past. New York. Atheneum Press, 1973.
Nason, James D., et al. “Finders Keepers?” Museum News, 51 :7 (March 1973),
. 20-26.
Nichclilgon, Thomas D. “NYSAM Policy on the Acquisition and Disposition of
Collection Materials,” Curator, 17:1 (1974), pp. 5-9.
Noble, Joseph Veach, et al. “Report of the AAM Special Policy Committee,”
Rodeck, Hugo G. “Private Collections Policy in Institutions,” Curator, VII:1
(1964), pp. 7-13.
Russell, Loris S. “Problems and Potentials of the History Museum,” Curator,
VI:4 (1963), PP. 341-349.
Squires, Donald F. “Schizophrenia: The Plight of the Natural History Curator,”

Museum News, 48:7 (March 1969), pp. 18-21.
Ullberg, Alan D., and Patricia Ullberg. “A Proposed Curatorial Code of Ethics,”
Veillard, Jean-Ives. “The Problem of the History Museum from an Experiment
in the Musée de Bretagne, Rennes,” Museum, XXIV:4 (1972), pp.
193-203.
Wald, Palmer B. “In the Public Interest,” Museum News, 52:9 (June 1974),
pp. 30-32.
Zelle, Ann. “Acquisitions: Serving Whose Heritage?” Museum News, 49:8
(April 1971), pp. 19-26.
——-. “ICOM Ethics of Acquisitions: A Report to the Profession,” Museum
News, 50:8 (April 1972), pp. 31-33.
Chapter 2 How to Acquire
When a museum decides what objects it needs, accession policy should

permit and encourage their acquisition. This chapter discusses the several
procedures by which specimens are obtained, and suggests safeguards in
their application.
Field Collecting
The best method of acquiring museum specimens for scholarly purposes
often is field collecting. A qualified staff member or a visiting specialist
goes out into the field and gathers the things he needs. With each specimen
he obtains the full, exact data that should accompany it. Plants and ani
mals, rocks and minerals, fossils, archeological artifacts both prehistoric
and historic, ethnological specimens and historical material still in use or
that may be found in abandoned buildings, constitute the principal kinds of
specimens obtained by field collecting. The recorded speech of native or
oldtime inhabitants, and photographic records of their activities, may also
be collected in the field.
To protect the resources entrusted to it, the National Park Service re
quires that employees, as well as visiting specialists, obtain a permit before
collecting specimens in a park. The superintendent issues collecting permits
for plants, animals, rocks and minerals in accordance with regulations.
Ordinarily he includes rocks containing common invertebrate fossils under
these regulations.
The Secretary of the Interior issues permits for collecting archeological
specimens and fossils under the Antiquities Act (see Appendix A). This
applies to both historical and prehistoric artifacts, but paleontological per
mits are usually for vertebrate fossils. For most archeological and pale
ontological field work in the parks, however, the Service specifically assigns
fully trained and experienced staff archeologists or paleontologists who,
since they are working on approved resource studies projects, do not re
quire additional Secretarial permission. Collecting permits issued by the
Service do not obviate the need for permits or licenses required by other
agencies.
19
The permits issued to visiting specialists also help the superintendent

guide the development of the study series. Each permit specifies where the
collected material will be preserved. The superintendent may request that
certain specimens be added to the park museum to fill gaps in the reference
collections. He may direct other specimens toward the particular outside
museums where they will most effectively supplement the collections held
in the park. In issuing permits, the superintendent can also control the
quality of the resulting specimens by making sure that the collectors are
competent. Field collecting requires specialized technical skills as well as
knowledge. The permittee needs to know what to collect and how to collect
it. He must know what information to record about the specimen itself,
where and when he found it, and significant related factors. He must be
able to prepare it skillfully for study and permanent preservation.
The protection of park resources requires that field collectors, as a rule,
do not collect particularly rare plants or animals in a park.
Related to field collecting, but random rather than purposive, are casual
surface finds and animals killed by automobiles along roads. To deal with
these efiiciently, a museum needs well publicized procedures that will en
courage prompt reporting, and a decision to keep or discard them. Much of
the value of such specimens is lost unless you know exactly where and
when they were found. Thus, standing instructions should assist the finder
to notify the museum without delay. The museum, in turn, should be ready
to decide whether or not to save the specimen reported. If it is to be saved,
the museum should help the finder arrange for its care and delivery, and
give any necessary instructions for its interim preservation. Construction
crews that may encounter archeological or paleontological material should
be informed on how and why to report it immediately.
Purchasing
Often the best way to get specimens for the exhibit series is to buy them.
When you purchase a museum object, you can be sure it is what you want
and in the condition you want it. You acquire it without any obligation to
the previous owner. For park museums the money to buy specimens usu
ally comes from the appropriated project funds for constructing museum
exhibits, or for restoring and refurnishing historic structures. In special
circumstances, specimen purchases may be charged to exhibit rehabilita
tion or visitor services accounts. Cooperating associations and similar
organizations of museum or park supporters commonly provide funds to
purchase needed objects, thus fulfilling one of their prime functions. Do
nated funds may come from other sources as well. Sometimes prospective
donors can be persuaded to give purchase funds instead of a specimen. The
How to Acquire 21
museum can buy exactly the specimen needed and avoid possible later
misunderstandings about the use of the object.
In most instances when buying museum specimens, arrange to obtain an
object on approval so an expert check can be made on its authenticity and
condition before the purchase is completed. Then, if a park museum de
cides to acquire it, the procurement officer will issue a regular purchase
order. If he finds or anticipates that the seller will have difficulty submitting
his bill in proper form, the procurement officer can prepare the bill on blank
paper and send it with the purchase order. Then the seller need only sign
and return the papers. Occasionally, a small dealer or private collector will
balk at even this much red tape. In such cases the procurement officer has,
or can obtain, authority to use a standard Purchase Order-Invoice-Voucher.
This form, signed in advance by the authorized official, can also be used
when making purchases at auction. Any seller not familiar with the mu
seum’s purchasing procedures deserves a clear explanation of how and
when he will be paid.
In purchasing specimens, there is the problem of making sure that the
museum gets its money’s worth. Caveat emptor! The dealer may ask as
much as he can get because specimens often have no firm market price.
Such factors as condition, association, collecting fads and his own ability to
document the object may greatly affect the asking price. It is up to the
museum to determine how much it rightfully should pay. It needs to con
sider how much knowledgeable collectors are currently paying for com
parable material if possible, what it would cost (for example in staff salaries
and travel expenses) to search for another similar specimen at a lower
price, and what value to allow for condition, association, rarity and per
haps other special factors. Such data are the basis of sound judgment.
The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (87 Stat. 884) and regulations
issued under it restrict the acquisition of specimens containing any part of
endangered or threatened plant or animal species. An earlier law prohibits
purchasing bald or golden eagle specimens or objects containing their
feathers, claws and other parts (see Appendix A).
Gifts
Acquiring a needed specimen by gift saves museum funds and often

promotes good relations as well. Dangers may counterbalance these ob
vious advantages, however. It is so much easier to accept an offer than
decline it that you may be tempted to take an object the museum does not
need. The desire not to disappoint and the fact that it is free may color
one’s judgment. Does the specimen really fall within the defined scope of
the collection? Does the museum have a clear responsibility for its preser
vation? Will it actually serve a useful purpose? If not, the cumulative costs
of its storage and care will waste more money than the object is worth.
Does the donor understand how the museum will use and acknowledge his
gift? If not, misconceptions may sour his goodwill.
A donation of a museum specimen is a legal transaction. No question
regarding conditions of transfer (if any) or ownership of the object should
remain. Legal title to the donated object must pass from the donor to the
museum just as title to a plot of land must be transferred when it is sold
from one person to another. This involves instruments which: (a) state the
donor’s offer without restriction, (b) accept the offer on behalf of the
museum and (c) acknowledge receipt of the object. Gifts for a park mu
seum should be made to the National Park Service rather than to an
individual park. The transaction may be documented adequately in most
cases with a single letter sent by the museum director or park super
intendent and countersigned by the donor, although lawyers for some mu
seums may recommend further proof of title.
A countersigned copy must be kept in the accession file. This letter
should contain the following elements:
1. The sincere thanks of the museum for the gift.
2. Acknowledgment that the specimen or collection has been received.
3. Statement of what is given, but with care not to confirm the donor’s
identification if any doubt exists (e.g. “the cane which your evidence indi
cates was carried by George Washington” rather than “George Washing
ton’s cane”).
4. Reminder that the value of the gift is deductible for income tax
purposes.
5. Request that the donor sign both copies of the letter and return one
in the enclosed self-addressed envelope.
6. Donor’s statement with space for signature and date. Park museums
use this one: “I hereby release to the National Park Service as an uncondi
tional gift the article( s) listed above.” A brief sample letter comprising all
these elements follows, but should not be used as a pattern for every
occasion:
How to Acquire 23
Mr. George A. Monroe

912 West Main Street
Queenston, MO 63599
Dear Mr. Monroe:

Your generous gift of a Springfield rifle musket, which family tradition re
ports that your great-grandfather carried in the Battle of Wilson’s Creek, has
been received. On behalf of the National Park Service I wish to acknowledge
and accept it. This gift will be a significant and welcome addition to our museum
collections.
In order to complete the gift, you are requested to countersign both copies of
this letter on the line marked “donor” below, retain the original for your own
records, and return the copy to us. A return self-addressed envelope is enclosed
for your convenience.
Gifts to the National Park Service are tax deductible as charitable contri
butions.
With deep appreciation of your kindness.
Sincerely yours,
Superintendent
I hereby release to the

National Park Service as an
unconditional gift the article
listed above
Donor Date
Enclosures 2
Your judgment of the individual circumstances will determine any addi

tional explanations that may be desirable. To forestall an embarrassing
misunderstanding, for instance, it might be pointed out in the letter that the
museum will have other important uses for the specimen beside exhibiting
it. Some museums (Edison National Historic Site, for example) enclose
with the letter an expert curatorial analysis. This would identify the object,
describe its condition upon receipt, and explain its significance in relation
to the collection. Whatever form the correspondence takes, it should be
characterized by sincerity and warmth.
After the countersigned copy of the acknowledgment is received, it is

good practice to send the donor a certificate as further expression of grati
tude. Park museums may use either of two certificates (fig. 1). They
choose the smaller certificate for ordinary gifts, and reserve the large one
for donations of outstanding value or importance.
Sometimes a donor fails to return the countersigned letter. When this
happens, go back to him and explain why you must have it on file. If he
still fails to provide a document that clearly shows he has transferred
ownership to the museum, your only safe recourse is to return the object to
him.
UNITE D STATE S
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NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

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Add /we.ou»‘col//zonz you
Cjjzeb;,Jafzizecl . 111'~‘Q dc‘/€)204'I)é(?9€&
at
._._.:ge@e_y5g~
Figure 1. Museum donor certificates used by the National Park Service.

a. Small form to acknowledge such donations as a single specimen of moderate value.
How to Acquire 25
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b. Large form for major gifts.

Prospective donors sometimes insist on conditions which limit the use of

their gift. Experience has demonstrated that restrictive gifts are so danger
ous to sound museum development that they should ordinarily be declined.
Rarely, the unique value of a specimen may warrant the acceptance of
certain conditions. For instance, an important portrait of General Bur
goyne may be worth accepting with the provision that it be retained at
Saratoga National Historical Park. On the other hand the same portrait
probably should be rejected if the park would be obligated to keep it on
exhibition. In considering such an offer, the museum may be sure that the
majority of restricted gifts accepted in the past have been regretted after
wards. To reject it courteously, point out that the museum subscribes to the
resolution unanimously adopted by the Council of the American Associa
tion of Museums in 1945:
Whereas, museums have commonly received collections through gifts and

bequests made with conditions requiring the material to be kept separate,
exhibited in one way or another for long terms of years or in perpetuity,
or otherwise specially administered; and
Whereas, museums have suffered greatly in their management and work
as a result of such restrictions; and
Whereas, limiting terms of gift and bequest are not consonant with the best
policies and aims of museums, but tend rather to warp or retard their
development and to inhibit change; so be it
Resolved that the American Association of Museums recommend to mu
seums that they accept no gifts or bequests of exhibition material upon
which any conditions are attached.
Often the donor can be persuaded to withdraw the condition limiting his
offer. He is likely to be reasonable as well as public-spirited. Perhaps he
wants his gift kept on display. Point out, for example, that a museum
values the specimens in its study series as highly as those on exhibit, cares
for them as faithfully, and uses them for fully as important purposes.
Explain that a museum forced to stagnate loses the vitality to preserve and
use its collections. Recall that, because none of us can foresee the future,
the museum needs to be free to use the gift in whatever ways will best serve
the public interest. Let the donor see that, in addition to his doing the
museum a favor, the museum undertakes a costly obligation to house,
preserve and use the specimen. In a sense donor and museum become
partners in devoting the gift to public service. If he offers a collection and
wants it kept as a unit, show him that the relations among similar speci
mens are vital to studying and exhibition. Unnatural groupings handicap
the museum and curtail the usefulness of the objects.
One condition a donor often wants is his name linked with the specimen
on display. Although many museums do this, the National Park Service
does not. In a park museum the Service acknowledges its gratitude to all
donors by listing them together on a plaque or in a book placed where
How to Acquire 27
visitors may see it. Two practical reasons support this policy. Putting do
nors’ names on specimen labels tends to diminish the effectiveness of an
exhibit. By lengthening the labels this practice discourages some visitors
from reading them. For people who do read the labels, the names divert
attention from the idea being interpreted and add little or nothing to an
understanding of the object. Use of donors’ names on the labels also may
create a reaction opposite to the one intended. Some visitors resent the
names in the exhibit, regarding them as an expression of status seeking, or
at least as an intrusion. This method, therefore, defeats to some extent its
purpose of eliciting a grateful feeling toward the donors. A dignified plaque
or donors book avoids both objections.
Loans
Museums ordinarily borrow specimens on their own initiative for either

of two purposes. One involves a short—term loan, the other a long period.
Frequently, a museum needs an object for temporary use. A research proj
ect may require a borrowed specimen for comparison with those in hand. A
special exhibition may include borrowed objects. Such brief loans are al
ways for a specific use and a predetermined period. The long-term loan
requested by the borrowing museum aims to fill a gap in the exhibit series.
The museum hopes to use the borrowed specimen until it can acquire a
similar one of its own.
In borrowing a specimen, the museum gives the lender a letter of receipt.
This letter expresses appreciation. It also must identify the object clearly,
but with special care not to confirm any questionable data of the lender’s.
It must state definitely the period of the loan. The letter should remind the
lender that, while you will assuredly care for his specimen as if it belonged
to the museum, responsibility cannot be assumed for any loss or damage.
Insurance arrangements, if any, should be mentioned in the letter. The
museum retains a copy of the letter of receipt in the accession file. When
the borrowed material is returned, record the fact carefully in the permanent
accession record. The museum concludes the transaction with a letter again
thanking the lender and stating the time and manner of the object’s return.
It is good practice to enclose a receipt to be signed by the lender and
returned in a self-addressed envelope as acknowledgment that he received
the material. Retain the signed receipt and a copy of the letter of thanks in
the accession file.
Lenders often expect the museum to insure their property while it is in
its care. If the owner requires in writing as a condition of a loan to a park
museum that the Service carry a specific amount of insurance, government
funds may be used for this purpose. Since the National Park Service may
not volunteer to insure borrowed objects and may not insure its own collec
tions, some lenders agree to extend their own existing policies to cover the
specimen “wall-to-wall”, from the time the specimen leaves their collection
until it returns. A park museum may also ask its cooperating association, or
some other friend of the park, to pay the cost of insurance under an all
risk, wall-to-wall policy. Other museums will find insurance problems help
fully discussed in references cited at the end of this chapter.
You should encounter few problems with loans in which your museum is
the active borrower. Be sure to return or renew them on time. This involves
keeping track of any changes in lenders’ addresses. Keep a list of expiration
dates, perhaps in conjunction with the museum records, and enter the ones
for the current year on a calendar. Record both the borrowing and return
fully and promptly. Negotiate indefinite loans, and generally all long-term
loans, only with other well established museums. Regulations often prevent
museums giving, trading or selling their surplus specimens. These institu
tions can lend an object for permanent use without specifying any date for
its return. Good management in some instances leads them to require
periodic renewal. In either case, dealing with other museums largely avoids
situations in which a lender or his heirs unexpectedly require you to return
the object.
Problems occur most frequently with unsolicited loans from individuals.
People offer to lend objects to museums for a variety of reasons. When the
motive is truly public-spirited, and the specimens will benefit the museum,
such a loan may be accepted safely, if both parties clearly understand the
conditions and the date of return or renewal. Too often, however, the
lender hopes to obtain free storage, personal prestige or increased market
value for the object. Avoid these loans because the owner will want his
specimen back whenever it suits his personal interests. If there are speci
mens on indefinite loan from any source except an established museum,
take steps to change the status of the material. You may be able to convert
the loan to a gift. If not, set a definite expiration or renewal date, or at least
get a written agreement that the lender or his heirs will notify the museum
a specified number of days before withdrawing the specimens. Make the
period long enough to revise the exhibits containing the borrowed objects.
Failing such arrangements, return the objects to the lender.
People sometimes bring specimens to the museum for identification, to
offer them as a gift or loan, or hoping to sell them. If the employee
responsible for receiving and recording them is not immediately available,
the visitor may leave the objects with the nearest member of the staff,
intending to come back or write a letter. The specimens remain as a loan
for which the museum is responsible. To avoid awkward situations, any
employee permitted to receive specimens needs to give the visitor a receipt
and retain a copy with the material. He must be sure to write down the
owner’s name and address, and the reasons for bringing and leaving
the objects. A prepared form like the example in figure 2 helps record the
How to Acquire 29
proper data. Keep a supply of the forms at information desks or other

places where visitors may deposit specimens. The employee accepting cus
tody of the material from the visitor is also responsible for getting the
specimens and data to the proper staff member promptly.
Procedures to follow in lending, rather than borrowing, museum speci
mens are detailed in Chapter 6.
NT Or
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
%M‘mm, Harpers Ferry National Historical Park
IN REPLY REFER TO
I have received the following specimens:
Description Condition
Signature and title Date
These specimens belong to:

Name
Address
Phone
Deposited by:
Name
Address
Phone
The specimens are left for: gift, loan, purchase, identification,

other .
(Fill out in duplicate. Give l copy to depositor. Send other copy with
specimens to curator or chief of interpretation promptly.)
Figure 2. Receipt for specimens left at a national park museum.

Transfers
In the National Park Service when a park has a museum specimen that
would serve the public interest better in another park, it transfers the
object. If the museum holding the specimen regards it as surplus, no diffi
culty arises. Should the two parks disagree on where the specimen would
be more useful, a higher echelon arbitrates. As the museum profession
matures, such inter-museum transfers may become a matter of ethics.
In transferring a specimen from one museum to another, both museums
place a signed copy of the transfer form in their accession file. The receiv
ing museum pays any transportation costs involved. Park museums may
locate specimens available for transfer by using clearing house procedures
such as those described in Chapter 6. Specimens may be obtained through
the clearing house, also, by transfer from other Federal agencies.
The particular danger to avoid in acquiring specimens by transfer is poor
judgment. Take objects only because the museum really needs them, not
because they are free.
Exchanges
An exchange consists of giving up one or more specimens your museum

does not need in return for one or more of equivalent value which it does
need. If you adhere to the letter of this definition, exchange provides an
excellent means of refining and strengthening the collection. It may provide
needed specimens when purchase funds are lacking. It may offer a method
by which another museum can furnish you specimens it could not give or
sell.
A park superintendent has the authority to make exchanges of museum
objects (see Management of Museum Properties Act -c, Appendix A). He
documents the final transaction by a letter to the other party of the ex
change. The letter clearly identifies the specimens given and received and
explains the basis for his judgment that they represent equivalent value.
The letter should describe the objects and give their catalogue numbers if
any. Signed copies of the letter, along with signed copies of the property
transfer form or receipts required by either party, should be placed in the
accession files of both incoming and outgoing specimens.
In negotiating exchanges, the superintendent often works through the
clearing house. This usually provides a broader choice of objects to acquire
because the clearing house is likely to be in contact with more museums,
dealers and collectors. It can also help protect him from mistakes in evalu
ating and authenticating the specimens involved. Such errors constitute the
greatest danger in making exchanges. It is not necessary to insist, however,
How to Acquire 31
on an exact dollar-for-dollar deal. Utility of the specimens to the museum

enters the equation along with market value, but the exchange is subject to
audit.
Referral to the Smithsonian Institution
Whenever a park museum declines an offer of museum specimens, it

should notify the clearing house promptly. It reports the kind of objects,
who offered them, and the nature of the offer. If no other park museum has
need for the objects, the Service informs the Smithsonian Institution. This
procedure acquaints the Smithsonian with the availability of specimens
which might be desired for one of the national museums. In return, the
curators of the national museums refer to the National Park Service
sources for specimens useful for park interpretation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Field Collecting
As a general introduction see:

Unesco. Field Manual for Museums. Museums and Monuments—XII. Paris.
UNESCO, 1970.
The highly specialized techniques of field archeology have a large and
growing literature beyond the scope of this listing. Start with:
Heizer, Robert F., and John A. Graham. Guide to Field Methods in Archaeol
ogy. Rev. ed. Palo Alto. National Press, 1967.
Also see:
Clarke, R. Rainbird. Archaeological Field-Work. Handbook for Museum Cura
tors C 1 & 2. London. Museums Association, 1958.
Dowman, Elizabeth A. Conservation in Field Archaeology. London. Methuen
Co. Ltd., 1970.
Harrington, J. C. Archeology and the Historical Society. Rev. ed. Nashville.
American Association for State and Local History, 1965.
For collecting methods in biology see the bibliography in Chapter 3. Many
of the manuals on preparing freshly collected biological specimens include in
formation about collecting as well. The following references concern other
aspects of field collecting:
Baum, Willa K. Oral History for the Local Historical Society. Nashville. Ameri
can Association for State and Local History, 1971.
Borhegyi, Stephan F. de. “Curatorial Neglect of Collections,” Museum News,
43:5 (January 1965), pp. 34-40.
British Museum (Natural History). Fossils, Minerals, and Rocks. Instructions

for Collectors II. 8th ed. London. Trustees of the British Museum (Na
tural History), 1962.
Higgs, J. W. Y. Folk Life Collection and Classification. Handbook for Museum
Curators C 6. London. Museums Association, 1963, pp. 32-38.
Kuhne, Walter G. “Collecting Vertebrate Fossils by the Henkel Process,”
Curator, XIV:3 (1971), pp. 175-179.
Kummel, Bernhard, and David Raup. Handbook of Paleontological Techniques.
San Francisco. W. H. Freeman and Co., 1965.
Lees, Patricia M. “A Flotation Method of Obtaining Mammal Teeth from
Mesozoic Bone-Beds,” Curator, VII:4 (1964), pp. 300-306.
Madsen, James H., Jr. “Petroglyphs--A Method for ‘Collecting’,” Curator,
XV:1 (1972), pp. 62-71.
Miller, George J. “Some New and Improved Methods for Recovering and
Preparing Fossils as Developed on the Rancho La Brea Project,” Curator,
XIV:4 (1971), pp. 293-307.
Smithsonian Institution. A Field Collector’s Manual in Natural History. Publi
cation 3766. Washington. Smithsonian Institution, 1944, pp. 83-118.
Tyrrell, William G. “Tape-Recording Local History,” American Association for
State and Local History Technical Leaflet 35, History News, 21:5 (May
1966).
Williams-Hunt, P. D. R. An Introduction to the Malayan Aborigines. Kuala
Lumpur. Government Press, 1952 (Appendix C).
Wagstaffe, Reginald, and J. Havelock Fidler, eds. The Preservation of Natural
History Specimens. II. New York. Philosophical Library. London. H. F. &
G. Witherby Ltd., 1968.
Purchasing and Gifts
References in the Chapter 1 bibliography on the ethical aspects of accession

policy also pertain to these methods of acquisition. Note particularly Curator,
XlV:2 (1971), pp. 83-87, and XIV:4 (1971), pp. 232-235; and Museum
News, 49:8 (April 1971), pp. 19-26, 49:9 (May 1971), pp. 22-23, 50:8
(April 1972), pp. 31-33, 51:2 (October 1972), p. 17, 51:9 (May 1973),
pp. 21-49, and 52:1 (September 1973), pp. 46-48. In addition see:
Lee, George J. “On Art Museum Purchases,” Curator, II:1 (1959), pp. 84-95.
Loans and Insurance
Allen, Carl G., and Huntington T. Block. “Should Museums Form a Buyer’s
Pool for Insurance?” Museum News, 52:6 (March 1974), pp. 32-35.
Block, Huntington T. “Insurance: An Integral Part of Your Security Dollar,”
Museum News, 50:5 (January 1972), pp. 26-29.
, and John B. Lawton. “Insurance,” in Keck, Caroline K., et al. A Primer
on Museum Security. Cooperstown. New York State Historical Association,
1966, pp. 15-37.
, and Eleanor S. Quandt. “Insurance in the Conservation Laboratory,”
Bulletin of the American Group—The International Institute for Conser
vation of Historic and Artistic Works, I:1 and 2 (1961), pp. 5-7, 7-9.
Choudhury, Anil Roy. Art Museum Documentation and Practical Handling.
Hyderabad. Choudhury & Choudhury, 1963, pp. 56-60, 76-87 and
244-250.
How to Acquire 33
DuBose, Beverly M., Jr. “Insuring Against Loss,” American Association for
State and Local History Technical Leaflet 50, History News, 24:5 (May
1969).
Dudley, Dorothy H., and Irma B. Wilkinson, et al. Museum Registration
Methods. Rev. ed. Washington. American Association of Museums and
Smithsonian Institution, 1968, pp. 83-88, 131-145 and 149-153. Rev. ed.
III re . B., and Huntington T. Block. “Museum Insurance,” Curator,
Lawton,PJci)hn
IX:4 (1966), pp. 289-297.

Osborn, Elodie C. “Insurance,” Temporary and Travelling Exhibitions. Museums
and Monuments—X. Paris. UNESCO, 1963, pp. 105-109 and 121-123.
Pfeffer, Irving, and Ernest B. Uhr. “The Truth About Art Museum Insurance,”
Vance, David, “A Proposed Standard Insurance Policy,” Museum News, 48:1
(September 1969), pp. 21-26.
Sugden, Robert P. Safeguarding Works of Art: Storage, Packing, Transportation
and Insurance. New York. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1948, pp. 59-76.
Chapter 3 Preparing Specimens
for the Collection
No matter how a specimen is acquired, the museum immediately be

comes responsible for its safekeeping. This obligation involves three lines
of activity: the accessioning of the specimen as described in Chapter 7,
Accession Records; the necessary steps to prepare it for preservation; its
continued protection. This chapter concerns the initial preparation that
many specimens require. For protective measures see Chapter 4, Caring for
a Collection.
When a museum object is obtained that fits one of the following cate
gories, accession it promptly, but do not at once place it in the cabinet or
on the shelves set aside for items waiting to be catalogued:
Organic material
Waterlogged specimens
Rapidly deteriorating objects
Freshly collected biological specimens.
Each of these requires special treatment before it is put in the collection.
Organic Material
A specimen composed of, or containing, animal or vegetal matter may

harbor an insect infestation. If the object is not treated accordingly, you
not only risk its damage or destruction but also may introduce the infesta
tion into the collection where it can spread. Animal products are most
vulnerable. They include fur, feathers, wool, silk, leather, rawhide and
parchment. Insects may also infest inadequately cleaned horn or bone.
Plant materials are subject to attack, too. Herbarium specimens and ob
jects of wood or paper, especially, need treatment, but cotton, linen and
other plant products may be infested.
As soon as a specimen in this category is accessioned, take positive
measures to eliminate any insects it may contain. When fumigation is
possible, make this a routine procedure whether signs of infestation are
34
detected or not. Set aside the space and equipment necessary to conduct
the operation efficiently. The procedure involves two steps. The first consists
of holding the specimen in isolation for about two days in an environment
a little warmer and more humid than for normal storage. This accelerates
insect activity and development making the pests more susceptible to the
fumigant. A standard specimen storage cabinet earmarked for this purpose
and located outside the study collection room should provide adequate
isolation in most instances. Use a damp sponge or hand towel placed inside
to raise the relative humidity to about 75%-80%. If the room tempera
ture cannot be set conveniently at 80°-90° F. (26.°-32° C.), a 60-75
watt incandescent bulb mounted just above the cabinet top and suitably
covered should transmit enough heat through the metal to the interior.
Avoid exposing specimens to an environment any damper or warmer than
this; enclose a paper hygrometer and a thermometer in the cabinet to check
on the condition produced. For specimens too large or too numerous to fit
in the standard cabinet use big sheets of polyethylene to isolate them.
Spread one sheet on the floor. Lay the specimens on it, but supported out
of direct contact with the plastic. Then cover them with another sheet large
enough to extend down onto the bottom one all around. Prop it up from
the specimens because some insects could chew through it. Seal the enclo
sure by weighting down the edges of the covering sheet.
The second step, actual fumigation, exposes the specimen to a gas that
will kill all the insects present. It requires a tight chamber or other enclosure
to maintain a lethal concentration and to prevent the gas from escaping
into the surrounding area. At the end of the treatment the situation and
equipment must allow for the removal and dispersion of the fumigant
without endangering people or other objects in the environment. A cham
ber operated at normal atmospheric pressure serves for killing infestations
on the surface of specimens, but insects can get inside many objects such as
wood, upholstered furniture, the filling of mattresses and pillows, and
books or stacks of folded documents. Therefore, a chamber which has
much of the air pumped out before the fumigant discharges into it provides
surer action. The poisonous fumes permeate every available space. Cham
bers in which the gas can develop pressures above normal also achieve
some penetration. Certain fumigants work more efficiently at temperatures
above normal room air. Large museums, libraries and archives often have
sophisticated equipment for vacuum fumigation. So do hospitals, some
warehouses and some pest control operators. A few museums have assem
bled smaller units that provide some or all of the desirable controls. Figure
3 illustrates one developed at the Harpers Ferry Center. Museums lacking
safe fumigating facilities need to have the treatment carried out elsewhere.
Fumigants for use on museum specimens should be selected to have no
effect on any of the materials composing the objects and should leave no
harmful residue. All fumigants are hazardous chemicals. They are toxic to
35
Figure 3. This fumigation tank was

designed and assembled by the Na
tional Park Service Division of
Museum Services. The tank permits
fumigation under vacuum, at nor
mal atmospheric pressure, or with
moderately elevated pressure; and
at room temperature or up to 180°
F. (82° C.). The unit includes
safety and monitoring devices.
humans and in many cases are flammable or explosive. They represent

serious dangers. Consequently the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act as amended (Public Law 92-516) permits the use of
only those formulations that have received an Environmental Protection
Agency registration number. The law prohibits using these registered
products for any purpose or in any manner not specified on the label or in
accompanying instructions. The labels and instructions also contain vital
precautionary warnings.
Museums have a difficult problem, current at the time of this writing, in
selecting a suitable fumigant. No insecticidal gas except paradichloro
benzene, that can be recommended for general use on specimens, was
registered for such application. Others which have been in museum use are
presently illegal for this reason. To find a solution to this and similar
dilemmas an interagency committee has been established to identify the
needs for pesticide uses that are minor from a commercial standpoint but
nevertheless important. The committee will seek to secure registration of
products suitable for these special purposes. When the Environmental Pro
tection Agency does register fumigants for museum use, by all means
resume regular fumigation procedures. Become fully acquainted with the
hazards involved and post warning signs (fig. 4). Have a safety officer
check the operation in detail. Meanwhile follow the first step above by
filling the same enclosure for at least two weeks with the fumes produced
by 1 pound of paradichlorobenzene crystals for every 100 cubic feet of
enclosed space (162 g per m3). Then subject the specimen to the closest
inspection for any sign of live insects because this treatment may not be
100% effective.
Preparing Specimens for the Collection 37
Fumigation In Progress !
Poisonous and Flammable Gas
K E Ta @ (Q) RB T Q Figure 4. Fumigation warning sign.
Wood infected with powder-post beetles or other borers presents a

common but specialized problem. If you cannot get the specimen vacuum
fumigated, treat it by one of the following methods. You can brush the
product carrying Environmental Protection Agency Registration No. 876
100 liberally onto unfinished wood. This is a 2% solution of chlordane in
oil. Follow the label directions and precautions carefully. You can also
inject into each hole the product having EPA Registration No. 18910-2.
Use the pressurized container for this purpose as directed on the label.
The insecticide in this case is lindane. The injection method can be used for
finished wood and has obvious safety advantages in other situations as
well. Museums may write to the Environmental Protection Agency, 401 M
Street, S.W., Washington, DC 20460, for the names and addresses of
companies that supply these and other registered products.
Waterlogged Specimens
Objects which have lain for many years under water, or in wet soil, often
retain their original form to a remarkable degree. However, if the object is
of wood, leather or other organic material its solid, well preserved appear
ance may be deceiving. The internal structure frequently has deteriorated.
The component cells maintain their shape because they are full of water.
Consequently, as soon as you bring the specimen into the air and the water
begins to evaporate, the cell walls start to collapse. The object shrinks. It
becomes brittle, or may even disintegrate. Only a few hours of drying can
ruin it forever for study or exhibition. Another hidden danger exists if the
specimen is of iron and the water is salty. The iron corrodes and its crust of
corrosion products becomes permeated with the saline solution. When ex
posed to air, the dissolved salts act as an electrolyte in decomposing the
metal. The destructive action continues as long as moisture from the air
reaches the salts.
Therefore, when a waterlogged specimen composed of organic material
or iron is obtained, do two things at once. First, keep it wet using fresh
water rather than salt water. If it is too big to immerse, soak it and wrap it
in several layers of sodden newsprint, then in thick polyethylene sheeting
sealed securely against leakage of water vapor. Second, get expert advice
from a conservator about treating it. Park museums should phone the
central museum staff. Act promptly because mold may attack the wet
object.
For organic specimens, the treatment recommended will probably in
volve the application of polyethylene glycol. This material comes in a wide
range of molecular weights with corresponding differences in properties.
The size, nature and condition of the object determine what grade and
method of application to use in treating it. Polyethylene glycol 600, for
example, is a hygroscopic liquid. Soak as much as possible of it into a
specimen of waterlogged wood by immersion or repeated brushing. It re
places the water inside the wood. By continually drawing moisture from
the air it keeps the interior of the specimen permanently wet. Another
method better suited to some specimens uses polyethylene glycol 4000.
Dissolved in alcohol, the material can permeate the specimen. As the sol
vent evaporates, the polyethylene glycol remains in the cells as a wax-like
support. The proper application of polyethylene glycol often requires long
periods of time, careful checking of changes in specimen weight and con
tinuous control of other factors. Because of these complexities, and because
experimentation with the material continues, it is better to call for advice
than to rely on generalized instructions.
Iron recovered after long immersion in salt water is best treated by very
carefully controlled electrolysis. This involves the closely regulated flow of
an electric current through a conductive solution in which the object is
suspended. If large quantities needing treatment preclude such individual
attention, the artifacts may require baking at about 1200° F. (650° C.) for
a long enough period to drive out all the water. The conservator then applies
a waterproof coating to prevent any moisture reaching the salts remaining
in the specimen. This usually involves covering the object with a suitable
oil, or bituminous, paint. Since the high temperature may alter the metal
lurgical structure of the specimen, it is an extreme measure to be avoided if
possible.
Rapidly Deteriorating Objects
Occasionally other specimens are acquired that need emergency treat

ment, those deteriorating too fast to wait their turn in the normal schedule
of cleaning, repair or restoration and protective processing. This critical
condition occurs most frequently when mold attacks a specimen, or when
iron actively rusts. An oil painting which has begun to lose flakes of paint
may also need prompt attention.
Mildew growing on a specimen should be killed at once. The mold
digests part of the substance on which it grows, leaving the object weak
ened and often discolored. The spores develop quickly and may spread the
infection. In the past museums have fumigated the specimen with thymol,
unless oil paint, varnish or thermo-plastics were involved. Thymol fumes
tend to soften these substances. Thorough treatment required about two
weeks, using a cabinet, box or other container equipped with a 40 watt
incandescent lamp. The lamp was mounted on the floor of the container,
preferably with the switch outside. A small glass or ceramic dish supported
about 2 inches (50 mm) above the lamp contained thymol crystals, allow
ing 61/1 ounces (177g) for 100 cubic feet (2.8m3) of space (or 1 ounce
(28g) for a standard specimen storage cabinet). The specimen was placed
on an open rack a foot or so (300 mm) above the dish. The container was
closed, the lamp turned on for two hours, then turned off. It was turned on
again for the same length of time each day for two weeks. The following
day the container was opened and the specimen removed. Heat from the
lamp melted the thymol and filled the container with fungicidal gas. Before
returning the specimen to the collection, the remains of the mildew were
cleaned off with a soft brush. Thymol sometimes irritates the skin and eyes,
so users avoided touching it or prolonged contact with the fumes. Note that
thymol should be registered as a fungicide for specimens by the Environ
mental Protection Agency before museums apply it for this purpose. It
represents one of the minor uses being referred to the interagency commit
tee at the time of writing.
If a molding specimen cannot be fumigated, take it outdoors to minimize
contaminating the collection space. Remove as much of the fungus as
possible with a soft brush. Then use a combination of mild heat and
moving air to dry the specimen. A hair dryer, or an electric lamp and a fan
may serve this purpose. When excess moisture that permitted the mildew to
grow has been driven off, be sure to keep the specimen at a relative humid
ity below 55%. At a higher relative humidity, mold is likely to recur. Most
organic materials should be kept in air always at 50%-55% relative
humidity. As an alternative to drying and brushing in some cases clean‘
with a fungicide. A quaternary ammonium compound such as benze
thonium chloride (for example, Hyamine 1622) in a 1% solution has a
mild fungicidal effect. Like thymol this chemical should have an EPA
registration before museums use it. To treat painted or varnished wood that
has molded wipe it with a sponge or cloth dampened in the solution. Wipe
shelves and other surfaces in the study collection room or exhibit room
where the mold developed. This treatment may apply to some other speci
mens for which thymol fumigation is impractical. Record the use of benze
thonium chloride on any specimen because it may affect subsequent

conservation measures. This chemical is very poisonous if swallowed.
When a specimen made of iron or steel is acquired with its finish in good
condition, take prompt action to protect it. Do the same for silver, brass
and other metals. Fingerprints where you or others have touched the metal
start corroding it at once and cannot be removed without damaging the
surface. Therefore, always wear clean cotton gloves when handling clean
metal. Moisture and pollutants from the air may induce rusting or tarnish
ing where you have not touched the specimen. As soon as such an object is
accessioned, wipe it thoroughly with a cloth to remove any finger marks
and surface moisture. Then, rub on a temporary protective coating of
neutral paste wax, e.g. Simoniz or Butcher’s. This should keep the metal
finish in its present condition until you are ready to have it cleaned and
treated for study or exhibition. If you need to wash an iron object at this
stage in order to remove surface dirt, give it a final rinse in a 2% aqueous
solution of a complexing reagent such as sodium dihydroxyethylglycine
(e.g. Versene Fe-3 Specific) and let it dry in air. This inhibits rusting. Keep
the cotton gloves ready to put on whenever you must touch a metal
specimen.
Oil paintings, like most specimens, deteriorate slowly. They reach a
critical stage when, through age or accident, flakes of paint begin to come
loose. A well trained and skillful conservator can do wonders in reattach
ing loose paint as long as it is still in its original position. Once it flakes off,
however, you cannot put it back like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. The prob
lem is to hold the loose paint in place until the conservator can undertake
the restoration of the painting. When an oil painting is accessioned, exam
ine it carefully for evidence of flaking. If there are any signs of it, handle
the picture with extra care to avoid loosening or losing any flakes. Lay the
painting face up on a table or shelf so gravity will help hold the paint. Then
consult a qualified painting conservator. One who is a Fellow of the Inter
national Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC)
has established his or her reputation in the profession and subscribes to its
code of ethics. Describe the condition of the painting to the conservator.
Park museums phone the central museum staff. If the painting should be
faced, the conservator will provide a supply of long fiber tissue paper and
dilute starch paste, with the special instructions required.
To face a painting means to cover part or all of the painted surface with
a temporary reinforcement. The facing holds the paint firmly in place, but
can be removed without damage to the painting at a later stage in restora
tion. The usual facing process begins with laying the painting face up on
the table. Support the canvas by placing under it within the stretcher a
smooth block of wood or stack of cardboard cut to size. Cut a piece of
tissue into a rectangle an inch or two larger than the area of loose paint. If
the tissue does not exceed 6 inches (c. 150mm) it will be easier to handle.
Lay it carefully over the weak area. Hold it gently but firmly in position
with one hand. With the other brush the dilute paste over the tissue. Use a
good quality, clean paint brush about an inch wide (25mm). Start each
stroke from the center and work out in opposite directions—left, right, up
and down, in successive strokes. The wet tissue becomes very fragile so try
to avoid tearing it. See that the tissue is in contact with the paint at every
point leaving no bubbles. Do not try to straighten out any wrinkles by
lifting the tissue because the paint would come away with it. If the condi
tion of the painting requires it, you can cover the entire face with rectangles
of tissue, overlapping the successive pieces a little at their edges. When the
paste dries, the tissue forms a strong support for the loosened paint.
Ship a properly faced painting to the conservator for treatment. See figure
5 for packing instructions.
Freshly Collected Biological Specimens
Ordinarily this kind of specimen is encountered when it is collected

personally. The methods of preparing plant and animal specimens for pres
ervation and study tend to follow long established tradition. Technological
progress has, as yet, effected little change in the ways of pickling, pressing,
skinning or mounting study material. This suggests that you should master
the time-tested techniques, but be alert for improved materials and proce
dures. Because there are specialized methods for many different kinds of
biological specimens, it is impractical to repeat full instructions here. Use
the notes which follow to supplement the published directions cited for the
various groups. As you consult older references, keep in mind that you
need to preserve more structural details and more data for present and
future research than sufficed in the past. Modify older instructions to save
or expose such structures, and record additional significant data.
Specimen Labels
Plant and animal specimens have scientific value only if they are ac
companied by accurate information. Therefore, fill in the specimen label
before you prepare the specimen, as a rule. Later, when you attach the
label to the prepared specimen, they become permanently associated. Be
cause the label must be durable, even withstanding prolonged immersion in
pickling fluids, both paper and ink must be of high quality.
Include the following information on specimen labels:
Locality —Tell where you collected it. Be precise enough for
others to find the place on available maps. Include
state, county and elevation.
INNER BOX
All sides 3/4 thick
1/4" Plywood
Top and bottom
OUTER BOX
Q: it Z15, 3 '3;-1'» *i;;*,= ig»;";;;jf;

Strip to hold
\ 3
picture in Box with picture
\\Y\\ position floated in excelsior
%'7 7”
Picture placed
face down on
chamfer strip
Chamfer strip
L3" Packing on all sides I
2" Packing on top and bottom
a. For unframed canvases

INNER BOX DETAIL
f_1/4" Plywood top and bottom
SIDE VIEW
Box with picture floated Il_1 excelsior
- —C|eat screwed to box 77 -
Frame screwed to cleat

Inner box
Outer box
l—- 3" Packing on all sides |

2" Packing on top and bottom
TOP VIEW
Crating
for shipping
picture
in frame
I 3/4" Stock on all sides
Y
/
t% b. For framed pictures
I NNER BOX DETA IL
Figure 5. The packing of paintings for shipment.

Date —Tel1 when you collected it. Record month, day and
year, but abbreviate the name of the month rather than
using a number.
Collector —Give your name fully enough to avoid confusion. Use
both initials and your last name at least, or your full
name as you ordinarily sign it.
Sex —For all vertebrate animals, record the sex unless you
would have to mutilate the specimen to determine it.
Use the standard symbols of Mars for male, and Venus
for female.
Measurements —Record the standard measurements of birds and mam
mals because you cannot obtain them accurately from
study skins. See Birds and Mammals below for details.
Field number —Enter on the label the number which refers to your
field notes concerning this specimen.
Catalogue number—When you catalogue the specimen, add this number to
the label.
Identification —As the specimen is determined, include the scientific
name on the label.
The form of label, and its attachment to the specimen, vary with differ
ent groups and preparation methods. These practices are noted in the
sections which follow concerning techniques of preparation.
Field Notes
A specimen label is too small to contain all the important information

that should be linked to the specimen. When you collect and while you
prepare a plant or animal for study, record the collateral data that will
make it useful in a wide range of research. It may be necessary to describe
the collecting locality more exactly because other scientists should be able
to find approximately the same place where the specimen was taken. Ecol
ogists need to know about the habitat. They ask, for example, that when
fishes are collected you record the clearness and color of the water, its
temperature and the corresponding air temperature, the kinds and abun
dance of water plants growing there, the character of the bottom and of the
adjacent shore, the distance from shore and the depth at which you col
lected, the depth of the water at that point, the strength of current, tide
conditions, time of day and method of capture. Make habitat notes in
comparably significant detail for the other kinds of animals or plants col
lected. Other biologists will depend on your field notes for life history and
behavior data. What did you observe the animal eat or find in its crop or
stomach? What were its feeding habits? At what stage of reproductive
activity was it? What can be told of its age? How much did it weigh? If the
specimen is a plant, how abundant was it? What insects were observed
pollinating it? If too large to collect as a whole, how tall was it? The
taxonomists need your notes on the structural or other diagnostic features
that will be lost in the prepared specimen. For plants, these include color
and odor of flowers, sap color and perhaps bark characteristics; for birds,
the color of eyes, beaks, and any areas of bare skin; for mammals, the
color of eyes, lips and hairless areas, and the number and arrangement of
pads on the soles of feet. Specimens preserved in fluid also require color
notes.
Naturalists often prefer to enter their field notes in a hard cover pocket
notebook with bound pages of relatively permanent paper. Collectors for
park museums find some advantages in using a standard Field Service
Book, DI-6, for this purpose. It is pocket-sized and has a stiff cover. The
paper is 25% rag bond. The pages are bound in but can be removed easily
for transfer to the catalogue folder file (see Catalogue Folder File, Chapter
8). Park staffs may also record field notes on their Form 10-257, Natural
History Field Observation, but should be sure to assign them field numbers
and file them for permanent reference.
Plants
The preparation of plant specimens begins as you collect them. The best
procedure for most flowering plants and ferns is to carry a press into the
field. Place the specimen in the press directly, arranging it in the newsprint
pressing folder in the position in which it will be mounted later. Make field
notes for the specimen on the spot, and write the field number which
corresponds to these notes on the pressing folder containing the specimen.
Be sure the specimen includes all the parts needed for its identification and
study—usually root,, stem, leaves, flower and, if possible, fruit. All parts
should be from the same individual plant, of course. Unless special circum
stances preclude it, collect as many specimens as you will need of the same
kind of plant at the same place. The minimum ordinarily will be two
complete specimens: one for the museum herbarium, and the other to send
away for expert identification. Additional specimens may be needed for
exchange or to study variation within the population at this particular
location. Use the same field number for all the examples of a plant col
lected at one time and place. If you do not have a plant press with you,
collect the specimens into polyethylene bags. Remove them from the bags
and put them in the press as soon as you get back to the museum.
At the museum, after a field trip, open the plant press and go over each
specimen in its pressing folder. Make sure that the plant is arranged just as
it is to be when dry. Turn over a few leaves to show the underside. Adjust
the flower parts for good visibility. At this stage, fill in the specimen label
except for the identification and the catalogue number. Preferably, type it,
using the same permanent ribbon as for museum catalogue cards (see
Supplies for Cataloguing, Chapter 8). Otherwise, print it with pen and
permanent, carbon-base ink. Slip the label into the pressing folder with the
specimen, and replace the folder in the press with the proper arrangement
of blotters and ventilators.
When the specimen is thoroughly dried, mount it on a standard her
barium sheet and paste the label in the lower right corner. Instructions for
collecting, preparing and mounting plant specimens are given in the
mimeographed Handbook on Forest Service Plant Collections, FSH 4083.3,
which may be purchased from the Forest Service Division of Administra
tive Management, Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. See also
Plants, Instructions for Collectors 10, 6th edition, London, British Mu
seum (Natural History), 1965; and D.B.O. Savile, Collection and Care of
Botanical Specimens, A53-1113, Ottawa, Department of Agriculture,
1962. These sources are helpful as well concerning special methods for
preserving algae, fungi, lichens, bryophytes and those flowering plants
which require different treatment. For additional guidance consult pp.
234-262 in George H.M. Lawrence, Taxonomy of Vascular Plants, New
York, Macmillan Company, 1951. If you work with aquatic plants, includ
ing plankton, see chapters 2, 5 and 18 of E. Yale Dawson, Marine Botany,
An Introduction, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. The De
partment of Botany, U.S. National Museum of Natural History, issues a
mimeographed circular, Basic Rules for Collecting Plants.
Birds and Mammals
The techniques for converting a bird or mammal into a good study

specimen are well established. Following the recognized procedures assures
better specimens at lower cost. Even if you are an expert in making study
skins, therefore, be sure your museum library contains R. M. Anderson,
Methods of Collecting and Preserving Vertebrate Animals, Bulletin 69,
Biological Series 18, 4th edition, revised, Ottawa, National Museum of
Canada, 1965. Review the directions from time to time. If you are not
satisfied with the quality of the study skins you make, or with the speed at
which you can make good ones, consider additional training, for example
by practice under expert guidance at a larger natural science museum.
Another useful reference is E. Raymond Hall, Collecting and Preparing
Study Specimens of Vertebrates, Miscellaneous Publication 30, Lawrence,
Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, 1962. The American
Museum of Natural History, the Field Museum of Natural History, the
Smithsonian Institution and the British Museum (Natural History) also
have published clear, detailed instructions.
When a bird is collected, it is ordinarily made into a study skin. When a
small mammal is obtained, prepare it as a study skin and preserve the skull
separately. If the mammal is larger than a raccoon, make a cased skin and
keep the cleaned skull as well. Study skins are filled and have reinforce
ments for the limbs and tail. Cased skins are cleaned and dried on a frame
to prevent shrinkage in preparation for later tanning. Rarely it may be
desirable to preserve a bird or mammal whole in liquid for special study, or
to prepare it as a skeleton. Whatever form the specimen takes, the treat
ment should protect it from decay or insect attack. The specimen should be
suitable for thorough and convenient scientific examination. It should be
compact so you can store it economically. Consult the references cited
above for special instructions on preparing water birds which require extra
degreasing, bigheaded birds such as ducks and some woodpeckers, owls,
rabbits, bats, beaver, muskrat, porcupine and flying squirrels. Grease al
lowed to remain in any skin will eventually ruin it. The decomposing fat
makes skin brittle and works through it to discolor the feathers or hair, so
thorough removal is essential.
The preparation of bird and mammal skins may involve the use of
potentially dangerous substances. Know the dangers and take the necessary
precautions. Many workers treat the skins with arsenic as a preservative
and insect deterrent. They use commercial white arsenic as a dry powder or
mixed with yellow laundry soap and warm water. Arsenic is a stomach
poison and skin irritant. Therefore, if it is used, avoid applying it directly
with the fingers and keep the powder away from the eyes, nose and mouth.
Wash hands thoroughly after use. The arsenical soap is somewhat safer to
handle because it is easier to control. Label the container conspicuously as
a poison. Better yet, do as some major museums do and avoid using
arsenic altogether. One relatively nonpoisonous substitute is borax. An
other is composed of 16 parts potassium nitrate mixed with 1 part alum.
Both work well as skin preservatives, and you can control insect infestation
by other means safer than arsenic. Degrease especially fat skins in a vapor
chamber. Use 1, 1, 1-trichloroethane. It vaporizes at c. 160° F. (71° C.).
The rising vapor penetrates the skins draped over rods and the ex
tracted grease drips back with the solvent as it condenses. The fumes are
moderately toxic and when heated may decompose into highly poisonous
compounds.
Before starting to skin the animal, prepare the specimen label. Make the
skull label also, if you are working on a mammal. Remember that the label
becomes a permanent part of the specimen never to be separated from it. A
standard pattern in the content and form will help everyone who studies the
collection. For example, while writing always keep the string to the left.
Enter on the first line the name of the collector, his field number, and the
sex of the animal. Next, record the locality where it was collected. Then
add the date and the standard measurements. Always record the measure
ments in the same sequence and in millimeters. For birds measure: (a)
length from tip of bill to tip of longest tail feather with the specimen laid
flat on its back, (b) distance from wing tip to wing tip with wings stretched
out full length, (c) weight in grams. For mammals, make the following
measurements: (a) total length with the animal laid flat on its back from
tip of nose to end of last vertebra in the tail excluding the hairs, (b) length
of tail from its base to end of last vertebra in the tail excluding the hairs,
(c) length of hind foot with the foot pressed flat from end of heel bone to
tip of claw on longest toe, (d) ear length from notch to tip, (e) weight in
grams. Later, use the other side of the label to record the scientific name of
the animal, the name of the determiner and the museum catalogue number.
On the skull tag mark the field number and collector’s name. This will be
enough to link it to the skin and field data. When the specimen is cata
logued, apply the catalogue number directly to the cranium and also to the
mandible.
Make the labels as shown in figure 6, 21/2 inches long by % inch wide
(c. 64 >< 16mm), with two holes drilled in the positions indicated near one
end. String 12-13 inches (300-330mm) of No. 30 or No. 40 uncolored
linen sewing thread through the holes in the manner illustrated in figure 6,
and tie the two strands together with a square knot 1 inch (25mm) from
the end of the label. Use high quality paper stock of the kind made for
permanent business records. Some museums specify Resistall Linen Ledger,
manufactured from 100% new white cotton fibers by the Byron Weston
Company, Dalton, Massachusetts. Substance 36 is a good weight. Other
museums prefer the heavier Resistall Index Bristol. The special advantage
of these papers over all-rag stock is said to be their durability in preserva
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Figure 6. Specimen labels for mammals.

a. Study skin label, front. b. Study skin label, back. c. Skull label.
tive solutions. Museums can thus use the same paper for labeling various
kinds of specimens, including those kept in fluid. (Recent changes in the
manufacturing process dictated by industrial hygiene may have affected
this particular quality. So keep immersed labels under observation.) Letter
the information on the label in India ink, or other permanent carbon-base
ink such as Higgins Eternal, using a fine pen. Since it must be legible to all
users, print the information you enter on labels.
When you have finished preparing the study skin, tie the specimen label
to the crossed legs of a bird, or just above the heel on the right hind leg of a
mammal. Fasten it tightly and securely so it can neither slip off nor come
untied. Attach the skull label by tying it around the lower jawbone. Do not
pull the thread tight as it could break the bone in small species, but be sure
the knot is firm. Use a regular specimen label for the skull and snip off the
extra paper.
Coldblooded Vertebrates
To obtain good study specimens of fishes, amphibians or reptiles, kill the

animals in a manner that leaves the muscles relaxed. Then fix or harden the
specimens in positions suitable for study and storage, and finally transfer
them to a preserving fluid. The publications by Anderson and Hall, cited
for birds and mammals, also contain instructions of expert collectors for
preparing the lower vertebrates. Refer to them for details, but since meth
ods vary, the following tabulation may be helpful:
Fishes
1. Killing: drop alive into a solution of 1 part commercial formalin (a

40% aqueous solution of formaldehyde) to 9 parts water.
2. Labeling: use the same kind of specimen label as with bird and
mammal study skins, employing high quality paper resistant to fluid pre
servatives; fill in the data in the same sequence using permanent carbon
base ink, and being sure it is completely dry before immersing the label;
attach it securely to the caudal peduncle. (If you are holding several fishes
with identical field data for future determination and cataloguing, you may
postpone making individual labels until then. Meanwhile, write the data in
soft pencil on a slip of strong white paper and place this temporary label in
the jar with the specimens.)
3. Fixing: when the fish succumbs, slit the abdomen with a sharp blade
about half the length of the body cavity on the right side (unless the
specimen is under six inches in length); leave in the formaldehyde solution
3 to 7 days according to size; wash in water, using a little alum and a brush
to remove mucus if necessary, then soak 2 to 4 days in several changes of
water.
4. Preserving: transfer the specimen to a tightly closed container where

it will remain completely immersed in 75% ethyl alcohol; since water and
body fluids in the specimen will dilute the alcohol, change over the first few
days to attain the correct percentage gradually. This minimizes shrinkage.
Alcohol is volatile and flammable, with a flash point close to that of
gasoline, so observe fire safety precautions strictly. Its fumes are toxic in
concentrations above 2.4 parts per million of air.
Amphibians
1. Killing: drop alive into a solution made by _dissolving several crystals
of Chloretone (chlorobutanol) in a quart or liter of water, or make a
saturated solution and dilute it with four parts of water.
2. Labeling: use the same specimen labels as for other vertebrates; fill
in the data in the same sequence using permanent carbon-base ink dried
thoroughly before immersion; tie securely but not too tightly around the
body just behind the front legs of salamanders, and just in front of the hind
legs of frogs and toads, or just below the left knee of the latter. (Labels for
tadpoles and salamander larvae can be inserted in the individual vials
holding each specimen.)
3. Fixing; remove from the killing solution within an hour; place on a
wet paper towel laid in the botton of a shallow pan, position the specimen
for convenient study by straightening the body, extending the legs, spread
ing the toes and arranging the tail out straight or curved back along the
body to prevent breakage; cover with a second towel to hold the parts in
place; gently add a solution of 1 part commercial formalin to 12 parts
water immersing the specimen; except with quite small species, inject some
of the solution into the body cavity and tail with a hypodermic needle,
being careful to avoid distending the animal, or slit the abdomen and tail
with short incisions to one side of the midline, soon after hardening begins;
leave in the formaldehyde about 2 days; wash off the formaldehyde with
water.
4. Preserving: immerse in 60% ethyl alcohol, keeping the specimen
completely covered by the liquid and maintaining the strength of the alco
hol. Remember the flammability of the preserving fluid.
Reptiles
1. Killing: drown in warm water, preferably dissolving a few Chloretone

crystals in the water. (For an alternative injection method see Hall, Col
lecting and Preparing Study Specimens of Vertebrates, p. 37).
2. Labeling: use the regular vertebrate specimen labels described above;
record the data in the same order, with the same permanent ink, which
must be dry before the label goes into the fixing solution; tie not too tightly
around the body of a snake about 1/, to % of length behind head, or just
behind front legs of a small lizard, and tightly to the left hind leg of a turtle
or large lizard.
3. Fixing: as soon as the animal dies, transfer to a solution of 1 part
commercial formalin to 12 parts water; make sure the fluid penetrates by
injecting it into the body cavity, tail and limbs, making an injection every
few inches in snakes, and in front of each leg, as well as in the neck, and
tail of turtles, or make slits at each point suggested for injection; coil
snakes to fit in the jar in which you will store them, arrange the legs of
lizards for good visibility and compact storage, spreading the toes and
straightening the tail or bending it to lie beside the body, extend the neck as
well as the legs and tail of turtles and prop the mouth open; keep in
formaldehyde solution 2 days; wash well in water. (For instructions on
everting the hemipenis in snakes and lizards see Hall, Collecting and Pre
serving Study Specimens of Vertebrates, p. 38.)
4. Preserving: completely cover with 75% ethyl alcohol maintaining
the concentration and level of the fluid, observing fire safety rules.
Insects
While the methods of preparing insects for study are standardized, they
vary for large and small ones, those which are hard and soft, scaly, greasy,
and so on. Since no single procedure will apply to all the kinds of insects in
most collections, consult the published instructions of experts which are
merely outlined below. Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publica
tion 601, Collection and Preservation of Insects, by P. W. Oman and
Arthur D. Cushman, describes most of the techniques you will need.
Kill most large insects with a gas. Oman and Cushman tell how to make
two kinds of killing bottle, one using cyanide as the lethal gas, and the
other employing ethyl acetate. You may be well advised, especially if you
collect only occasionally, to use the ethyl acetate because cyanide is poten
tially very dangerous to humans. Keep several killing bottles of various
sizes at hand. Wipe the insides when they become soiled or damp. Place a
few strips of toilet paper in each bottle so the captured insects will not
damage each other. Reserve one of the larger bottles exclusively for butter
flies and moths so the scales that rub off their wings will not spoil other
specimens. Insects that are quite small, and a few larger forms including
mayflies, stoneflies, termites and ants, should be killed in 75% alcohol
(flammable), or in a mixture of 8 parts 95% alcohol, 5 parts distilled
water, 1 part glycerin and 1 part glacial acetic acid. The alcohol-glycerin
acetic fluid leaves specimens more flexible and so less liable to break when
you handle them. Incidentally, handling insects with forceps rather than
fingers, throughout the preparation processes, usually reduces breakage.
Preserve most insect specimens dry, mounted on special pins. You

should mount very small species on microscope slides, however. A few soft
bodied forms of intermediate size are best preserved in 75% alcohol or the
alcohol-glycerin-acetic mixture in small vials. You may mount specimens
from the killing bottle directly on pins unless the bodies contain too much
fatty tissue. In the latter case, degrease the specimens before pinning by
immersion in xylene until the excess fat has dissolved. Then let them dry
on an absorbent pad. Before pinning specimens killed in alcohol, you must
degrease them also. First dehydrate them in 100% alcohol, which may
require several hours or a day. Next, transfer them to xylene for a similar
period; then dry and pin. Consult Oman and Cushman for the details of
pinning. To have a good specimen you should use the right size insect pin,
insert it at the correct point, and keep the back of the insect at a uniform
distance below the pinhead. The specimen should be horizontal when
viewed either lengthwise or sidewise. The pin should enter the body near its
center of gravity, but where it will not damage or obscure important struc
tures. This point differs among the insect orders, as illustrated by Oman
and Cushman. After pinning, spread the wings of butterflies, moths, dragon
flies and damselflies, and the left wings of grasshoppers and cicadas. Use
the spreading board, as described in Oman and Cushman. To reinforce the
fragile bodies of dragonflies and damselflies, run a fine, stiff wire from the
head straight through to the tip of the abdomen. For hard-bodied insects,
too small to pin but too large for a slide mount, use a triangle cut with a
special punch from label stock. Mount the paper point on an insect pin and
attach the specimen by the right side of its thorax to the tip with a drop of
adhesive. Soft-bodied insects of corresponding size are mounted on very
fine headless pins called minuten nadeln. These, in turn, are stuck in small
rectangular blocks of balsa wood mounted on regular insect pins. For the
critical study of some insect groups, dissect out the genitalia or other
specialized structures, and mount them on microscope slides.
The specimen labels used for vertebrates are far too big to fit into an
insect collection, yet the same kind of information must be associated with
each specimen. To do this, use the same high quality, liquid resistant paper
and permanent, carbon-base ink. With a crow-quill pen, print the data in as
small letters as you can and still keep them legible. The finished label
should not exceed about 14 inch in height and 15-% inch in width
(c. 6-7 >< 12-16mm). Give the locality on the first line, the date of collec
tion on the second, and the collector’s name and field number on the third. If
collecting is consistently in one locality, it pays to have labels printed in 4
point type with the locality, the month, the first two numerals of the year
and your name, leaving spaces to letter in the day, the last two numerals of
the year, and the field number. Should the locality require more than one
line, use a separate label for the collector’s name and field number. When
the specimen is identified, add another label bearing the scientific name and
the name of the determiner. The first label goes on the pin a little below the
specimen. The middle step of a standard pinning block sets it at the pre
ferred height. The long axis of the label parallels that of the specimen with
the top of the label to the right. The second label parallels the first, but at
the height of the lowest step in the pinning block. If a third label is
necessary, place it correspondingly lower on the pin. For specimens pre
served in alcohol, use the same kind and size of label and slip it into the
vial with the insect. Face the lettering outward so it can be read through
the glass. It follows that only one specimen is kept in each vial unless
several examples of the same species are collected at the same time and
place.
To label microslides, cut the label stock to fit one end of the glass slide,
letter the data with permanent ink, and paste the paper securely to the
slide. It is a wise precaution to scratch the field number into the slide with
a glass writing diamond so the essential data can be traced if the label ever
comes loose.
The preservation of other invertebrates requires a variety of methods
which may differ with the purpose of the collection and the experience of
the curator. The following paragraphs outline some general instructions.
For more specialized techniques consult Reginald Wagstaffe and J. Have
lock Fidler, The Preservation of Natural History Specimens, Volume I,
Invertebrates, New York: Philosophical Library, 1955. Do not use this
reference for insects, however, because it describes a European system not
favored for American collections. See also William K. Emerson and Ar
nold Ross, “Invertebrate Collections: Trash or Treasure,” Curator, VIII:4,
1965. Emerson and Ross recommend adding 1 part of glycerin to 19 parts
of the alcohol in the final preserving fluid. This gives added protection
should the alcohol evaporate faster than anticipated. Do not add glycerin
to the preservative fluid for vertebrate specimens because it has a clearing
action making tissues more transparent which is undesirable in this case.
Handle flammable preservatives with care.
Arachnids
Kill in 75% ethyl alcohol, and preserve in alcohol of the same strength.
Use the same high quality, liquid resistant paper for labels. Letter the data
with permanent carbon-base ink. Place the label in the vial with the
specimen.
Centipedes and Millipedes
Kill and preserve in 75 % ethyl alcohol. Letter the labels with permanent
carbon-base ink on the regular resistant stock, and insert in the vial with
the specimen.
Crustaceans
Use 30%-40% ethyl alcohol as the killing agent. As soon as the animal
dies, transfer it to 60% alcohol and leave overnight. Then place it in 70%
alcohol for preservation. Make the specimen label with the same resistant
paper and permanent ink. If the specimen is collected in the water, record
the depth at which you found it, along with the usual data. Keep the label
in the vial or jar with the specimen.
Annelids
Before killing earthworms, leave them overnight on moistened soft paper

to clear soil particles out of the digestive system. Then kill by immersing in
8%-10% ethyl alcohol. Straighten the worms at this stage, if necessary.
Transfer promptly to a solution of 1 part commercial formalin to 10 parts
water, for preservation. Leeches require anesthetizing before you kill them.
Otherwise they may contract too tightly for study. Use a Chloretone solu
tion as with amphibians, or add a bit of tobacco to the water. When the
leech becomes insensitive, wipe off excess mucus and lay it flat on paper
toweling dampened with 50% ethyl alcohol. Carefully pour 50% alcohol
into the container without dislodging the specimen. Do not quite cover it at
first, but after 10 minutes add enough of the alcohol to immerse it. Allow
the leech to harden in the 50% alcohol. Then pass it through increasing
concentrations up to 85%, which is the strength to use for preserving it.
Anesthetize marine worms also with Chloretone solution. Kill in
8%-10% ethyl alcohol and move the specimens into gradually increasing
concentrations until you have them in 70%-75% for preservation. Since
various kinds of worms are preserved in liquid, use the resistant label
stock, record the data in permanent carbon-base ink, and place the label in
the container with the specimen.
Mollusks
Ordinarily, living specimens will be collected but only the shells pre
served for study. To remove the soft parts from inside the shell, dip the
animal into boiling water approximately one minute or until the valves
open. By placing the shell in a small net, it can be held in the hot water
conveniently. Then clean out the shell using forceps, a hooked needle or
wire, and perhaps a knife for cutting the adductor muscle. Finish cleaning
the outside of the shell with a brush. Save the operculum, if present, and
keep it with the shell. Press bivalves shut again and tie with white string
until the hinge stiffens. Let the specimen dry. Some fresh-water mussels
have a thin coating on the shell which can be preserved by covering with a
fine layer of vaseline or wax. It is not necessary to clean the soft parts from
very small shells that may be too fragile for such treatment. Place these in
70% alcohol for at least a day. Then let them dry slowly. If the outside of
the shell is dirty, shake the specimen in a small vial of water with a little
sand. You may find it convenient to place a specimen label in the individual
specimen tray for each shell. The primary labeling, however, will be the
catalogue number marked in India ink on each specimen. Slugs and
cephalopods demand a different technique. Drown slugs in a bottle of
warm water, brimful and tightly closed. Leave them in the water about a
day without disturbing, so the animal will not contract. Transfer to 70%
ethyl alcohol for a few days. Change the alcohol as it becomes diluted by
body fluids. Then preserve in 80% alcohol. Kill cephalopods in 30%
40% alcohol, adding it slowly at first to narcotize the animal. Transfer to
80% alcohol using plenty of it and changing it about three times because
of the volume of water in the animal. Preserve in 80% alcohol. Prepare the
specimen label in the usual way for immersion.
Echinoderms
Kill sea urchins and starfish in fresh water. Leave them for a few hours,
then transfer to ethyl alcohol starting with 30%-40% and working up to
70% for preservation. Kill brittle stars in 70% alcohol. Change the solu
tion to maintain its strength and preserve in 70% alcohol. Preserve sea
cucumbers in 70% alcohol also, but they must be anesthetized to prevent
contraction, and special care taken to counteract the large volume of water
in their bodies. Place the specimen label, prepared for immersion, in the
container with the specimen.
Coelenterates
To kill jellyfish and other coelenterates in a relaxed condition, add for

malin to the water, little by little. Preserve in a solution of 1 part commer
cial formalin to 20 parts water. Insert the label in the container as
previously described.
For the continuing care of biological specimens in the collection, see
Chapter 4.
The alcohol used to prepare and preserve specimens should approximate
the recommended percentages. If it is too weak, the specimens will decay;
if too strong, the tissues become hard and brittle. Check the strength of the
mixture with an alcohol hydrometer graduated in percentages. The follow
ing dilution table may help in preparing the desired strength:
95% alcohol to 85% add 13 volumes of water to 100 of alcohol (v/v).

80% add 21
75% add 30
70% add 39
60% add 63
50% add 96
40% add 144
30% add 224
10% add 856
Some workers use isopropyl alcohol as a less expensive substitute for

ethyl alcohol, but others have found it an unsatisfactory replacement as a
long-term preservative.
Identifying and Authenticating Specimens
The curator’s final step in preparing specimens for the collection is to

identify them. Little or no use can be made of an object in research or
interpretation until you know what it is. Therefore, identify each specimen
as completely and accurately as possible. Anyone soon reaches the limits of
his own expertness, however. So when personal experience, the available
reference books, and opportunities for comparisons have been exhausted,
consider the determination of the object as still tentative. Have a specialist
in that particular category of objects confirm, refine or correct it.
The procedure for obtaining expert determinations of natural history
objects begins with selecting the expert. Choose someone who is an ac
knowledged authority on the group of specimens concerned. As the next
step, write to the specialist and obtain his permission before sending him
the specimens for identification. He may welcome the opportunity to be
helpful and to study material from your particular area. On the other hand,
what he is asked to do requires considerable time and work. Consequently,
it is customary in some fields of natural history for the specialist to keep
part or all of the material sent to him for determination. That is why two
specimens of a plant growing in the same colony should be collected if
possible. Press both, mount one for the herbarium, and send the other
unmounted to the expert. He sends you the name of the plant, and keeps or
discards the specimen. In the case of other natural objects clarify in ad
vance, usually by correspondence, the situation in regard to duplicate
specimens. Because the specimens of park museums are ordinarily govern
ment property, any duplicates he wishes to keep would be recorded as on
indefinite loan. Pack the specimens carefully so the specialist receives them
in good condition. Include all the data about each object that will help or
interest him as he studies it. Try to make it as easy as possible for him to
repack and return the objects safely. Be sure to record his name as iden
tifier in the catalogue.
Follow the same procedure to obtain expert identification of excavated
Indian material. Archeologists rarely ask to retain any of the specimens
sent to them, however. If they do find need for a specific duplicate, they
presumably will initiate the request for it.
The identification of historical artifacts may be more difficult. It is
harder to find people who have won scholarly recognition as authorities on
these objects. For park museums most of the historical specimens sooner or
later will be sent to the central museum staff for preservative treatment or
to be incorporated in an exhibit. At that time the staff can help secure
expert identification of the artifacts, if necessary by consulting curators in
other museums or similar outside experts. A copy of the catalogue record
for each specimen should be sent along with it for amplification or correc
tion if the park desires such assistance. The procedures for historical ma
terial apply generally to ethnological specimens as well.
With many historical objects there is the added problem of authentica
tion. The history of a specimen must be verified. Was it really made in this
community or by that craftsman? Did it really belong to this person or play
a part in that event? Such questions may be crucial in the decision to
acquire the object, as well as in making use of it. To answer them satis
factorily requires all the pertinent information that can be gathered. The
data must then be weighed and sifted, rigorously applying the rules of
evidence as in a court of law. The evidence, the reasoning and the conclu
sions, should be recorded so they will remain available for review by others
in the future. Before acquiring any object of questionable authenticity, accept
it on approval. Then submit it for critical examination by experts. If the
specimen is already in the collection, evaluate its authenticity along with
identifying it. The experts will need all the information about the object
that can be supplied. When authentication is needed by a park museum,
object and data are referred to the curators on the central staff.
Even after the specimens in the collection have been identified and
authenticated by specialists, welcome revisions and refinements by other
bona fide experts, and record them in the museum catalogue. Be sure to
record the name of the expert too.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Organic Material
Rice, James W. “Principles of Textile Conservation Science, No. II: Practical

Control of Fungi and Bacteria in Fabric Specimens,” Textile Museum
Journal, I:1 (November 1962), pp. 52-55.
. “Principles of Textile Conservation Science, No. XI: Requirements for
Bulk Storage Protection Against Insect Damage,” Textile Museum Journal,
II:4 (December 1969), pp. 31-33.
Yadon, Vernal L. “A Portable Fumigation Chamber for the Small Museum,”
Museum News, 44:5 (January 1966), pp. 38-39.
Waterlogged Specimens
Albright, Alan B. “The Preservation of Small Water-Logged Wood Specimens

with Polyethylene Glycol,” Curator, IX:3 (1966), pp. 228-234.
Ambrose, W. “Freeze-drying of Swamp-degraded Wood,” Conservation of
Stone and Wooden Objects, London. International Institute for Conserva
tion of Historic and Artistic Works, 1970, pp. 53-57.
Christensen, B. Brorson. “Developments in the Treatment of Waterlogged Wood
in the National Museum of Denmark During the Years 1962-69,” Con
servation of Stone and Wooden Objects. London. International Institute
for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1970, pp. 27-44.
Eriksen, E., and S. Thegel. Conservation of Iron Recovered from the Sea. Royal
Danish Arsenal Museum Publication 8. Copenhagen. Nordlunde, 1967.
McKerrell, Hugh, Elisabeth M. Roger and Andre Varsanyi. “The Acetone/
Rosin Method for Conservation of Waterlogged Wood,” Studies in Con
servation, 17:3 (August 1972), pp. 111-125.
Muhlethaler, Bruno. Conservation of Waterlogged Wood and Wet Leather.
Paris. Editions Eyrolles, 1973.
Munnikendam, R. A. “Conservation of Waterlogged Wood using Radiation
Polymerization,” Studies in Conservation, 12:2 (May 1967), pp. 70-75.
Oddy, W. A., and P. C. van Geersdaele. “The Recovery of the Graveney Boat,”
Studies in Conservation, 17:1 (February 1972), pp. 30-38.
Organ, Robert M. “Carbowax and Other Materials in the Treatment of Water
Logged Paleolithic Wood,” Studies in Conservation, 4:3 (August 1959),
pp. 96-103.
. “Polyethylene Glycols in the Treatment of Waterlogged Wood: Some
Precautions,” Studies in Conservation, 5:4‘ (November 1960), pp. 161-162.
. Design for Scientific Conservation of Antiquities. Washington. Smith
sonian Institution Press, 1968, pp. 14, 136-138, 291-314, 422.
Pearson, C. “The Preservation of Iron Cannon after 200 Years under the Sea,”
Studies in Conservation, 17:3 (August 1972), pp. 91-110.
Rees-Jones, Stephen G. “Some Aspects of Conservation of Iron Objects from
the Sea,” Studies in Conservation, 17:1 (February 1972), pp. 39-43.
Rosenqvist, Anna M. “The Stabilization of Wood Found in the Viking Ship of
Oseberg—Part II,” Studies in Conservation, 4:2 (May 1959), pp. 62-72.
Seborg, Ray M., and Robert B. Inverarity. “Conservation of 200-year-old

Water-logged Boats with Polyethylene Glycol,” Studies in Conservation,
7:4 (November 1962), pp. 111-120.
Smith, James B., Jr., and John P. Ellis. “The Preservation of Under-Water
Archeological Specimens in Plastic,” Curator, VI:1 (1963), pp. 32-36.
Tomashevich, G. N. “The Conservation of Water-Logged Wood,” Problems of
Conservation in Museums, Paris. Editions Eyrolles. London. George
Allen & Unwin Ltd., pp. 165-186.
Rapidly Deteriorating Objects

Keck, Caroline K. How to Take Care of Your Pictures: A Primer of Practical
Information. New York. Doubleday & Co., 1958, pp. 38-40.
Plenderleith, H. J., and A. E. A. Werner. The Conservation of Antiquities and
Works of Art: Treatment, Repair, and Restoration. 2nd. ed., 2nd printing.
London. Oxford University Press, 1971, pp. 59-63.
Unesco. The Conservation of Cultural Property with Special Reference to Tropi
cal Conditions. Museums and Monuments—XI. Paris. UNESCO, 1968,
pp. 43-52.
For an introductory view of painting conservation, a highly specialized field,
see:
Keck, Caroline K. A Handbook on the Care of Paintings. New York. Watson
Guptill Publications for the American Association for State and Local
History, 1965.
Plenderleith, H. J., and A. E. A. Werner. op. cit., pp. 162-186.
Stout, George L. The Care of Paintings. New York. Columbia University Press,
1948.
Unesco. The Care of Paintings. Museums and Monuments_II. Paris. UNESCO,
1952.
Freshly Collected Biological Specimens

Anderson, Rudolph M. Methods of Collecting and Preserving Vertebrate Ani
mals. Bulletin 69. Biological Series 18. 4th ed. rev. Ottawa. National
Museum of Canada, 1965.
Anthony, H. E. The Capture and Preservation of Small Mammals for Study.
Guide Leaflet 61. 3rd ed. New York. American Museum of Natural His
tory, 1931.
Blake, Emmet R. Preserving Birds for Study. Fieldiana: Technique 7. Chicago.
Chicago Natural History Museum, 1949.
British Museum (Natural History). Mammals (Non-marine). Instructions for
Collectors 1. 6th ed. London. Trustees of the British Museum (Natural
History), 1968.
. Birds. Instructions for Collectors 2A. London. Trustees of the British
Museum (Natural History), 1970.
. Reptiles, Amphibians, and Fish. Instructions for Collectors 3. London.
Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History), 1963.
. Insects. Instructions for Collectors 4A. 4th ed. London. Trustees of the
British Museum (Natural History), 1963.
. Invertebrate Animals Other than Insects. Instructions for Collectors 9A.
2nd ed. London. Trustees of the British Museum, 1954.
. Plants. Instructions for Collectors 10. 6th ed. London. Trustees of the
British Museum (Natural History), 1965.
. Alcohol and Alcoholometers. Instructions for Collectors 13. 2nd ed.
London. Trustees of the British Museum, 1938.
Cantrall, Irving J. Notes on Collecting and Preserving Orthoptera. Compendium
of Entomological Methods II. Rochester. Ward’s Natural Science Estab
lishment, Inc., 1941.
Chapin, James P. The Preparation of Birds for Study. Guide Leaflet 58. 2nd ed.
New York. American Museum of Natural History, 1929.
Dawson, E. Yale. Marine Botany: An Introduction. New York. Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1966.
Emerson, William K., and Arnold Ross. “Invertebrate Collections: Trash or
Treasure?” Curator, VIII:4 (1965), pp. 333-346.
Forest Service. Handbook on Forest Service Plant Collections. FSH 4083.3.
Washington. Division of Administrative Management, Forest Service,
United States Department of Agriculture, 1966.
Franks, J. W. A Guide to Herbarium Practice. Handbook for Museum Cura
tors E 3. London. Museums Association, 1965.
Gray, Alice. How to Make and Use Safe Insect-Killing Jars. Direction Leaflet 1.
New York. American Museum of Natural History, n.d.
. How to Make and Use Insect Nets. Direction Leaflet 2. New York.
American Museum of Natural History, n.d.
. How to Collect Insects and Spiders for Scientific Study. Direction
Leaflet 3. New York. American Museum of Natural History, n.d.
. How to Mount and Label Hard-Bodied Insects. Direction Leaflet 4.
. How to Make and Use Spreading Boards for Insects. Direction Leaf
let 5. New York. American Museum of Natural History, n.d.
. How to Preserve a Collection of Soft-Bodied Insects and Spiders.
Direction Leaflet 6. New York. American Museum of Natural History,
n.d.
Hall, E. Raymond. Collecting and Preparing Study Specimens of Vertebrates.
Miscellaneous Publication 30. Lawrence. University of Kansas, 1962.
Hower, Rolland O. The Freeze-Dry Preservation of Biological Specimens.
Proceedings of the United States National Museum, Volume 119, no. 3549.
Washington. Smithsonian Institution, 1967.
. “Advances in Freeze-Dry Preservation of Biological Specimens,”
Curator, XIII:2 (1970), pp. 135-152.
Klots, Alexander B. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects. Rochester.
Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, Inc., 1932.
Knudsen, Jens W. Collecting and Preserving Plants and Animals. New York.
Harper & Row, 1972.
Lawrence, George H. M. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. New York. Macmillan
Company, 1951, pp. 234-262.
Lucas, Frederic A. The Preparation of Rough Skeletons. Guide Leaflet Series 59.
Mahoney, R. Laboratory Techniques in Zoology. London. Butterworth, 1966.
Oman, P. W., and Arthur D. Cushman. Collection and Preservation of Insects.
U. S. Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publication 601. Washing
ton. Government Printing Office, 1948 (reprinted 1964).
Owen, G., and H. F. Steedman, “Preservation of Molluscs,” Proceedings of the
Malacological Society of London, 33:3 (December 1958), 3 pp.
Ross, H. H. How to Collect and Preserve Insects. Circular 39. Urbana. Illinois
State Natural History Survey Division, 1966 (8th printing).
Savile, D. B. O. Collection and Care of Botanical Specimens. Publication 1113.
Ottawa. Research Branch, Canada Department of Agriculture, 1962.
Smithsonian Institution. A Field Collector’s Manual in Natural History. Pub
lication 3766. Washington. Smithsonian Institution, 1944.
Traver, Jay R. Collecting Mayflies (Ephemeroptera). Compendium of Entomo
logical Methods I. Rochester. Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, Inc.,
1940.
Wagstaffe, Reginald, and J. Havelock Fidler, eds. The Preservation of Natural
History Specimens. New York. Philosophical Library and London.
H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., I. Invertebrates, 1955, II. Zoology: vertebrates.
Botany. Geology, 1968.
Identifying and Authenticating Specimens
The tentative identification of specimens, especially by the curator in a small

museum, frequently depends on comparing them with published descriptions,
illustrations and taxonomic keys. These descriptive materials occur in many
kinds of publications including popular field guides, AASLH technical leaflets,
special interest or professional periodicals, monographs and scholarly catalogues.
They are too numerous and varied in scope to permit useful listing here. For
biological and geological specimens the appropriate curator in the nearest large
public or university museum of natural history can recommend books or
separate articles on the kinds of objects from the geographical areas involved.
To identify historical artifacts start with the references in:
Rath, Frederick L., Jr., and Merrilyn Rogers O’Connell. Guide to Historic
Preservation, Historical Agencies, and Museum Practices: A Selective
Bibliography. Cooperstown. New York State Historical Association, 1970,
pp. 118-184.
Update these by consulting the book review section of Museums Journal and
Museum News. Additional references on aspects of identification or authentica
tion include:
Anthony, Pegaret, and Janet Arnold, Costume: A General Bibliography. Lon
don. The Costume Society, 1966 (reprinted 1968).
Brown, Lewis S. “Two Small Bronze Horses,” Curator, XII:4 (1969), pp.
263-292.
Bulletin of APT, quarterly, Association for Preservation Technology, Box 2682,
Ottawa.
Costume, annually, Costume Society, Victoria and Albert Museum, S.W. 7,
London.
Ekholm, Gordon F. “The Problem of Fakes in Pre-Columbian Art,” Curator,
VII:1 (1964), pp. 19-32.
Furniture History, semi-annually, Furniture History Society, Victoria and Albert
Museum, S.W. 7, London.
Guldbeck, Per E. The Care of Historical Collections: A Conservation Hand
book for the Nonspecialist. Nashville. American Association for State and
Local History, 1972, pp. 33-46.
Keck, Caroline K. “Technical Assistance: Where to Find It, What to Expect,”
Curator, VIIII3 (1965), pp. 197-211.
Olsen, Stanley J. “The Archeologist’s Problem of Getting Non-artifactual Ma

terials Interpreted,” Curator, II:4 (1959), pp. 335-338.
Thornton, Peter. “English Furniture Studies Today and Tomorrow,” Museums
Journal, 65:3 (December 1965), pp. 195-203.
Zigrosser, Carl, and Christa M. Gaehde. A Guide to the Collecting and Care of
Original Prints. New York. Crown Publishers, Inc., 1965.
Chapter 4 Caring for a Collection
Museums gather objects of many kinds. Some of these, such as the

Liberty Bell, Washington’s inaugural costume and the artifacts of the Eng
lish settlers at Jamestown, have transcendent importance in themselves.
Others are simple everyday objects which reflect aspects of the past. Still
others record and verify research. All are alike in requiring constant care to
preserve them. Metals corrode; paints, dyes and inks fade; cloth, hides and
wood are subject to insect and rodent attack; and many other hazards
threaten the survival of museum specimens. None will last forever, but with
proper attention you can enable specimens to endure for centuries to come.
It is the obligation of a museum to make sure that they receive this care.
Basic Steps
Whoever acts as curator of the collections, regardless of position title,

must do four things regularly and without fail:
1. See that each specimen entering the collection is properly prepared
for preservation.
2. Place the object in a safe environment.
3. Inspect it periodically.
4. Provide it repeated preservative treatment as necessary.
The first step involves the various procedures discussed in Chapter 3,
Preparing Specimens for the Collection. Chapter 3 limits its concern to the
kinds of objects needing treatment immediately upon receipt. In addition
the collection probably contains artifacts which are not deteriorating rap
idly enough to create an emergency. Nevertheless, these specimens ordi
narily need cleaning, repair and protective coating or other initial
preservative treatment, perhaps including restoration. The best treatment
to apply varies with the nature and condition of each object. Choosing the
right materials and methods, and knowing just how fast or how far to
proceed, requires trained judgment and skill. Specialized knowledge rather
than haste is paramount. This is why park museums rely on centralized
62
treatment by experienced conservators in most cases. The museum informs
the regional curator of all untreated artifacts in its care. Depending on the
particular situation, directions will be provided for shipping specimens to
the central laboratory or to another approved conservation laboratory for
treatment, or a conservator will visit the park to work on the objects there,
or detailed instructions will be given for treating them locally. Essentially,
the treatment involves removing dirt or other deleterious foreign matter
from the specimen by methods that do no harm to the object itself. Then,
the specific causes of deterioration are removed or counteracted. Broken
parts are reattached and weak points strengthened. In some instances,
further treatment restores the object to the condition or appearance it had
when originally in use.
The standard reference for the care of artifacts is Harold J. Plenderleith
and A. E. A. Werner, The Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art:
Treatment, Repair, and Restoration, 2nd ed., 2nd printing, London, Ox
ford University Press, 1971. See also the bibliography on care of collec
tions at the end of this chapter. Whenever possible, however, make use of
trained conservators to provide the skills and equipment required. The
safest way to find a qualified expert is to consult a Fellow of the Inter
national Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. Any
curator concerned about the care of his collections can apply for associate
membership in IIC, and can become a well informed layman in this field by
reading the IIC publications. Most conservators in the United States and
Canada also belong to the American Institute for Conservation of Historic
and Artistic Works. Curators can become associate members of AIC and
receive its bulletin.
To execute the second step, placing the specimen in a safe environment,
implies protecting it as fully as practicable from the numerous agents of
deterioration and destruction. The factors involved and recommended
methods are discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter.
Inspection, the third step, is a vital responsibility. Examine every speci
men in the collection at regular intervals. The frequency of inspection may
vary with the nature of the material and the adequacy of storage facilities.
If the collection is carefully filed in cabinets, racks and shelving of proper
design and quality, and in a secure room with good control of light, tem
perature and humidity, inspection can ordinarily be timed as follows:
Geological specimens, ceramic, glass and well treated metal—once a
year
Specimens subject to insect attack or mold—every six months
Specimens preserved in liquid—every six months.
When storage conditions are less than ideal, check the objects oftener.
Specimens on exhibition also need more frequent examination. In addition
to daily inspection of exhibits through the glass, open the cases every three
to six months for a closer look at any specimens susceptible to light, mold,
63
insects or corrosion. The act of inspection consists of searching for evi

dences of deterioration in each specimen. It is necessary to know what may
attack the object and what the agent and its effects look like. See the
section on Agents of Deterioration below.
The fourth step becomes essential because several kinds of objects re
quire periodic treatment to assure their continued protection. As soon as
the effects wear off, they must be processed again. The following list is not
exhaustive but includes the commoner situations needing step 4:
Herbaria—renew continuous fumigant in each cabinet every three to six
months depending on the chemical used and how often the cabinet is
opened, fumigate with an insecticide registered by EPA for museum use
(see Organic Material, Chapter 3) at least once a year.
Insect collections—renew continuous fumigant in each drawer every
three to six months, fumigate with an insecticide registered by EPA for
museum use if any infestation occurs.
Study skins—renew continuous fumigant in each drawer every three to
six months, fumigate with an insecticide registered by EPA for museum use
if any infestation occurs.
Specimens preserved in liquid—add enough alcohol of the proper strength
every three to six months to keep specimens submerged. Sealing the jar
top in place with clear silicone rubber aquarium cement reduces the rate of
evaporation.
Metal artifacts—avoid touching the metal with bare hands, e.g., by
wearing gloves, and wipe clean after each handling; renew protective cover
ing as needed.
Leather artifacts (except rawhide and buff leather)—remove adherent
dust and reapply British Museum leather dressing every year, treat with
potassium lactate solution every four years. Some conservators prefer lano
lin or a mixture of 40% anhydrous lanolin and 60% neatsfoot oil to the
British Museum formula for leather dressing because the latter tends to
remain tacky in the warmer climate of most American museums unless
applied as thinly as possible. National Park Service conservators overcome
the stickiness by applying a final thin coating of a harder microciystalline
wax having a melting point at 160°-180° F. (71°-82° C.).
Leather bookbindings--apply British Museum leather dressing, lanolin
or lanolin and neatsfoot oil every year, clean with saddle soap and treat
with potassium lactate solution every four years.
Paper—turn pages of exhibited books, even under ultraviolet filters,
every month watching also for evidence of fading, embrittlement or mold.
Textiles (especially wool) and artifacts containing hair, feathers, hide or
wood—renew continuous fumigant in each drawer and exhibit case every
three to six months, clean fabric when necessary.
Adjust the suggested frequency of treatment to fit observed conditions in
the museum.
Caring for a Collection 65
Choose as a continuous fumigant either paradichlorobenzene or di

chlorvos (2,2-dichlorovinyl, dimethyl phosphate). Paradichlorobenzene
has several advantages. It is both an insecticide and a fungicide. Its EPA
registrations adequately cover normal museum use. It is readily available.
You can use it with relative safety. On the other hand, it damages some
commonly used plastics and may cause some pigments, particularly red
browns, to fade. Many retail stores sell it as a household protection against
clothes moths. The white crystals sublime at room temperature changing
directly from a solid to a vapor which kills insects and molds. Use enough
to develop and maintain an effective concentration of the vapor (1 pound
per 100 cubic feet or 162 g per m3). For a Cornell insect drawer about .07
ounce (2 g) gives this proportion. Common practice would place about a
teaspoonful of the crystals in the smallest size pinning tray for each drawer
of an insect cabinet and renew the supply as the amount obviously dimin
ished. A standard specimen cabinet requires 3.2 ounces (90 g), an her
barium cabinet 2 ounces (57 g) and an average size exhibit case perhaps
1/2 pound (227 g). If the crystals do not disappear within a few months,
the temperature may be too cool for the gas to evolve at a rate to do much
good or the case may be exceptionally well sealed. Avoid prolonged breath
ing of paradichlorobenzene; heavy doses are harmful. Dichlorvos (e.g.
Vapona) protects the collection better from insect attack, but not from
mold. It becomes harmful to breathe in concentrations above 1 microgram
per liter of air. Being more nearly odorless, it should be used with greater
caution. The chemical is impregnated in a resin strip from which it slowly
evaporates. The product bearing EPA Registration No. 201-237, and re
ferred to as a military ministrip is the only form legally usable for stored
museum materials. Only government agencies may obtain it at present.
Since future registrations may make it more widely available to museums,
dichlorvos is cited as a possible alternative to paradichlorobenzene.
Protective coatings on metals likely to be encountered in step 4 include
waxes and lacquers. Iron and steel specimens often have a covering of wax.
The wax forms a barrier through which only small amounts of water vapor
and oxygen can pass. It therefore retards rusting. Microcrystalline waxes
provide the best protection, but hard paste wax such as Simoniz or Butch
er’s is also quite effective. First wipe off the old wax with Stoddard solvent.
Remove any rust that has formed under the wax. Use a mild abrasive such
as jewelers’ rubber erasure-like polishers, fine steel wool or 600 grit alumi
num oxide or emery paper (e.g. Tri-M-ite). If the object has rusted badly
since the previous treatment or is sweating, go back to step 1. Before
recoating be sure the specimen is clean and dry. For drying use a warm
oven or infrared lamp if the specimen permits, or dip it in acetone (a
highly flammable and toxic solvent to be used with caution). Paste wax can
be rubbed on with a cloth pad. Apply three coats, letting each dry for
about 1/2 hour before polishing. If the specimen is heat-dried, apply the
first coat while the metal is still warm. Microcrystalline wax needs to be
applied as a liquid or specially prepared as a paste. Melt the wax and dip
the specimen into it. Let the excess wax drain off. When the remaining wax
has set, polish it with a soft cloth. Or mix the microcrystalline wax care
fully with dipentene in a double boiler (5 parts wax to 8 parts dipentene).
Use an electric hot plate and work in a well ventilated space because the
solvent is flammable and toxic. Brush the resulting paste on the specimen,
covering the surface completely. After the solvent evaporates, polish the
wax with a soft cloth.
Silver, brass, bronze and copper may have a protective coating of lac
quer. When tarnishing occurs, remove the old lacquer with acetone using
proper safety precautions. Clean the silver, preferably with a chemical dip
used quickly and followed by thorough washing, or by placing it in an
aluminum pan and immersing it in a 5% solution of washing soda until the
tarnish disappears. The latter method requires a careful rinsing in running
water. Then polish the object with a soft cloth, being careful not to touch
the metal with bare fingers. When the specimen is dry and free of grease,
spray it with a tarnish inhibitor and recoat it with clear lacquer. Plastic
lacquers in aerosol cans (e.g. Krylon) may be used. To remove the tarnish
from brass, bronze or copper before washing, drying and relacquering, use
a gentle abrasive such as precipitated chalk or whiting in ammonia (e.g.
Noxon). Lead specimens may have a protective coating of wax. If powdery
lead carbonate has formed on the object, strip the wax with Stoddard
solvent. Remove the corrosion using, if possible, the ion exchange method
described on pp. 270-272 of Plenderleith and Werner (op. cit.). Then dip
the specimen in melted microcrystalline wax, handling it always with
rubber-tubing-tipped tongs to avoid touching the metal.
In the periodic cleaning of leather specimens, including bookbindings,
remove loose dust with a vacuum cleaner or by brushing. If the object is
still grimy and is not rawhide or buff leather, go over it with saddle soap on
a damp cloth. Wipe it carefully with a clean, soft cloth and let dry. When
ever you wash leather in this manner, follow with a potassium lactate
treatment to restore protective chemicals. Purchase from a library supply
company such as Technical Library Service or prepare a solution of potas
sium lactate (7%) and paranitrophenol (.25%) in distilled water
(92.75% ). The paranitrophenol acts as a fungicide to prolong the life of
the solution. Use a pad of absorbent cotton to apply the liquid, coating the
leather completely but not saturating it. Allow the specimen to dry. Then
apply one of the recommended leather dressings. Some conservators prefer
a mixture of 40% anhydrous lanolin and 60% neatsfoot oil for this pur
pose. The neatsfoot oil must be free of sulfur compounds, and this is hard
to assure even from reliable dealers. National Park Service conservators
therefore use laboratory grade anhydrous lanolin alone, obtainable from
chemical suppliers. The conservators dilute the lanolin with Stoddard sol
vent to a good working consistency. Apply this liberally with a cloth or

brush, but take pains to protect any paper or cloth parts of the object from
contact with the oils. Let the specimen stand for 24 hours. If necessary,
apply a second coat and allow a day for it to be absorbed. Then wipe off
any excess of the dressing with a soft cloth. Go over it again with a fresh
cloth. The other recommended formula, British Museum leather dressing,
can be obtained from chemical supply firms. It contains anhydrous lanolin,
an oil and wax. It is quite flammable, so observe fire precautions. Apply it
lightly and rub it into the leather with your fingers. After two days polish
with a soft cloth. If it remains tacky, add a thin layer of microcrystalline
wax with a 160°-180° F. melting point (71°-82° C.) rubbed on and
polished. In treating leather objects take special care in dressing hinges and
other parts that may receive extra wear. Portions of the leather that have
begun to powder have deteriorated beyond the point where these methods
can help. Specimens in this condition should fall again under step 1.
If fabrics are found to be dusty, vacuum clean or brush them gently
when it can be done without endangering the specimen. A moderately
weakened textile can sometimes be vacuumed safely by stretching plastic
window screen on a wooden frame, laying the specimen on this and cover
ing it with more screen. Textile specimens need to be washed or dry-cleaned
when a vacuum fails to remove the dirt. For this they should be re
considered under step 1. For specimens on exhibition as furnishings in
historic houses see Methods and Materials, Chapter 11.
Agents of Deterioration
To protect a collection intelligently and efliciently, you must know the

enemy. By understanding what factors endanger specimens and how these
factors operate, and by being able to recognize their presence or the condi
tions that favor them, a museum can combat them successfully. You are
almost certain to encounter the following destructive agents, and must be
continuously on guard against them.
Humidity
Water vapor in the air, and the liquid water which condenses from it,
form a potential hazard to museum specimens. Humidity affects objects
in several ways. Too low a relative humidity extracts water from some
materials, with resultant damage: paper, parchment and leather become
brittle; glue and paste dry out and lose adhesive power; even well-seasoned
wood in equilibrium with its normal environment will lose water and
may warp. When relative humidity is too high, many materials absorb
water. The water enters into degenerative chemical reactions, as in the
corrosion of metals. It also permits the growth of mold which digests

components of the specimen, and leaves disfiguring stains. It softens adhe
sives. Rapid changes in relative humidity cause hygroscopic materials to
swell and contract. Wood warps and checks. Oil paintings crack and flake.
If the object contains soluble salts, these dissolve, migrate and recrystallize
which may cause either chemical or mechanical damage.
When inspecting the collection, watch for the evidence of poor humidity
conditions. Mold appears as fuzzy patches growing on any organic material,
or as discolored spots on paper. Active corrosion forms encrustations on
metal. Paintings sag a little on their stretchers or become too taut. The
paint cracks, cups and begins to flake. Wood cracks, bends or twists.
Flakes crack off salt impregnated metal. These, however, are signs of dam
age already well under way. It is better to measure the relative humidity
and keep it within safe limits. As discussed below under Climate Control,
you should aim at maintaining the relative humidity between 40% and
60% with 55% as the target, except in semi-arid sections where hygro
scopic specimens, which absorb moisture from the air, have already
achieved equilibrium by gradually adjusting their water content to that of
the atmosphere which is at a lower percentage. Museums equipped to
maintain separate storerooms at the different levels of humidity ideal for
particular kinds of objects will have several target percentages.
Be sure you have protected all specimens from accidental contact with
liquid water. If overhead pipes or the roof spring a leak, as they almost
surely will someday; if rain should drive through a window broken in a
storm or inadvertently left open; if flooding is a possibility; have you
already provided a safe barrier between the potential source of water and
the collection?
Temperature
High temperature above 70° F. (21° C.) permit molds to grow if the
relative humidity is also high, and may speed up the life cycles of harmful
insects. Low temperature by itself does little or no damage to museum
specimens. Fluctuating temperatures, however, can be doubly destructive.
Matter tends to expand and contract as temperature rises and falls. When a
specimen incorporates two or more substances that respond to temperature
changes at different rates, dangerous strains can develop. Repeated freezing
and thawing may also do much damage to specimens having high water
content. A secondary effect of temperature variation is more often serious.
When temperature drops in a closed space, relative humidity rises, and vice
versa. To hold relative humidity within safe limits you ordinarily must
control the temperature as well. Try to keep it between 60° and 75° F. (16°
and 24° C. ).
In caring for the collection keep watch of temperatures along with
humidity. Be alert for the danger signals. When conditions are too warm,
look for mold on organic materials, especially in dark and poorly ventilated
places. If the temperature varies much beyond the recommended range,
check composite artifacts to see if the bond between materials is loosening.
Such specimens may include paintings, objects made of two or more kinds
of metal, or wood and metal combinations. However, if relative humidity
should fall below 45% in an area where sensitive materials such as paint
ings or furniture are stored or exhibited, try to raise it by lowering the
temperature. A 10° F. (6° C.) fall in temperature can result in a rise of
about 20% in relative humidity.
Light
The radiant energy of light absorbed by molecules of a specimen may
cause chemical changes that seriously damage the object. Organic materials
are most vulnerable, but even such seemingly inert substances as some
ceramics and glasses are affected. One familiar result is the fading of
colors. Less apparent is the weakening of fibers. Silk, for example, may
lose half its strength from less than a month of exposure to sunlight. Both
wave length and amount of light (as determined by the duration of ex
posure) influence the processes of degeneration. The shorter wave lengths,
especially in the ultraviolet range, possess the greatest photochemical activ
ity, but the visible spectrum also causes deterioration which increases with
the amount of light and the duration of exposure.
In checking the collection, make sure that organic materials not on
display are stored in darkness. Watch susceptible specimens on exhibition
for any signs of fading or of threads breaking. More important, use filters
to screen out the ultraviolet components of sunlight or fluorescent light,
limit the amount of illumination to 15 footcandles (150 lux) or less in
exhibits containing vulnerable specimens such as documents, textiles,
watercolors or biological specimens and keep the exhibit area dark when it
is closed to the public. See Garry Thomson, Conservation and Museum
Lighting, London, Museums Association, 1974.
Dust
Composed largely of minute mineral particles, dust is an abrasive. When

water condenses around the particles, some of them become active chem
ical agents attacking the specimens directly. Dust disfigures specimens by
soiling the surface, and its removal involves washing, wiping or shaking,
which accelerate wear and tear and increase the risk of physical damage.
Nearly all types of objects suffer to some extent if allowed to gather dust.
Again, prevention is better than treatment. Keep most specimens in dust
tight storage or exhibit cases. Provide dust covers of flame-proofed un
bleached muslin or polyethylene for objects stored on shelves or otherwise

exposed in storage. If plastic covers are used, be sure to allow enough
ventilation to avoid condensation. Check for accumulated dust, perhaps
with some form of “white-glove inspection”. Clean specimens by approved
methods before they get too dirty.
Chemical Air Pollution
Industrial fumes, motor vehicles exhausts and domestic heating

by-products contaminate the air with numerous chemical compounds.
These include, or combine to produce, sulfuric acid and other strongly
corrosive or oxidizing agents. Some of the pollutants attract water and so
facilitate harmful chemical reaction. Near the coast the air contains chlo
ride salts and other compounds. They are often highly corrosive. Inside
closed exhibit cases the air may be polluted by organic acids from inade
quately seasoned wood or by sulfur-containing solvents liberated from
unsuitable paints, textiles used for display backgrounds or foam rubber
gaskets. These pollutants can cause silver to tarnish, bright copper to dis
color, lead to become coated with a white powdery encrustation and leaded
bronze to grow crystals. Salts already present in porous specimens may
dissolve in condensed water, migrate outwards, crystallize and redissolve
with changes in humidity. Upon crystallization, the salts develop severe
pressures within the object. Thus, air pollution exposes many kinds of
museum objects to chemical and physical damage. Metals, stone and many
organic materials suffer attack, fabrics and leather especially.
Watch for rust or flaking in iron specimens, corrosive encrustation on
copper or lead and their alloys, heavy tarnishing of silver. Observe stone
objects for signs of flaking or crumbling. Look for evidence of rotting in
textiles, or of leather becoming brittle. If you have no convenient way of
determining the amount and kinds of air pollution in the museum, be
vigilant to detect its effect on specimens (but see fig. 14). In urban areas,
and elsewhere if conditions are bad, steps should be taken to clean and
filter the air as well as treating the specimens. Avoid using materials that
release harmful vapors in the construction of exhibit cases or storage
equipment. These include oak unless seasoned and thoroughly sealed with
paint, other inadequately seasoned woods, paints containing lithopone,
unpainted hardboard, acidic papers and plastics containing certain
plasticizers.
Mold
If the collection provides organic material to grow on and the humidity
exceeds 65% with a temperature 70° F. (21° C.) or above, mold (also
called mildew) can be expected. Mold spores are so fine, light and numer
ous that they occur practically everywhere. It has been estimated that
molds have destroyed more specimens than any other agency. Since the
mycelium (the usually unseen threadlike growing and feeding part) actu
ally dissolves and absorbs components of the specimens, it causes more
than superficial damage. Look for velvety patches or small areas of dis
coloration. See Rapidly Deteriorating Objects, Chapter 3 for emergency
treatment. Particularly avoid a warm, damp environment for specimens.
Insects
Some of the destructive species of insects, almost certainly, will get into
the collection sooner or later. The damage they do can be rapid and ir
revocable. Therefore, insect infestation is one of the real emergency situa
tions encountered in curatorial work. Insects attack, in some degree, all
specimens composed of organic materials. They eat the sizing on paper, the
glue in bindings and the paper itself. They devour cloth, hair, feathers.
They bore tunnels in wood. The insects wreaking havoc with your collec
tion may be larvae or adults, small or large, conspicuous or hidden. The
most common invaders include dermestid beetles, powder-post beetles,
clothes moths, silverfish and cockroaches.
To recognize infestation by the common insect pests, look for the follow
ing signs:
Dermestids
The carpet beetle and related species that attack a wide variety of mu
seum specimens are destructive as larvae. The adults are small, about 1/8
‘/16 inch long (3-5mm) and inconspicuous. The larvae are elongate-oval or
tapering and 1/4-1/2 inch (6-13mm) long (fig. 7), characterized by promi
nent reddish, brown or black bristles. The first evidence may be a cast
larval skin, visible on the white background of the specimen tray or the
case floor. A fine dark powder may collect below the point where a der
mestid is feeding. In insect collections this dust gathers at the foot of the
pin while the larva devours the body of the specimen. Infestation may be
detected through visible damage to an object such as holes in woolen
textiles, loose hair or pile, and wings or legs falling off mounted insects.
Powder-post beetles
Several species of wood-boring beetles attack the wooden parts of mu
seum specimens. The larvae do the damage, but you do not see them, and
rarely see the adults. Evidences of a powder-post infestation are the small
round or oval holes some species leave at the surface (fig. 8), and the fine
light powder that may accumulate below such openings, or that can be
shaken or tapped out of them.
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7
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Figure 7. Dermestid larvae, Anthrenus sp. Courtesy, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.
Figure 8. Wood infested with powder-post beetles
Figure 9. Clothes moths, Tinea pellionella. Courtesy, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
a. Adults and larvae.
b. Larval cases.
Manual for Museums
Figure 11
Figure 12a
Figure 12b
av‘
Figure 10. Silverfish, Lepisma sacclzarina. Courtesy, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Figure ll. Envelope damaged by silverfish. Courtesy, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Figure 12. Cockroaches, Blatta orientalis.
a. Adult. Courtesy, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology and Plant
Quarantine.
b. Egg case.
Manual for Museums
Clothes moths
You probably recognize and kill on sight the adult moth with its narrow,
buff-colored wings spreading about 1/2 inch (13mm). The larvae do the
actual feeding on hair, fur, wool, feathers or other animal fibers. They are
white grubs, about 1/2 inch long (13mm), with dark heads. They spin a light
colored web or case covering their bodies, and you may observe these before
seeing the insect itself (fig. 9). Moth holes and other damage caused by their
feeding may be all too evident unless you detect the infestation early.
Silverfish
These wingless insects which may be up to 1/2 inch long (13mm) have a
tapering shape and three prominent caudal “bristles” (fig. 10). Their bod
ies are covered with gray scales. At all stages of development they may be
destructive to paper specimens, bookbindings, rayon textiles and starch in
cloth. Most often their presence is detected by seeing a silverfish when a
light is turned on, a book opened or a specimen lifted. By closer inspection,
you can tell where size or paste has been eaten from the surface of paper.
In extreme cases the insects may have removed the entire surface including
any printing or lettering on it. This can be disastrous with specimen labels
as well as specimens (fig. 11).
Cockroaches
All five species that infest buildings are relatively broad, oval, flat,
brownish insects. They vary in size according to age and species, from
barely visible to 2 inches long (50mm). They eat many things, but are espe
cially destructive to bookbindings, any paper having paste on it, mounted
insects and some textiles. Roaches tend to feed at night and are most often
seen when a light is turned on. Look for them in dark crevices and other
hiding places during your inspections. Also watch for the characteristic egg
cases (fig. 12). Evidence of their feeding on paper specimens may resemble
the work of silverfish.
l To treat an insect infestation fumigate the affected specimens as de
l scribed under Organic Material, Chapter 3. Seal and fumigate with para
dichlorobenzene any specimen storage cabinets involved. Additional pre
ventive measures include keeping paradichlorobenzene crystals or
dichlorvos strips with all organic specimens, the use of insect-tight storage
l cabinets and rigorously good housekeeping. If infestations become fre
quent, have a professional exterminator treat the entire building by fumiga
tion or the application of residual insecticides sprayed or blown into the
spaces where the pests lurk. The exterminator should not apply any ma
terial directly to museum specimens.
Rodents
Mice, rats, squirrels and other small rodents that sometimes infest build
ings may attack museum collections. Because they can destroy numerous
specimens in a single night, their incursions call for emergency measures.
These animals may eat some kinds of organic specimens, and use others
for nest building. Prehistoric fiber sandals, for example, provide fine nest
ing material. So do textile specimens and paper, including specimen labels.
Watch closely for droppings, for signs of gnawing on vulnerable objects
and for the rodents themselves. Proper specimen storage cabinets, her
barium and insect cabinets, and most exhibit cases are designed to be
rodent-proof. Use traps or an EPA registered poison with prescribed safe
guards to eliminate infestations in the building.
Fire
Few museum specimens would survive a major fire, at least without

severe damage. Metal cabinets and shelving for specimen storage reduce
the amount of combustible material but transmit heat readily, and there
fore afford little protection. That also is why you need to keep the original
copy of the museum catalogue in a vault or wherever it will receive maxi
mum fire protection.
When inspecting collections, make sure that flammable materials do not
accumulate near the specimens. Do not let paints, solvents, packing ma
terials, lumber and cleaning materials be stored in the same room with the
objects. If small quantities of flammables are at hand for frequent use,
place them in special containers approved for fire protection. Stress good
housekeeping in the museum. Eliminate extension cords and any other
makeshift electric wiring. Work out with a fire protection expert the num
ber, kinds and proper location of fire extinguishers and who should be
trained to use them. Decide what specimens, if any, are so rare and valu
able that they should be evacuated from the building in case of fire. Mark
their location clearly, and work out a plan of action with the local fire
fighting organization. Study and apply the information contained in the
National Fire Protection Association publication, Recommended Practice
for Protecting Museum Collections from Fire (NFPA No. 911) and in
Appendix G.
Humans
Careless handling, malicious destruction and theft constitute the prin

cipal human hazards to the collection. Broken, bent, scratched, dented,
soiled or corroded specimens may result from careless handling. When
objects are dropped, piled together or leaned against something improperly,
damage may occur. Even nominally clean fingers leave a print of oil and
moist salts that can corrode metal. The dangers of handling are greatest
while you are transporting specimens within or outside the museum. Mali
cious damage tends to be unpredictable, but thieves usually steal objects
they hope to sell. Weapons, jewelry, small paintings and things associated
with famous names are most tempting.
In guarding against human destructiveness, do not curtail the legitimate
uses of the collection. By keeping a specimen in its individual chipboard
tray you can handle it more safely, seldom touching the object itself and
protecting it from accidental contact with other specimens in the same
drawer. Other types of properly designed specimen storage equipment also
help to minimize careless handling. They should eliminate the need to pile
objects together or lean them against one another. Strictly observe rules for
transporting specimens in the museum. For example, carry only one object
in your hands at a time. Keep one hand under the specimen. Do not lift a
specimen by protruding parts that might prove fragile. Place the object in a
padded tray for moving from room to room. If more than one are put in
the tray, use adequate padding to keep them from touching one another.
General rules for handling some kinds are given in Frieda Kay Fall, Art
Objects: Their Care and Preservation, La Jolla, Laurence McGilvery,
1973; and in Robert P. Sugden, Care and Handling of Art Objects, New
York, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1946. They can be readily adapted to
other types of specimens.
When specimens are shipped, pack them with special care. Ordinarily this
involves wrapping the specimen itself in white tissue paper fastened snugly
with masking tape (but being sure the tape does not come into contact with
the object), then surrounding the wrapped specimen with corrugated board
securely taped, then carefully wrapping the package in kraft paper, and
sealing it with tape. Pack the wrapped object in a box or tin can suitably
padded with shock absorbing material so that it “floats” with adequate
protection on all sides. If several specimens are shipped together, float each
one in its individual carton or can as described above and then carefully
pack several of these into a strong wooden shipping box or larger can with
adequate padding. Never, on the other hand, pack heavy objects in the
same shipping box with light or fragile ones. Whenever specimens are
packed for shipment, assume that the package will receive rough handling
en route despite precautionary markings. Figure 5 illustrates ways to pack
oil paintings for shipment, but especially valuable objects need to be kept
in a controlled environment en route (see Nathan Stolow, Controlled
Environment for Works of Art in Transit, London, Butterworths, 1966).
Caroline K. Keck, Safeguarding your Collection in Travel, Nashville,
American Association for State and Local History, 1970, may also help.
The materials used to pack specimens for shipment are selected to protect
them from physical damage in transit. Corrugated board, wrapping paper,
tape, padding and crating lumber may well have an acid content or other
properties that will harm objects left in contact with them. So unpack
specimens promptly on receipt, perhaps leaving the inner wrappings on for
a day or two to slow down the rate at which the objects take up or lose
moisture in their new environment.
National Park Service museums, like other museums, have experienced
thefts. The thieves have included an expert who removed a valuable speci
men from a case and left a cheap replica in its place, a disgruntled former
employee seeking revenge, a kleptomaniac, roving juvenile gangs, and un
scrupulous visitors pocketing souvenirs. The range of incidents emphasizes
the necessity for appropriate measures. The security of the collection de
pends first and last upon personnel. Someone obviously must become
aware of an act of theft or vandalism. Someone must prevent the offense or
restore the loss and, if possible, apprehend the offender. Many museums
lack the manpower to keep a continuous watch on the collections, but
much can be done to extend the effectiveness of the existing staff. Measures
to consider include protective operating procedures, detection devices and
alarms. Good judgment is necessary to determine what special protection,
if any, a collection warrants. The costs of security, which include staff time,
equipment installation and service charges, must be weighed against (1)
the monetary value of the specimens; (2) their scientific, historical or
interpretive importance; (3) the possibilities of replacement; and (4) the
reputation of the museum as a safe custodian of valuable property. In cases
where the money value of a specimen or collection predominates, the costs
of special protection over a 10-year period probably should not exceed the
replacement cost. The amount which may properly be spent to protect a
collection of primarily intangible value requires an administrative decision
in each case. The curator should recommend the best protection he can
justify and request funds to implement it.
No staff or budget should prove too small to maintain the following
standard procedures if the collection contains tempting material that would
be difficult or expensive to replace:
1. In writing, assign specific responsibility for the security of the collec
tions to one staff member. Give him authority and responsibility to depu
tize and train another reliable staff member to perform the security func
tions when he is not on duty.
2. Have him provide a thorough check of the building at closing time
each day. He should make sure that all exhibit specimens are in their
proper places, no one has tampered with case or specimen fastenings, the
study collection area has been closed and locked, the original copy of the
museum catalogue is locked in a fire-resistant safe, all unauthorized persons
are out of the building, all doors and windows are securely locked, and
night lights are on.
3. Have him check the exhibits at opening time to be sure all specimens
are in place.
4. Give him adequate control over keys, after-hours entry and access to
study collections, remembering that these are for use.
5. In accordance with an operating plan worked out in advance, have
him establish and maintain contact with the police who will be called in
when trouble occurs.
6. Be sure the museum catalogue contains all the detailed information
needed to identify and establish ownership of a stolen object if it is
recovered.
. 7. Report any loss to the proper staff and police authorities immediately.
Some other preventive measures give additional low-cost but valuable
protection. Would-be thieves and vandals avoid well-lighted, plainly visible
areas. Good exterior lighting, especially at points of possible entry, helps
deter these people. Night lights in the lobby and hallways make it more
likely that someone may observe an intruder (but specimens which light
tends to deteriorate should not be subject to illumination at night). Land
scape planting and building design can eliminate, or at least minimize,
potential hiding places near doors and windows. Gates or chains can pre
vent driving a get-away vehicle conveniently close to the building.
Devices can be installed in the building to detect the presence or activity
of an intruder. In effect they extend the eyes and ears of the staff concerned
with protection. During open hours they can warn the attendant at the
information desk or the security officer that someone has opened an emer
gency exit, has entered a restricted area or is tampering with an important
exhibit. When the museum is closed, these devices can signal the opening
of a door or window, the movement of a person inside the building or the
touching of a specimen. They vary so widely in technical nature, cost and
suitability to a particular situation, that a museum needs expert advice in
making a wise choice. Invite several reputable companies to study the
problem and submit proposals for selection.
The detection device transmits its message to the person responsible.
Unless he receives it and acts promptly, the equipment is practically use
less. The continuous availability of a receiver—that is, a living person—
and the speed and effectiveness of his response are, therefore, key factors
in designing or selecting a system. A traditional burglar alarm using a loud
bell or horn on the outside of the building to alert anyone who happens to
be within earshot is of dubious value. The primary receiver should be the
museum’s protection staff, the responsible police headquarters or a central
station operated by the company installing the system. The device should
send its message when it detects intrusion, but also if a malfunction occurs
or someone tampers with it. Otherwise it might be out of order at the
crucial moment. All detection and alarm equipment requires regular expert
maintenance and periodic testing.
Detection Equipment
The types of detection equipment available include the following:
Devices to Detect Unauthorized Entry or Exit

1. Door and Window Switches. Opening the door or window makes or
breaks a built-in electrical contact which transmits a signal. This type
provides a relatively simple, inexpensive, reliable but strictly limited form
of detection.
2. Window Tape Circuits. A band of conductive tape glued to the inside
of the glass and connected to suitable terminals sets up an electrical circuit
around each window. If the tape is broken by removal or breakage of the
glass, the interruption of the current triggers a signal. Many store windows
have this protection. The tape is plainly visible, so an intruder knows what
to expect. Being obvious, the tape is esthetically objectionable in many
museum situations.
Devices to Detect Movement of Intruders Inside the Museum
1. Pressure Switch Pads. A thin plastic sandwich contains convex strips

of metal connected by fine wires. The plastic pad is hidden under carpeting
or floor mats. When an intruder steps on it, his weight flattens the curved
metal and makes an electrical contact. The current carries the signal. The
pads may be located inside points of entry, close to vulnerable exhibits or
throughout the museum. The pads are sturdy and moderate in price.
2. Sound Detectors. Sensitive microphones concealed at strategic points
in the museum react to even slight increases in the sound level by signaling
the principal receiver. He may then turn up the volume to determine what
caused the noise.
3. Ultrasonic Detectors. A centrally located device fills a room with
high frequency sound waves inaudible to most people. Any movement in
the area which interferes with the wave pattern activates a signal. This type
has been installed in some museums, so the waves may be completely
harmless to specimens although annoying or intolerable to some sensitive
ears.
4. Photoelectric Cells. Two kinds of detection systems depend on the
response of a photoelectric cell to changes in illumination. One uses beams
of light focused on a cell. By arranging the light beams so that anyone
moving from a point of entry to a vulnerable exhibit would cross a beam,
an intruder would interrupt the light causing the cell to send its warning
signal. A disadvantage of this method is the difficult of hiding the equip
ment so a thief will not be aware of the beams and perhaps avoid them. The
second type uses a photoelectric cell as in a light meter to detect any

changes in the overall illumination of an area. At night a match or flash
light will induce a signal; in daylight a passing shadow can activate the
cell.
5. Closed-Circuit TV. A number of large museums use TV cameras
mounted to scan the exhibit rooms so one man at a console can maintain a
watch over a wide area. This system is primarily for daytime use and has
the added disadvantage that the cameras must be at least partially exposed
to view and might give visitors an uncomfortable feeling of being watched.
Devices to Detect Attempts on Individual Exhibits

1. Pressure Switches. Electrical switches including small versions of the
switch pads described above can be mounted beneath or behind specimens.
The weight of the object or its pressure as mounted holds the switch open
or closed. A slight decrease in the pressure caused by someone trying to lift
or move the object activates the switch sending a signal.
2. Vibration Detectors. A relatively small electronic device can be at
tached to the back of some specimens and to the base or mounts of others.
Any attempt to move the object causes enough vibration to set off the
device which transmits the warning signal.
3. Capacitators. Devices which create an electrostatic field within a case
or around a specimen provide an “electronic fence”. Anyone reaching into
the protected area upsets the balance of the system which signals the
change even before the specimen is touched.
For more detailed information consult André F. Noblecourt, “The Pro
tection of Museums Against Theft,” Museum, XVII:4 (1964), pp.
184-196, 211-232 and other references on museum security cited at the
end of this chapter.
The planning and installation of security measures against theft and
vandalism should be correlated closely with fire protection. Dovetailing the
day-to-day procedures and the detection systems for security and fire pro
tection should increase the efficiency and economy of both.
Some museums have experienced disasters caused by human violence,
storms, fire or flood. Military action has ravaged many museums. A tor
nado heavily damaged the Kansas State Historical Society Museum and a
hurricane devastated the Jefferson Davis Shrine in Biloxi, MS. The Corning
Museum of Glass suffered a destructive flood. The list of fire-damaged
museums is long. Consider these risks seriously. Planning ahead can reduce
losses greatly. Measures may include keeping a copy of the museum cata
logue in a safe repository elsewhere, stockpiling materials that would be
needed to give emergency protection or aid salvage in the damaged struc
ture, training the staff for disaster duties and organizing procedures.
Climate Control
By keeping museum specimens in a suitable environment, you prolong

their existence and minimize the preservative treatment they need. Materi
als differ in their optimum humidity and temperature requirements. The
working comfort of the people who use the specimens must also be consid
ered, but is less critical than the welfare of specimens which could suffer
irreparable harm. Taking the variables into account, it has been determined
that the best attainable conditions for most museum collections comprise
the following:
Relative humidity 40 % -60 %
Temperature 60°-75°F. (16°-24°C.)
Light 15 footcandles or less, free of
ultraviolet (150 lux)
Air freed of as much dust and chemical
pollution as is practicable.
Museums should try to maintain this climate in the exhibit and study
collection rooms the year round. Special circumstances admit a few excep
tions, however. In semi-arid sections of the Southwest, for example, speci
mens have adjusted their water content in balance with a lower range of
moisture in the air. Museums in such dry areas may find it better to hold
the relative humidity as near 40% as feasible. Some park museums neces
sarily close during the winter, often becoming buried in snow. The continu
ous cold protects objects from insects and mildew and the snow denies
access to some other destructive agents, but humidity conditions may be
come detrimental, especially during thaws. A careful inspection with this in
mind, made when the museum is reactivated, may indicate future protec
tive measures. Fortunate museums that are far from industrial plants, traffic
congestion and sources of blowing dust, need not worry about purifying
the air.
The first step in climate control is to measure the temperature and
relative humidity of the air surrounding the objects in the collections, and
the amount of light that reaches them. The instruments used to determine
the relative humidity will also indicate the temperature. At least two kinds
are needed. As the basic instrument, use a battery operated aspirated
psychrometer (fig. 13a). This compact piece of equipment has a small
electric fan driven by flashlight batteries. The fan draws a uniform stream
of air over the wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers. As long as the wick is
clean, closely fitted to the thermometer bulb and never handled with the
fingers or eposed to blowing dust, distilled or deionized water is used in
the reservoir, and adequate battery power is maintained, the psychrometer
will provide accurate readings. Employ it to take periodic measurements of
relative humidity and temperature in the rooms as a whole, and in confined
a. Aspirated
psychrometer
b Hygrothermograph
Figure 13. Instruments for measuring relative humidity and temperature in museums.
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e. Paper hygrometer
spaces where poor air circulation may create different conditions. Use it
also to calibrate the second instrument. The psychrometer does not permit
you to measure effectively the relative humidity inside exhibit cases and
specimen storage cabinets where most objects are kept. For these situations
a hygrothermograph that will measure relative humidity and temperature
continuously for as long as a week, and record them by inked lines on a
chart is needed (fig. 13b). Set the hygrothermograph inside and close the
case. It will operate long enough to record the atmospheric conditions as
they settle down to normal after the opening and closing. The recording
instrument depends on a hair or synthetic fiber element that expands and
contracts as it absorbs or releases moisture. The element, however, tends to
accommodate to prevailing conditions so must be calibrated every few
weeks by comparing the reading with that of the psychrometer and making
any adjustments required. If the collections contain important or valuable
objects susceptible to damage by too much or too little moisture, measure
conditions continually. Do so especially if the local climate imposes severe
humidity conditions. Museums that face less critical climatic situations
should make occasional checks at different seasons to be sure that relative
humidity percentages really are not dangerous. Less expensive instruments
can be substituted, with some loss of convenience and accuracy. You can
use a sling psychrometer in place of the aspirator (fig. 13c), and a dial
type hair hygrometer which does not record, but can be read at regular
intervals (fig. 13d). A dial thermometer is often part of the same instru
ment. Paper hygrometers having dyed patches that change color at different
percentages of relative humidity provide another convenient check (fig.
13e).
To determine the amount of light striking the specimens use a light
meter. The ones intended for photographers give exposure readings so get a
meter which registers directly the footcandles or lux of incident light, for ex
ample GE Type 213 or others designed for measuring incident rather than
reflected light. (On a camera meter set at ASA100 and f4 the reading 1/4
second approximates 15 footcandles or 150 lux.) To obtain a measure
ment hold the meter close to the specimen without shading it and follow
the manufacturer’s instructions. Check the calibration periodically. If no
daylight enters the room, one set of readings should suffice until new
lighting fixtures are introduced. When natural light reaches the objects, a
series of measurements are needed to reveal the range produced by daily
and seasonal cycles, and by changing weather. Be sure that the light fix
tures and all transmitting or reflecting surfaces are clean, and that any
fluorescent tubes are relatively fresh when taking readings. A monitoring
instrument for measuring the proportion of ultraviolet in museum light has
been developed, but is necessarily expensive (see Garry Thomson, ed.
I967 London Conference on Museum Climatology, rev. ed., London, IIC,
1968, pp. 151-172).
A device for measuring the amount of some common air pollutants in

museums is available (fig. 14). You can also obtain impregnated paper
strips which change color in the presence of sulfur dioxide. Use one of
these means, if possible. Also watch for situations in the neighborhood that
might produce dangerous concentrations, and observe closely for sooty
deposits and other signs of air contamination.
The control of relative humidity in the museum may involve three ap
proaches, singly or perhaps in combination: condition the air and circulate
it through the museum; simply add water vapor to the air at one time and
extract it at another to counteract seasonal and day-to-day weather changes;
or buffer the humidity fluctuations that normally occur. The choice should
depend on such factors as the importance and susceptibility of the objects
being protected, as well as on cost. Air-conditioning, if it is designed and
operated in the interest of the specimens, provides the fullest and most
effective control. A good system should be able to hold both temperature
and relative humidity continuously within the safe limits defined above. A
problem occurs in freezing weather, however, because water vapor con
denses on the cold surface of windows and exterior walls even when the
overall relative humidity of the inside air is far below the desirable mini
mum. Condensation occurs on surfaces cooled to 35° F. (2° C.), for ex
ample, when the air-conditioning system is delivering air at relative
humidities of 30%-35% and 70° F. (21° C.). The resulting liquid water
damages or disfigures woodwork and structural members. Thus, in a cli
mate with cold winters, an air-conditioned museum must be particularly
well insulated and have double glazed windows in order to allow proper
humidity levels. It may also be desirable to use a vapor-barrier paint on the
inner face of exterior walls so water from the moist air in the building will
not get in and freeze. Another difficulty arises if the equipment is turned off
Figure 14. Testing kit for pollutant gases in the air. The device measures amounts of
sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide
in parts per million.
at night to save money. In the visitor center of one humid park this practice
not only permitted the relative humidity to climb too high overnight but
caused wide, rapid fluctuations each morning as the system resumed opera
tion. Humidifying equipment tends to give trouble unless supplied with
water nearly free of dissolved minerals.
If air-conditioning is impractical, use humidifying and dehumidifying
appliances in the museum rooms to raise and lower the relative humidity
before it exceeds safe percentages. In temperate climates, this usually
means operating the dehumidifier in summer when humid weather prevails
outside, and turning on the humidifier in winter to overcome the drying
effect of central heating. In both situations, control the equipment with
humidistats that will turn them on and off in response to significant changes
in the relative humidity of the room air. You will also need to keep a
hygrothermograph in operation, or a dial hygrometer under observation as
a check on the actual conditions the appliances create. If a dial hygrometer,
which is cheaper, is used, be sure to calibrate it regularly also (see
above). Portable dehumidifiers designed for household use serve the pur
pose adequately if fitted with humidistats. Some extract water by refrigera
tion. Others use silica gel and reactivate it automatically. In selecting a
humidifier, choose one that supplies water vapor by evaporation. Avoid for
museum use the kinds which create aerosol dispersions of water in the air
because they also may spread chemical impurities contained in the water
unless the water supply can be deionized economically. Units for home use
that combine dehumidification by refrigeration and humidification by
evaporation, both under humidistat control, work well, but must be switched
manually from one operation to the other. Evaporative humidifiers fall
off rapidly in effectiveness as the relative humidity of the air rises about
35% so extra units will be needed if 50% is actually to be achieved.
Small room dehumidifiers can be used to dry the air in individual exhibit
cases displaying valuable objects. This has worked well in the highly humid
and salt-laden atmosphere of some Atlantic coastal forts, for example,
where exposed metal specimens would visibly corrode overnight. In such
critical circumstances, a spare machine should always be at hand in case of
mechanical failure. Silica gel will serve the same purpose if a sufficient
quantity is exposed to the air inside the case and reactivated as often as
necessary. Silica gel is reactivated by heating it at about 400° F. (204° C.)
for several hours. By including a small amount of the gel treated with a
humidity sensitive blue dye it is easy to tell by the color (which turns pink)
when it needs baking. If you use indicator gel, limit the reactivating tem
perature to about 300° F. (150° C.). Higher temperatures blacken it ir
reversibly. Both the dehumidifying appliance and the silica gel method
require specially designed exhibit cases to contain but conceal the drying
agent.
When objects which require controlled humidity are kept in tight exhibit
or study collection cases, buffering may sulfice. Buffering depends on the

fact that a hygroscopic substance readily exchanges water vapor with the
air around it until its moisture content is in balance with the relative
humidity of the air. In this state the substance gives off or takes in moisture
whenever the relative humidity falls or rises. It thus tends to hold the
relative humidity close to the point of equilibrium. Therefore, if you can
condition such hygroscopic material to air at 55% relative humidity and
enclose enough of it in the case with the specimens, it will keep the case air
near the optimum percentage. For precise control you would need special
laboratory equipment to condition the buffer, since it must be held under
just the right atmospheric environment for several days. As an exception, a
particular silica gel such as Fisher S-699, when available, can be wetted
directly in order to introduce the required water. Follow the directions
given by R. M. Organ (Museum News, 51:3 (November 1972) p. 5). To
calculate accurately the amount of buffer needed to compensate for
changes in ambient temperature would require data on the hygroscopic
characteristics of the material. In less critical situations, take advantage of
the buffering effect without such precision. Silica gel is an excellent buffer.
Wood, cellulose fiber boards, newsprint, and cotton or linen cloth have
similar hygroscopic properties at a lower level of efficiency. These materi
als placed in a case tend to reduce the magnitude of relative humidity
changes. Use them particularly to supplement other control methods and to
protect specimens in shipment. Since wood, fiber board, and newsprint may
contain acids, the cloth offers a safer substitute for silica gel. Fresh wood
shavings, for example, can lead to corrosion in lead alloys and newsprint
can cause paper specimens to become brittle. To give some idea of effective
quantities, one successful installation reported in Technical Supplement 11,
Museum News, 44:6 (February 1966), used about 4 pounds of condi
tioned silica gel to every 3 cubic feet of air in the case (23 kg to 1 m3).
Care was taken to expose the gel as fully as possible to the case air.
Temperature control in an air-conditioned museum should give few
problems. Be sure, of course, that the system operates continuously to
maintain the stable environment needed for the specimens. If the museum
is not air-conditioned, there may be more difiiculty with temperature in
summer than in winter. Most central heating systems should permit, in the
cold months, room temperatures above 60° F. (16° C.) and well below
75° F. (24° C.) overnight and on weekends, as well as during working hours.
In summer you may have to depend on the judicious manipulation of
shades and ventilation to hold to a minimum periods when the temperature
in the museum exceeds 75° F. (24° C.). Shutting out as much as possible
of daytime heat, and letting in cooler night air, help the situation some.
Exhibit lighting should, of course, be outside the cases. Even so, check to
be sure that sufficient air and glass separate the light sources from the
specimens to prevent heating of the objects.
Control of light in a museum should protect the specimens from ultra

violet radiation and from too much exposure to the visible spectrum. Al
though the danger of ultraviolet could be eliminated by depending entirely
on incandescent lamps for illumination, most museums choose to cope with
it for practical and esthetic reasons. (Note that low voltage incandescents
and quartz-halide or other high efficiency incandescent lamps of high color
temperature may generate a little ultraviolet.) Museums usually want a
token amount of daylight, not to light the exhibits but to keep in touch with
the outdoors. The light contains much ultraviolet, but adds to visitor com
fort and pleasure. Many museums also prefer fluorescent lamps because
they generate less heat and cost less to operate. On the other hand, they
emit ultraviolet wave lengths. As a first step in control, minimize the
amount of ultraviolet coming from these two sources. Let no direct sunlight
reach a specimen. Use curtains, Venetian blinds, baffles, overhangs, plant
ings, or other means to moderate the amount of daylight entering the
rooms containing specimens, without cutting off a view or at least a sense
of the outdoors. If daylight is used to illuminate exhibits, be sure it is first
reflected and scattered from a wall or ceiling painted with zinc oxide or
titanium white. When a fluorescent tube burns out in a park museum, it is
replaced with a standard warm white lamp. White fluorescent tubes come
in at least seven color variations: white, soft white, warm white, deluxe
warm white, cool white, deluxe cool white, and daylight. Tests have indi
cated that the standard wami white lamps normally release substantially
less ultraviolet than the others. Diffusing louvres or screens also help to
lessen the intensity of ultraviolet reaching the objects.
A second step should be taken when an exhibit contains an important
specimen liable to photochemical damage. It should be shielded from all
ultraviolet radiation. The best method presently available filters out all
wave lengths of radiant energy below visible light by a chemical formula
tion in clear plastic, (e.g. Plexiglas UF-3). To filter out the ultraviolet com
ponents of all light reaching the object, cover it with a box made of this
highly transparent, almost colorless material. If there are several specimens
in the case to protect, and daylight is not involved, slip sleeves of the
plastic filter over the fluorescent tubes. Sheets of the filter material could be
used to cover windows or case tops, although it is hard to keep clean
without scratching. Plexiglas UF-3 has a slight color. For specimens in
which this would be objectionable use Plexiglas UF-1. It is colorless and
filters out almost all of the ultraviolet. Comparable protection can be ob
tained from some other films and tube sleeves having the same light trans
mittance characteristics. The effective life of available ultraviolet absorbing
materials is uncertain. So check the filters for ultaviolet transmittance or
replace them periodically. Checking requires the use of a special ultraviolet
meter.
l To protect specimens from an excess of visible light, control the amount
l
1
striking them. Limit the level of illumination and also its duration. Meas
ures for reducing the quantity of daylight in your museum are noted above.
If the light meter still shows more than 15 footcandles (150 lux) reaching
vulnerable objects, an exhibits specialist should collaborate on the neces
sary changes in number, voltage or distance of the light sources to retain
the proper display effect. Paper and ink may suffer particularly from ex
posure to light. Therefore, cover any valuable document on exhibition with
a clear yellow filter such as Plexiglas 2208. This cuts out the light waves at
the lower end of the visible band without affecting legibility. The remaining
light, however, can still energize photochemical deterioration, so turn the
pages of a book at least once a month. A single page document should not
ordinarily remain on exhibition. Show it on special occasions and substitute
a photocopy (identified as such) for everyday viewing. It is also good
practice to install a dense filter or opaque cover over especially susceptible
objects and let visitors lift it to examine the specimens. As another way to
minimize the time of exposure, provide a means for visitors to switch on
the case lights while using the exhibit. Consider some of these measures for
watercolors and textiles, which are vulnerable to photochemical action.
Air pollution presents another problem in climate control. If the mu
seum is air-conditioned, reasonable control can be achieved with care and
testing. The right kind of dry filter can remove 90% or more of the solid
particles. Avoid electrostatic filters for museum use because they tend to
add ozone to the air. Ozone is a strong oxidizing agent. The water spray
that washes and humidifies the air in the system takes out some of the
remaining solids and some of the gases. By making the water alkaline it
will remove more of the dangerous sulfur dioxide. Activated charcoal in
the system also eliminates some gaseous pollutants, but must be regener
ated periodically. Some museums without air-conditioning have reduced
dust in study collection storerooms by installing good quality dry filters in
the doors and any other air intake points. Another good practice is to dust
mop the collection storeroom floors gently the first thing each morning
after the dust has settled overnight.
Study Collection Space
Good management of a museum collection requires space for the prepa

ration, storage and study of specimens. Each of these functions calls for
specialized facilities. You cannot provide them all satisfactorily in a single
room. They share, however, the need to be together because each involves
the same objects and the same people. It is equally important to locate the
facilities close to the offices of staff members who must work on the collec
tion between other pressing duties, and who should oversee it when out
siders use the specimens.
Specimen preparation involves fumigating, cleaning and mounting. It
often produces strong, unpleasant odors as well as dust and waste matter.
It needs effective ventilation. It also requires lighting for close handwork.
In this space a staff member in the natural sciences, for example, makes
study skins, dries and mounts plants, pins insects or trims rock specimens.
An archeologist washes sherds, restores pottery or removes corrosion from
excavated metal. A curator of history cleans or treats a variety of artifacts.
The minimum equipment includes a fumigating chamber, a well lighted
work table, a laboratory sink with drainboards, hot and cold water, ade
quate electrical outlets and proper cabinets for the varied instruments and
the supplies which often include moderate quantities of flammable liquids
and poisons. The nature of the collection will dictate what other, more
specialized equipment you need. Although the disagreeable by-products
must be isolated, visitors find it fascinating and instructive to observe
specimen preparation in progress. In instances where the work goes on
much of the time, this interest may justify a viewing window from the
exhibit room or other public space.
The storage of specimens imposes different requirements. In this space,
especially, relative humidity and temperature need to be controlled; light
must be excluded from vulnerable specimens; objects should be protected
from insects, rodents and airborne pollution; fire needs to be guarded
against; and access must be limited. The next section of this chapter de
scribes the kinds of specimen storage equipment park museums use. To
calculate how much space should be reserved for this function, estimate the
number of cabinets and length of shelving needed to file the present collec
tion in a systematic and convenient manner and to provide for its planned
growth. Allow aisles 4 feet wide between rows of cases for safe handling of
drawers and large objects.
Using the collection in research demands room to spread out specimens
for comparison, to examine them closely, measure them, describe them and
draw or photograph them. Such work needs good light. The space should
also be well ventilated because some of the objects will reek with preserva
tives. Equip it with study tables at which to examine specimens critically
using microscopes or whatever other optical or measuring instruments are
required, and to record the results. Study tables are needed for as many
staff members and visiting specialists as are likely to use the collection at
the same time. Provide enough counter or tabletop space, in addition, to
lay out several drawers from specimen cabinets. Museum records will
probably be kept here in the study area, except for the original catalogue
that belongs in the vault. Ready access to a sink is desirable.
Specimen Storage Equipment
Park museums keep study specimens in the cabinets, shelf units or boxes
detailed below. Service-wide adoption of this equipment has had several
advantages. Every park obtains types that have been thoroughly tested and
proved effective and convenient, adds compatible units as the collection
grows, and swaps surplus units or parts with other parks. Familiarity with
the equipment carries over when staff members move from one park to
another. Standardization permits quantity buying with some savings in
cost.
Standard Specimen Cabinet (figs. 15, 16)

This tightly closing steel case practically excludes insects, rodents, light,
dust and room air. Therefore it is used for most museum objects including
study skins, geological specimens, archeological and ethnological materials
and historical artifacts. On the other hand for insect collections, herbaria,
zoological specimens preserved in liquid, framed pictures and documents,
as well as outsized objects, park museums use the cabinets or shelf units
described for these below. The standard cabinet is 29 inches wide ><
311%,; inches deep >< 36% inches high (736 >< 810 X 937mm). The
flat top provides a convenient, counter-height working surface, but cases
may be stacked two or even three high as the collection grows. The gas
keted front fastens with pressure catches or a locking mechanism to assure
tight sealing, and lifts free to provide easy access. Refrigerator type gaskets,
e.g. of butyl rubber, may retain a closer seal than the usual ones of
Figure 15. Standard specimen

storage cabinet showing two
types of doors. Both doors lift
off. Those on the left are also
hinged.
Figure 16. Standard cabinet with trays.
polyurethane foam, but all require replacement in time. The cabinet has
runners spaced 2 inches (50mm) apart to accommodate 16 shallow
drawers. By using fewer drawers you can space them to take taller or
thicker objects. Most parks find it satisfactory to order only 10 drawers per
case. Each drawer will support at least 50 pounds (22.5 kg) of specimens,
and will fit any case made to the standard specifications.
A case of similar construction but twice as wide would accommodate
hides of larger mammals or some of the bigger artifacts and still fit well
into a range or stack of the standard-size cabinets (fig. 17).
In using the standard cabinet, curators do not as a rule place specimens
directly in the metal drawer. They put each object in an individual chip
board tray and set the tray in the drawer. The tray protects the specimen
from rolling and bumping other objects as the drawer is slid in and out. It
minimizes specimen handling, makes arrangement more orderly and re
Figure 17. Double-size specimen cabinet.
arrangement easier. Each tray is lined with glazed, non-acid paper as a

further protection. Trays come in six sizes:
1. 11.7 >< 14.5 >< 1.5 inches (296 >< 368 >< 38mm)
2. 11.7 >< 7.25 >< 1.5 inches (296 >< 184 >< 38mm)
3. 5.85 >< 7.25 >< linch (148 >< 184 >< 25mm)
4. 5.85 >< 3.625 >< 1 inch (148 >< 92 >< 25mm)
5. 2.925 >< 3.625 >< 1 inch (74 >< 92 >< 25mm)
6. 2.925 >< 1.8 >< 1 inch (74 >< 46 >< 25mm).
A drawer holds from four to 128 trays depending on the combination of
sizes that suits the purpose. The trays should fit fairly snugly from side to
side but allow space from front to back for inserting wooden blocks to
carry group labels. When space in a drawer is left for later acquisitions, the
voids can be filled with empty trays turned upside down. This keeps the
ones containing specimens from sliding when you move the drawer.
Particularly in humid regions it is good practice to set the cabinets on
wood strips to allow air circulation between the case bottom and the floor.
Near the coast at least, it is also wise to wax such steel furniture as added
protection against rust. A steel cabinet does not protect its contents from
fire because heat transmitted through the metal will ignite flammable ma
terials inside.
Insect Cabinet (figs. 18, 19)
The cabinet itself provides a steel enclosure for 12 standard Cornell type
insect drawers. It resembles the standard specimen cabinet in construction
and affords essentially the same protection from destructive agents exclusive
of fire. It is 23%.; inches wide >< 20 inches deep >< 42% inches high
(589 >< 508 >< 1086mm). The top can be used as a work surface or the
cases may be stacked. The gasket-sealed front forms a removable door.
Many entomologists prefer the National Museum type insect drawers and
cabinet. This system of storage works in a similar manner but the compo
nents differ a little in dimensions.
The Cornell drawer is of wood construction with a removable glass
cover. The glass is held in a wooden frame fitted tightly over a flange on all
four sides of the drawer and held firmly in place by four brass hooks. The
drawer holds unit trays of chipboard having a special pinning bottom and a
glazed paper facing. These come in three sizes:
1. 4% >< 7%2 >< 1% inches (111 >< 184 >< 41mm)

2. 4% >< 32%2 >< 1% inches (111 >< 92 >< 41mm)
3. 41/8 >< 11%., >< 1.'/8inches (111 >< 46 >< 41mm).
From eight to 32 trays fill the drawer, leaving space for label blocks. All
the specimens of one species are pinned in a single tray. For exceptionally
large insects the drawer may have its own pinning bottom instead. In this
case a drawer ordinarily contains the specimens of a single species only.
The value of the case depends particularly on the tight construction of
the drawers and the close fit of their covers which should prevent such
pests as dermestids from reaching the specimens. So the sides are joined at
the corners with multiple mortise and tenon or dovetail joints, the 14,-inch
(3mm) tempered hardboard bottom is fitted and glued into a groove on all
four sides and the top has a polyurethane foam gasket as well as fitting
snugly over a rabbet all around.
Herbarium Cabinet (fig. 20)
This corresponds to the standard specimen cabinet in general construc

tion and protective features. Instead of drawers, however, it contains 12
fixed steel compartments to hold pressed plant specimens. The case is
29%2 inches wide >< 1825/82 inches deep >< 40 inches high (740 >< 477
>< 1016mm). It is counter-height and may be stacked. The door is gasketed
and removable. Each compartment is 12% inches wide >< 171/2 inches
deep >< 5% inches high (320 >< 445 >< 150mm). It will hold up to 80
standard herbarium sheets in genus covers, giving the cabinet a capacity of
over 900 specimens. The compartment partitions allow air circulation
within the case for fumigating.
Figure 18. Insect cabinet
Figure 19. Construction details of a Cornell type drawer made to National Park Ser
vice specifications.
Figure 20.
Herbarium cabinet.
Utility Cabinet
A common steel storage cabinet, 36 inches wide >< 18 inches deep >< 78
inches high (914 >< 457 >< 1981mm), with six adjustable shelves, provides
a convenient and economical unit for several categories of specimens. Park
museums use it for the jars holding reptiles, amphibians, fishes or inverte
brates preserved in liquid. These need protection from light but do not
require a highly dust-tight, insect-proof cabinet. If the jars tend to move on
the shelves because of vibrations from outside, a strip of self-adhesive
polyurethane foam along the front edge should prevent displaced jars from
tipping off when the cabinet is opened; or cover the shelves with sheets of
the somewhat more durable ethafoam. This cabinet can give some added
protection to manuscripts filed in the small document boxes described
below. Twenty-four to 63 can be stored per cabinet. To store long firearms
out of sight and under lock, remove the shelves from one of these cabinets
and build into it a wooden gun rack (fig. 21). The rack is designed so no
part of a weapon touches the metal of the cabinet. One cabinet holds eight
guns. Similarly, a wooden rack can be built to hold up to nine swords (fig.
22). The rack supports each sword by its hilt allowing the blade to hang
free. A hook beside each provides a place to hang its scabbard. A leather
scabbard, in particular, should not remain on the blade because it tends to
absorb moisture and hasten corrosion, but it is important to keep a sword
and its scabbard associated. Two sword racks fit into each cabinet. This
cabinet with the shelves removed and a coat rod added can be used to hang
costumes and uniforms if they are hung in echelon and not crowded. These
specimens must be further protected from dust and insects, however. If the
room is adequately air-conditioned, this can be done by sealing the speci
mens in polyethylene or polyester bags containing a 1-inch (25mm) strip
of dichlorvos impregnated resin. Unless temperature and relative humidity
are controlled, moisture may condense inside sealed bags. Under such
circumstances, use muslin dust covers, and replenish the fumigant in the
cabinet more frequently. Hangers should be specially padded and fitted to
give shoulders, and preferably waist, broad support (see illustration on p.
71, Dorothy H. Dudley and Irma B. Wilkinson, et al., Museum Registra
tion Methods, Washington, American Association of Museums and Smith
sonian Institution, 1968). For a preferred method of storing most costume
specimens see below (Document Boxes). A cabinet without shelves can
also be used to store some other textile specimens. The fabric can be rolled
in acid-free tissue paper on a cardboard cylinder several inches in diameter
or laid over two adjacent cylinders with its ends hanging free. Cover the
cardboard with Permalife or other acid-neutralizing paper stuck on with
BEVA adhesive or acrylic pressure-sensitive double-faced tape. A wooden
rod slipped through the cylinder can rest on notched members at the sides
of the cabinet held in place by the shelf supports (fig. 23). Muslin should
Figure 21. Gun rack.

a. In utility cabinet.
Construction details.
Construction details.
Figure 22 Sword rack

In utility cabinet.
Figure 23. Textile storage in utility cabinet.

cover the specimen to keep out dust. Suspend large rugs, flags or other flat
textiles too wide for the cabinet in the same manner with cylinders and
poles. Being more exposed they require especially vigilant care.
Steel Shelving
Objects too big or heavy for a standard specimen cabinet may be placed
on shelves. This method of storage provides no special protection from the
agents of deterioration. It economizes space, however, promotes order
liness and reduces the necessary handling of the specimens. For general
storage of oversized specimens plain skeleton shelving perhaps offers great
est flexibility. Park museums ordinarily use units 36 inches wide >< 24
inches or 36 inches deep (914 >< 610 or 914mm). These are available in
different heights; e.g., 6 feet 3 inches (1905mm) with 7 shelves, 7 feet 3
inches (2210mm) with 8 shelves, 8 feet 3 inches (2515mm) with 9
shelves and 9 feet 3 inches (2819mm) with 10 shelves. Too high shelves
would introduce handling risks, of course. Some situations call for back
and ends on the shelves.
To protect specimens on open shelves from dust, cover them with un
bleached muslin. Be sure to flameproof the cloth before using it. To do this
saturate the cloth in a solution of 10 ounces of borax and 4 ounces of boric
acid to 1 gallon of hot water (70g borax and 30g boric acid to 1 liter).
Squeeze out the excess lightly, but aim to let as much of the salts as
possible dry into the fabric. Wash the dust covers before they collect too
much dirt, and renew the flameproofing. Cloth is better than plastic sheet
ing for this purpose because it avoids the danger of moisture condensation
which might occur if trapped air were chilled.
Picture Racks (fig. 24)

The safest way to store framed pictures is to hang them on a metal mesh
panel. It permits free circulation of air around the paintings so both face
and back respond to the same atmospheric conditions, and it reduces the
danger to frames and glass. Allow room behind the screen, or mount it at
right angles to the wall so you can hang pictures on both sides of it. Park
museums are advised to use flattened expanded aluminum panels or prefer
ably welded square-mesh wire panels, and to replace the screw eyes on the
backs of the frames with hooked brass mirror plates which can be screwed
securely to the frame and hung directly on the storage screen. This avoids
loose hooks which could puncture a canvas or fall between canvas and
stretcher. If the collection is large enough to require several panels, obtain
screens designed for this purpose and mounted with overhead tracks about
18 inches apart. They can be installed in compact space and rolled out
individually.
Caring for a Collection 1 01
gm?“
2
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gag
E in
éj
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‘:1 f‘i
Figure 24. Storage rack for framed pictures.

Print Boxes (fig. 25)
To protect unframed prints, maps, drawings or watercolors, store them

in special containers called print or solander boxes. These boxes are con
structed of light wood covered with fabric and lined with an acid-free
glazed paper, or preferably acid-neutralizing paper to prevent accumulation
of acid vapors from the wood. A flange at the top and metal clasps keep
the container reasonably dust-tight and light-proof. The hinged back lies
flat when opened to permit safer, easier handling of the individual prints
stacked inside. In some cases, the front drops similarly. Print boxes come
in at least five standard sizes. Each of these provides an inside depth of
about 21/2 inches (64mm) to held 12-24 matted pictures. The other
dimensions accommodate the following mat sizes: 11 X 14 inches (280 X
355mm), 141/, X 19% inches (360 X 490mm), 16 X 22 inches (405
X 560mm), 19 X 24 inches (480 X 610mm), and 22 X 28 inches (560 X
710mm). Larger sizes for mats up to 36 X 42 inches (915 X 1065mm)
are available on special order. For added protection, park museums store
the standard size print boxes in the drawers of standard specimen cabinets.
Bigger ones are laid flat on shelves.
Before placing valuable prints, maps and similar specimens in a print
box have them mounted in standard window mats. A window mat consists
of two sheets of acid-free mat board composed of 100% rag fiber. The
specimen is mounted on the back sheet with two paper hinges at the upper
edge allowing an ample border of the backing sheet all around. The second
sheet is the same size as the back one and is fastened to it with a hinge
along the upper edge. It has an opening cut in it slightly smaller than the
specimen so it overlaps the latter a little on all sides. Lay a sheet of acid
free transparent paper directly over the specimen between the mat sheets to
protect the face of the object in storage. Glassine paper is often acid. “Matt
reflex” paper (e.g., Promatco) has tested acid-free. All the specimens in
one print box should have mats of approximately the same size and of a
proper size for the box to minimize slipping. Store less valuable specimens
of this type in print boxes or flat document storage boxes without mats, but
place each picture or map in an individual folder of acid-free buffered paper
(e.g., Permalife). Make the folder larger than the specimen and close to
the inside dimensions of the box. For fuller instructions see Anne F. Clapp,
Curatorial Care of Works of Art on Paper, 2nd rev. ed., Oberlin, Inter
museum Conservation Association, 1974, pp. 58-62, 67-68, 95.
Map File Cabinet

The collection may contain historic maps, prints or similar specimens
too large for even an outsized print box. Park museums store these in steel
map cabinets. These are five-drawer units with separate base and top. Two,
Caring for a Collection
Figure 25 Print bo x
three or even four of the drawer units will stack one above another with a
single base and top. Two units of drawers, with a base and top, make a
convenient combination.
A map cabinet affords less protection from dust and insects than a print
box. Therefore, do not use it in preference to the print boxes when the size
of a specimen permits a choice. All maps and prints stored in map cabinets
should be matted, or enclosed in individual folders of acid-free buffered
paper. If these large drawers are used to store textile specimens in order to
avoid folding the fabric, place each specimen in a folder of acid-free tissue
paper, and remember to take extra precautions against insect attack.
Document Boxes (fig. 26)

Protective containers for manuscripts and other documents come in two
conventional sizes: legal 151/, inches long >< 10% inches wide (387 ><
260mm), or letter 121/4 inches long >< 1014 inches wide (310 ><
260mm), and either 21/2 or 5 inches deep (63 or 127mm). Each box
holds up to 50 or 100 documents, unfolded and enclosed in individual acid
free paper folders (e.g. Permalife). The box is made of acid-free kraft
paperboard. It has a hinged overlapping cover, but does not close tightly
enough to exclude insects or be rated dust-tight. Park museums have used
similar boxes made of kraft paperboard lined inside and out with alumi
num foil. The aluminum reflects heat so efficiently that these light contain
ers protect their contents from fire if the exposure is not prolonged.
Unfortunately foil-covered boxes are available only if ordered in lots of
10,000 or more. As suggested above, the document boxes may be stored in
utility cabinets or, of course, on open shelves. Place the boxes so the
documents lie flat rather than standing on edge.
Manual for Museums
Figure 26. Document boxes.
Flat storage boxes made of the same acid-free stock and with plain,
removable covers provide good containers for documents larger than legal
size and, as noted above, for unmatted prints or maps. Available sizes
include 17% >< 111/2 >< 31/2 inches (438 >< 291 >< 89mm) and 20 ><
16 >< 31/2 inches (508 >< 406 >< 89mm). The buffered folders for individual
specimens should approximate the box dimensions to prevent sliding. Keep
these boxes in standard specimen cabinets or on steel shelving. If on open
shelves inspect the contents more frequently for dust, mold or insect infes
tation. Use these boxes for account books, scrapbooks, and other bound
volumes that should lie horizontal in storage, or fabricate boxes of acid
free buffered board to fit each volume as shown in Anne F. Clapp, op. cit.,
p. 92.
Larger boxes made to order of acid-free corrugated board in sizes up to
60 inches long >< 28 inches wide >< 6 inches deep (1524 >< 711 >< 153mm)
offer practical containers for storing costumes flat and unfolded. This puts
aged fibers under the least possible strain. Lay the garment in acid-free
tissue paper and use the tissue paper also to form pads in sleeves or
wherever else the threads might bend sharply. Enclose paradichloro
benzene (but not if patent leather or shellacked surfaces are present) or
dichlorvos in the box. Wrap the box in kraft paper and seal the wrapping
seams with tape. Mark the date of sealing on the wrapper to show when the
fumigant needs renewal. Then lay the box flat on steel shelving.
Central Repositories
Park museums regularly maintain their own basic study collections.

Experience fully justifies this standard practice. Specimens, as a rule, serve
the park better on site, and park staffs generally care for them well. How
ever, when a park has no space in which specimens can be safely kept, or
has no staff member qualified to take care of them, the collection needs to
be protected elsewhere. This is a temporary arrangement pending develop
ment of adequate facilities and staffing at the park. Archeological projects
often result in large collections which must be held for an extended period
before being culled. The volume of specimens may exceed available study
and storage space at the park. Central repositories provide a temporary
home for collections in such circumstances.
The National Park Service presently operates five central repositories for
museum collections: at the Arizona Archeological Center, the Chaco
Center, the Midwest Archeological Center, the Southeast Archeological
Center and the Harpers Ferry Center museum clearing house. The primary
function of the first four centers is archeological research. They neces
sarily maintain their own study collections continually used by the staff and
visiting scholars. The fifth is general and Service-wide in scope, but pri
marily concerned with interim storage, reassignment and disposal of speci
mens. When one of these centers is asked to take temporary custody of a
collection, part or all of which should someday return to the park, the
specimens do not ordinarily go into dead storage. The staff at the center
provides as complete curatorial service as circumstances permit. Specimens
may be stabilized, cleaned, restored if they warrant it, identified, cata
logued, photographed and described or illustrated in scientific publications.
They will be used as working components of the center’s research collec
tion as long as they remain at the repository. The park receives the three
copies of any catalogue records made for specimens to be returned, and the
center may retain a duplicate copy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Whoever has responsibility for the care of collections can turn for help to a
large and rapidly growing literature. Most curators will find it worthwhile to
keep at hand:
Thomson, Garry, ed. Control of the Museum Environment: A Basic Summary.
London. International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic
Works, 1967.
Curators in charge of artifacts should be conversant with:

Plenderleith, H. J., and A. E. A. Werner. The Conservation of Antiquities and
Works of Art: Treatment, Repair, and Restoration. 2nd ed., 2nd printing.
London. Oxford University Press, 1971.
The following aids provide good access to the specialized literature on object
conservation:
Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts, semi-annually, Institute of Fine Arts,
New York University, for the International Institute for Conservation of
Historic and Artistic Works, 1 East 78th Street, New York 10021 or IIC,
608 Grand Buildings, Trafalgar Square, London WCZN SHN.
IIC Abstracts, Abstracts of the Technical Literature on Archaeology and the
Fine Arts, semi-annually 1955-1965 when succeeded by AATA, Inter
national Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, London.
Gettens, Rutherford J., and Bertha M. Usilton, comps. Abstracts of Technical
Studies in Art and Archaeology I943-1952. Freer Gallery of Art Occa
sional Papers, 2:2, Smithsonian Publication 4176. Washington. Smith
sonian Institution, 1955.
Thomson, Garry, ed. Cumulative Index: Studies in Conservation, Volumes
1-12, 1952-1967. London. International Institute for Conservation of His
toric and Artistic Works, 1969.
Usilton, Bertha M., comp. Subject Index to Technical Studies in the Field of the
Fine Arts. Pittsburgh. Tamworth Press, 1964.
Professional journals concerned with the scientific conservation of artifacts
include:
Bulletin of the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic
Works (formerly Bulletin of the American Group—IIC), semi-annually,
Conservation Center, Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, 1 East
78th Street, New York 10021.
Studies in Conservation, quarterly, International Institute for Conservation of
Historic and Artistic Works, 608 Grand Buildings, Trafalgar Square,
London WC2N SHN.
Technical Studies in the Field of the Fine Arts. Fogg Art Museum, Harvard
University, Cambridge, 1932-1942.
The IIC also organizes international conferences to help conservators and

curators keep abreast of current research and practice. It has published the
papers presented at each, either as preprints or as edited records of the pro
ceedings. These include:
Thomson, Garry, ed. Recent Advances in Conservation. Contributions to the
IIC Rome Conference, 1961. London. Butterworths, 1963.
IIC, ed. 1964 Delft Conference on the Conservation of Textiles. Collected
Preprints. 2nd ed. London. International Institute for Conservation of His
toric and Artistic Works, 1965.
Thomson, Garry, ed. Contributions to the London Conference on Museum
Climatology, 18-23 September 1967. Rev. ed. London. International
Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1968.
IIC, ed. Preprints of the Contributions to the New York Conference on Conser
vation of Stone and Wooden Objects, 7-13 June I970. London. Interna
tional Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1970.
IIC, ed. Conservation of Paintings and the Graphic Arts. Preprints of Contribu
tions to the Lisbon Congress 1972, 9-14 October 1972, London. Inter
national Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1972.
Most of the references which follow address themselves to curators rather
than conservators:
Basic Steps
Clapp, Anne F. Curatorial Care of Works of Art on Paper. 2nd rev. ed. Oberlin.
Intermuseum Laboratory, 1974.
Colbert, Edwin H. “Old Bones, and What to Do About Them,” Curator, VIII:4
(1965), pp. 302-318.
Coremans, Paul. “The Museum Laboratory,” The Organization of Museums:
Practical Advice. Museums and Monuments—IX. Paris. UNESCO, 1960,
pp. 93-118.
Cunha, George Martin and Dorothy Grant Cunha. Conservation of Library
Materials, I, 2nd ed., II. Metuchen. Scarecrow Press, 1971, 1972.
Daifuku, Hiroshi. “Collections: Their Care and Storage,” The Organization of
Museums: Practical Advice. Museums and Monuments—IX. Paris.
UNESCO, 1960, pp. 119-125.
Dolloff, Francis W., and Roy L. Perkinson. How to Care for Works of Art on
Paper. Boston. Museum of Fine Arts, 1971.
Dowman, Elizabeth A. Conservation in Field Archaeology. London. Methuen
Co. Ltd., 1970.
Drost, William E. “Caring for Clocks,” American Association for State and
Local History Technical Leaflet 47, History News, 23:9 (September 1968).
Emerson, William K., and Arnold Ross. “Invertebrate Collections, Trash or
Treasure?” Curator, VIII:4 (1965), pp. 333-346.
Fales, Mrs. Dean A., Jr. “The Care of Antique Silver,” American Association
for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 40, History News, 22:2
(February 1967).
Giffen, Jane C. “Care of Textiles and Costumes: Cleaning and Storage Tech
niques,” American Association for State and Local History Technical
Leaflet 2, History News, 25: 12 (December 1970).
Glover, Jean M. Textiles: Their Care and Protection in Museums. Information
Sheet 18. London. Museums Association, 1973.
Greathouse, Glenn A., and Carl J. Wessel, eds. Deterioration of Materials:
Causes and Preventive Techniques. National Research Council, Prevention
of Deterioration Center. New York. Reinhold Publishing Co., 1954.
Guldbeck, Per E. “Leather: Its Understanding and Care,” American Association
(April 1969).
. The Care of Historical Collections: A Conservation Handbook for the
Nonspecialist. Nashville. American Association for State and Local History,
1972.
Harding, E. G. The Mounting of Prints and Drawings. Information Sheet 12.
Horton, Carolyn. Cleaning and Preserving Bindings and Related Materials.
2nd ed. rev. Conservation of Library Materials, LTP Publication 16.
Chicago. Library Technology Program, American Library Association,
1969.
Kane, Lucile M. A Guide to the Care and Administration of Manuscripts. 2nd

ed. Nashville. American Association for State and Local History, 1966,
pp. 41-49.
Klapthor, Margaret Brown. Laundering Fragile Cotton and Linen Fabrics.
Washington. National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1961.
Keck, Sheldon. “A Little Training is a Dangerous Thing,” Museum News, 52:4
(December 1973), pp. 40-42.
Leene, Jentina E., ed. Textile Conservation. Washington. Smithsonian Institu
tion Press, 1972.
LeGear, Clara E. Maps: Their Care, Repair and Preservation in Libraries. Rev.
ed. Washington. Map Division, Library of Congress, 1956.
Malinowski, Kazimierz, ed. Conservation of Metal Antiquities. Warsaw. Scien
tific Publications Foreign Cooperation Center of the Central Institute for
Scientific, Technical and Economic Information, 1969.
McHugh, Maureen Collins. How to Wet-Clean Undyed Cotton and Linen. In
formation Leaflet 478. Washington. Textile Laboratory, Museum of History
and Technology, Smithsonian Institution, 1967. Rev. ed. in prep.
Merrill, William. “Wood Deterioration: Causes, Detection and Prevention,”
American Association for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 77,
History News, 29:8 (August 1974).
Minogue, Adelaide E. The Repair and Preservation of Records. Bulletins of the
National Archives 5. Washington. Government Printing Office, 1943.
Organ, Robert M. Design for Scientific Conservation of Antiquities. Washing
ton. Smithsonian Institution Press. London. Butterworths, 1968.
Ostroff, Eugene. “Conserving and Restoring Photographic Collections,” Museum
News, 52:8 (May 1974), pp. 42-45.
Peterson, Harold L. Bibliography on the Preservation of Museum Specimens.
Washington. National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1961. Rev. ed.
in prep.
“Conservation of Metals,” American Association for State and Local
History Technical Leaflet 10, rev. ed., History News, 23:2 (February
1968).
Santen, Vernon, and Howard Crocker. “Historical Society Records: Guidelines
for a Protection Program,” American Association for State and Local His
tory Technical Leaflet 18, History News, 27:9 (September 1972).
Smith, C. Lavett. “Maintaining Inactive Fish Collections,” Curator, VIII:3
(1965), pp. 248-255.
Thomson, Garry. “Planning the Preservation of Our Cultural Heritage,” Mu
seum, XXV:l, 2 (1973), pp. 15-25.
Tribolet, Harold W. “Rare Book & Paper Techniques,” American Association
for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 13, rev. ed., History News,
25:3 (March 1970).
Unesco. The Conservation of Cultural Property with Special Reference to
Tropical Conditions. Museums and Monuments—XI. Paris. UNESCO,
1968.
Van Gelder, Richard G. “Another Man’s Poison,” Curator, VIII:1 (1964),
pp. 55-71.
Waterer, John W. A Guide to the Conservation and Restoration of Objects
Made Wholly or in Part of Leather. London. G. Bell & Sons, 1972.
Werner, A. E. A. “The Care of Glass in Museums,” Technical Supplement 13,
Museum News, 44:10 (June 1966), pp. 45-49.
Wilson, William K., and James L. Gear. Care of Books, Documents, Prints and
Films. National Bureau of Standards Consumer Information Series 5.
Washington. Government Printing Office, 1971.
Winger, Howard W., and Richard Daniel Smith, eds. Deterioration and Preser
vation of Library Materials. Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1970.
Zigrosser, Carl, and Christa M. Gaehde. A Guide to the Collection and Care of
Original Prints. New York. Crown Publishers, Inc., 1965, pp. 99-117.
Zwiefel, Richard G. “Guidelines for the Care of a Herpetological Collection,”
Curator, IX:1 (1966), pp. 24-35.
Agents of Deterioration and Climate Control

References on organisms attacking museum specimens include:
Deschiens, Robert, and Christine Coste. “The Protection of Works of Art in
Carved Wood from the Attacks of Wood-eating Insects,” Museum, X:1
(1957), pp. 55-59.
United States Department of Agriculture. How to Prevent and Remove Mildew:
home methods. Home and Garden Bulletin 68. Rev. ed. Washington.
Government Printing Office, 1971.
. Protecting Woolens against Clothes Moths and Carpet Beetles. Home
and Garden Bulletin 113. Rev. ed. Washington. Government Printing
Office, 1971.
. Silverfish and Firebrats. Leaflet 412. Rev. ed. Washington. Govern
ment Printing Office, 1974.
. Cockroaches: How to Control Them. Leaflet 430. Rev. ed. Washington.
Government Printing Office, 1971.
. Controlling Wood-Destroying Beetles in Buildings and Furniture. Leaflet
558. Rev. ed. Washington. Government Printing Office, 1973.
For information on the effects of light see:

Brommelle, N. S. “Museum Lighting. Part 3: Aspects of the Effect of Light on
Deterioration,” Museums Journal, 62:1 (June 1962), pp. 337-346.
. “Museum Lighting. Part 4: Viewing the Object,” Museums Journal,
62:3 (December 1962), pp. 178-186.
. “The Planning of Museums and Art Galleries: Technical Services. Air
Conditioning and Lighting from the Point of View of Conservation. Mu
seum Lighting,” Museums Journal, 63:1 and 2 (June-September 1963),
pp. 32-42.
Cooper, B. S. “Fluorescent Lighting in Museums,” Museums Journal, 53:11
(February 1954), pp. 279-290.
Feller, Robert L. “Control of Deteriorating Effects of Light upon Museum
Objects,” Museum, XVII:2 (1964), pp. 72-98.
. “The Deteriorating Effect of Light on Museum Objects: Principles of
Photochemistry, The Effect on Varnishes and Paint Vehicles and on
Paper,” Technical Supplement 3, Museum News, 42: 10 (June 1964).
. “Control of Deteriorating Effects of Light on Museum Objects: Heating
Effects of Illumination by Incandescent Lamps,” Museum News, 46:9
(May 1968), pp. 39-47.
Genard, J. “Extreme Ultra-violet Radiation from Tubular Fluorescent Lamps
and its Effect on Museum Lighting,” Museum, V:1 (1952), pp. 53-58.
Hanlan, J . F. “The Effect of Electronic Photographic Lamps on the Material

of Works of Art,” Museum News, 48:10 (June 1970), pp. 33-41.
Lusk, Carroll B. “Museum Lighting III,” Museum News, 49:6 (February 1971),
pp. 18-22.
Stolow, Nathan. “The Action of Environment on Museum Objects, Part II:
Light,” Curator, IX:4 (1966), pp. 298-306.
Thomson, Garry. “Visible and Ultraviolet Radiation,” Museums Journal, 57:2
(May 1957), pp. 27-52.
. Conservation and Museum Lighting. Information Sheet 6. London.
The following sources concern fire protection, security and safe handling:
Bostick, William A. “What Is the State of Museum Security?” Museum News,
46:5 (January 1968), pp. 13-19.
Chapman, Joseph M. “Stepping Up Security,” Museum News, 44:3 (November
1965), pp. 18-21.
. “Fire,” Museum News, 50:5 (January 1972), pp. 32-35.
Fall, Frieda Kay. Art Objects, Their Care and Preservation: A Handbook for
Museums and Collectors. LaJolla. Laurence McGilvery, 1973.
Faul, Roberta, ed. “Your Security Questions Answered,” Museum News, 50:5
(January 1972), pp. 22-25.
Francis, Frank. “The Planning of Museums and Art Galleries: Security,” Mu
seums Journal, 63:1, 2 (June—September 1963), pp. 28-32.
Gossin, Francis. “A Security Chief Comments on Guards,” Museum News,
50:5 (January 1972), pp. 30-31.
Grossman, Albert J. “Television: Museum Watchdog,” Museum News, 44:3
(November 1965), pp. 22-24.
Howard, Richard Foster. Museum Security. Publications, new series 18.
Keck, Caroline K., Safeguarding your Collection in Travel. Nashville. American
Association for State and Local History, 1970.
, et al. A Primer on Museum Security. Cooperstown. New York State
Historical Association, 1966.
McQuarie, Robert J. “Security,” Museum News, 49:7 (March 1971), pp. 25-27.
Michaels, A. J . “Security and the Museum,” Museum News, 43:3 (November
1964), pp. 11-16.
National Fire Protection Association. Recommended Practice for the Protection
of Museum Collections from Fire. NFPA 911. Rev. ed. Boston. NFPA,
1974.
Noblecourt, André F. “The Protection of Museums Against Theft,” Museum,
XVII:4 (1964), pp. 184-196, 211-232.
Pakalik, Michael J. “Security and Protection in a Museum,” Curator, I:4
(1958), pp. 89-93.
Probst, Tom. “Electronic Eyes and Ears on Guard,” Museum News, 44:3
(November 1965), pp. 11-17.
—i. “Fire Detection/ Fire Protection,” Museum News, 44:9 (May 1966),
11-17.
Sugdsg, Robert P. Care and Handling of Art Objects. New York. Metropolitan
Museum of Art, 1946.
Weldon, Stephen. “Winterthur: Security at a Decorative Arts Museum,” Mu
seum News, 50:5 (January 1972), pp. 36-37.
Windeler, Peter. “Fire: Endangers the Past—for the Future,” Museums Journal,
70:2 (September 1970), pp. 69-71.
Air-conditioning in museums and exhibit cases is discussed in:

Amdur, Elias J. “Humidity Control-Isolated Area Plan,” Technical Supple
ment 6, Part II, Museum News, 43:4 (December 1964), pp. 58-60.
Beecher, Reginald. “Apparatus for Keeping a Showcase Free from Dust: An
Experiment at the Victoria and Albert Museum,” Museums Journal, 70:2
(September 1970), pp. 69-71.
Buck, Richard D. “A Specification for Museum Airconditioning,” Technical
Supplement 6, Part I, Museum News, 43:4 (December 1964), pp. 53-57.
Cameron, Duncan. “Environmental Control: A Theoretical Solution,” Museum
News, 46:9 (May 1968), pp. 17-21.
Douglas, R. Alan. “A Commonsense Approach to Environmental Control,”
Curator, XV:2 (1972), pp. 139-144.
Harvey, John. “Air-conditioning for Museums,” Museums Journal, 73:1 (June
1973), pp. 11-16.
Nelson, Elmer R. “Do We Understand Museum Air Conditioning?” Curator,
XI:2 (1968), pp. 127-136.
Oddy, W. A. “An Unsuspected Danger in Display,” Museums Journal, 73:1
(June 1973), pp. 27-28.
Plenderleith, H. J., and P. Philippot. “Climatology and Conservation in Mu
seums,” Museum, XIII:4 (1960), pp. 242-289.
Stolow, Nathan. “Fundamental Case Design for Humidity Sensitive Museum
Collections,” Technical Supplement 11, Museum News, 44:6 (February
1966), pp. 45-52.
“The Action of Environment on Museum Objects, Part I: Humidity,
Temperature, Atmospheric Pollution,” Curator, IX:3 ( 1966), pp. 175-185.
Werner, A. E. A. “Heating and Ventilation,” Museums Journal, 57:7 (October
1957), pp. 159-166.
Study Collection Space and Specimen Storage Equipment
Anon. “Solving Storage Problems,” Museum News, 41:4 (December 1962),

pp. 24-29.
Arnold, Janet. A Handbook of Costume. London. Macmillan, 1973.
Bartlett, John, and Norman Reid. “The Planning of Museums and Art Galleries:
Storage and Study Collections,” Museums Journal, 63:1, 2 (June-Septem
ber 1963), pp. 62-73.
Borhegyi, Stephan F. de. “Organization of Archaeological Museum Store
Rooms,” Museum, V:4 (1952), pp. 256-260.
Brawne, Michael. The New Museum: Architecture and Display. New York.
Frederick A. Praeger, 1965, pp. 192-195.
Buck, Anne. Costume. Handbook for Museum Curators D 3. London. Museums
Association, 1958, pp. 9-20.
Buechner, Thomas S. “The Open Study-Storage Gallery,” Museum News, 40:9
(May 1962), pp. 34-37.
Colbert, Edwin H. “Inexpensive Racks for the Storage of Large Specimens,”
Curator, IV:4 (1961), pp. 368-370.
Cox, Trenchard. Pictures. Handbook for Museum Curators D 1 & 2. London.
Museums Association, 1956, pp. 23-25.
Cranstone, B. A. L. Ethnography. Handbook for Museum Curators C 4. Lon

don. Museums Association, 1958, pp. 30-40.
Dunn, Walter S., Jr. “Storing Your Collections: Problems and Solutions,”
rev. ed., History News, 25:6 (June 1970).
Fikioris, Margaret A. “A Model for Textile Storage,” Museum News, 52:3
(November 1973), pp. 34-41.
Franks, J. W. A Guide to Herbarium Practice. Handbook for Museum Curators
E 3. London. Museums Association, 1965, pp. 7-10.
Gowers, Harold J. “A Storage Fitting for Arrows,” Museums Journal, 58:1
(April 1958), pp. 13-14.
Harrison, Raymond O. The Technical Requirements of Small Museums. Tech
nical Paper 1. Ottawa. Canadian Museums Association, 1969.
Harvey, Virginia I. “Space and Textiles,” Museum News, 42:3 (November
1963), pp. 28-33.
Hayes, P. A. “Storage Racks for Service Swords,” Museums Journal, 71:1
(June 1971), pp. 29-30.
Hughes, Olga. “Storage on a Shoestring,” Museum News, 51:3 (November
1972), pp. 37-38.
Lanier, Mildred B. “Storage Facilities at Colonial Williamsburg,” Museum News,
45:6 (February 1967), pp. 31-33.
Organ, Robert M. “The Safe Storage of Unstable Glass,” Museums Journal,
56:11 (February 1957), pp. 265-272.
Pinckheard, John, and Edward Pyddoke. “A System of Standard Storage,”
Museums Journal, 60:11 (February 1961), pp. 281-284.
Reynolds, Barrie. “Some Ideas on the Storage of Ethnographic Material,”
Museums Journal, 62:2 (September 1962), pp. 102-109.
Saltonstall, David. “The Brooklyn Museum Library of Paintings,” Curator,
X:3 (1967), pp. 248-252.
Stansfield, G. The Storage of Museum Collections. Information Sheet 10, 2nd
ed. rev. London. Museums Association, 1974.
Steel, C. A. B. “A System for the Storage of Mounted Birds,” Museums Journal,
70:1 (June 1970), pp. 10-12.
Sugden, Robert P. Safeguarding Works of Art: Storage, Packing, Transportation
and Insurance. New York. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1948, pp. 11-33.
Waddell, Gene. “Museum Storage,” Museum News, 49:5 (January 1971), pp.
14-20.
Central Repositories
Owen, David. “Care of Type Specimens,” Museums Journal, 63:4 (March
1964), pp. 288-291.
Swinton, W. E. Type Specimens in Botany and Zoology: Recommendations for
their Conservation in Natural History and General Museums. Paris.
International Council of Museums, 1955.
Chapter 5 Using Museum
Collections
All the curatorial tasks detailed in the preceding chapters culminate in

the utilization of the collections. You acquire, prepare and preserve speci
mens for people to use. The skill, patience and money invested in these
objects is justified by the use they receive. On the other hand, do not expect
that people will necessarily use the collections immediately or automati
cally. In fact, the most important utilization may come 50, 100 or 1,000
years hence. Then some of the specimens gathered and preserved with such
care will be rare indeed, and scholars will have new questions the collection
can help to answer. Meanwhile the present uses of the collection are impor
tant too, but they need to be encouraged and developed by active effort.
The following discussion suggests how.
Exhibition
One of the most important and characteristic ways in which museums

employ specimens is to exhibit them. People learn from exhibited objects.
At the simplest level, seeing an object makes actual the words we apply to
it. The word symbols with which we think and communicate acquire fuller,
more accurate meaning. Visitors can be told that the battle began with a
bursting shell from a 30-pounder Parrott rifle, but what can these words
convey to people who have never seen this kind of cannon and shell (fig.
27)? If other senses could be involved as well—letting visitors touch the
cannon barrel, feel the rifling, heft the shell, smell powder smoke or hear
the blast, the words would become still more meaningful. Rarely, however,
is a specimen exhibited just to give concrete meaning to its name. Dis
played in context, the object helps communicate ideas. You add to its
interpretive power in various ways. It is exhibited in a manner that shows
how it works or how people used it (fig. 28). It is placed with similar
objects to invite comparisons (fig. 29). It is grouped with the other things
that normally accompany it (fig. 30). Combined with labels, the object
becomes evidence supporting a conclusion (fig. 31), a symbol for a more
abstract idea (fig. 32) or a link with some person or event (figs. 33,
34).
113
Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 32
Figure 27. Parrott Rifle, 30-pounder, Fort McAllister, Ga. One of these heavy cannon fired the
opening shot at the first battle of Manassas. Its barrel is 11 feet long (3 36m)
Figure 28. Surveying the U.S.-Mexico boundary, Chamizal National Memorial, an exhibit of
instruments illustrating their use.
Figure 29. A rock fault exhibit, Pinnacles National Monument. It invites comparison between
two groups of rocks collected from opposite sides of the San Andreas Fault as proof of lateral
movement along the fault.
Figure 30. Participation exhibit, Rock Creek Nature Center, National Capital Parks West.
West. Objects exhibited as evidence—feathers on the ground—provide clues to an owl in the
neighborhood.
Using Museum Collections 115
I “Q
' 1 if ‘ Figure 34
Figure 31 Figure 33
Figure 31. Museum exhibits, Custer Battlefield National Monument. Objects related to one
another in their original use gain added meaning when exhibited together.
Figure 32. Museum exhibit, Fort Caroline National Memorial. A carved ivory madonna and
child and a 16th-century edition of Calvin’s Institutes symbolize divergent religious convictions.
Figure 33. Pistol used in the assassination of President Lincoln, Lincoln Museum, National
Capital Parks-West. This specimen is exhibited to bring visitors into closer touch with a
tragic event.
Figure 34. General Custer’s buckskin suit, Custer Battlefield National Monument. Objects
associated with historic individuals give viewers a stronger sense of historical events.
In addition to helping people understand, specimens on exhibition give

enjoyment. Some have esthetically satisfying or exciting form and color
(fig. 35). The strangeness of others stimulates pleasurable feelings of curi
osity. Visitors take comfort in familiar objects. A few specimens evoke
stronger emotions (fig. 36).
In developing the use of the collections, therefore, explore fully the
opportunities to exhibit specimens. Besides the regular “permanent” ex
hibits, consider the possibilities extending in at least two other directions.
Special exhibitions are an important auxiliary technique. Characteristically
short-term, they highlight seasonal changes, mark an anniversary, empha
size timely aspects of the museum’s theme, elaborate on a collateral inter
est, display recent acquisitions or encourage appropriate donations. Such
Figure 35. Basketry exhibited for aesthetic values, Indian Arts Museum, Colter Bay
Visitor Center, Grand Teton National Park.
exhibitions take time and money, but are justified when they give greater
depth and breadth to the interpretive program, increase community interest
and generate favorable publicity. If displayed too long, these exhibitions
lose much of their value. So schedule each one to last about a month. By
following it promptly with another special exhibition you can establish a
rotation of fresh, timely, significant displays using to good advantage speci
mens from the study collections and objects borrowed for the occasion.
The museum is not the only place to install special exhibitions. Often
stores, banks, schools, clubs or other institutions in the vicinity welcome
them. Even though such a special exhibition is temporary, adopt tech
niques and standards of presentation that will communicate with the visitor
and evoke desirable response. A poorly designed or crudely executed dis
play would not be worth the effort. Since other museums arrange special
shows, extend the use of your collection by lending them specimens for this
purpose when asked. Exercise good judgment in deciding when the hazards
to an important object outweigh the potential benefits of exhibiting it away
from the museum.
Figure 36. The Liberty Bell, Independence National Historical Park. It stirs the emo
tions of young and old.
The use of objects can also be extended by developing ways to bring

visitors into closer contact with them. To many of us the phrase “exhibit
specimen” connotes something visible—in a case—behind glass. Important
as this is, it is only one exhibit technique, and it utilizes only the visual
sense. The effectiveness of an exhibit can be enhanced, often to a dramatic
degree, by bringing into play as many as possible of the four remaining
senses: touch, hearing, smell and taste. Achieve multiple use of the senses,
for example, by letting visitors manipulate the specimen in the original
manner. Grinding, and then tasting, corn meal from a mano and metate,
writing with a quill pen or slate pencil, donning articles of clothing or
armor, and taking readings with old navigation instruments, have been
included in exhibits by imaginative interpreters. If such use might shorten
the life of a historic object, substitute a reproduction and tell why. Many
other ways of letting visitors handle some exhibit specimens safely and
instructively can be devised (fig. 37). Introduce appropriate odors in the
refurnished kitchen, the granary, the stable or the shop. Audio devices
may contribute the proper sounds for a specimen whether it is a rattlesnake
or a backsmith’s hammer. Going beyond exhibits, use specimens to illus
trate a talk or guided trip, passing sturdy objects around to be handled and
examined or merely holding them up and explaining them.
Figure 37. Beaver exhibit, Moraine Park Museum, Rocky Mountain National Park
The exhibit invites visitors to gain a better understanding of the beaver by the touchl
ing and feeling of specimens that can be replaced when they wear out.
You go a step further when the specimen is demonstrated. How the

object works and what it accomplishes is shown. The visitor sees, hears
and sometimes smells what goes on. Often he can try his hand, and he has
the. opportunity to talk with the knowledgeable demonstrator (fig. 38).
This may be the best way to interpret a complex specimen, or a group of
related objects like the tools of a trade. Many craft operations, however,
are too rapid for the eye to follow, so need supplementary visual explana
tion. Demonstrations may be operating continuously or may be scheduled

periodically. They may be conducted in the museum, on site or at a
specially prepared location. Good curators have concluded on the basis of
experience that as a rule demonstrations should employ reproduced objects
to save originals from inevitable wear and tear. An increasing number of
museums have adopted this as their policy.
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Figure 38. Learning how a specimen was used, Old Sturbridge Village. A visiting
student in the Museum shells corn with a reproduced flail like originals seen in exhibits
This manual does not discuss exhibit planning and preparation in any
detail, although exhibits comprise a vital aspect of museum work. In the
National Park Service, as is true of many museums, full-time planners,
designers, artists and craftsmen perform this work. Curators provide the
specimens and the expert knowledge about the subject matter. Then they
verify the absolute accuracy of the presentation. Quality standards dictate
such specialization. Public tastes and styles in design also change at a fairly
rapid rate. New materials continually become available to preparators. It
takes specialists to keep up to date. Nevertheless many curators in small
museums must create their own exhibits. They too can set high standards
and achieve results that serve their public well.
Curators who shoulder the task of producing exhibits with little or no
specialized assistance can help themselves in several ways. The references
cited at the end of the chapter will answer many questions on theory and
practice. So will exhibits observed in other museums. Many curators carry
a notebook or tape recorder and sketch pad or camera whenever visiting
museums. By keeping analytical notes on whatever aspects of exhibits seem
to work well or obviously fail, they build a stockpile of ideas and acquire a
vocabulary of exhibit methods. In addition the following may offer some
useful guidelines:
—Specimens form the core of almost every exhibit. They are what vis
itors come to see. Nevertheless, it is what the objects communicate to the
visitors that counts. In planning an exhibit the curator must decide what
the specimens should accomplish. Will he use them to attract attention,
stimulate a particular line of thought, transmit specific information, dem
onstrate a conclusion, arouse intended feelings or produce a combination
of such effects? It follows that each exhibit needs to start with a clearly
defined purpose. In national park museums defining objectives ordinarily
precedes the selection of specimens. Decide what the exhibit should com
municate before asking what do we have to exhibit.
—Museums have earned a considerable degree of public trust because
people can generally rely on what they see in the exhibits. It follows that
the planning of each exhibit should include a determination to make what
it communicates as nearly true and as completely unbiased as possible. The
evidence presented in the exhibit should enable the visitor to validate for
himself whatever statement it makes.
—Visitors are individuals. They bring to an exhibit a wide range of sizes
and ages, background information, personal interests, conceptual skills and
sensitivities. They cannot all react to the exhibit in the same way. Being
free agents they will respond in individual ways by choice as well. It
follows that the more thoroughly the curator understands the visitors to his
museum the better he can aim the exhibit to target their needs. What he
knows about the public will affect both the purpose and methods of dis
play. By observing visitors, listening to them and perhaps questioning them

he learns to create exhibits relevant to their points of view.
—Museum exhibits ordinarily occupy exhibit cases. There are good rea
sons why. A properly designed and well constructed case protects the
specimens from dust, insects, rapid changes in relative humidity, ultraviolet
radiation, handling and theft. A case that does all this tends to cost accord
ingly. On the other hand, cases do deny visitors the close contact with
objects often desirable. Some specimens do not need full protection. It
follows that the curator should use cases selectively, insisting on them
where really needed, dispensing with them where permissible and taking
active measures to compensate for the greater risks when he displays ob
jects in the open. When a curator must fabricate exhibit cases in the
museum, he should bear in mind the following considerations. Every joint
must be as tight as possible if the case is to exclude much dust or deter
insect attack. Gaskets of strips of felt poisoned with an insecticide or of
plastic foam can help make a case tight. As a rule no exhibit case should
have lighting units inside the space enclosing the specimens. Unless the
lights are outside and adequately ventilated, the heat they generate will
nullify efforts to dustproof the case or will harm the case contents. Case
lights should allow quick replacement of burned out lamps. Generally cases
that open from the front make exhibit installation and maintenance easier
than ones with back or side access. They also make it easier to replace
fumigants or humidity buffers. Build cases to be as unobtrusive as possible.
Visitors should hardly notice their presence while absorbing their contents.
—Specimens on exhibition usually require some kind of mounting. The
curator must fasten them to a background, rest them on a support or
perhaps suspend them in mid air. This aspect of exhibit preparation de
mands special care for two reasons. The safety and integrity of the objects
usually means that no adhesive will be applied to them, no holes drilled
into them and no pins, nails or screws pushed through them. The welfare of
the specimen dominates mounting decisions. Because it is continually
under critical inspection by visitors, the method of mounting should be
inconspicuous or very neatly executed.
—Few visitors know how to “read” objects. This is a skill for which
training is scarcely ever available. Viewers need help, particularly if you
want an object to say something specific. For this reason most good ex
hibits include various supplementary aids: pictures, maps, models and
especially labels. Their role is to bridge the communication gap between
the voiceless specimen and the visitor. It follows that these elements re
quire careful selection or design to fit them for specific purposes. A map,
for example, may relate an object to a place. Is the map simple enough for
visitors to understand? Does it really show where the place is in relation to
places they know? Does it introduce problems of orientation or scale? Is it
detailed enough to answer the geographical questions the exhibit is likely to
raise? Would a reproduction of a map contemporary with the object add

more meaning than one drawn just for the exhibit? The choice of pictures
raises similar questions. A picture that shows the use or setting of a speci
men as seen through the eyes of an artist of the same period has more
validity than one drawn for the exhibit. An explanation of some special
feature of construction or function may call for a sketch or diagram made
to illustrate this one point. A photograph may provide more convincing
evidence than an artist’s impression. Models involve questions of accuracy,
clarity and scale. Each supporting element of the exhibit merits careful
thought.
—To write a good label stretches the verbal skill of any curator. Visitors
with the best of intentions find it hard to read exhibit labels. It is physically
tiring to read while standing, especially when the varying heights and dis
tances require holding one’s head at unaccustomed angles and changing
focus frequently. Age and bifocals compound the difliculty. There are men
tal obstacles too. Other elements in the exhibit compete for attention.
Other visitors distract. It follows that labels need to be as readable and as
legible as possible. Readability ranks first. A good label must say signifi
cant things in ways that capture attention and interest. It should also be
short. The factors that discourage label reading increase with every added
line. Some museums feel that any label longer than 25 words needs special
justification. The inclusion of a donor’s name ordinarily weakens a label.
Strive to make every label accurate, clear, interesting and brief.
—A well-written label next needs production in a highly legible form.
This involves questions of size, spacing, letter design and color. If a mu
seum can afford to have a skillful and sensitive printer handset and print its
labels, it can achieve the finest in legibility. For the curator who must make
his own, several practical alternatives enable him to produce labels of ac
ceptable quality. The results will depend largely on his patience. He can
use a typewriter with carbon ribbon to make a clear, sharp-lined copy. This
can be enlarged photographically to legible size. He can buy sheets of
letters printed on clear plastic with a pressure-sensitive adhesive on the
back. With these he can set up the label one letter at a time. He can also
buy individual letters die cut from cardboard or cork and letters cast in
various plastic materials; or he can cut or cast them himself. These find use
in titles particularly. Templates and special pens used by draftsmen permit
him to letter by hand in an acceptable manner. Using stencils and an
electrical tool he can rout the words into wood, plastic or sheet aluminum.
He can produce labels by the silkscreen process, either cutting the stencil
by hand from carefully traced letters or making it photographically. Most
of these alternatives give him scope to use big or bold letters for headings
and key ideas, and suggest less emphasis by smaller or lighter type. Such
methods offer the curator no easy answer, but leave little excuse for poor
legibility.
—The curator working without a staff of artists and craftsmen need not
aspire to sophisticated design or complex construction. He should set stan
dards of clearly defined exhibit purposes linked to well understood com
munity needs, of specimens thoughtfully selected and safely and
sympathetically installed, of logical arrangement, of neatly finished work
manship, of first-class maintenance. Then he should take time to observe
the exhibit in use, identify its weak points and devise ways to improve
them.
Reference
Specimens not on exhibition comprise the study series. As the term

implies, the objects are used by studying them. Most frequently they are
turned to for specific, detailed information as to a reference book. The
objects provide authoritative answers. Curators and interpreters depend on
the collections to supply or verify many of the facts they present in reports,
publications, talks and guided tours. This is particularly the case with
naturalists and archeologists who must rely on data furnished by correctly
identified specimens.
Seasonal interpreters in parks, younger museum docents and volunteers
often use the study series even more than the senior, full-time staff. It may
be their most dependable training aid. From the specimens they learn to
recognize the rocks, fossils, plants and animals they will encounter and
interpret. As they find unfamiliar species in their guided trips, the collec
tions help identify the forms quickly and accurately. The specimens may
also give details of a localized character the interpreters could not get from
books. When these staff members give talks or make other verbal inter
pretive contacts, they can speak reliably and with confidence about the
kinds of objects they have examined and handled in the collections.
Wise decisions in the management and protection of a park or other
environmental unit often depend on the correct identification of the plants,
animals, rocks or other features involved. Thus the people who recommend
measures, and those who carry them out, should use the study series to
check their determinations and to make sure they can recognize the specific
forms in the field. When the decisions involve historical restoration, the use
of the collections may be equally vital.
Visitors also use the study series. Many want to know the name of an
unfamiliar animal or plant they have seen. The collections not only provide
a prompt, authoritative answer, but also may stimulate further interest.
Some visitors seek more specialized help because their vocation or avoca
tion touches a facet of the museum’s field of interest. The amateur botanist
or the gun collector, for example, may want to dig deeper, looking at all
the pertinent specimens and checking data on the catalogue cards. People
awakened to the environmental crisis can obtain many insights as well as

helpful data from study specimens. More visitors will use the study series
to good advantage if properly controlled access is easy. Let people know
what the collections contain and invite them to examine the specimens in
which they are interested. In addition to learning from these particular
specimens, visitors enjoy getting behind the scenes. They see and appreci
ate the solid factual basis underlying what the museum says and does.
Sometimes a collection in the study series has enough significance or
general interest to warrant installing it in “visible storage”. It then supple
ments the exhibit series, assuming of course, that it is in accordance with
the defined purposes of the museum. The Fuller gun collection at Chat
tanooga-Chickamauga National Military Park is used in this way (fig. 39).
Visible storage implies protection and accessibility for study along with
attractive but usually compact display.
Research
The collections serve research needs in several ways. Accurately identi

fied specimens form the datum plane for essential ecological and some
archeological studies. Intensive analysis of the specimens themselves may
comprise valuable contributions to knowledge—descriptions of new spe
cies, revised classifications or datings, for example. Broader studies use

specimens as part of the evidence leading to fresh conclusions, like the
discovery of the source of North Devon pottery in the Jamestown collec
tion at Colonial National Historical Park. Often, as in the case of archeo
logical projects, the research creates the collection. To develop the research
use of the collections, first be sure to gather objects worth studying, to
preserve them properly for study and to record full data about them. Then
take steps to let scholars know what resources the collections contain.
Curators generally recognize their responsibility to have scholarly cata
logues of their collections compiled and published, although other duties
too frequently delay these projects. The annotated inventory of its archeo
logical collections in the Southwest compiled by the National Park Service
is an excellent example of an intermediate measure. An entry from this
inventory comprises Appendix C. This kind of information about the col
lections should get into the hands of professors and graduate students at
appropriate universities. Another step of increasing importance involves
the storage of full information about the specimens in computerized data
banks. Practical techniques for accomplishing this on an intermuseum,
international basis should become available soon (see bibliography at the
end of the chapter).
Documentation
A specimen which has been used in research acquires value as a docu

ment because other scholars can verify the results only by re-examining the
original evidence. While this does not mean that every specimen studied in
the course of a research project must be kept permanently, you need to
recognize and respect the documentary importance of those specimens
which were significant in the study. Similarly, the objects which support
statements which a museum communicates to the public have documentary
functions. While documentation is a relatively passive use of the collec
tions, it justifies the continued preservation of many specimens.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Exhibition
The professional literature abounds with articles and books on exhibits and
also on the related educational uses of museum collections. To help develop
personal standards of exhibit quality study the published illustrations and
descriptions of newly installed displays. Almost every issue of the Unesco
quarterly, Museum, contains photographs or floorplans and explanations that

reveal current exhibit practice. In addition see, for example:
Aloi, Roberto. Musei: Architettura-Tecnica. Milan. Hoepli, 1962.
Bergmann, Eugene. “Exhibits That Flow,” Curator, XIV:4 (1971), pp. 278
286.
Bliss, Dorothy E. “Creating a Conceptual Teaching Hall on the Invertebrates,”
Curator, XIV:4 (1971), pp. 241-263.
Connor, Patricia, and Kenneth Pearson. “The Birth of the Fishbourne Roman
Palace Museum,” Museums Journal, 68:3 (December 1968), pp. 115-117.
Mantel, Linda Habas. “Presenting Physiological Concepts in a Museum Ex
hibit,” Curator, XIV:4 (1971 ), pp. 264-277.
Merrifield, Ralph. “The Fishbourne Museum,” Museums Journal, 68:3 (Decem
ber 1968), pp. 118-120.
Mollo, Boris. “New Regimental Museums,” Museums Journal, 74:1 (June
1974), pp. 12-14.
Nicholson, Thomas D. “The Hall of Man in Africa at the American Museum
of Natural History,” Curator, XVI:1 (1973), pp. 5-24.
Parker, Harley W. “New Hall of Fossil Invertebrates, Royal Ontario Museum,”
Curator, X:4 (1967), pp. 284-296.
Plath, Helmuth. “The Historical Museum on the Hohen Ufer,” Museums Jour
nal, 67:3 (December 1967), pp. 219-227.
Quimby, Ian M. G. “The Specialized Museum: A Case Study,” Part I, Museum
News, 44:6 (February 1966), pp. 34-36; Part II, 44:7 (March 1966),
pp. 28-32.
Taylor, Frank A. “The Museum of History and Technology: The Smithsonian’s
Newest,” Museum News, 42:10 (June 1964), pp. 11-18.
Tynan, A. M., and M. P. McLauclin, “Popular Geology, A New Approach to
an Old Problem,” Curator, VII:l (1964), pp. 39-50.
Vermeule, Cornelius, and Mrs. Penelope Truitt. “The Galleries of Early Greek
Art at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,” Curator, Xl:3 (1968), pp.
211-217.
For discussion of the theory of museum exhibits see:

Bayer, Herbert. “Aspects of Design of Exhibitions and Museums,” Curator,
IV:3 (1961), pp. 257-287.
Beneker, Katharine. “Exhibits_Firing Platforms for the Imagination,” Curator,
1:4 (1958), pp. 76-81.
Borhegyi, Stephan F. de. “Visual Communication in the Science Museum,”
Curator, VI:1 (1963), pp. 45-57.
Cameron, Duncan F. “A Viewpoint: The Museum as a Communications Sys
tem and Implications for Museum Education,” Curator, XI:1 (1968),
pp. 30-40. ‘
Conway, William G “How to Exhibit a Bullfrog: A Bed-Time Story for Zoo
Men,” Curator, XI:4 (1968), pp. 310-318.
Gabus, Jean. “Aesthetic Principles and General Planning of Educational Ex
hibitions," Museum, XVIII: l, 2 (1965). PP- 2-31, 82-97.
Gilborn, Craig. “Words and Machines: The Denial of Experience,” Museum
News, 47:1 (September 1968), pp. 25-29.
Gill, Edmund D. “Search for New Ideas on Museum Exhibits,” Curator, X:4
(1967), pp. 275-278.
Hale, John. “Museums and the Teaching of History,” Museum, XXI:1 (1968),
pp. 67-72.
Hofmann, Helmut, and Leonard G. Johnson. “Translating Inert to Living

Knowledge,” Curator, V:2 (1962), pp. 120-127.
Knez, Eugene I., and A. Gilbert Wright. “The Museum as a Communications
System: An Assessment of Cameron’s Viewpoint,” Curator, XIII:3
(1970), pp. 204-212.
Larrabee, Eric, ed. Museums and Education. Washington. Smithsonian Institu
tion Press, 1968.
McLuhan, Marshall, et al. Exploration of the Ways, Means and Values of Mu
seum Communication with the Viewing Public: A Seminar with Marshall
McLuhan, Harley Parker, and Jacques Barzun. New York. Museum of the
City of New York, 1969.
Neal, Arminta. “Function of Display: Regional Museums,” Curator, VIII:3
(1965), pp. 228-234.
Noble, Joseph Veach. “More than a Mirror to the Past,” Curator, XVI:3
(1973), pp. 271-275.
Parr, Albert Eide. “Some Basic Problems of Visual Education by Means of
Exhibits,” Curator, V:1 (1962), pp. 36-44.
Screven, Chandler G. “The Museum as a Responsive Learning Environment,"
i-. “Instructional Design,” Museum News, 52:5 (January/ February 1974),
pp. 67-75.
Shapiro, Harry L. “Some Observations on the Function of a Scientific Exhibit,”
Curator, IV:3 (1961), pp. 226-230.
Shettel, Harris H. “Exhibits: Art Form or Educational Medium?” Museum
Swauger, James L. “Topless Girl Guides or We have a Crying Need to be
Old-Fashioned,” Curator, XII:4 (1969), pp. 307-318.
Warhurst, Alan. “The Planning of Museums and Art Galleries: Display Prob
lems,” Museums Journal, 63:1 and 2 (June-September 1963), pp. 42-53.
Weiss, Robert S., and Serge Boutourline, Jr. “The Communication Value of
Exhibits,” Museum News, 42:3 (November 1963), pp. 23-27.
Wilson, Kenneth M. “A Philosophy of Museum Exhibition,” Museum News,
42:2 (October 1967), pp. 13-19.
Wittlin, Alma S. “Hazards of Communication by Exhibits,” Curator, XlV:2
(1971), pp. 138-150.
Sources of advice on exhibit preparation include:

Beazley, Elisabeth. The Countryside on View: A Handbook on Countryside
Centres, Field Museums, and Historic Buildings Open to the Public. Lon
don. Constable & Company Ltd., 1971, pp. 72-115, 195-201.
Belcher, M., K. Heathcote and G. Stansfield. Silk-screen Printing. Information
Sheet 16. London. Museums Association, 1973.
Bloch, Milton J. “Improvised Exhibit Design for the Small Budget,” Museum
“Labels, Legends, and Legibility,” Museum News, 47:3 (November
1968), pp. 13-17.
“Lighting,” Museum News, 47:5 (January 1969), pp. 20-29 (sic).
“A Case of Boredom,” Museum News, 47:9 (May 1969), pp. 21-24.
Bowditch, George. “Preparing Exhibits: Case and Prop Design,” American
Association for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 12, History
News, 26:6 (June 1971).
i. “Preparing Your Exhibits: Case Arrangement and Design,” American
News, 26:2 (February 1971).
, and Holman J . Swinney. “Preparing Your Exhibits: Methods, Materials,
and Bibliography,” American Association for State and Local History
Technical Leaflet 4, History News, 24:9 (October 1969).
Brommelle, N. S. “Museum Lighting Part 1: Colour Rendering,” Museums
Journal, 61 :3 (December 1961), pp. 169-176.
. “Museum Lighting Part 4: Viewing the Object,” Museums Journal,
62:3 (December 1962), pp. 178-186.
Conaway, Mary Ellen. “Exhibit Labeling: Another Alternative,” Curator,
XV:2 (1972), pp. 161-166.
Cordingly, David. Methods of Lettering for Museums. Information Sheet 15.
Denyer, Edward F. “Silk Screen Printing and Museum Exhibits,” Curator,
VII:3 (1964), pp. 185-195.
Freeman, Joan E., and H. Charles Fritzemeier. “Preparing Your Exhibits:
Figures for Miniature Dioramas,” American Association for State and
Local History Technical Leaflet 20, History News, 27:7 (July 1972).
Harris, J. B. “Museum Lighting Part 2: Artificial Lighting and Museum Dis
play,” Museums Journal, 61 :4 (March 1962), pp. 259-267.
Jones, William K. “Preparing Exhibits: The Use of Plexiglas,” American Asso
ciation for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 49, History News,
24:2 (February 1969).
Kelly, Richard. “Museum Lighting. Part III,” Museum News, 37:3 (May
1959), pp. 16-19.
Lusk, Carroll B. “Museum Lighting,” Museum News, 49:3 (November 1970),
pp. 20-23.
“Museum Lighting II,” Museum News, 49:4 (December 1970), pp.
25-29.
“Museum Lighting III,” Museum News, 49:6 (February 1971), pp.
18-22.
McCandless, Stanley. “Museum Lighting. Part I,” Museum News, 37:1 (March
1959), pp. 8-11.
“Museum Lighting. Part II,” Museum News, 37:2 (April 1959), pp.
8-11.
Neal, Arminta. Help! for the Small Museum: A Handbook of Exhibit Ideas
and Methods. Boulder. Pruett Press, 1969.
. “Gallery and Case Exhibit Design,” American Association for State
and Local History Technical Leaflet 52, History News, 24:8 (August
1969), reprinted from Curator, VI:1 (1963), pp. 77-95.
. “Legible Labels: Hand-lettering,” American Association for State and
Local History Technical Leaflet 22, rev. ed., History News, 26:7 (July
1971).
. “Legible Labels: Three-dimensional Letters,” American Association for
State and Local History Technical Leaflet 23, rev. ed. History News,
19:10 (May 1964), revised 1971.
North, F. J. Museum Labels. Handbook for Museum Curators B 3. London.
Riviere, Georges Henri, and Herman F. E. Visser. “Museum Showcases,”
Museum, XIII:1 (1960), pp. 1-55.
Weiner, George. “Why Johnny Can’t Read Labels,” Curator, VI:2 (1963),
pp. 143-156.
Williams, Luther A. “Labels: Writing, Design, and Preparation,” Curator, III:1

(1960), pp. 26-42.
Wilson, Don W., and Dennis Medina. “Exhibit Labels: A Consideration of
Content,” American Association for State and Local History Technical
Leaflet 60, History News, 27:4 (April 1972).
Behavioral studies of museum visitors aim on one hand to define the mu

seum audience and on the other to measure and improve exhibit effectiveness.
For access to this important field see:
Elliott, Pamala, and Ross J. Loomis. Studies of Visitor Behavior In Museums
and Exhibitions. Washington. Smithsonian Institution, 1975.
Loomis, Ross J. “Please Not Another Visitor Survey,” Museum News, 52:2
(October 1973), pp. 21-26.
As a sampling of the literature on the educational or interpretive uses of

collections see:
Bay, Ann. Museum Programs for Young People: Case Studies. Washington.
Smithsonian Institution, 1973.
Cart, Germaine, Molly Harrison and Charles Russell. Museums and Young
People. Paris. International Council of Museums, 1952.
Cheetham, Francis W., ed. Museum School Services. London. Museums Asso
ciation, 1967.
Frese, H. H. Anthropology and the Public: The Role of Museums. Leiden.
E. J. Brill, 1960, pp. 73-96, 160-193.
Gibbs-Smith, Charles H. The Arrangement and Organization of Lectures. In
formation Sheet 8. London. Museums Association, 1974.
Harrison, Molly. Museum Adventure. London. University of London Press,
1950.
. Learning Out of School. London. Educational Supply Association, Ltd.,
1954.
. Changing Museums: Their Use and Misuse. London. Longmans, Green
and Co., Ltd., 1967.
. Museums and Galleries. London. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1973.
ICOM. Museums’ Annual: Education, Cultural Action. Paris. International
Council of Museums, 1969. (Original title: Annals—Museums, Education,
Cultural Action).
Larrabee, Eric, ed. op. cit.
Long, Mrs. M., et al. Pterodactyls and Old Lace: Museums in Education. Lon
don. Evans Brothers Ltd and Methuen Educational Ltd. New York, Cita
tion Press, Scholastic Magazines Inc. for Schools Council, 1972.
Low, Theodore L. The Museum as a Social Instrument. New York. Metropolitan
———. “The Museum as a Social Instrument: Twenty Years After,” Museum
News, 40:5 (January 1962), pp. 28-30.
Oliver, Ruth Norton, ed. Museums and the Environment: A Handbook for
Education. New York. Arkville Press for the American Association of
Museums, 1971.
Ramsey, Grace Fisher. Educational Work in Museums of the United States.
New York. H. W. Wilson Co., 1938.
Tilden, Freeman. Interpreting Our Heritage: Principles and Practices for Visitor
Services in Parks, Museums and Historic Places. Rev. ed. Chapel Hill.
University of North Carolina Press, 1967.
Unesco. Museums, Imagination and Education. Museums and Monuments—XV.

Paris. UNESCO, 1973.
Winstanley, Barbara R. School-Loan Services. Handbook for Museum Curators
G 4. London. Museums Association, 1959.
. Children and Museums. Oxford. Basil Blackwell & Mott, Ltd., 1967.
Zetterberg, Hans L. Museums and Adult Education. London. Evelyn, Adams
& Mackay for the International Council of Museums, 1968. Clifton.
Augustus M. Kelly, 1969.
Reference
Peters, James A. “The Time-shared Computer as an Adjunct to Museum

Exhibits,” Museums Journal, 72:4 (March 1973), pp. 143-145.
Young, Rachel M. R. Museum Enquiries. Information Sheet 11. London. Mu
seums Association, 1972.
Research and Documentation
Chavis, John. “The Artifact and the Study of History,” Curator, VII:2 (1964),
pp. 156-162.
Chernela, Janet. “In Praise of the Scratch: The Importance of Aboriginal
Abrasion on Museum Ceramic Ware,” Curator, XII:3 (1969), pp. 174
179.
Cohen, Daniel M., and Roger F. Cressey, eds. “Natural History Collections,
Past-Present—Future,” Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washing
ton, 82 (1969), pp. 559-762.
Fleming, E. McClung. “Early American Decorative Arts as Social Documents,”
Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 45:2 (September 1958), pp. 276
284.
. “The Period Room as a Curatorial Publication,” Museum News, 50: 10
(June 1972), pp. 39-43.
. “Artifact Study: A Proposed Model,” Winterthur Portfolio 9. Char
lottesville. University Press of Virginia for the Henry Francis du Pont
Winterthur Museum, 1974, pp. 153-173.
Gilborn, Craig. “Pop Pedagogy,” Museum News, 47:4 (December 1968),
pp. 12-18.
Hale, Richard W., Jr. “Methods of Research for the Amateur Historian,”
rev. ed., History News, 24:9 (September 1969).
Hubbell, Theodore H., et al. comps. and eds. America’s Systematics Collections:
A National Plan. Lawrence. Association of Systematics Collections, 1973.
Jenkins, J. Geraint. “The Collection of Ethnological Material,” Museums
Journal, 74:1 (June 1974), pp. 7-11.
Johnels, Alf G. “The Museum as a Monitoring Instrument: Role of Natural
History Museums,” Museum, XXV: 1/2 (1973), pp. 54-58.
Mayr, Ernst, and Richard Goodwin. Biological Materials, Part I. Preserved
Materials and Museum Collections. Publication 399. Washington. National
Academy of Science-National Research Council, n.d.
Mori, John L., and Joycelyn I. Mori. “Revising Our Conceptions of Museum
Research," Curator, XVI3 (1972), pp. 189-199.
Neustupny, Jire. Museum and Research. Prague. Oflice of Museum and

Regional Work of the National Museum, 1968.
Parr, Albert Eide. “Systematics and Museums,” Curator, 1:2 (1958), pp. 13-16.
. “The Right to Do Research,” Curator, I:3 (1958), pp. 70-73.
. “The Functions of Museums: Research Centers or Show Places,”
Curator, VI:1 (1963), pp. 20-31.
Peters, James A., and Bruce B. Collette. “The Role of Time-share Computing
in Museum Research,” Curator, XI:1 (1958), pp. 65-75.
Smith, Albert C., et al. “The Role of the Research Museum in Science,” Cura
tor, IlI:4 (1960), pp. 311-360.
The accessibility of the information embodied in museum collections has

much to do with the use of the collections in research. A growing literature
concerns the storage and retrieval of these data by computers. See, for example:
Anon. Computers and Their Potential Applications in Museums. New York.
Arno Press, 1968.
Ball, Laurel. “Recording Agricultural Collections,” Museums Journal, 72:2
(September 1972), pp. 55-57.
Chenhall, Robert G. “Sharing the Wealth,” Museum News, 51:8 (April 1973),
pp. 21-23.
. Museum Cataloging in the Computer Age. Nashville. American Associa
tion for State and Local History, 1975.
Cutbill, J. L., ed. Data Processing in Biology and Geology. Proceedings of a
Symposium, Cambridge, England. New York. Academic Press, 1971.
. Computer Filing Systems for Museums and Research. London. Museums
Association, 1973.
Smithsonian Institution, 1968, pp. 283-290. Rev. ed. in prep.
Elisseeff, Vadime, et al. “Museums and Computers,” Museum, XXIII:1
(1970/71), pp. 1-62.
Lewis, Geoffrey D. “Obtaining Information from Museum Collections and
Thoughts on a National Museum Index,” Museums Journal, 65:1 (June
1965), pp. 12-22.
. “IRGMA (Information Retrieval Group of the Museums Association) ,”
Museums Journal, 69:3 (December 1969), p. 142, 70:3 (December 1970),
p. 134, 71:3 (December 1971), p. 129, 72:3 (December 1972), p. 116,
73:3 (December 1973), p. 128.
, et al. “Information Retrieval for Museums. Report of a Colloquium Held
at the City Museum, Sheffield in April 1967,” Museums Journal, 67:2
(September 1967), pp. 88-120.
, ed. Draft Proposals for an Interdisciplinary Museum Cataloguing Sys
tem. London. Museums Association, 1969.
Manning, Raymond B. “A Computer-Generated Catalog of Types: A By
Product of Data Processing in Museums,” Curator, XII:2 (1969), pp.
134-138.
Peters, James A. “The Computer and the Collection-at-Large,” Curator, XIII:4
(1970), pp. 263-266.
Rensberger, John M., and William B. N. Barry. “An Automated System for
Retrieval of Museum Data,” Curator, X:4 (1967), pp. 297-317.
Ricciardelli, Alex F. “A Census of Ethnological Collections in U.S. Museums,”
Museum News, 46:1 (September 1967), pp. 11-14.
. “A Model for Inventorying Ethnological Collections,” Curator, X:4

(1967), pp. 330-336.
Roads, C. H. “Data Recording, Retrieval and Presentation in the Imperial War
Museum,” Museums Journal, 67:4 (March 1968), pp. 277-283.
Squires, Donald F. “Data Processing and Museum Collections: A Problem for
the Present,” Curator, IX:3 (1966), pp. 216-227.
“An Information Storage and Retrieval System for Biological and
Geological Data,” Curator, XIII:1 (1970), pp. 43-62.
Vance, David. “Museum Computer Network: The Second Phase,” Museum
News, 48:9 (May 1970), pp. 15-20.
——i. “Museum Computer Network: The Third Phase,” Museum News, 51:8
(April 1973), pp. 24-27.
Van Gelder, Richard G., and Sydney Anderson. “An Information Retrieval
System for Collections of Mammals,” Curator, X:1 (1967), pp. 32-42.
Chapter 6 Disposal of
Specimens
When any museum specimen ceases to have value, keeping it in the

collection wastes space, staff time and money. Good management requires
its disposal. Deciding which objects to get rid of and how best to dispose of
them are demanding parts of a curator’s job. Museums have lost important
and valuable specimens because someone incorrectly judged them to be
useless or surplus. Such mistakes are irrevocable. They do double damage
by undermining a museum’s reputation. In considering disposal, therefore,
make sure first that you really know what the object is. Then determine
beyond reasonable doubt that it has no further use in the museum. In
reaching a decision, review all the ways in which specimens serve the
public interest, present and future (see Chapter 5, Using Museum Collec
tions). Do not discard an object simply because it is in poor condition, for
example, or because it is not of current interest. Proper restoration or repair
can often return it to usefulness. Interests and tastes change continually.
Accept the responsibility of specimen disposal although it involves risks. It
is an essential step in refining collections.
Another factor will play a larger part in disposal policy as museums
mature in their outlook. Curators will ask not only, “Is this specimen
useful?”, but, “Where will it be most useful?”. This approach will lead to
truly rational collections.
Methods
To dispose of a specimen you may perhaps sell it, exchange it, give it
away, lend it or destroy it. Choosing the best method in each case calls for
good judgment. All the permissible ways should be considered. Often you
133
cannot use one or another because of institutional restrictions or conditions

accepted when the object was acquired. Specimens owned by a national
park museum, for example, become Federal property. The park cannot sell
them nor give them away, even by returning a gift to the original donor.
The means of disposal have various advantages and may well be consid
ered in this order:
1. Transfer to another museum. When a specimen not needed in one
museum is transferred to another where it is useful, both museums benefit.
Such free movement of specimens on the basis of need often does more
good than trying to negotiate value-for-value exchanges. This is the com
mon practice among park museums.
2. Exchange with another museum. In an exchange both museums re
ceive objects of generally comparable value. The objects achieve increased
usefulness and remain available to the public. National park museums
consider exchanges with the Smithsonian Institution first because the ob
jects continue to be Federal assets while getting better use. Exchanges
between museums such as these can become a continuing process. Speci
mens moving in one direction then become the basis, for some future
movement in the other. This makes negotiations easier and less
time-consuming.
3. Exchange with dealers or collectors. Bartering inappropriate speci
mens for others that the museum does need can be beneficial, but be sure
that you know at least as much about the identity, authenticity and value of
the specimens on both sides of the deal as does the other party.
4. Sale to dealers or collectors. When this is permissible, a museum can
dispose of unwanted material to obtain funds with which to purchase speci
mens it can use to good advantage.
5. Gift to responsible public or private institutions, organizations or
agencies. Specimens which are neither usable in the museum nor of interest
to other museums, dealers or collectors who could offer something in ex
change, may sometimes be put to good use by a local museum or school,
for example. Do not use this or the following method as easy ways to get
rid of objects of such poor quality that they have questionable educational
value.
6. Long-term loan to responsible public or private institutions, organiza
tions or agencies. If an object has lost its usefulness to the museum but
must be retained as museum property, it can ordinarily be loaned. Find a
borrower who can take care of it and use it.
7. Destruction. A few objects having no scientific, historical, esthetic or
educational value may remain. These should be destroyed, not just thrown
out where someone might retrieve them. In park museums this requires
that they be surveyed for disposal through surplus property channels.
The disposal of specimens should be properly documented (see below,
Lending Museum Specimens, and Deaccessioning, Chapter 7).
Disposal of Specimens 135
Clearing House Services

National park museums have access to services which help in effective
specimen disposal. Other museums familiar with these clearing house oper
ations may benefit from the exchanges or loans negotiated. The clearing
house is a procedure to refine all park collections by concerted action to
eliminate inappropriate specimens, fill gaps and reassign objects to their
places of greatest usefulness. It provides an efficient channel for negotiating
advantageous transfers, exchanges and long-term loans to free the collection
of unneeded specimens. It helps replace some of them with objects the
museum really needs. Throughout the process it protects the public interest.
Park museums participate in the clearing house as follows:
1. They send the regional curator a duplicate catalogue card for each
specimen in the park collections which seems to be inappropriate or sur
plus to the needs of the park. They also send the immediate and long-range
want list of exhibit specimens, along with a list of objects needed to round
out and strengthen the study series. They describe clearly the items on the
want lists. If help is needed in determining what is lacking, surplus or not
pertinent, they request the regional director to assign qualified specialists to
compile or review the selections.
2. The regional curator compares the wants and unwanted specimens with
those of all other parks in the region. He sends each park’s want list to the
other regions and to the Harpers Ferry Center clearing house for checking
with their files of unneeded specimens. When the regional curator finds that
a park has a specimen available which seems to fit another park’s need, he
sends a description of the object. If the specimen is what the second park
wants, it is shipped directly and the regional curator is notified so the lists
will be current.
3. When the want list contains specimens not available from the parks,
the regional curator tries to locate the needed objects in other museums,
private collections or dealers’ stocks. He then negotiates an equitable ex
change, if possible, using the surplus specimens offered or even those avail
able from other parks. When a good deal has been arranged, the regional
curator notifies the park or parks involved. If acceptable, the specimens
are sent directly to the institution or individual offering the exchange. The
transaction is reported to the regional curator so the lists remain up-to
date.
4. The regional curator locates museums, schools or similar institutions
that can make good use of the unneeded specimens which are also unsuit
able for exchange. He arranges a long-term loan. If acceptable, the speci
mens go directly from the park to the borrowing institution with notification
to the regional curator.
5. It takes time and patience to negotiate productive transfers, ex
changes or loans. If the regional curator fails to develop a satisfactory
disposition of an unneeded specimen in due time, he ordinarily will recom

mend, by memorandum, that the park’s Board of Survey declare the speci
men surplus government property to be sold or destroyed under General
Services Administration rules. His memorandum releases the specimen
from the clearing house operation. To assure timely disposal the date when
the specimen was referred to the clearing house is noted on the working
(blue) copy of the catalogue card. Then action can be requested if it
remains too long.
In the clearing house procedure there are two additional responsibilities.
Park staffs notify the regional curator of any promising leads they have for
transfers, exchanges or loans. Such contacts complement the broader reach
of the regional curator or Harpers Ferry Center curators (see also the
Center’s clearing house facilities, Central Repositories, Chapter 4). In
some instances the park superintendent or interpreter may be asked to
carry out the negotiations because he knows the people involved, or is
conveniently close to them. Also, the park must document the actual trans
actions involving its collection. See Chapter 2 for recording transfers and
exchanges. Instructions on loans follow. The Board of Survey report docu
ments its action. The park notes the manner and date of all disposals on
the museum catalogue form and in the accession records.
If there is a specimen which has deteriorated to a condition of obvious
worthlessness, the park bypasses the clearing house and refers it directly to
the accountable property officer. Other occasions may be found when it is
possible for the park to act directly in arranging a transfer, exchange or
loan to better advantage than through the clearing house. If so, it keeps the
regional curator informed.
Lending Museum Specimens
Long-Term Loans
This course of action accomplishes two ends. It converts a presently use

less specimen, or series of specimens, into a useful one. In the process, it
saves the space and care the material required in the museum. On the other
hand, lending does not relieve you of all responsibility for the objects. They
remain in the museum records as part of the collection for which you are
curatorially accountable. Therefore, select carefully the institution to which
to lend, and make sure it understands the nature and conditions of the loan.
The minimum condition is that the borrower return the specimens when
ever the institution is no longer willing or able to care for them. If the
objects have little intrinsic value or can be readily replaced, this may be
enough. The obligation then consists of knowing that the borrowing institu
tion is still in existence. With more valuable specimens, a definite period
should be set at the end of which the borrower requests renewal of the loan
for a corresponding length of time. The best period between renewals
varies with the importance of the specimens and the character of the insti
tution involved, but ordinarily should not exceed five years. For particu
larly valuable items, inspect them between renewals, and in exceptional
instances ask the borrower to insure them. When a specimen on long-term
loan wears out or deteriorates beyond repair, have it destroyed. Park mu
seums refer it to the accountable property officer.
To document a long-term loan, send the borrower a letter stating what is
being lent, how and when the agreement may be renewed and that the
material is to be returned if the borrower can no longer take care of it.
Park museums enclose with the letter two copies of Standard Form
10-127, Loan of Specimens (fig. 40). They fill in part of the form first,
request the borrower to fill in additional parts and ask him to return one
copy as a receipt. They file a copy of the letter and the loan form in the
accession folder.
Short-Term Loans
Although not a means of disposal, brief loans require similar procedures.

If the museum contains important specimens, other museums or scholars
may wish to borrow them for special exhibition or study. Such uses in
crease the value of the specimens to the public. Requests, therefore, should
be granted to lend objects unless they are unlikely to withstand the risks
involved. Consider the nature and condition of the specimen. It may be too
fragile to lend, or it may need preservative treatment first to strengthen and
restore it. Also consider the capability and experience of the borrower. Will
the specimen be handled and protected by experts? Weigh the possibilities
of damage or loss against the significance of the special use proposed. If
the loan is justified, specify mutually satisfactory conditions. These include
the period of the loan, which is always definite and short (usually less than
six months). Require that the borrower insure the specimen under an all
risk, wall-to-wall policy if the value of the object warrants it. Sometimes it
is desirable to specify packing and shipping requirements, or special protec
tive measures while the specimen is in storage or on display.
Document a short-term loan with a letter to the borrower clearly defin
ing the conditions. Park museums again enclose two copies of SF 10-127,
one of which the borrower returns as a receipt. They make sure the condi
tion report is complete and accurate for the outgoing specimen. When the
specimen is returned, they complete the loan form with equal care. They
file the correspondence and loan form in the accession folder. Both the
loan and return of the specimen should be entered on the catalogue card.
IN REPLY REFER TO:
UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Lafayette National Memorial
(Pork)
_october 9, 1974
(Date)
Dear
We are lending you the items described below for the purpose of_§B2£12l___
exhibition commemorating Lafayette for ‘he period of
two months (October l5 - December 15, 1974)
You are responsible for all items in the list. The utmost caution must be
exercised in their use. They should be returned in the same condition they were lent.
_t./.~.//to <z%/We (Sllnoturo)
Superintendent
(Title)
NO. OBJECT VALUE
746 Oil portrait of Lafayette by Prudhomme $7,500 00
1091 Silver mounted dress sword

1,925.00
1092 Scabbard for sword 1091
(Condition reports on back 0! thia sheet puat be fillod In)

VSignature and title of borrower Name of organintion, etc. Date of receipt
GFED §;€;y/ Director j Academy Memorial Museum j October 12, 1974
For: 10-127 (6/$6)/now or SPECIMENS
a. Obverse.
Figure 40. Form accompanying loaned specimens.

m BE_FlI l r i:' i~ av return our

Date loan is to be returne. : (II krmwn) December 15, 1974
Conditions of specimens being lent (Examine each object carefully, describe any damage or weakened condition.
Point out any special precautions uecealary ID handlinj Keep a record photojraph 0! important rte-J oa I check
on condition )
746 Painting cleaned and relined in 1962. Odd crackle visible, but no loose
paint. Gesso chipped on left side of frame molding 2 inches from bottom,
but the break has been gilded. Follow unpacking and packing instructions
carefully
1091-2 Sword complete and sound. Leather scabbard broken 9 inches from tip,
repaired and reinforced by inside sleeve. Handle only with cotton gloves.
sr lture and itle of lender _ T D-=
~M Museum Curator October '9_, 1974

1'0 Bi-: rrrrrzn IN BY ‘nu: BOHROIER ONLY
Condithbn of lpecinena on receipt. (Photograph and report promptly any duuoja found in lhipnont )
746 Painting okay. Fragment of gesso l/2" long missing just above old
break. Broken piece not found. (Reported to W. O. Hack by letter
9/12/74.)
1091-2 As described above.
Sig?/"ure d title of borrower D!"
'
Registrar ' Octobgr 12, 1974
.
‘IO BE FILLED IN UPW RETURN OF LOAN ‘
/
/Condition of specimens on return. (Examine each object carefully. Describe any new damage Pucord new damage by
photojraph.)
746 Painting in satisfactory condition. Frame damage as reported, but

fresh break had been touched up with gilt paint.
1091-2 Light tarnish on hilt, no permanent damage.
?ignlture on title of person receiving “Em. of loan if D“-9
Museum Cuicgtor December 18. l974_
b. Reverse.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Methods
Begemann, Egbert H. “The Price is Never Right,” Museum News, 51:9 (May
1973), pp. 32-35.
Hoving, Thomas P. F. “A Policy Statement from the Met,” Museum News,
51:9 (May 1973), pp. 43-45.
Jacob, John. “The Sale or Disposal of Museum Objects: The Principles In
volved, and an Account of Some Cases in Point,” Museums Journal, 71:3
(December 1971), pp. 112-115.
Mitchell, Wallace. “When You Run Out of Money . . . Sell,” Museum News,
51:9 (May 1973), pp. 36-39.
Montias, J. Michael. “Are Museums Betraying the Public’s Trust?” Museum
News, 51:9 (May 1973), pp. 25-31.
Naumer, Helmuth J ., and Aubyn Kendall. “Acquisitions and Old Lace,” Mu
seum News, 51 :9 (May 1973), pp. 40-42.
Nicholson, Thomas D. “NYSAM Policy on the Acquisition and Disposition of
Collection Materials,” Curator, 17:1 (1974), pp. 5-9.
Snowman, A. Kenneth. “The Sale or Disposal of Museum Objects: A Dealer’s
View,” Museums Journal, 71:3 (December 1971), p. 116.
Wald, Palmer B. “In the Public Interest,” Museum News, 52:9 (June 1974),
pp. 30-32.
Lending Museum Specimens
Cannon-Brookes, Peter. “The Loan of Works of Art for Exhibition,” Museums

Journal, 71:3 (December 1971), pp. 105-107.
Smithsonian Institution, 1968, pp. 83-88. Rev. ed. in prep.
Hatt, Robert T., and George L. Stout. “Standard Procedure for Intermuseum
Loans,” Museum News, 27:18 (March 15, 1950), pp. 7-8.
International Council of Museums. “Icom Guidelines for Loans,” ICOM News,
27:3/4 (1974), pp. 78-79.
Shapiro, Harry L. “Borrowing and Lending,” Curator, III:3 (1960), pp.
197-203.
Part 2 Museum Records
142 Introduction
143 Chapter 7. Accession Records
143 Accession Book
144 Accession File
145 Source of Accession File
145 Tagging and Storing Accessions
148 Deaccessioning
149 Installing a New System
150 Chapter 8. Museum Catalogue
150 Museum Catalogue Form
156 Catalogue Folder File
157 Inventory or Location File
157 Numbering Specimens
160 Exceptions to Standard Procedures
162 Report to Finance Office
162 Supplies for Cataloguing
165 Chapter 9. Classification
166 Botany
166 Zoology
167 Geology
169 Archeology
170 Ethnology
172 History
141
Introduction
Curators know from experience that a specimen has little or no value to

a museum without accompanying information. For each object the essen
tial facts are what it is, how and from whom it was acquired, when it was
acquired and where it is. These comprise the bare minimum; the more data
associated with an object, the more useful it is likely to be. Finding out and
writing down this information fully, accurately and in a way that will
always relate it to the specimen form one of the most important duties of a
curator.
While museum record systems vary in detail, they consist of two ele
ments. One, the Accession Record, registers each transaction by which
specimens are acquired. The other, called the Catalogue, provides an in
dividual entry for each specimen. Some museums combine the two parts to
a degree, but the National Park Service has adopted a standard procedure
which keeps them separate. Doing so makes the pattern simpler because it
distinguishes clearly between the two functions. It promotes accuracy, at
least for the first 100,000 specimens in the collection, by requiring shorter,
less complicated numbers. Part II details a record system for small mu
seums as it is applied in the national parks.
142
Chapter 7 Accession Records
A museum always needs to know the essential details of transactions

whereby it has obtained specimens. It therefore keeps a record of this
information in as durable a manner as it can. Park museums use a bound
volume for this purpose so loose pages will not be lost. The paper is of
highest quality, all-rag ledger stock which should last for centuries. Entries
are written in carbon-base ink that resists fading. To insure that important
facts will not be omitted, printed column headings serve as reminders of
the data required. Two secondary records supplement the bound register—
an Accession File and a Source of Accession File. These useful compila
tions need not employ such exceptionally long-lasting paper and ink
because they could be largely reconstituted from the book entries.
Accession Book
As each lot of specimens arrives at the museum, enter immediately in

the accession book as much of the required information as is available. Fill
in the remainder of the entry when the specimens are catalogued or their
status changes. The complete record consists of seven columns:
Accession number An accession is all the specimens received from one

source at one time. A barnful of miscellaneous artifacts bequeathed to the
museum by a former resident is one accession. The fragment of a cannon
shell found by a road crew and turned in yesterday is another, while a piece
of the same shell they find and turn in today is a third. An accession may
contain one object or many, but there can be only one source and one time
of arrival. Any exception to this rule seriously weakens the record system.
Number the accessions in sequence starting with 1 and progressing indefi
nitely in unbroken succession. Because accessions are recorded and as
signed numbers in the order of arrival, the book automatically becomes a
chronological list of the transactions. Enter the number of the accession in
the first column and attach the same number temporarily to the objects
received (see below).
143
Date received Record the month, day and year the delivery occurs. This
is when the accession actually comes into the museum. By making the
entry the same day, you assure accuracy on this point. Avoid any abbrevia
tions of the date that might be confusing. An abbreviation adopted inter
nationally for medical data would use, for example: 9 SEP 74.
Description While this must be brief, tell enough to distinguish the ma

terial received. State the number of specimens, if possible (see fig. 41 for
examples).
Received from Enter the full name and address of donor, lender, vendor
or other source from whom the accession came. Since you will depend on
this for future contacts, be sure to record the proper title of address (e.g.
Mr., Miss, Col.) and include the zip code.
How acquired State whether the accession is a gift, bequest, purchase,

transfer, exchange, term loan or indefinite loan. If it results from field
collecting by a staff member as part of his ofiicial duties, enter it as a field
collection. Otherwise record a field collection as a gift from the individual
or organization carrying on the project.
Remarks Use this column to note any unusual facts concerning the trans
action, particularly deaccessioning actions (e.g. return of borrowed ma
terial, transfers or exchanges, loss or destruction), but also the termination
date of loans received and the fact that certain objects are in the museum
on approval or for identification.
Catalogue numbers When you catalogue the objects in the accession, go

back and enter the catalogue numbers in the last column. If the accession
contains too many items for the space allowed, place a list of the numbers
in the accession file and note here, “see acc. file.” The numbers in this
column provide an important link between the two sets of museum records.
Accession File
All accessions should have an accession folder. This is a regular cor

respondence file folder clearly marked with the accession’s number in a
carbon-base ink and filed in numerical order in a standard file cabinet. All
correspondence (original incoming and duplicate outgoing) and other
documents relating to the accession including letters of acknowledgment,
conditions of gift, loan or exchange agreement, return receipt, transcript of
will, deed of gift, a copy of the bill of lading and invoice, report of dam
aged condition and any other material relating to that particular trans
Accession Records 145
action should be placed in the accession folder (see Chapter 2, especially

Gifts and Loans). Until the specimens in an accession are catalogued, keep
in the folder field notes and other research data which will later be put in a
catalogue file. If documents required for accounting purposes must be
retained in the finance office make copies for the accession folder.
Park museums need not send incoming correspondence pertaining to the
acquisition of museum specimens to central files, but must notify the officer
in charge of general files that the correspondence has been retained in the
museum records.
Source of Accession File
This simple reference aid, a handy file of the sources from which the
museum has acquired specimens, saves a museum much time and often
embarrassment as well. When a donor revisits the museum, for example,
you can quickly locate whatever he has given in the past. Merely set up a
file of plain 5 >< 8-inch (127 >< 203mm) cards. On each type the name and
address of a source from which the museum has gotten specimens, i.e. copy
the entries in the Received from column of the accession book onto sepa
rate cards. File them alphabetically. Place the accession number on the
card below the name and address. Then when a later accession comes from
a source for which you already have a card, add its accession number to
the card. A glance at the card will tell what accession book entries to check.
There you will find the catalogue numbers which will lead you directly to
the specimens involved. Park museums regularly maintain one of these files
(fig. 42).
Tagging and Storing Accessions
An accurate accession record is of little use if the objects to which it

refers cannot be identified or located. Therefore, tag new accessions tem
porarily with their number until they are catalogued, and place them in
space specifically allotted to accessions that have not been catalogued. Set
aside a section of specimen storage equipment for this purpose. One
drawer in a specimen cabinet may be enough, for example, depending on
the amount of new material generally received. Use the designated space
for no other purpose and mark it Accession storage.
Write the accession number on a tag and fasten it temporarily to each
specimen in the lot. Circular, metal-rimmed stock tags or small cardboard
price tags with loops of string attached make convenient ones. They can be
tied to most objects. Avoid taping the numbers on because the adhesive
can damage specimens.
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Accession Re cords 147
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Figure 42. Source of accession file.
A box containing many objects which cannot be unpacked immediately

may need only one label or the number might be marked directly on the
box with an indelible crayon. However, it is wise to unpack accessions as
soon as possible, both to note the condition of the objects upon arrival and
to prevent acidic or other harmful packing materials remaining in contact
with them.
Deaccessioning
Specimens permanently removed from the collection are deaccessioned

or cancelled. The object may be withdrawn because of deterioration, trans
fer to another area, exchange, loss or the return of a loan. Note the disposi
tion of the object in the accession book under Remarks and on the source
card. Any correspondence or receipts referring to the withdrawal should be
placed in the accession file folder. If the object has been catalogued, mark
the disposition on the catalogue forms and on the catalogue file folder. Do
not remove the catalogue forms or the catalogue folder from their places.
Park museums will also require a Board of Survey Report or Transfer of
Property form in accordance with the property accounting regulations of
the Service.
Accession Records 149
Installing a New System
Small museums have sometimes accumulated collections without setting

up a proper system of museum records. In this situation start an accession
book without further delay. First search the correspondence files and any
other available sources of information to find out when and how objects
have been acquired. Enter in the new accession book in chronological
order all past accessions for which you can establish dates. Then record in
the book each accession of which you know the source but not the date of
receipt, giving it the next available accession number. In the Date received
column for each of these state that it came in prior to the day you started
the book. After these assign the next number to the remainder of the
existing collection, comprising the objects for which you can discover nei
ther where they came from nor when the museum got them. Then enter the
first new acquisition and proceed to maintain complete accession records in
regular form. If you later find the source of some object or objects lumped
in the remainder entry, record this accession under the next free number
regardless of chronology in order to preserve the information in usable
form.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Some museums use a combined accession and catalogue number described

or illustrated in several of the references listed. This complex number has
advantages, but also disadvantages because of which national park museums
retain separate numbers for the two kinds of essential records.
43:5 (January 1965), pp. 34-40.
, and Alice Marriott. “Proposals for a Standardized Museum Accession
ing and Classification System,” Curator, I:2 (1958), pp. 77-86.
Hyderabad. Choudhury & Choudhury, 1963, pp. 127-150.
Smithsonian Institution, 1968, pp. 17-22, 35, 207-221. Rev. ed. in prep.
Freundlich, A. L. “Museum Registration by Computer,” Museum News, 44:6
(February 1966), pp. 18-20.
Graham, John M., II. “A Method of Museum Registration,” Technical Supple
ment 2, Museum News, 42:8 (April 1964).
Guthe, Carl E. “Documenting Collections: Museum Registration & Records,”
History News, 18:9 (July 1967), rev. ed. 1970.
Sturtevant, William C. “Ethnological Collections and Curatorial Records,”
Chapter 8 Museum Catalogue
The Catalogue records all significant facts regarding the physical ap

pearance and history of every object accepted for addition to the perma
nent collection. It may well be the museum’s most important possession
because so much of the value of all the specimens depends on it. Therefore
the Catalogue is made fully as durable as the Accession Book. In addition
every precaution is taken to protect the original from fire or other dangers.
Good cataloguing demands knowledge of the objects, clear and logical
thinking, orderliness and accuracy.
Museum Catalogue Form
Park museums use a specially designed catalogue form. It is supplied in

triplicate so that necessary copies may be typed in a single operation. It
consists of two paper copies (white and blue), designed to be filed in post
binders, and a third card-copy for index filing. The original, of white
permanent record paper and typed with permanent ink, is filed numerically
(the most recent number on top) in a post binder. It constitutes the prime
record of each specimen in the museum’s permanent collection. Keep it
separate from the other museum records in a vault with high fire resistance.
The blue copy, of good bond paper typed with Grade A, extra quality hard
or medium finish carbon paper, is also filed numerically in a post binder.
This provides the working reference to the museum’s permanent collection.
The record of the last object catalogued is always on top as the book is
opened. In this way the last catalogue number assigned to an object and the
approximate number of specimens in the collection may be seen at a glance.
The index copy, a white card typed with the same quality carbon paper, is
placed in a card file according to classification. It forms an index to the
collection, as essential as a subject catalogue to a library. The third copy
may be duplicated as many times as necessary for cross references in the
classified file.
150
Information recorded on the catalogue form comes in part from the
accession book and accession file. More of the data, however, must result
from careful study of the object and research involving it. This takes time,
but initiate the cataloguing of specimens as soon as possible after receiving
them. They cannot become useful until you do. Set high standards of
accuracy and thoroughness. Select the nomenclature recognized by students
of each kind of object and use it consistently, but be sure others will
understand it (see Appendix E and e.g. the chapter on Terminology of the
Sword in Harold L. Peterson, The American Sword, 1775-1945, rev. ed.,
Philadelphia, Ray Riling Arms Book Co., 1965). Slipshod cataloguing not
only makes inadequate and ineflicient museum records, but may also cause
needless confusion in later years. The catalogue form contains the headings
listed below to suggest what information to record (fig. 43).
CLASSIFICAYION u s DEPARTMENT or THE INTERIOR

NAYIONAL PARK SERVICE
Furniture
Chairs Lafayette National Memorial
(AREAI
MUSEUM CATALOGUE RECORD
OIIECI
A rmc h a i r
LQCAUTY
Philadelphia , PA
DESCIIPYION Walnut Queen Anne Chippendale open armchair with slip seat, circa 1745-1755. Broad
serpentine crest rail with plain volute terminals; solid vase-shaped splat; raking stiles
chamfered into octagon below trapezoidal seat frame; side rails tenoned through rear legs;
reverse serpentine arm rest terminating in scrolled knuckles, reverse C arm supports; side
rails screwed into arm supports; front rail double reverse S-curves; ogee knee bracket; side
rails shaped; plain cabriole front legs; slipper feet. Finish: wax over brushed shellac.
Trapezoidal pine slip seat frame; modern muslin, webbing, tacks and all-hair filling; covered
with brown leather. Small knot shows on inside of front seat rail 3" (76 mm) from left end.
Measurements: h. A0 9/16" (1.03 m), w., knuckle to knuckle, 30%" (775 m), d. 18%" (464 mm),
length at seat 16 15/16" (430 mm), width at seat 16 1/8" (407 mm). Condition: very good.
Rear corner blocks replaced. Reference: John T. Kirk, American Chairs, Queen Anne and
Chippendalg, 1972, p. 6. History: see reverse.
DATE IECEN no lEC!|VEDFROM(N-unaonduddnu) Mrs. John R‘ Sumner Iioztncqiilfly
12 Mal’ 197 as Uj_nflj_nc> mm Chester PA 19015 1 Gift
nssrm iocnion ,- V ' ozitiniuen av my;
VM ll Y
$5500 est. 7j,,i.,' /~/61.“. , /I-mm.Z>

<'-MMOOWI one ' MANNER or DISPOSAL I
DATI
Vera B. Hunter, Curator 1 Oct 197it¢
FOIM 10-154 (Mar W57) nu s GOVERNMENT PRENTING OFFICE um o -M29645
Figure 43. Sample catalogue form.
Classification The categories entered here represent as nearly as possible

the groups in which anyone using the collection is most likely to search for
and study the specimens. The same categories appear in the catalogue card
file and the study collection storage. Chapter 9, which describes the system
of classification park museums use, illustrates how difficult it is to define
groups that will meet the widely different needs of scholars. List the larger
category first then progressively smaller ones as needed.
Area Park museums fill in the name of the park.
151
Catalogue number Start the catalogue with number 1 and progress in

numerical order indefinitely. Assign the next available number to each
object as it is studied and catalogued. (To check the last number used refer
to the post binder containing the blue copies of the catalogue form, which
should be at hand where the cataloguer is working.) Affix the number
permanently to the specimen. Its sole purpose is to distinguish that particu
lar object. It should imply nothing about the kind of object and no letters,
decimals or fractions should be used. This number bears no relation to the
accession number but is cross-referenced to it by entry in the last column
of the accession book. Objects in pairs or sets such as identical chairs, a
portfolio of prints, a pair of candlesticks or a cup and saucer receive
separate numbers. Note the catalogue numbers of the related objects in the
description on the catalogue form. Treat component parts of specimens,
such as teapot and cover, as one and apply the same number to each part.
The skin, skull and skeleton of one mammal specimen receive the same
number as do the bones of a single skeleton. In instances where component
parts are of themselves complete specimens, however, give each a separate
catalogue number (e.g. a sword and scabbard or the hat, blouse and trous
ers of a uniform). Note the numbers of the other parts in the description of
each.
Accession number Copy the accession number on the catalogue form to

complete the cross-reference to the record of acquisition.
Object Enter the name of the object, a single specific identification

(e.g. Microtus pennsylvanicus, meadow mouse, skin and skull; or pistol,
flintlock). Avoid repeating a term already used in the classification entry,
or using the name over again in the description. While there is as yet no
standard list of object names for historical artifacts, set a consistent policy
within the museum. Do not use “bedspread” one time and “coverlet” the
next, or call one specimen “pants” and another “trousers.” When in doubt,
cross-reference.
Locality Record the place of origin of the object—precisely where a

natural history specimen was collected, the site and level at which an
archeological artifact was recovered, or the country and political subdivision
or region where an historic or artistic object was made. The meadow mouse
locality would correspond to the data on the specimen label (see Freshly
Collected Biological Specimens, Chapter 3), while the pistol might be from
Birmingham, England, for example. For an archeological specimen the
entry would clearly indicate the location of the excavation as well as the
exact position within it. Note that the locality of primary interest differs in
different disciplines. If the cataloguer knows where an archeological speci
men was made, he will record it in the description.
Museum Catalogue 153
Description This is the heart of the catalogue. It comprises both a physical

description of the object and a record of its history. The former often
includes a verbal description supplemented with sketches on the catalogue
form and photographs in the catalogue file, a careful report of markings,
detailed measurements and a statement on its condition. Describe ade
quately two sets of characteristics—those that are significant in studying
the category of objects to which it belongs and those that distinguish this
specimen from all others like it. The first set is for students and varies
considerably from one kind of object to another. The second should enable
you to prove beyond question that the object recovered by the police is the
one someone stole from your museum. For the scholarly description the
best guidance comes at present from studying published catalogues of im
portant collections and standard books concerning the type of object in
volved. These sources will indicate what details are significant and illustrate
the accepted terminology. See also Geraldine Bruckner, “A Standard
Terminology for Describing Objects in a Museum of Anthropology,” in
Dudley and Wilkinson, Museum Registration Methods. Descriptions of
biological specimens usually require the sex, stage of life cycle and any
exceptional aspects. In describing an artifact identify the materials of
which it is made, if you can be sure, or tell their characteristics (e.g. a
highly polished, dark green stone too hard to scratch with a knife). Give
the shape, color and details of decoration.
In recording marks on the specimen copy any field number, previous
owner’s catalogue number or old labels attached to it. Indicate any maker’s
marks, proof marks, hallmarks, serial numbers or other special markings
and note their location. In a paper specimen describe, sketch or trace the
watermark. Transcribe any signature or date and tell where it is located on
the specimen. Copy any inscription, dedicatory or otherwise, and translate
it into English if necessary (noting the translator’s name in the catalogue).
Also describe and locate any accidental marks such as chips or scratches
that will help identify this specific object. Rubbings of important marks
should be filed in the catalogue folder.
Record the standard measurements. These vary with different kinds of
objects (see e.g. Freshly Collected Biological Specimens, Chapter 3 above
and Chapter 4 in Dudley and Wilkinson, Museum Registration Methods).
Use millimeters and inches as a rule, so the data will be equally useful to
you and to the expanding metric world. Be accurate to 1 millimeter or 1/16th
inch in measuring specimens other than very small ones. For these an
accuracy to 0.5% has been recommended. When the measurement does
not fall exactly on the millimeter or 1/16th-inch mark, record the next
larger. For most artifacts give the height first, then width or diameter and
depth. Irregular shaped objects require more dimensions. Record all
measurements in a consistent sequence. If part of an object is missing,
specify that the measurements given are incomplete and estimate what the
full dimensions of the complete specimen would be. Weigh as well as

measure those specimens which are too small or too nearly like others of
the same kind to distinguish by dimensions alone. Aim for the same degree
of accuracy in weighing as in measuring, 0.5 %.
In describing the condition of the specimen state whether it is good, fair
or bad (but for firearms use the standard terms of the National Rifle
Association, see Appendix D). Record in detail missing parts, chips,
scratches, tears, repairs, alterations and any other evidence of damage or
deterioration.
The history of the specimen to be recorded in the catalogue includes
such information as who made it and when, who owned or used it from the
time of its production until it entered the museum, its association with
particular people or events, when and where it has been exhibited, its
preservative treatment. Document the statements on the catalogue form or
refer to documentation in the catalogue file, which may also contain fuller
details on the object’s history. For natural history specimens the history
may be adequately recorded in the field notes filed in the catalogue folder.
Indicate this on the form, although significant ecological data may also be
noted here.
See Appendix E for examples of catalogue descriptions for several
common types of specimens.
Date received Give the same date as in the accession book. It is con
venient to have this information repeated here.
Received from Copy the full name and address of donor, vendor or
collector from the accession book. If the collector is on the staff, include
his title. If the specimen is from a special expedition, archeological project
or other named enterprise, include the name (e.g. George A. Smith, Park
Archeologist, 1956 Excavation of Bluefield Site).
How acquired From the accession book indicate whether the object is a
gift, bequest, purchase, transfer, exchange or field collection.
Value Whenever possible record the purchase price or appraised value of

a specimen which has actual monetary value. If the information is not
available for such specimens, the cataloguer in a park museum must assign
a reasonable monetary value for accountability purposes to each object
(other than loans) which would be worth $100 or more. Knowing the
value of a specimen is often useful and sometimes very important, particu
larly when a museum insures its collections or when a loss occurs. For park
museums, recording the value places the specimen under financial control
which broadens and underlines responsibility for its protection. Museums

as a rule maintain a strict policy of not appraising objects except for their
own internal use. While a donor is entitled to claim the value of his gift to
the museum as a tax deduction to the full legal extent, the proper amount is
a matter between him and the Internal Revenue Service in which the mu
seum should not get involved. Giving appraisals could subject the museum
or the curator to court actions in other situations as well. For park museum
purposes most scientific specimens do not need to be valued, but some can
be put under fiscal control by being designated of exceptional scientific
importance. Thus a prehistoric vessel can receive this added protection
without the risk of encouraging pot hunters who think in terms of market
ing such objects.
Present location Write in pencil the room, case, cabinet and drawer or
shelf where the specimen is exhibited or stored. Revise this entry whenever
the specimen is moved.
Determined by Enter the name of the expert who has made an authorita
tive identification of the specimen and the date it was identified. If the
cataloguer makes the identification, leave the space blank. The specific
name determined by the expert is entered under Object. If there are succes
sive determinations with changes or refinements in the identification, the
details can be filed in the catalogue folder and a reference noted on the
catalogue form.
Cataloguer The individual who fills out the catalogue form should enter
his name and the date the object is catalogued. If the curator makes out the
form in rough draft for someone else to type, his name rather than the
name of the typist is entered.
Disposal When an object is removed from the collection by loan, transfer,

exchange, loss, accidental destruction or by other means, the transaction
should be documented in accordance with established procedures. The
catalogue forms remain in place, the manner and date of disposal are
entered and, if desired, a line may be drawn across the forms. The cata
logue number is not used again.
The space marked off in the upper right corner of the National Park
Service catalogue form is for convenience in locating particular specimens.
One museum, for example, might place a red check here on the forms for
all specimens which have a catalogue folder, and a green check for those
which have photographs or which have been illustrated in publications.
Also, cards for specimens having monetary value can be marked in this
space so they can be spotted for accounting purposes.
Catalogue Folder File
Some specimens will require a catalogue folder. This is a regular cor

respondence folder clearly marked with the specimen’s catalogue number
in a carbon-base ink and filed in numerical order in a standard file cabinet.
The catalogue folder acts as a supplement to the catalogue form. All re
search information and correspondence relating to the specimen including
bibliographies, photographs marked with negative numbers, field notes,
working notes, exhibition information, conservators’ reports and other re
ports based on a study of the object or referring to it are placed in the
catalogue folder.
Naturally, many specimens will not need a folder, and by the same token
a specimen that did not require a folder originally may need one at a later
date to save all useful information as it accumulates.
Some museums file the photographs of a specimen in the catalogue
folder. This is recommended, especially when detailed study photographs
are involved. When a small record photograph of each specimen is used, it
may be glued to the back of the third copy of the catalogue form. Because
mounting adhesives may deteriorate and harm the catalogue card, park
museums more often attach the photograph to a separate card (e.g. the
National Park Service print file card, Form 10-30), marked with the
catalogue number in the upper right corner and filed directly behind
the catalogue form in the classified card file (fig. 44).
PARK CLASSIFICATION no "'5°"Y“’E "O
1 I l
NATIONAL ARCHIVES NO
5UEJECT ‘HER
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS NO
LOCAHQN
PRINT
SPACE
FOR PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTS
AN D P H O TO RECORDS OF
PHOTOGRAPHER e cement ous PMNUNGS‘ DRAMNGSI
MAPS; MUSEUM ARTIFACTS
ETC
DATE TAKEN
REMARKS
l NPS 10-3018/68) NATIONAL VISUAL INVENTORY CARD
Figure 44. Print file card.

Inventory or Location File
Park museums use a 5 X 8-inch (127 >< 203 mm), salmon-colored card
copy of the standard catalogue form to provide an auxiliary record. It fills
the frequent need for an inventory or location index. This can be especially
useful for furnished historic structure museums to provide a record of
furnishings by room. It is often helpful to keep the location file in the
house. Also, where collections are large or housed in several buildings, a
central file which shows the specimens in each particular location is a
convenience, particularly at inventory time.
Local requirements will dictate the amount of information recorded on
this supplemental form. Some museums transfer all the catalogue data,
others need only the number, object name, accession information and
location.
Numbering Specimens
Each object in the museum’s permanent collection has its own individual
catalogue number. This number must be legible, unobtrusive, permanent. It
should not alter or deface the specimen. It should be easy to find, but must
not interfere with the study or display of the object. As a rule, the number
should be placed in the same location on all objects of the same class.
Applying it calls for manual skill, forethought and consistency.
There are two commonly recommended methods of numbering most
museum specimens. The one used is optional, depending on which proves
easier to handle. You may letter the number in India ink on an oblong of
white lacquer. Paint directly on the specimen a neat oblong of flat drying,
white brushing lacquer, just large enough to hold the number. Allow it to
dry. When the lacquer is set, write the number on the oblong in India ink
with a fine steel pen. With a crow-quill pen and practice you can make a
perfectly readable number on the edge of a coin or on a surgical needle, for
example. On white china or glass, a clear lacquer may be used instead of
the white.
The other method of numbering is to paint the number directly on the
specimen with a brush. If the material is porous such as wood, first apply a
thin layer of shellac to the surface to prevent absorption of the paint.
Artists’ oils and a number 2 sable brush should be used to paint the
number. On small objects, requiring very small numerals, reduce the brush
to 3 or 4 hairs. Use the best quality of professional artists’ oil paints
available from art supply stores.
Cadmium red is the preferred color, but on objects where red does not
stand out use titanium white or ivory black. Thin slightly with turpentine.
If quick drying is necessary add a drop of drier. On smooth surfaces such
as glass or china use lacquer thinner instead of turpentine, with a drop of
raw linseed oil and varnish added to the oil paint so it will adhere to the
surface and dry harder.
Whichever method you use to apply the number, i.e., with ink or paint,
cover it finally with a thin protective coating. This is easy to do with one
stroke of a brush, but for best results wait a day so the numbers are dry.
Over the ink use clear white shellac, and clear lacquer on the paint. With a
minimum of care these numbers should last indefinitely unless removed
with alcohol (solvent for shellac or oil paint) and acetone (solvent for
lacquer). As extra protection during cleaning, place wax temporarily over
the number.
Use either of these methods for numbering specimens composed of
ceramic, glass, leather, metal, stone or wood. Park museums locate the
numbers on such objects as follows:
Armor On the inside of each principal or readily separable element, but

on a small zinc or aluminum tag wired to chain mail.
Ceramic objects On a concave portion of the underside not touching the

surface on which the object rests.
Coins On the edge, if possible.
Firearms On the inside of the trigger guard or on the breech of the barrel
opposite the lock.
Furniture On the front face of the rear leg at the viewer’s right, close to
the rail, or for heavy pieces close to the rear edge of the side on the
viewer’s right near the base.
Glass On a concave portion of the underside as for ceramics, but with

extra care to place it inconspicuously and execute it neatly.
Metal obects On a concave portion of the base as with ceramics and glass,
close to the junction with the handle on tools or on a protected and incon
spicuous position.
Oil paintings On the reverse side at the lower right corner (viewer’s
right) of both stretcher and frame; if the picture is heavy repeating the
number on the side of the frame at the lower right corner.
Sculpture Low on the right (viewer’s) rear of the base.
Swords On the reverse side of the blade just below the counterguard, and
in the same relative position on the scabbard.
Specimens too small to be numbered (e.g. common pins or small glass

beads) should each be placed in a vial with the catalogue number either
on the vial itself or on an all-rag card slipped inside it.
Textile specimens require a different method of numbering. Letter the
catalogue number in India ink on a small oblong of linen tape. Then sew
the tape to the specimen. If the fabric is fragile, such as lace, attach the
tape with a small loop of thread. Locate the number on the object incon
spicuously and consistently as follows:
Clothing On the inside of neckband (centered at back) or waistband (end).
Draperies On the reverse side at the lower right corner (viewer’s right).
Rugs On the reverse side at the lower right and preferably also at the
diagonally opposite corner.
Paper must also be numbered in a different way because the ink or paint
would deface the specimen or alter it. Write the number on the object in
pencil, using a medium grade between HB and 2H. Do not use an indelible
pencil. Place the numbers as follows:
Books On the inside of both covers at the lower corner near the hinge,
also in the corresponding position on the reverse of the title page and on
any loose pages.
Documents On the reverse at the lower right corner.
Prints On the reverse at the lower right corner, and in the same loca
tion on the mat or mount.
Watercolors On the reverse at the lower right corner, and similarly on

the mat or mount.
Natural history specimens are numbered according to well established

procedures. See Freshly Collected Biological Specimens, Chapter 3, for
details regarding most plant and animal specimens. In general the number
is recorded in India ink or typed with permanent ribbon on the specimen
label. In addition number skulls on the cranium and mandible, other parts
of skeletons on the shaft of each bone and on the container, and tanned
mammal skins on the tanned side, using India ink in each case and protect
ing it with a stroke of clear white shellac. Use the lacquer oblong or the
brushed number on rocks, minerals and fossils. Pick a smooth spot, if
possible, that will not interfere with the study or exhibition of the object.
Mark microscopic fossils and thin sections on the lower right corner of their
glass slides.
Exceptions to Standard Procedures
Park museums recognize the need for a few exceptions to the rules, but
keep these to a minimum. Books which are preserved and used primarily as
historical objects or for exhibition are accessioned and catalogued as mu
seum specimens. Other books in park collections, intended for reading and
reference, are considered library material. In the same way manuscripts for
exhibition or for historical documentation of other specimens in the collec
tion or used as evidence in support of the museum’s subject area become
museum objects to be accessioned or catalogued. Manuscripts preserved as
active research collections should be part of the library rather than the
museum. Parks with relatively few manuscripts and without fully devel
oped library records, however, may catalogue all of them as museum speci
mens to achieve better control. The same criteria should apply to
photographs and other documentary materials. Thus photographic prints
and negatives preserved primarily for their historical value should be ac
cessioned and catalogued as part of the museum collection rather than as
part of the regular photographic files of the park.
Replicas of museum objects for exhibition are accessioned and cata
logued as museum specimens but display panels and dioramas or other
display art produced in connection with museum exhibits are not. Neither
are the reproductions used for “living history” demonstrations.
Cannon and carriages exhibited outdoors which are not incorporated in
the design of a monument or marker, are accessioned and catalogued as
museum specimens. This includes cannon replicas and cannon tubes
mounted on pedestals.
Insect collections are usually not catalogued. No individual specimen
number is assigned. All data are recorded on small labels attached to the
pin below the specimen and the series of specimens representing each
species is pinned in a separate tray. The arrangement of the trays in ac
cordance with the accepted classification makes separate indexing unneces
sary. However, in parks having small insect collections, regular cataloguing
procedures may be followed if desired. The data labels should be attached
to the pin as usual, but with the catalogue number added and the regular
forms made out.
Herbarium collections in some institutions are not catalogued on the
grounds that the individual sheet labels form a satisfactory catalogue. This
does not provide for the safekeeping of the permanent record. If an uncata
logued herbarium sheet is lost or destroyed, the record of the specimen is
lost with it. With these considerations in mind it is recommended that in
parks plant specimens be catalogued as part of the museum collections.
Exceptions must be justified.
Archeological collections also present special problems. When speci
mens are excavated, the archeologist usually assigns them field numbers or
site designations in accordance with established professional practices.

These numbers serve various scholarly purposes and are quite separate
from the museum accession and catalogue numbers which become associ
ated with a specimen after it enters a museum collection. A park museum
accessions an archeological collection immediately upon receiving it from
the archeologist. If the archeologist has already culled the collection, he
should supply for the accession file folder a statement of what has been
eliminated and the means of disposal. If the collection has not yet been
culled, the museum holds it in “field collection status,” i.e., will postpone
cataloguing the specimens until an expert has culled it. At the time of
culling he will provide information for the accession file on what he has
eliminated and how. “Field collection status” is a temporary arrangement
which the museum will terminate as soon as possible. The practice favored
by some archeologists of keeping “open” accession numbers weakens the
value of, and complicates the use of the accession record for normal mu
seum purposes. Therefore, open accession numbers should not be used.
The culling of collections before they are turned over to the museum
removes in part the utility of open numbers. Specimens should be acces
sioned as soon after field work as practicable, of course.
Catalogue the archeological specimens in the standard way with a simple
number for each specimen, except for large series of type sherds and simi
lar type series of, for example, projectile points, pipe stems or nails. In
these instances each representative specimen of a type series receives the
same catalogue number. The description on the card will note how many
comparison specimens are in the series. This procedure involves the dan
gerous practice of assigning the same catalogue number to more than one
specimen. It is permissible only with groups of archeological specimens
collected at one place and time, that is, having identical data as well as
identical temporal and cultural affinities and no significant differences.
When a specimen in such a series is found to be significantly different from
the others, it should be recatalogued as a separate item. In the central
repositories holding collections from more than one park, the staff may use
distinguishing marks on specimens to designate the different collections
when necessary to avoid serious confusion while specimens are being used in
comparative studies. These marks are not part of the catalogue number,
but are archeologists’ markings like the site numbers. Similarly, in a few
parks which contain many individual ruins spanning a long period of
time, major archeological investigations may require the specimens to be
accessioned as excavation proceeds. The accession number in these in
stances may also serve as part of the archeologists’ study marking on the
specimen because it identifies the site where the specimen was found. This
practice should be closely limited and approved in advance.
An indefinite loan calls for another exception. Technically it is not a
permanent part of the museum collection. Actually the museum has long
term custody and responsibility. For this reason park museums catalogue
an indefinite loan as carefully and completely as if it belonged to the
museum. The catalogue number is applied to the borrowed object, but with
special care to avoid any harm to it if the number later has to be removed.
A loan, regardless of its value, is not included in the property accountabil
ity records. If an indefinite loan is returned, the museum deaccessions it
and records the action as with any other object removed from the
collection.
Report to Finance Oflice
Park museums safeguard specimens under financial control (which must

include all those, other than loans, having monetary value of a certain
amount or more, presently $100) by submitting receiving reports to the
finance office. The report indicates the catalogue number and value of each
controlled object as it enters the collection. The property officer with the
curator’s help obtains the information required for this report from the
museum accession book and catalogue. When an object under financial
control is removed from a collection, a more detailed report goes to the
finance office on the proper accounting form.
A physical inventory of the controlled specimens must be taken at least
once a year. The inventory goes to the finance office for reconciling to the
accountability records.
Supplies for Cataloguing
Using the right materials makes the job of cataloguing easier and the
results better. Park museums have found the following supplies effective
for numbering specimens and typing the standard forms. In numbering they
use India ink or professional quality artists’ oil paints (e.g. Grumbacher,
Winsor & Newton Ltd. or Permanent Pigments) in the smallest size tubes.
As a white lacquer they select an automotive grade, refrigerator white. Clear
lacquer is automotive grade, water white, or acrylic. The shellac is clear
white, not orange. Steel pens of the crow-quill type work well for number
ing in ink. To number with paint they choose a professional quality
lettering brush, sable, number 2 size (e.g. Delta or Grumbacher). For
making the lacquer oblong or applying the protective coat over the number
artists’ brushes of the same quality, sable, number 3 size are fine, although
small bottles with applicator brush tops such as used for typewriter correc
tion fluid or nail polish can be satisfactory and convenient. Any small,
tightly capped jars serve to hold the supplies of alcohol, acetone and tur
pentine needed to clean the brushes.
The ink used in most typewriter ribbons fades on prolonged exposure to

light. Park museums consequently use single color, black record ribbons
that meet Federal Specification DDD-R-311F. To obtain carbon copies
somewhat resistant to smearing they use a hard or medium finish, grade A,
extra quality carbon paper as defined in Federal Specification
UU-P-158d.
The quality of the catalogue in form and content, as the museum’s most
vital record, measures the capacity of the curator and the standard of
excellence the institution can claim. As he catalogues, a good curator ap
preciates that, to quote Stendhal, all the pleasure and the truth are in the
details.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blundell, John D. “Go Metric Now,” Museums Journal, 70:2 (September

1970), pp. 61-62.
43:5 (January 1965), pp. 34-40.
Bowditch, George. “Cataloging Photographs: A Procedure for Small Museums,”
History News, 26:1 (November 1971).
Hyderabad. Choudhury & Choudhury, 1963, pp. 127-146, 151-244.
Conran, G. L. “The Valuation of Museum Objects,” Museums Journal, 56:8
(November 1956), pp. 187-190.
Connor, Seymour V. “A System of Manuscript Appraisal,” American Associa
tion for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 41, History News, 22:5
(May 1967).
Cox, Janson L. “Photographing Historical Collections: Equipment, Methods,
and Bibliography,” American Association for State and Local History
Technical Leaflet 63, History News, 28:5 (May 1973).
Smithsonian Institution, 1968, pp. 17-62, 154-201, 207-217, 222, 224
239. Rev. ed. in prep.
Graham, John M., II. “A Method of Museum Registration,” Technical Supple
ment 2, Museum News, 42:8 (April 1964).
Hurst, Richard M. “Putting a Collection on Film,” Curator, XIII:3 (1970),
pp. 199-203.
Levitt, I. M. “Inching Toward the Metric System,” Museum News, 49:4

(December 1970), pp. 30-31.
Macdonald, Robert R. “Toward a More Accessible Collection: Cataloguing at
the Mercer Museum,” Museum News, 48:6 (February 1969), pp. 22-26.
Oddon, Yvonne. “The Documentation of Collections in General Museums,”
ICOM News, 23:3 (September 1970), pp. 55-60.
Schneider, Mary Jane. Cataloguing and Care of Collections for Small Museums.
Columbia. Museum of Anthropology, University of Missouri, 1971.
Sturtevant, William C. “Ethnological Collections and Curatorial Records,”
Whiting, Alfred F. “Catalogues: Damn ’Em—-An Inter-museum Office Memo,”
Curator, IX:1 (1966), pp. 85-87.
See also the references on computerized museum data retrieval in the

bibliography following Chapter 5. For assistance in cataloguing historical arti
facts see particularly: "
Rath, Frederick L., Jr., and Merrilyn Rogers O’Connell. Guide to Historic
Preservation, Historical Agencies, and Museum Practices: A Selective
Bibliography. Cooperstown. New York State Historical Association, 1970,
pp. 114-184.
Also see other references under Identifying and Authenticating Specimens
in the bibliography following Chapter 3 and:
Darbee, Herbert C. “A Glossary of Old Lamps and Lighting Devices,” American
News, 20:8 (August 1965).
Eaches, Albert R. “Scales and Weighing Devices: An Aid to Identification,”
History News, 27:3 (March 1972).
Emery, Irene. The Primary Structures of Fabrics: An Illustrated Classification.
Washington. Textile Museum, 1967.
Frangiamore, Catherine L. “Rescuing Historic Wallpaper: Identification, Preser
vation, Restoration,” American Association for State and Local History
Technical Leaflet 73, History News, 29:4 (April 1974).
Hodgkinson, Ralph. “Tools of the Woodworker: Axes, Adzes, and Hatchets,”
History News, 20:5 (May 1965).
Nelson, Lee H. “Nail Chronology as an Aid to Dating Old Buildings,” Ameri
can Association for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 48, History
News, 24:11 (November 1968).
Peterson, Harold L. The American Sword 1775-1945. Rev. ed. Philadelphia.
Ray Riling Arms Book Co., 1965.
Rempel, John L. “Tools of the Woodworker: Hand Planes,” American Associa
tion for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 24, rev. ed., History
News, 26:9 (September 1971).
l Russell, Loris S. A Heritage of Light. Toronto. University of Toronto Press,
l 1968.
Watkins, C. Malcolm. “Artificial Lighting in America, 1830-1860,” Annual
Report of the Smithsonian Institution for I951, Washington. Government
Printing Oflice, 1952, pp. 385-407.
Welsh, Peter C. Woodworking Tools. Contributions from the Museum of His
tory and Technology 51. Washington. Government Printing Oflice, 1966.
Chapter 9 Classification
Although museum workers have not yet agreed on a universal system for
classifying specimens, park museums have adopted a classification scheme.
It makes the information contained in their collections more accessible for
reference and research. It helps in the management of individual collec
tions and usefully links the resources of the widely separated museums.
The classification provides the basis for filing the third copy of the cata
logue form. Specimens in the study collections are filed according to the
same system as far as is practicable.
Classification depends on identification. A museum classifies its collec
tion at the outset as completely as knowledge of the specimens permits.
Then, as it actively accumulates expert determinations, it assigns the ob
jects to progressively smaller categories. A few specimens probably will not
quite fit the system, but good judgment and cross-references help solve
these problems.
Each object in a park collection fits one of the following general cate
gories: Botany, Zoology, Geology, Archeology, Ethnology or History. These
form the major divisions of the catalogue card file. A museum may allot
separate drawers for each division represented in the collection or mark the
divisions with index tab cards. In using the numerous subordinate cate
gories described below the card file is subdivided with index tab cards only
to the extent practicable and useful. As a rule of thumb, groups of less
than 25-30 cards probably need no further breakdown. To assist in refil
ing cards after use, as many of the larger index tab card categories appli
cable to each specimen as needed may be entered in the space marked
Classification on the catalogue card along with those specified in the direc
tions which follow. The additional entries may be in pencil in the righthand
portion of the space. It is important to avoid introducing other categories
as substitutes for those adopted. The instructions as given to park museums
for classifying collections under each major category follow.
165
Botany
In the space marked Classification on the catalogue form type the scien
tific name of the order. Add the common name of the order if desired.
Type on the next line the scientific name of the family. Add the common
name of the family if desired. In some orders, particularly of lower plants,
it may not be practical to use family designations. The scientific binomial
of the species is entered in the space marked Object, and the common
name may be added here also.
Prepare index tab cards for the divisions, classes, orders and families
represented in the collection. File the catalogue cards in taxonomic order
as far as families (or orders where families are not used) according to the
standard arrangement as given in the National Research Council Hand
book of Biological Data, Appendix II. Taxonomic Classification: Plants,
Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Company, 1956. Below the family (or
order) file the cards alphabetically by genus and by species within each
genus.
Special plant materials that need to be referred to separately in addition
to, or rarely outside, the taxonomic series may have duplicate cards or
cross-reference cards filed under their own index tab cards, arranged alpha
betically at the end of the botanical section. Such materials might include
pollen, galls, polished wood samples or pathological forms, for example.
Zoology
In the space marked Classification on the catalogue form type the scien
tific name of the order. Add the common name of the order if desired.
Type on the next line the scientific name of the family. Add the common
name of the family if desired. In some orders it may not be practical to use
family designations. The scientific binomial of the species is entered in the
space marked Object, and the common name may be added here also.
Prepare index tab cards for the phyla, classes, orders and families repre
sented in the collection. File the catalogue cards in taxonomic sequence as
far as orders according to the standard arrangement as given in the Na
tional Research Council Handbook of Biological Data, Appendix I. Taxo
nomic Classification: Animals, Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders, 1956. Below
the order file the cards as follows:
Invertebrates
In most groups arrange families in alphabetical sequence, then file ge

nera alphabetically under family and species alphabetically under genus.
Parks having significant collections of mollusks should file the cards and
Classification 167
arrange the specimens in the taxonomic order used in R. Tucker Abbott,

American Seashells, New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1954.
Insect collections should be arranged in the sequence of families used by
the Zoological Record, London, the Zoological Society of London. Below
families arrange the genera and species taxonomically when advice from a
specialist in the group is available. Pending this, arrange genera alphabeti
cally under family and species alphabetically under genus.
Fishes
File families according to A List of Common and Scientific Names of

Fishes from the United States and Canada, 3rd ed., Washington, American
Fisheries Society, 1970. File genera alphabetically under family and species
alphabetically under genus.
Amphibians and Reptiles

File families, genera and species in the taxonomic sequence in Karl P.
Schmidt, A Checklist of North American Amphibians and Reptiles, 6th
ed., Chicago, American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists, 1953.
Birds
File families, genera and species in the taxonomic sequence of the Amer
ican Ornithologists’ Union, Check-List of North American Birds, 5th ed.,
2nd printing, Baltimore, Port City Press, 1961.
Mammals
File families, genera and species in the taxonomic sequence used by

Gerrit S. Miller, Jr. and Remington Kellogg, List of North American Re
cent Mammals, United States National Museum Bulletin 205, Washington,
Government Printing Office, 195 5.
Special animal materials that will need to be referred to separately in
addition to, or rarely outside, the taxonomic series may have duplicate
cards filed under their own index tab cards arranged alphabetically at the
end of the zoological section. Such materials might include nests, eggs,
dried feces, stomach contents or feathers.
Geology
Use index tab cards to divide the collection into minerals, rocks and
fossils:
O
Minerals
In the space marked Classification on the catalogue form type the ap

propriate major group name as used in the Dana system. These groups
are:
Native Elements
Sulfides
Sulfosalts
Oxides
Oxygen Salts
Silicates.
The name of the mineral is entered in the space marked Object. Use an
index tab card for each of the above mineral groups represented in the
collection. File them in the sequence given above. Within each group file
the catalogue cards alphabetically by the specific name of the mineral. If
the mineral collection is of special scientific value, the catalogue cards
should be filed in the sequence of Dana numbers rather than alphabetically.
This sequence is contained in James Dwight Dana, et al., System of
Mineralogy, 7th ed., vol. 1 1944, vol. 2 1951, vol. 3 1962. Additional
volumes remain to be published, but a loose-leaf listing projected by the
Smithsonian Institution may make the classification more accessible. When
the Dana number is used, it should be entered in parentheses after the
specific name in the space marked Object to avoid any confusion with
catalogue numbers. Museums wishing to file small mineral collections
alphabetically may find helpful Michael Fleischer, Glossary of Mineral
Species, Bowie, Mineralogical Record, 1971. Specimens containing more
than one mineral will require cross-reference cards.
Rocks
In the space marked Classification on the catalogue form type the name
of the major group to which the specimen belongs:
Igneous and Metamorphic
Sedimentary.
If the specimen is sedimentary rock, type on the next line the name of
the stratigraphic formation. The specific name of the rock is entered in the
space marked Object. Use an index tab card for each of the two major
groups. For the sedimentary series use index tab cards for formations also.
Arrange the formation tab cards in stratigraphic order starting with the
oldest. Igneous and metamorphic specimens may be cross-referenced to the
formation when this would be helpful. File the catalogue cards alphabeti
cally by specific names.
Classification 169
Fossils
These specimens are studied from two distinct points of view, those of
the geologist and the biologist. The classification is correspondingly com
plicated to serve both needs. In the space marked Classification on the
catalogue form type the name of the stratigraphic formation. Type on the
next line the scientific name of the taxonomic class. Add the common name
if desired. On the third line type the scientific name of the order if known,
adding the common name if you desire. If the family name is known, it
may be typed on the fourth line, or the name of the class may be omitted
on the second line and the order and family used as the second and third
entries. The scientific binomial, if it is known, the generic name alone or
the lowest known taxonomic category is entered in the space marked
Object.
Prepare index tab cards for the formations and for either classes and
orders, orders and families or all three categories. Arrange the formation
tab cards in stratigraphic sequence starting with the oldest. If convenient,
group them under tab cards for the geologic periods involved. Under the
formations arrange the taxonomic tab cards in taxonomic order using the
standard classifications approved for botanical and zoological specimens as
far as they go. File the catalogue cards alphabetically by families under the
order, if necessary, by genera under the family and by species under the
genus as far as identification permits.
Archeology
Use this category for excavated specimens and similar specimens col
lected in archeological field surveys, and preserved to study and interpret
non-European cultures. In the space marked Classification on the cata
logue form type the name of the material of which the specimen is made,
for example, stone or metal. Classify biological or geological specimens in
these same categories if the primary source and value of the specimens are
archeological. The kinds of material are listed in the outline classification
given below. Specimens manufactured from more than one raw material
are classified under the material having the greatest representation in the
specimen unless this is a residual category such as Other Plant Materials.
Do not type further subdivisions in the Classification space on the cata
logue cards. The cultural uses or technology of materials vary so much that
standardization of categories at this time, at least, would not serve a useful
purpose. If the quantities and kinds of objects are numerous enough to
require further subdivision, all collections in the same cultural area use
uniform subheadings. Enter the subheading on the catalogue card in pencil.
Manual for Museums
Prepare index tab cards for the four major material categories listed in
the outline classification below and for the kinds of material represented in
the collection. If the collection is large enough to need it, make index tab
cards also for the subdivisions adopted for the cultural area. Arrange the
index tab cards as follows, with the necessary subdivision tab cards follow
ing the appropriate material category card:
Mineral
Stone
Clay
Metal
Glass
Vegetal
Wood
Fiber
Other Plant Materials
Animal
Shefl
Bone
Antler
Hide
Hair
Other Animal Materials
Human Remains
Inhumations
Cremations
Other Human Remains.
File the catalogue cards numerically under the proper index tab cards.
European trade goods from excavated American Indian sites should be
classified as archeological material under the above system if the specimens
are studied as part of the archeological collection. They may be cross
referenced to the history section of the classified catalogue card file in as
much detail as desired.
Ethnology
Use this category for material originally obtained from living cultural
groups of non-European origin and preserved to study or interpret their
life. Ethnologists are interested particularly in the functional aspects of the
cultures, so the classification is based on activities. In the space marked
Classification on the catalogue form type the function or activity with
which the specimen is associated. Use the activity categories listed below.
Classification
If the use of the object is unknown, it ordinarily may be grouped in the last
category, considering it as an example of manufacturing activity. For ob
jects in this final, catchall group type on the second line of the space
marked Classification the name of the material of which the specimen is
made. The list of material given below is the same as that used for archeo
logical collections. If any of the other activity categories contain enough
objects to require subdividing, enter the kind of object on the second line in
pencil. No breakdowns are given because collections vary. Be sure to use
standard terminology.
Prepare index tab cards with the names of the tribes which used the
objects. Parks on the Continent use the tribal names as given in John R.
Swanton, The Indian Tribes of North America, Bureau of American
Ethnology, Bulletin 145, Washington, Government Printing Office, 1953.
Prepare index tab cards for the activity categories represented in the collec
tion. As necessary, also prepare index tab cards for the kinds of objects
included under an activity group. Use these latter only sufficiently to make
the card file workable. Arrange the tribal index cards alphabetically. Under
each tribe arrange the activity index cards in the sequence given below.
Arrange the index cards for kinds of objects alphabetically under the activ
ity except for those under Arts and Industries which should follow the
sequence given below:
Tribe
Hunting and Fishing
Agriculture and Plant Gathering
Food Preparation
Foods
Medicine and Narcotics
Shelter and Furniture
Clothing and Personal Adornment
Games and Pastimes
Warfare and Weapons
Council and Government
Ceremony and Religion
Mortuary Customs
Transportation
Arts and Industries
Stone
Clay
Metal
Glass
Wood
Vegetable Fibers
Other Plant Materials
Shell
Bone
Antler
Hair
Other Animal Materials.
File the catalogue cards in the sequence of the catalogue numbers under
the proper index tab cards.
If the ethnological collection contains important groups of objects which
need to be consulted under other categories, handle it by cross-referencing.
Cards for baskets that are scattered through the card file by function, for
example, can be cross-referenced to Arts and Industries, Vegetable Fibers,
where they may be examined as a group. If the composition and use of the
collection clearly warrant it, the cards may be filed under the Arts and
Industries subdivision and cross-referenced to the history section of the
catalogue card file.
History
Use this category for specimens preserved to study or interpret Ameri

can history. Historical objects are so varied and so often unique in one way
or another, and they are studied from so many points of view, that it is
perhaps impossible to devise a classification that will serve all needs equally
well. The problem is simplified somewhat for park museums because
most are specialized in keeping with the significance of the park. By divid
ing the classification into three main areas: military, social-political and
economic-industrial, a park museum can concentrate much of its classify
ing work in one of these areas. A frontier fort, for example, would use
military categories for most of its collection, but social-political for the
furnishings of the married officers’ quarters. Use index tab cards to divide
the file if more than one of these main areas is represented in the collec
tion, unless you need to use only one or two subdivisions from another area
(e.g., documentary material in a military collection). Carry the history
breakdown only as far as the collection requires for effective use:
Military
In the space marked Classification on the catalogue form type the major
category in which the specimen belongs. These five categories are listed
below. On the second line type the proper subordinate category as given in
the list which follows. Firearms require a third breakdown. Type this on
the third line. In some collections Other Equipment may need subdividing
also, but entries should be in pencil. Prepare index tab cards for as many of
the categories as are represented in the collection. Arrange them as follows:
Classification 173
Weapons
Firearms
Heavy Ordnance
Small Arms
Ammunition
Edged Weapons
Equipment
Accoutrements
Aircraft Equipment
Artillery Equipment
Barracks Equipment
Cavalry Equipment
€amp Equipment
Medical Equipment
Nautical Equipment
Other Equipment
Uniforms
Apparel
Insignia
Flags
Awards and Decorations.
File the catalogue cards in numerical order under the proper index tab
card. If you have a large number of small arms, use additional index tab
cards to group the catalogue cards under hand guns and shoulder arms, for
example, and then under the ignition system. It is not necessary to enter
these subheadings on the catalogue card under Classification, but you may
do so in pencil if convenient. Similarly edged weapons may be subdivided
into swords, bayonets, knives and hafted weapons if necessary for ready
reference, and heavy ordnance or ammunition can be subdivided appropri
ately. In organizing the military collection place gun carriages, limbers and
caissons with heavy ordnance. Under accoutrements include equipment
carried on the person. Some large collections may find tab cards useful to
separate army material from that of navy or other service branch.
Social-Political
In the space marked Classification on the catalogue form, type the major
category into which the specimen best fits. You probably will find that most
of the collection belongs in a few of the large groups outlined below, but
that you will need several of the other categories for odds and ends. On the
second line type the secondary category which applies to the specimen.
Some types of furnishings require a third subdivision as listed below. Pre
pare index tab cards for the categories in which the museum has speci
mens. The notations in parenthesis are to help interpret the various classes
Do not transcribe these notes to the catalogue cards or index tab cards
Arrange the index cards as follows:
Architecture
Building Materials (e.g. bricks, plaster, nails)
Architectural Details (e.g. moldings, mantels, hardware)
Furniture (e.g. household, office, public building)
Bedsteads
Chairs
Chests and Chests of Drawers
Cupboards, Sideboards and Wardrobes
Desks and Bookcases
Kitchen Specialities (e.g. dough troughs, dry sinks, flour bins)
Mirrors
Racks (e.g. hat racks, towel racks, music racks)
Screens
Settees, Sofas and Daybeds
Stools and Benches
Tables and Stands
Washstands, Commodes and Bathtubs
Whatnots and Shelves
Furniture Hardware
Furnishings (e.g. household, office, public building)
Ceramics
Earthenware
Stoneware
Porcelain
Glassware
Metalware
Brass, Bronze and Copper
Iron
Pewter
Silver
Tin
Other Metalware
Woodenware
Textiles
Bedclothes
Curtains and Draperies
Floor Coverings
Other Textiles (e.g. cushions, tablecloths, lace doilies)
Cleaning Devices (e.g. brooms, mops, washing machines)
Heating Devices (e.g. stoves, foot warmers, fireplace equipment)
Classification 175
Lighting Devices (e.g. lamps, matches, light bulbs)

Household Instruments (e.g. clocks, thermometers, scales)
Sewing, Spinning and Weaving Implements
Miscellaneous Furnishings
Bed Accessories (e.g. springs, mattresses, bed jacks)
Boxes and Holders
Bric-a-Brac
Curtain Fixtures, Shades and Blinds
Household Tools
Trunks and Carrying Cases
Writing Accessories
Other Furnishings
Personal Adornment
Clothing
Accessories (e.g. belts and buckles, buttons, handbags, handker
chiefs, jewelry, watches)
Grooming Devices (e.g. combs, hairbrushes, toothbrushes)
Physical Aids (e.g. eyeglasses, hearing aids, canes)
Smoking and Snuff Accessories
Recreation Devices
Musical Instruments
Sports and Games
Toys
Other Pastimes
Educational Devices (e.g. writing slates and tablets, alphabetical and
counting devices, globes)
Religious Objects
Money and Stamps
Patriotic, Political and Fraternal Objects
Badges and Insignia
Flags
Law Enforcement Equipment
Medals
Souvenirs and Trophies
Fine Arts
Drawings
Paintings
Picture Frames
Prints
Sculpture
Silhouettes
Documentary Material
Books and Periodicals
Broadsides and Posters

Manuscripts
Manuscript Books
Maps and Charts
Newspapers and Clippings
Plans and Drawings
Printed Documents (e.g. certificates, diplomas, envelopes, receipts)
Sheet Music
Photographs
Negatives
Positives (e.g. ambrotypes, daguerreotypes, tintypes, paper prints)
Transportation
Vehicles
Riding Equipment
Accessories (e.g. currycombs, lap robes, tire pumps).
If the number of specimens under any secondary or tertiary category
requires further subdivision (e.g. Vehicles into Automobiles, Boats, Car
riages, Wagons), add the final subdivision in pencil on the catalogue card
and insert corresponding index tab cards arranged alphabetically. Entitle
these smaller categories using terms clearly defined in standard reference
works.
File the catalogue cards numerically under the proper index card except
as noted below. The secondary categories are largely by function. In fur
nishings, most specimens will go in the secondary categories by material.
Objects made of several materials may need to be classified in the func
tional divisions, for example a tin and wood foot warmer under heating
devices. Where you find a choice of categories, cross-reference if desirable.
If the museum has a large collection of ceramics, you may need to sub
divide it with index tab cards for the country of manufacture, arranged
alphabetically. In a few instances typological subdivisions under country
may be required. In the fine arts section index tab cards for the artists’
names filed alphabetically may be helpful. Classify books, when the num
ber involved warrants it, alphabetically by author and under the author
alphabetically by title. In similar circumstances file the cards for manu
scripts and manuscript books by writer. If numerous, classify maps alpha
betically by title or geographical areas, newspapers by year and then by
title, clippings by subject, plans by subject or title and photographs by
subject. In all categories when more than one card is filed under the same
name, the sequence of catalogue numbers may be followed.
This social-political classification contains an inherent weakness because
it mixes criteria of function and material. From a pragmatic standpoint it
works reasonably well for small collections, particularly with a sensible use
of cross-referencing. When a more nearly ideal system becomes standard,
Classification
the changeover need involve little more than a simple refiling of cards and
specimens.
Economic-Industrial
In the space marked Classification on the catalogue form type the kind
of business, craft, profession or trade in which the object was used. On the
second line type the category of object as listed below. If your collection
requires additional subdivisions, use any that appear under appropriate
headings in the social-political section (e.g. Other Equipment may need to
borrow categories from Furniture or Furnishings) and type the name on
the third line. If you need third level categories not available from the
social-political list, insert them in pencil. Prepare index tab cards for the
businesses, crafts, trades and professions represented in the collection.
Arrange them alphabetically. No list is proposed but examples are agri
culture, blacksmithing, fishing, gunmaking, spinning and weaving, whaling.
Collections at an industrial park may need to use crafts within the industry
as major or special secondary categories. Prepare index cards for the fol
lowing and arrange them in order under each of the main index cards that
requires them:
Raw Materials
Tools or Instruments
Machines
Transportation
Advertising Devices
Other Equipment
Products
Books
Documentary Material
Photographs.
Make tab cards for any tertiary categories and arrange them alphabeti
cally in turn.
File the catalogue card in numerical sequence under the proper index tab
card. Business records should be classified under Documentary Material in
the social-political section, if a museum has both kinds, in order to facili
tate finding all documents in the collection. Then cross-reference the busi
ness papers to Economic-Industrial, Documentary Material, and file by
type of record and date or other logical arrangement if helpful.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Museums throughout the national parks arrange their natural science collec
tions and accompanying records in accordance with systematic classifications
that have received wide acceptance. The published listings presently followed
are:
Abbott, R. Tucker. American Seashells. New York. Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company, 1954.
American Ornithologists’ Union. Check-List of North American Birds. 5th ed.
2nd printing with minor corrections. Baltimore. Port City Press, 1961.
Rev. ed. in prep.
Bailey, Reeve M., et al. A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from
the United States and Canada. 3rd ed. Special Publication 6. Washington.
American Fisheries Society, 1970.
Dana, James D., et al. System of Mineralogy. 7th ed. 3 vols. to date. New York.
John Wiley & Sons, 1944, 1951, 1962.
Miller, Gerrit S., and Remington Kellogg. List of North American Recent Mam
mals. United States National Museum Bulletin 205. Washington. Govern
ment Printing Office, 1955.
National Research Council. Handbook of Biological Data. Philadelphia. W. B.
Saunders Company, 1956.
Schmidt, Karl P. A Checklist of North American Amphibians and Reptiles.
6th ed. Chicago. American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists,
1953.
Zoological Record, annually, Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, Lon
don NW1 4RY.
To achieve similar common practice in ethnological collections park museums

regularly use the tribal names from:
Swanton, John R. The Indian Tribes of North America. Bureau of American
Ethnology Bulletin 145. Washington. Government Printing Office, 1953.
For discussions of classification and alternative systems, particularly in re

gard to cultural objects see:
Borhegyi, Stephan F. de., and Alice Marriott. “Proposals for a Standardized
Museum Accessioning and Classification System,” Curator, I:2 (1958),
pp. 77-86.
British Ethnography Committee. Suggestions Concerning Classification, Storage,
and Labelling of Objects Illustrating English Life and Traditions. London.
Royal Anthropological Institute, 1950.
Coleman, Laurence Vail. Manual for Small Museums. New York. G. P. Put
nam’s Sons, 1927, pp. 151-156.
Cuisenier, Jean. “Feasibility of Using a Data-processing System in the Musée
des Arts et Traditions Populaires, Paris,” Museum, XXIII:1 (1970/71),
p. 33-36.
Dudlgy, Dorthy H., and Irma B. Wilkinson, et al. Museum Registration
Smithsonian Institution, 1968, pp. 154-163, 202-206. Rev. ed. in prep.
Classification
Emery, Irene. The Primary Structures of Fabrics: An Illustrated Classification.

Washington. Textile Museum, 1967.
Higgs, J. W. Y. Folk Life Collection and Classification. Handbook for Museum
Curators C 6. London. Museums Association, 1963, pp. 39-50.
Mitchell, C. M. Applied Science and Technology before the Industrial Revolu
tion. Handbook for Museums Curators E 7. London. Museums Associa
tion, 1961.
Murdock, George P., et al. Outline of Cultural Materials. New Haven. Human
Relations Area Files Press, 1969.
Part 3 Furnished Historic
Structure Museums
182 Introduction
184 Chapter 10. Development
184 Criteria for Deciding to Furnish
186 Check List of Procedures
187 Cooperative Responsibilities
189 The Furnishing Plan
196 Implementing the Furnishing Plan
204 Chapter 11. Housekeeping
205 Organization
212 Equipment
219 Methods and Materials
260 Chapter 12. Protection
260 Safe Practices in Housekeeping
263 Protecting Visitors
267 Protecting the Building and Furnishings
299 Chapter 13. Interpretation
299 Nature of the Experience
301 What to Interpret
306 Interpretive Methods
320 Alternatives to Furnishing
181
Introduction
An historic building authentically furnished and exhibited becomes a

museum. This is so because it assembles and preserves objects, provides
opportunity for object-centered research and interprets through contact
with the real things it contains. These are the functions that characterize
museums. A furnished historic structure, however, requires some policies,
procedures and techniques differing from normal museum practice. Part 3
concerns these special aspects of curatorship.
The peculiar requirements of furnished historic structure museums stem
largely from two factors, one theoretical and the second purely practical.
This kind of museum undertakes to recreate the environment of some
historic person, event or period. An environment is a complex whole.
Emphasis upon it rather than on individual specimens and simpler concepts
affects development, operation and use at every turn. On the practical side
the buildings these museums occupy were originally designed for other
purposes, for example, as a residence. Any museum that takes over a
building secondhand has serious problems in adapting the space. When the
structure is itself a specimen, the historic partitions, doors, stairways, win
dows and other elements must remain or be restored as part of the setting.
The preservation and display of objects and the handling of streams of
visitors (sometimes a multitude of people) under these relatively inflexible
conditions demand adjustments which are seldom easy.
Standards of accuracy and care in restoration, refurnishing, maintenance
and interpretation should be equally high for every historic building that
finds its best use in being furnished for exhibition regardless of its original
importance. The sod house or slave cabin demands as much authenticity
and as fine curatorship as does Independence Hall or Arlington House.
The terms applied to this kind of museum have caused some confusion.
“Historic house museum” is the name in common use, but it raises ques
tions because people ordinarily picture a house as a residence. They hesi
tate to consider a blacksmith shop, a country store, a chemical laboratory
or a fort as an historic house. To make clear that such museums may
182
preserve and interpret the setting for any sort of occupancy, this manual
adopts the more inclusive name, furnished historic structure museum. In
some instances it refers to a single building such as Theodore Roosevelt’s
Maltese Cross Ranch cabin. In other cases the museum comprises a group
of buildings having an essential unity in organization and interpretation.
Such a group may be a house and its dependencies like the Adams Home
with its adjacent library and carriage house. It may also be a larger organic
group, for example Hopewell Village, Fort Laramie or the Pioneer Yo
semite History Center. If, however, a park contains two or more furnished
historic structures that are separate interpretive entities, each is considered
a museum. The Schuyler House and Neilson House at Saratoga National
Historical Park are examples. Sometimes explanatory exhibits help inter
pret the furnished structure. These are ordinarily and much preferably
housed in a separate building designed for the purpose, but are considered
a part of the museum. Thus Arlington House is a furnished historic struc
ture museum with supplementary exhibits in a nearby building. The his
toric structures involved are usually original, but may be reconstructions;
are usually on their original sites, but may have been moved.
183
Chapter 10 Development
Criteria for Deciding to Furnish
Furnishing an historic building for exhibition costs more than most other
possible uses of the structure and presents greater problems. The decision
to furnish it is therefore a critical one. The project should warrant an
affirmative answer to each of the following questions:
1. Will the building with its furnishings preserve an important primary
or secondary historical resource?
2. Is furnishing the best way to communicate the meaning of this struc
ture? In the case of a national park this criterion includes the relevance of
the meaning to the park’s interpretive objectives or themes.
3. Can the building be furnished accurately?
4. Can visitors see and enjoy the furnished space under practical operat
ing conditions?
Ask these questions at each successive planning stage in the preservation
of the structure.
Apply the criteria, for example, to the Neilson House at Saratoga (fig.
45). Unfurnished, this little farmhouse on Bemis Heights would be simply
a landmark of the battlefield. Furnished as makeshift quarters for the
generals who occupied it while the army was there, it preserves the setting
for a particularly significant detail of the battle story. Therefore, furnishing
it fulfills the first criterion. Benedict Arnold’s unhappy relationship with
fellow officers, the relationship’s dramatic expression in the battle and its
sorry aftermath at West Point involve complex and subtle ideas. The fur
nished quarters he shared with other generals at Saratoga do not tell the
story singlehanded, but recreating this environment calls attention to the
situation which underlay events, stimulates interest in it, adds reality and
fills in a background. Visitors viewing the furnished rooms experience a
variety of impressions and feelings linked to the subject. Thus furnishing
the house in this instance adds an appropriate form of supplementary
interpretation contributing importantly to visitor understanding. We can
give a qualified “yes,” at least, to the second questions. In this example the
furnishing can be relatively accurate as required by question 3, although
184
Figure 45. Neilson House, Saratoga National Historical Park. At least one and per
haps three generals of the Revolutionary Army were quartered in this modest farm
house. Benedict Arnold’s wounded pride festered in this environment.
existing records do not give a completely exact picture. There is an inven

tory of the possessions left by Neilson’s son, and a hundred inventories of
other upper Hudson Valley families in the 1770’s yield supporting data.
We know much about the field equipment carried by Revolutionary gen
erals and their staffs. Considering the fourth question, the Neilson House is
so small that visitors can see enough from the front door and windows
without having to enter. Its exhibition presents much simpler problems
than usual and is practical. The decision to furnish it meets all four criteria
and is justified.
Similarly Robert Harper’s house, the oldest building in Harpers Ferry,
clearly meets the first test. Furnishing does help to communicate its mean
ing in an especially important way. As an 18th-century building associated
with the town’s founder it has little relevance to the site’s main significance.
Furnished as the home of a known tenant in 1859-1860 the house typifies
characteristic aspects of the community when it flashed into prominence
with John Brown’s Raid. Reasonably accurate furnishing again is possible
thanks to knowledge of the occupant’s social and economic position, in
185
tense search of local documents and considerable archeological evidence.

Broad porches, outside stairways and the easy visibility of rooms from a
few central points make exhibiting and surveillance convenient.
Check List of Procedures
The development of a furnished historic structure in a national park

normally progresses through ten stages:
1. List of Classified Structures. The superintendent first proposes the
use of the building in the field report which recommends its inclusion and
classification in the list according to its apparent historical or architectural
significance. This guides future planning for its development and use.
2. Master Plan. The park Master Plan confirms the building’s signifi
cance as an historical resource and fits it into the preservation and inter
pretation activities designed to accomplish the area objectives.
3. Interpretive Prospectus. This intensive study of the interpretive needs
and possibilities of the park results in a firm decision that furnishing for
exhibition is or is not the best use of the building. The prospectus selects
the general methods for achieving the interpretive objective and supplies
preliminary cost estimates.
4. Development/Study Package Proposal (Standard Form 10-238).
Following approval of the Master Plan and Prospectus the superintendent
submits a request for the needed research and development so funds may
be programmed.
5. Historic Structures Report. It records in detail the historical, archeo
logical and architectural data essential to the preservation of the building.
This report clarifies and justifies the need for funds to prepare detailed
plans and carry out development, and may generate a revision of the
development/study proposal. It supplies information furnishing planners
will use.
6. Construction Drawings. The restoration architect and landscape ar
chitect prepare the detailed construction drawings and specifications for
work on the fabric of the building and its setting. These plans interrelate
with the Furnishing Plan at many points.
7. Planning Directive. The planning specialists prepare a tactical
scheme for the intensive work ahead so it can proceed efficiently.
8. Historic Furnishings Report. It presents first a thorough study of the
evidence. Then on the basis of these data and conclusions it specifies the
furnishings and their arrangement. This report should follow promptly ap
proval of the Historic Structures Report.
9. Implementation of Furnishings Report. Approval of the Historic
Furnishings Report starts a series of curatorial activities involving the ac
quisition, preparation and installation of the furnishings, quality control
Development 187
and the training of staff in interpretive maintenance and operation.

10. Confirmation. In carrying out the plan contained in the approved
Historic Furnishings Report some modifications may become necessary. If
so, the plan is amended following installation to show the furnishings as
they actually are. For minor changes an addendum may suffice. The docu
ment then continues in force as the control for maintaining historical ac
curacy. Furnishings thereafter should be rearranged or replaced only in
accordance with approved changes in the plan.
The first six steps comprise park management documents largely beyond
the scope of this manual. The seventh and eighth are described in detail
below under What the Furnishing Plan Contains.
Cooperative Responsibilities
Wise development of a furnished historic structure requires cooperation

among an array of specialists. For a park these technicians normally in
clude the park interpreter, a curator with expert knowledge of furnishings,
a restoration architect, a landscape architect, an archeologist, a research
historian and an interpretive planner. While none of them may work on the
project from beginning to end, the need to share their knowledge across
specialty lines occurs at every stage. The sustained, intimate collaboration
needed comes through careful scheduling of assignments and mutual de
termination to keep one another adequately informed.
In preparing the Interpretive Prospectus the park interpreter and the
interpretive planners who work with him make the definitive recommenda
tion to furnish and exhibit a building. They can hardly reach a fully con
sidered decision without consulting a furnishings curator and the restoration
architect. Will furnishing and exhibition create conditions that help or
hinder the structure’s preservation? Can the needed furniture be obtained
at an acceptable cost? Will furnishings be likely to communicate the de
sired interpretive message? Such key questions and others demand special
ized knowledge the architect and curator can contribute.
The Historic Structures Report calls for advice from most of the experts.
The architect, landscape architect, archeologist, resource studies historian
and curator can each best estimate the work in his specialty needed on the
project and its probable cost. Together they provide the data for a realistic
project construction proposal and define the research needs. The furnish
ings curator may also know from experience the difficulties often accom
panying a cooperative agreement with some other organization involving
acquisition of furnishings, operation of the museum or other aspects and
can suggest ways to avoid them.
The architecture section of the Historic Structures Report offers an oc
casion for especially useful cooperation. The restoration architect should
invite the historian and the furnishings curator to participate in examining

the structure for evidence of original furnishings before removing any parts
of the building fabric. He needs their advice in planning and specifying
interior finishes, wiring, lighting and climate control. They and a safety
expert should advise on fire detection and control and other special safety
or security measures. The archeologist should consult with the architect,
historian and curator before excavation and obtain their participation, if
possible, in examining evidence as he uncovers it. The landscape architect
should get from the archeologist, historian and curator whatever can be
learned about original plantings, paths and outdoor furniture. He should
discuss with the historians and the curator the interpretive effects that the
restored historic landscape setting aims to achieve.
The combined and cooperative effort culminates in the Historic Furnish
ings Report. The park interpreter, a resource studies (i.e., research) his
torian and a furnishings curator usually join in its preparation. They need
to maintain close contact among themselves and with the architect restor
ing the building. The architect and curator should coordinate their work
step by step because many of the decisions each makes affect the other’s
plans. One determines the paint color, for example, while the other selects
wallpaper. One is concerned about window framing and the other with
curtain fixtures that must fasten to it. Both must help reconcile the practi
cal requirements of heating and wiring to the historic furniture arrange
ment so modern outlets do not interfere with accurate placement of
furnishings. The historian’s research, which results in the first part of the
report, and the curator’s studies, which follow it to develop the second
part, should both be scheduled before or during the time the architect is
preparing specifications for the restoration work. In defining the special
protective and maintenance provisions required the curator needs to in
volve the architect and to consult the protection and maintenance staffs
who will be responsible for the museum when it opens.
Collaboration should continue in carrying out the plan. The project
needs the expert help of the furnishings curator at several points. The
curator often is in the best position to find and acquire the pieces specified.
His knowledge of sources and values can save time and avoid mistakes. It
is desirable that he work closely with the museum staff in installing the
furnishings to be sure the intent of the plan is achieved. He also can give
valuable assistance in training the staff to assure that maintenance and
operation of the furnished structure will contribute to its interpretation as
well as its preservation. The museum should also call on this curatorial
specialist and on conservators for help in cleaning, repairing or restoring
furnishings that need it before being exhibited. When the furnished struc
ture opens to the public, cooperation takes the form of a critical inspection.
Experts check the accuracy with which the historic environment has been
recreated and the apparent effectiveness of its interpretation. Museums not
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having such expertise on call should seek qualified consultants through a

state or professional historical agency.
The Furnishing Plan
A furnished historic structure museum, like other museums, requires an

exhibit plan. Called a furnishing plan in this instance, it determines what
furnishings to display and how to arrange them. It guides their acquisition
and installation. It controls maintenance and replacements or other
changes in the furnishings to protect the quality and integrity of the mu
seum. To produce a good plan requires thorough research, an enlightened
understanding of the life which the furnishings should reflect and consider
able interpretive insight. It therefore usually calls for a team effort.
The National Park Service has outlined a procedure for developing this
essential plan in three coordinated steps, each succeeding one dependent on
those before. Proper development of any furnished historic structure mu
seum may require something comparable.
Who Prepares the Furnishing Plan

According to this procedure the Denver Service Center initiates the plan
by preparing a Planning Directive in collaboration with the park super
intendent, his interpretive staff and the Branch of Reference Services,
Harpers Ferry Center. Next a research historian under the supervision of
the Denver Service Center produces Part I of an Historic Furnishings
Report. Then a curator with expert knowledge of furnishings draws up Part
II of this report under direction of the Branch of Reference Services, Harp
ers Ferry Center. The steps may be summarized:
Document Prepared by
Planning Directive Denver Service Center with park
Definition of interpretive objectives and Harpers Ferry Center
Operating plan
Historic Furnishings Report, Part I:
Historical Data Research historian, Denver
Analysis of historic occupancy Service Center
Evidence of original furnishings
Historic Furnishings Report, Part II:
Furnishing Plan Furnishings curator, Harpers
Description of recommended furnishings Ferry Center
with cost estimates, floor plans and
elevations
Special installation, maintenance and
protection recommendations.
If a park has a qualified historian or furnishings curator, either or both

parts of the Historic Furnishings Report may be prepared by the park, but
this is rarely the case. When circumstances permit, the historian who
worked on the history section of the Historic Structures Report should get
the Furnishings Report, Part I, assignment because the two studies dovetail.
The Branch of Reference Services at the Harpers Ferry Center, which has
special responsibility for Part II and its execution, ordinarily arranges to
assign a curator who specializes in furnishings, or find a furnishings special
ist, trained preferably in a museum, to prepare this section under contract.
When Is the Furnishing Plan Prepared

Preparation of the Planning Directive and Historic Furnishings Report
which comprise the furnishing plan follow as soon as possible after ap
proval of the Interpretive Prospectus and the Historic Structures Report.
Three reasons make prompt action advisable. First, the architect of the
restoration needs information from the Furnishings Report before he can
satisfactorily complete structural work on the building. The report tells him
what the furnishings and their proper display require in regard to lighting,
floor and wall finishes, protective devices, humidity controls and perhaps
other features. Second, the furnishings curator and the historian should
have an opportunity before and during restoration to study the building
fabric with the restoration architect to find any surviving evidence of orig
inal furnishings or their placement such as carpet tacks, picture hangers,
shelf outlines or patterns of floor wear. Third, the work required to as
semble, restore and install the furnishings takes so much time that it can
cause an embarrassing delay in opening the restored structure. To make
sure that funds are available when needed for preparing the furnishing plan
as well as for implementing it, the estimated cost of preparing the Furnish
ings Report and the acquisition of furnishings should be included in
the development proposal (SF10-238) which follows the Interpretive
Prospectus.
What Does the Furnishing Plan Contain

Each section of the plan provides information needed to carry out a
furnishing project successfully. The Planning Directive includes:
Definition of interpretive objectives
Although the Master Plan and the Interpretive Prospectus set goals for
the project, the furnishing plan needs to focus on the specific objectives
more precisely. What facts, insights, feelings and impressions should the
refurnished structure communicate to visitors? Some installations interpret
Development 191
the everyday life of average people. Others illumine the character of an

individual or the spirit of a family. Still others recapture the setting of a
single event. The Moore House at Yorktown, for example, is an upper
middle class 18th century plantation home, but its interpretive objective is
not to illustrate plantation life or the Moores. Here for a few tense hours in
1781 a group of officers, controlling their inner feelings of bitterness or
elation and punctiliously observing military etiquette, hammered out the
terms of surrender. The furnishings as arranged to serve the conferees
should give visitors a sense of the reality of this event and help them
understand its nature.
Operating plan
To assure the practicality of refurnishing proposals the Planning Direc
tive spells out how the structure will be used. It charts the path visitors will
follow. It indicates open hours and how visitors will be directed or con
ducted. It tells how many interpreters or guards will be on duty and where
they will be stationed. It also considers the staff and mechanical provisions
necessary for maintaining the building and its contents, and protecting
them as well as visitors from special hazards.
The Historic Furnishings Report, Part I: Historical Data, contains:
Analysis of historic occupancy

The research historian must determine who occupied the structure
within the specific time limits set by the interpretive objectives. He must
discover and evaluate what they did there. In this section he provides a
documented account of all the people involved. It is important to learn as
much as possible about their ages at the time, their habits, tastes, interests
and activities. Their economic and social status will influence the furnish
ings as well. The account should include the life that went on in the
building to the extent that records permit. Illustrate this section with a set
of floor plans identifying each room.
Evidence of original furnishings

The aim of the plan is to refurnish the structure as nearly exactly as it
was at the chosen time as possible. The more information obtained on the
original furnishings, the less remains for conjecture. This section of the
plan assembles all the available evidence of original furnishings. Such his
torical sources as receipts, bills of sale, inventories taken to settle an estate
or a bankruptcy, insurance records, wills, deeds of gift, tax records, auction
records, letters, family papers, travelers’ accounts, military records, photo
graphs and other pictures may contain useful data. They should be searched
as fully as conditions permit. Sometimes similar records for other struc
tures comparable in time and place can supply valuable supplementary
information. Appendix F suggests resources and techniques found useful in
such research. This section should record the present or last known loca
tion of any furnishings supposed to be original along with pictures, if
available, and documentary or traditional evidence on their history. The
information will help in searching for original pieces or in identifying ob
jects offered as such by descendants or later purchasers.
The Historic Furnishings Report, Part II: Furnishing Plan, comprises:
Description of recommended furnishings

This is the core of the Furnishing Plan. It comprises a complete descrip
tive inventory of the building’s proposed contents. For each room in turn
the furnishings specialist explains the relationship of the furnishings to the
personalities, activities, interests or other ideas they should communicate
to visitors. He then lists and describes each item of furnishing. He bases his
recommendations on the evidence in Part I, on additional research to
clarify confusing or incomplete contemporary records and on his thorough
knowledge of the culture of the period. He selects the actual, original
furnishings whenever possible, of course. Where these are not available, he
describes the specific type of object to acquire. Ordinarily, for example, the
list should call for something as specific as “a sack back Windsor chair of
the type made in Philadelphia by Francis Trumble in the 1770’s” rather
than for just “a Windsor chair.” Photographs or sketches, with color notes,
should supplement verbal descriptions. When neither originals nor period
pieces of equivalent type are obtainable, even after thorough searching, the
plan may have to specify reproductions. A few circumstances justify their
use. The furnishings specialist will not make recommendations on the basis
of modern standards of taste, but will reflect period practices. He will resist
the temptation to select furnishings of better quality or design than the
evidence supports. The lists should include the furnishings for porches and
grounds if they are part of the restoration.
The descriptive list for each room should be accompanied by a floor
plan and an elevation of each wall showing where the furnishings are to be
placed (fig. 46).
For each item in the list the specialist includes the estimated cost of
acquiring it, and of restoring it if necessary. He also notes probable sources
from which to acquire it. In large projects he may wish to compile a
supplementary want list of all furnishings as a reference aid in searching
for many items in numerous sources.
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‘- _ : F 012345
Figure 46. The Great Hall, Grand Portage National Monument. Floor plan and
elevations of bedchamber 4 from the furnishing plan showing placement of furnishings.
Special installation, maintenance and protection recommendations

In this section the furnishings curator should describe the provisions
necessary for the safe and effective display of the recommended furnish
ings. If the rooms or furnishings require labeling, the plan should specify
the form, location and wording of the labels. If room barriers will be
needed, the plan should suggest their location, height and general form. If
certain accessories within reach will need inconspicuous fastenings, this
should be indicated. If delicate wallpapers, drapes or carpets require pro
tective covers at vulnerable points, these should be identified. Should the
importance of the furnishings call for special protection from temperature
and humidity changes, sunlight, air pollution, infestation, fire or theft, the
plan must at least make the specific problems clear and may recommend
solutions. Lighting needs also should be considered both for viewing the
furnishings and for visitor safety. As a general policy, wiring of lighting
fixtures that were originally non-electric is not recommended. The place
ment of furnishings for convenience in protecting or displaying them rather
than for historic accuracy should be guarded against. The plan should
recommend a maintenance schedule, point out any training the mainte
nance staff will need in advance, and include a realistic estimate of the
annual maintenance and operating costs.
Some historic structures become museums with the original furnishings

more or less intact. The Historic Furnishings Report for such a building
should be prepared along the same lines. Part I would present the docu
mentation, written and pictorial, on the furnishings that are missing as well
as those still in the structure. Part II would record the existing furnishings
and their arrangement by photographs and lists, recommend additions or
deletions and cover problems of maintenance and protection.
Some structures have been refurnished in past years without a plan. For
these the Planning Directive and Part I of the Historic Furnishings Report
should now be prepared as though the structures were unfurnished. Part II
would then be based on the historical requirements, utilizing existing fur
nishings where appropriate and recommending whatever changes are
necessary.
Who Approves the Furnishing Plan
The director of the region approves the Historic Furnishings Report,

Part II, when thorough review assures him of its adequacy. Before being
recommended to him, it is critically reviewed by restoration architects,
historians, curators and interpretive planners. The regional director may
have members of his technical staff review it thoroughly at this stage. The
manager, Harpers Ferry Center, has it revised as necessary. When the
regional director approves Part II, the Harpers Ferry Center distributes
copies to the offices concerned.
Who Carries Out the Furnishing Plan

The superintendent is usually responsible for execution of the approved
Furnishing Report, Part II, and for keeping the refurnished structure in
conformity with it. He calls on the services of various specialists. The
Development 195
furnishings curator and the restoration architect, for example, may need to
collaborate on the room barriers, with the architect designing them to fit
the general specifications of the plan, then having them built and installed.
Both specialists may need to cooperate with engineers to assure that neces
sary protective devices are unobtrusive as well as effective. Exhibits special
ists should produce any labels required.
Where area staff are not qualified to acquire the needed furnishings, the
Branch of Reference Services assists. Funds for acquisition and preserva
tion treatment of furnishings are normally alloted to the unit actually doing
the work.
The Continuing Role of the Furnishing Plan

The Historic Furnishings Report, Part II, as originally approved may not
describe the finished product exactly. At the time of approval most of the
objects specified still have to be found and acquired. What the curator actu
ally obtains may vary somewhat from the ideal specimens envisaged in the
plan. During installation some desirable shifts in placement may become
apparent. Any major variance from the plan requires prior approval, of
course, but the accumulation of small legitimate changes creates another
need. After the initial installation the report continues in force as the estab
lished reference point for maintaining the historical accuracy of the re
created environment. The museum must stay in conformance with the plan
in order to prevent a slow erosion of integrity that would result if changes
to fit convenience or individual tastes were allowed. Consequently, as soon
as the furnishings have been installed and inspected, the curator should
amend or revise the description of furnishings in the report, and other sec
tions if necessary, so the plan corresponds to the actual situation. Part II
should identify fully the furnishing materials such as wallpaper, draperies,
upholstery fabric and floor coverings which must be replaced from time to
time. Samples of these should also be kept in the catalogue file folder. To
achieve the same end for all painted surfaces in the exhibited portions of the
structure, the plan should include precise definitions of the paint standards.
Then whenever repainting becomes necessary, the work will remain faithful
to the chosen historic finishes.
At the same time the revised or amended plan should make clear what
aspects of the existing installation are still incomplete or unsatisfactory,
and should specify remaining needs. The acquisition of historic furnishings
tends to be a slow process. The museum may well open to the public with a
few gaps still to be filled and with some pieces selected as the best available
at the moment but not exactly what is desired. The continuing plan which
guards against undesirable changes must not hinder improvements.
Implementing the Furnishing Plan

Acquisition
From the curatorial standpoint the first step in carrying out a furnishing
plan is to acquire the furnishings it specifies. Use an expert, for two rea
sons. First, whoever searches for the needed pieces and initiates their ac
quisition usually must deal to some extent in the antiques market or with the
interior decoration trade. People who sell historic furnishings on a com
mercial basis naturally operate with objectives and standards different from
those of a museum. These divergences create pitfalls for the inexperienced.
The museum buyer should evaluate the material at least as knowledgeably
as the dealer in regard to both historical authenticity and cost. Second, the
study of historic furnishings is becoming more precise and detailed. Schol
ars are learning to recognize more and more accurately the individual
differences that characterize makers and localities. They are defining the
areas and time spans of particular types. A familiarity with styles and
periods no longer suffices. Knowledge in this field is growing rapidly and
casual students cannot keep abreast. In a park the superintendent should
try to retain the services of the furnishings curator who worked on the plan
because he or she already knows the plan and the structure as well as
having specialized knowledge of the furnishings involved. When this is im
practical, the superintendent locates someone with suitable museum ex
perience, usually through the Branch of Reference Services.
The curator should acquire the furnishings needed by means of gift,
purchase, transfer, exchange or loan (see Chapter 2 for instructions). Note
especially the importance of avoiding restrictions on the use or disposal of
specimens. The museum should be completely free, within the dictates of
the approved plan, to move or dispose of any furnishing item and replace it
with a more appropriate one. No piece should stand in the way of future
changes to improve the presentation. The only likely exception which
might justify the acceptance of some limitation on disposal is furniture that
was unquestionably in the building at the time to which it is being restored.
The historical data section of the furnishing plan (i.e., Part I, Historic
Furnishings Report) provides the curator with a good start on his search
for original items. If the furnishings that actually were in the structure at
the historic time exist, he should, as a rule, make every effort to get them
back. Anything else is a substitute. When such pieces come on the market,
their association with the historic person or event usually increases the
price. Logically, the amount of increase should be proportional to the fame
of the person or event. The significance of the part played by the object
in question also should influence the amount. The pen used to sign the
document gains more in proportionate value from the event than does a
painting hanging on the wall nearby. The curator must decide whether or not
the increase in price is reasonable. If it is too much, he needs to question
Development 197
the seller’s appraisal and negotiate a fair price. When he accepts the valua
tion, he may have to justify it to his procurement officer. Common sense
and a comparison with associative values other museums and collectors
have accepted are the best available guides. Original furnishings in private
hands, particularly of descendants, involve other problems. Often the curator
has to persuade the owner to part with a cherished possession. In good
conscience he can appeal to the public interest, but he should also com
municate his enthusiasm, his sense of the significance of the completed
project. The curator should be prepared to complete the deal on the spot.
To reach agreement and then come back later to finish the transaction
almost inevitably permits second thoughts to complicate the matter. The
owner’s conception of the object’s value, either in terms of his desire to
keep it or of its price, goes up. If he expects to buy the piece, the curator
should have the money in hand. A park museum curator may do this by
using either imprest funds or cash obtained from his cooperating
association.
When the original furnishings are not available, the best alternative is
usually to acquire furnishings made and used at the same period under
comparable circumstances. The curator hunts for and selects items that are
as nearly like the originals as he can find. They lack the full emotional
impact of the actual association pieces, but they have historic authenticity
and an important intangible value as having been part of life at the time.
Much of the quality of the finished installation depends on his knowledge
and discrimination in choosing what will truly recapture the essential char
acteristics of the original setting. He faces three principal temptations, each
of which leads to lower standards. One is to accept furnishings as gifts
because they are free or will promote good public relations even though he
could find more suitable items. The second is to select pieces that are of
finer quality or in better taste than the historic structure actually contained.
The third is to acquire furniture because it is available and might be useful
later, accumulating a stock in advance of known specific needs. Experience
has demonstrated that such pieces seldom represent the best possible selec
tion when a time finally comes to use them. In searching for furnishings
that will really correspond as closely as possible to the originals the curator
should comb the vicinity, write or visit antique dealers and watch for
auctions. He will find it helpful to enlist the interest of other curators, local
museums and private collectors. It may pay to bi vadcast his requirements
through notices in appropriate publications. Unless he knows the material
thoroughly and examines the pieces carefully in advance, he should acquire
them on approval pending expert identification and authentication. Most
dealers will send specimens on this basis except at auctions. Buying at
auction requires assurance through prior examination or reliable documen
tation that the object is what is wanted, although a responsible auctioneer
may redeem an item he had unknowingly misrepresented. An auction oper
ates under strict rules about bidding, payment and delivery. These may or
may not be spelled out in the sale catalogue. If the curator lacks experience
or the scene of the auction is too far away, he sometimes can arrange to
have an expert bid for him either as a favor or on commission. The bidder
needs to know the maximum amount he can offer. At some auctions the
curator may send in a bid by mail indicating the top price he is willing to
pay. If the bidding at the sale does not reach this figure, he obtains the item
at a figure somewhat above the next highest bid.
The use of reproductions rather than period pieces is justified in a few
circumstances, for example:
—when the original piece of furniture is well known but unobtainable.
This may occur when another museum has the original on exhibition and
cannot or will not return it.
—when the situation demands more identical pieces of a set than can be
found. The Congress Hall chairs at Independence National Historical Park
illustrate this case. Not nearly enough of the original chairs have survived to
equip the House and Senate chambers.
—when the historic structure itself requires a peculiar shape or particu
lar size that cannot be matched. The curved desks for the lower house in
Congress Hall had to fit a given space exactly.
—when the item is perishable and must be replaced periodically. The
most frequently reproduced furnishings are draperies and upholstery fab
rics that deteriorate from exposure to light, floor coverings that wear out in
use and wall coverings that resist transfer and reinstallation.
—when the building itself is a total reconstruction. Genuine antique
furnishings in a building that is a modern replica of the original structure
introduce two possible interpretive hazards. The old furnishings may carry
too much relative impact, calling attention to themselves more than to the
ideas they should communicate. They also make it harder to avoid convey
ing a false impression that the building is an old one too. Museum ethics
require that visitors be told in an effective manner the true nature of
reproductions.
--when the item will be used by staff or visitors in “living history”
programs. “Living history” or demonstrations almost inevitably wear out
most objects they employ. No museum should contribute to the destruction
of objects, even ordinary or plentiful ones, that it wants people to respect.
In general reproductions are likely to be as costly as period pieces.
Sometimes, however, a manufacturer will donate a reproduction in return
for permission to market copies. A park museum cannot grant an exclusive
right to anyone to copy its specimens, but if permission to sell additional
copies is given, the superintendent should emphasize the importance of
accurate reproduction and truthful advertising. All reproductions should be
clearly and permanently marked, on the bottom or in some other incon
spicuous place, so they cannot be mistaken for originals. In most instances
Development 199
the reproductions used in a furnished historic structure museum should be

exact copies of the originals. But when the original is unknown, the curator
may be justified in using a period reproduction that is on the market
already rather than selecting a period piece for costly copying. This deci
sion rquires good judgment. It usually involves textiles or wallpaper.
The money to acquire furnishings often comes from the construction
funds for restoring the building. This is normally the case in a park. The
request for restoration financing therefore should be checked, and revised if
necessary, to make sure it fully reflects the cost estimates in the furnishing
plan (Furnishings Report, Part II). In requesting the funds consider the
time factor also. Searching out old furniture is a slow task. Pieces that fit
the plan are likely to be scarce and scattered. They may come on the
market only occasionally. It often takes years to acquire everything needed
to complete the furnishings. To avoid embarrassing delays in opening the
museum, intensify the search. Let the curator concentrate on it and do the
necessary traveling. Under these circumstances most furnished historic
structures can be ready to open one to three years after approval of the plan.
Some gaps will remain, but they can be filled as opportunity permits. The
funds should be programmed in stages, if necessary, to avoid the disadvan
tage of carrying over unexpended project balances year after year. The
initial restoration program, for example, may include part of the money for
furnishings. The rest can be added as a completion item the year after the
main project closes. If loose ends of furnishing remain too long to keep the
second account open, provision for continuing occasional purchases should
be made. In parks, cooperating associations and private donors may also
help provide money for furnishings. To minimize the total expense by
doing the job efficiently keep in mind that the cost of a piece of furniture
includes not only its purchase price and transportation to the museum, but
also the curator’s salary and travel costs while searching for it and the
conservator’s salary and materials to clean or restore it. Consider these
factors in comparing prices.
Study and Recording

Curatorial responsibility in implementing the Furnishing Plan goes be
yond acquisition. A park interpreter needs the curator’s expert help in
accessioning and cataloguing the furnishings as they are acquired. The
details of the transactions by which they are obtained should be entered in
the accession book immediately, of course. Prompt and thorough catalogu
ing is also important. The unavoidable exposure of exhibited furnishings
makes them liable to loss from theft, accidental breakage or deterioration.
Recovery, accurate repair and replacement depend on detailed information
in the catalogue. Photographs which reveal the individual characteristics of
a piece, rubbings or other adequate records of marks and labels and de
scriptions of other features peculiar to the specimen have special value.

The curator can also make a vital contribution to the quality of inter
pretation provided through the furnished structure. He should record his
specialized analyses of individual items of furnishing and file them perma
nently in the catalogue folders. He chose the pieces because they illustrate
particularly well some aspect of the life or event being interpreted. He
should explain the relation between the specimen and the idea so guides or
attendants will understand and communicate it. The curator should dis
cover and record as much as he can about the furnishings—who made
them, when, where, how, the materials and their sources, designs and their
history, marketing and so on. This factual information lays a solid basis for
future research and also serves the special interests of antiques-oriented
visitors. His appraisal as a connoisseur has interpretive value too. His in
formed judgment of the furnishings in terms of period standards of taste
and craftsmanship should be added to the catalogue folder file.
The study and recording of the furnishings take time. Cost estimates
should provide for it.
Treatment
Old furnishings more often than not need cleaning, repair or restoration
before being exhibited. The museum staff can obtain valuable help at this
stage also from the expert knowledge of the furnishings curator. The curator
should analyze the condition of each piece. He should recommend the kind
and extent of treatment. If the work can be done by museum employees or
craftsmen in the vicinity, he may supervise it from the technical standpoint
and inspect the results. For more complex treatment he will know whether
to use the conservators in a central laboratory such as the National Park
Service and some museum consortiums have, obtain the assistance of an
other museum or locate a qualified, reliable private shop. In any event the
curator should insist on the observance of two principles. First, preserve as
much as possible of the original object. If a wooden part has deteriorated,
impregnate it, reinforce it or patch it. Replace it only as a last resort. Clean
and restore the old finish rather than removing it and starting fresh. Retain
original upholstery on an important association piece as long as its appear
ance can be tolerated. Get expert advice on mending or backing frayed
areas and splits. Perhaps the worst-worn spots can be concealed by laying
an appropriate object over them. If reupholstering becomes necessary, use
the original stuffing and backing or replace them with the same kind. As the
second principle, restore each item as nearly as possible to the appearance
it had during the historic occasion or period. In most instances the furnish
ings at the time they were in use were in good, serviceable condition neither
brand new nor antique looking. It takes skill and good judgment to restore
furnishings so the wear and decay of the intervening years do not show too
Development 201
plainly without diminishing the integrity of the specimens in the process.

The curator needs a clear understanding of the desired result in order to
specify and check the work. He should make sure that detailed treatment
reports go into the catalogue folders.
The methods used to clean, repair and restore furnishings vary with the
materials, and to some extent with their condition. Each piece tends to
present a unique problem. The curator selects techniques in consultation
with the craftsman who will perform the work. One treatment, however,
can be prescribed. Most furnishings contain wood, textiles or other organic
matter which may invite insect attack. All such pieces should be fumigated,
under vacuum if possible (see Organic Material, Chapter 3). Do this be
fore the furnishings are placed in the historic structure. If pieces already on
exhibition need repair or restoration, maintain the same standards of ex
pert treatment.
Installation
Although the furnishing plan specifies the arrangement of the furnishings

for each room, the curator should help install them if possible. Numerous
last-minute questions need expert checking. Will sunlight fall directly on a
vulnerable piece? Is any furniture too close to a heating vent? Will small
objects be easier to reach or more tempting than anticipated? If so, can
they be made secure in an acceptable manner? Above all will the room
with furniture in place have the visual effect intended, particularly when
seen from the visitors’ viewing positions? Some adjustments probably will
be found desirable. The curator should make them, weighing all the factors
involved and being sure to record all changes in the furnishing plan.
Installation need not wait until every object listed in the plan has been
acquired. As soon as enough furnishings are on hand to embody the ideas
the museum should interpret, public interest may warrant opening it. In
this event, however, do not relax the search for the remaining items. Vis
itors will get an incomplete and correspondingly unsatisfactory impression
until everything is in place.
Quality Control
The larger question of the integrity of the installation requires prompt
attention. In opening to the public the museum vouches for the essential
accuracy of the furnishings and their arrangement. It says, in effect, that
they truly represent the time, place, people and ideas being interpreted.
Whoever acquires and installs the furniture becomes too closely involved in
decisions to evaluate the results impartially. Therefore, in a park the chief
interpreter has responsibility for making a critical examination of the mu
seum as soon as possible after it opens. He should ordinarily call in advis
ors to supplement his own knowledge, or he may delegate the appraisal to

a qualified curator. He checks four aspects in particular:
1. Is each item of furnishing correct for the period, locality, form, func
tion and taste or quality specified in the plan?
2. Does the ensemble truthfully recreate the physical environment of the
people and their activities it undertakes to show?
3. Are provisions for the exhibition, protection and preservation of the
furnishings adequate and appropriate?
4. Does the interpretive experience in total and in detail seem to com
municate the intended understandings?
The evaluator reports his findings and recommendations to the super
intendent for whatever action may be required.
Staff Instruction
To be successful the furnished rooms of an historic structure must

strongly suggest the imminent presence of the historic occupants. While the
curator creates this lived-in atmosphere, the staff members working in and
about the building have a large part in preserving it. Such an atmosphere is
very easily destroyed by the attitude or activity of an interpreter or guard.
The maintenance staff can sustain it or ruin it unintentionally in some
instances, for example, by being too tidy. The curator should therefore give
the staff a clear, sympathetic understanding of the nature and purpose of
this intangible atmosphere and the elements which help communicate it.
The following chapter concerns other areas in which the staff should be
trained.
l
l
Development 203
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Published information on developing furnished historic structure museums

must be gleaned mostly from the larger literature of historic preservation. The
following references contain pertinent material:
Alexander, Edward P. “Artistic and Historical Period Rooms,” Curator, VII:4
(1964), pp. 263-281.
. “A Fourth Dimension for History Museums,” Curator, XI:4 (1968),
pp. 263-289.
Allan, Douglas A. “Folk Museums at Home and Abroad,” Proceedings of the
Scottish Anthropological & Folklore Society, V:3, pp. 90-120.
Coleman, Laurence Vail. Historic House Museums. Washington. American
Association of Museums, 1933. (Repr. Detroit. Gale Research Co., 1972).
Hosmer, Charles B., Jr. Presence of the Past: A History of the Preservation
Movement in the United States before Williamsburg. New York. G. P. Put
nam’s Sons, 1965, pp. 260-272.
Little, Nina Fletcher. “Historic Houses: An Approach to Furnishing,” American
Association for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 17, rev. ed.,
History News, 25:2 (February 1970).
National Trust for Historic Preservation. Criteria for Evaluating Historic Sites
and Buildings. National Trust Publications 3. Washington. 1956.
. Historic Preservation for Tomorrow: Revised Principles & Guidelines
for Historic Preservation in the United States. Williamsburg. National
Trust for Historic Preservation and Colonial Williamsburg, 1967, pp.
27-29.
Rasmussen, Holger. Dansk Folkemuseum & Frilands Museet: History & Activi
ties. Copenhagen. National Museum of Denmark, 1966.
Rath, Frederick L., Jr., et al. Primer for Preservation: A Handbook for Historic
House Keeping. Historic-House Keeping Series #1. Washington. National
Trust for Historic Preservation, n.d.
, and Merrilyn Rogers O’Connell. Guide to Historic Preservation, His
torical Agencies, and Museum Practices: A Selective Bibliography. Coopers
town. New York State Historical Association, 1970, pp. 23-27, 29-31,
49-59.
Seminar on Preservation and Restoration, Williamsburg, Virginia, 1963. His
toric Preservation Today. Charlottesville. University Press of Virginia,
1966, pp. 201-224.
Stewart, John J . “Historic Landscapes & Gardens: Procedures for Restoration,”
History News, 29:11 (November 1974).
United States Conference of Mayors, Special Committee on Historic Preserva
tion. With Heritage So Rich. New York. Random House, 1966.
Many books and articles concern historic furnishings. See:
Peterson, Harold L. Americans at Home: From the Colonists to the Late Vic
torians; A Pictorial Source Book of American Domestic Interiors with an
Appendix on Inns and Taverns. New York. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1971.
Rath, Frederick L., Jr., and Merrilyn Rogers O’Connell. op. cit., pp. 114-184.
Chapter 11 Housekeeping
Keeping a furnished historic structure clean ranks in importance with

protecting and interpreting it. Every museum has the basic obligation to
preserve the specimens in its collection. In this kind of museum the build
ing and furnishings are the collection. This makes careful housekeeping a
necessity. Otherwise accumulating dirt will hasten deterioration by its
abrasive and chemical action. Pollutant gases in the air will build up acid
concentrations or oxidants attacking such materials as textiles, metals,
leather, paper and even stone. Insects and mold will find more favorable
conditions for breeding and feeding. (See Agents of Deterioration, Chapter
4.) Were added justification for thorough housekeeping necessary, concern
for appearance and sanitation would provide it. An uncleaned museum
soon offends and misinforms visitors. It becomes an unhealthy place to
work in and to visit. Everything in a furnished structure museum requires
periodic cleaning, not only the floors and furnishings but also the walls,
ceilings, wood trim, windows and other historic surfaces of the building.
This chapter suggests methods and precautions to consider in setting and
applying historic housekeeping standards.
Two precautions should influence every step in the cleaning operations.
Remember first that many of the actions and processes involved are poten
tially harmful to furnishings or the structure itself. Rubbing, scrubbing,
pulling, bending, wetting, drying and the use of various cleansing agents
might readily accelerate wear, cause breakage, lead to chemical damage or
augment other hazards. Historic housekeeping, therefore, demands the
choice of methods that are safe as well as effective. It also calls for skill and
extraordinary care in their application. Second, remember that well
intentioned cleaning can go too far. It can falsify the visual impression of
historic living conditions. Housekeepers must share the curator’s sensitive
understanding of the degree of cleanliness and neatness in which the original
occupants would have felt at home. Both the precautions noted here under
line the interdependence of housekeeping, protection and interpretation.
The organization of the work should reflect these relationships.
204
Organization
Supervision
In other kinds of museums housekeeping is a function of the mainte
nance staff, while the curators take care of the collections. Maintenance
and collection care overlap to only a limited extent, for example in the
cleaning of exhibits (see Chapter 15). Normal cleaning in furnished his
toric structures, on the other hand, directly affects the historic collections.
The responsibilities of maintenance staff and curators overlap critically.
Ordinarily the maintenance department selects, trains, schedules, equips,
supplies and supervises cleaning personnel. Its objective is to keep the
museum satisfactorily clean as efficiently as possible. Curators approach
the cleaning of furnished historic rooms from a different point of view.
They consider first the nature and condition of these valued artifacts. They
try to determine what cleaning materials and methods will contribute most
to the preservation of the individual objects. They watch closely for addi
tional signs of deterioration that would make changes in cleaning practice
advisable. They also are concerned about the interpretive effects. If the
housekeepers had to take their orders from both maintenance supervisors
and curators, chaos might result. Good management requires clear defini
tion of the lines of authority. Good housekeeping needs the contributions
of both specialist areas. The solution lies in assigning direct control to one
while assuring that the other provides technical support. National parks
having furnished structure museums sometimes place the historic house
keeper under the chief of maintenance. The curator, or the interpreter
bearing the curatorial responsibility, then has the clear duty to give the
chief of maintenance practical technical advice on how and how often each
historic furnishing or structural element should be cleaned from the stand
point of preservation and interpretation. The curator must also keep close
watch over the effects of cleaning, informing maintenance when methods or
frequency seem harmful. The chief of maintenance has a reciprocal obliga
tion to consult the curator and take his advice or work out acceptable
alternatives. Because of these considerations parks having especially valu
able or numerous historic furnishings often find it better to assign direct
supervision to the curator. Local circumstances may favor other ways of
sharing responsibility, but close cooperation and open communication be
tween the maintenance and curatorial staffs should result.
Whoever supervises historic housekeeping has a serious responsibility.
The supervisor must keep close watch over the condition of the building
fabric and furnishings, and the integrity of the historic setting. In addition
he or she must check on the quality of cleaning, the efliciency with which it
is accomplished, the care of equipment and the practice of safety. To do
this properly requires a good working knowledge of the standards set, the
methods prescribed, the tools employed and the materials used in cleaning.
205
In many public buildings established practice calls for the immediate

supervisor to observe every cleaner at least once each working day and to
inspect in detail at least one completed cleaning assignment daily. This
enables the supervisor to guide, instruct, correct or commend cleaners on
all phases of their work as well as to evaluate the finished product. Some
one at a higher level of authority then makes an inspection of the state of
housekeeping throughout the building at regular intervals, perhaps every
month or two months. Furnished historic structures also need thorough,
systematic, knowledgeable supervision of their cleaning operations.
Staffing
Persons who do the actual housekeeping will handle historic objects at

almost every turn. These objects are often historically important, costly,
fragile, rare or irreplaceable. They vary widely in nature and condition.
Historic housekeepers should therefore be thoroughly reliable individuals.
They need a well developed sense of responsibility. They require the capa
bility to understand and follow a considerable volume of specific instruc
tions. Their manual skills should particularly include gentleness and
dexterity. To treat the furnishings roughly or clumsily would be intolerable.
While housekeeping traditionally has been work in which women excelled,
men also have the requisite skills. Often a man and woman working to
gether provide an effective staff. Historic housekeepers are not ordinary
janitors or charwomen, although some persons experienced in such work
can become excellent ones under proper training and supervision. Neither
are they equivalent to old-time domestic servants for whom present ap
pearance outweighed permanent preservation of the things they kept clean.
They are public servants entrusted with helping preserve part of the peo
ple’s heritage. Furnished structure museums must recruit and train people
qualified for this task.
A few museums successfully combine housekeeping with other duties.
Guides, for example, may do the daily cleaning before the doors open for
tours. Costumed attendants may dust and sweep as they carry on informal
interpretation and surveillance of visitors. Multiple duties call for cor
respondingly versatile, talented and motivated employees selected and
trained for the full range of their responsibilities. The housekeeping by
itself makes demands that should not be minimized in such combined
assignments.
How many historic housekeepers a museum ought to have obviously
depends on the amount of work necessary to maintain the desired standard
of care. The size of the building affects the workload. So do the number,
kinds and condition of the furnishings. Other variable factors include
weather, surrounding sources of dust and polluted air and the rate of
visitation. Each museum needs to measure its own staffing requirements. A
Housekeeping 207
logical way to do so starts with a systematic survey of the entire building.

Go through it room by room with floor plans and tape measure in hand.
Record every housekeeping task. The table under Scheduling below sug
gests the kinds to include. Show the area of such surfaces as floor, walls or
rugs to be cleaned and the number of such items as dishes, books or chairs
in each job unit. If properly done, the resulting list will be long and detailed.
To make it more manageable group the rooms according to the level of
cleaning required, for example: exhibited rooms, public access areas where
visitor traffic aggravates cleaning problems, space used primarily by staff
including storage and utility rooms, and unused spaces as in attics or
outbuildings which still need periodic cleaning. Next consolidate the com
parable jobs for all the rooms in each category to give the total area of
exhibited rugs or exposed floor, or the number of leather-bound books. For
each task in the condensed list estimate the amount of time it should take
and how often it should be done. Multiply the man-hours for each by the
number of times it will be performed in a year. Then add the results to
obtain the total man-hours per year required for housekeeping. Since a full
time employee works about 2,000 man-hours a year, the proper size of the
housekeeping staff can be easily calculated. As a rough check National
Park Service experience indicates that a typical furnished historic house
needs housekeeping at a rate of about one man-year for 8,000 square feet
of floor space (743m2) or one man-hour per year for every four square
feet (.372m2).
Two additional factors affect the workload calculations. Allow for the
time every housekeeper needs each day to take care of equipment and
supplies. Mops and dust cloths must be washed, dried and put away care
fully. Tools such as vacuum cleaners and the various kinds of brushes
require frequent cleaning and proper storage. Flammable supplies should
be removed from the historic building or safely stored with special care.
Also, some housekeeping tasks involving expensive equipment, uncommon
skills or hazardous operations may be assigned to outside specialists. Ex
amples include the dry cleaning or laundering of certain textiles, the clean
ing of paintings and perhaps window washing. Omit these jobs from the
manpower tabulation, but select carefully the experts entrusted with them.
Choose among contractors who have had actual experience both in work
ing on historic buildings or museum objects and in applying methods ap
proved by museum conservators. Check on the quality of their previous
work. Write detailed specifications and provide for knowledgeable
inspections.
In deciding how long each unit of work should take and how frequently
to have it done, base estimates on personal observation, staff experience
and that of other furnished structure museums. Supplemental help may be
found in manuals developed for large scale cleaning operations and in the
tabulation in the following paragraph on scheduling. Cleaning manuals
usually apply to office buildings, hospitals, hotels or other situations where

the furnishings and finishes permit the work to proceed at a faster pace. So
the figures they cite on the amount of each type of cleaning that can be
done in a given time and the frequencies they recommend rarely fit mu
seum needs exactly.
Scheduling
Historic housekeeping should follow a schedule. Otherwise some clean

ing tasks may be crowded out or forgotten. If the schedule allots each job
unit adequate time at the proper intervals, both supervisor and housekeeper
will know what needs to be accomplished during every working day of the
entire year. The man-hour estimates and frequencies compiled in the staf
fing survey provide the data for schedule making. The list which follows may
be a useful check. It represents fairly common or desirable practices, but
the curator should fit frequencies more precisely to the museum’s own
collection and environment.
Table of representative frequencies of housekeeping tasks:
Daily
Exhibited Rooms
1. Dust all woodwork, ledges, moldings, mantels, louvers, radiators, air
grilles and additional horizontal room surfaces within reach from the
floor; all fixtures within reach; all furniture except fabrics; all exposed
furnishings except fabrics, paintings and carved, molded or gilded
picture frames.
2. Dust mop exposed and linoleum or oilcloth covered floors.
Public Access Areas
1. Empty and clean trash receptacles, sand urns and ash trays.
2. Clean floor surfaces over which visitors walk including door mats,
runners, carpets, exposed floors and stairs—vacuuming, wet mopping,
scrubbing or dust mopping as the kind of surface requires; remove
gum or tar and spot clean carpets.
3. Dust as in exhibited rooms.
4. Damp wipe and dry polished metal, glass and plastic surfaces to re
move fingerprints and other spots.
5. Damp wipe with disinfectant such surfaces extensively handled by
visitors as the top rails of room barriers, stair rails, entrance and exit
door handles, audio guiding devices.
6. Spot clean walls or furniture smudged by visitor contacts.
7. Clean and service public toilets.
Housekeeping 209
Staff, Storage and Utility Areas

1 Empty and clean waste baskets and ash trays.
2 Dust staff rooms as in exhibited rooms except for working materials
on desks.
‘Q'\(J1:PUJ Damp wipe and dry polished metal, glass or plastic fixtures.
Spot clean walls and ofiice furniture.
Dust mop exposed floors, sweep carpets.
Clean and service staff toilets and any sinks or cooking equipment.
Weekly
Exhibited Rooms
1. Dust furnishings in cupboards, cabinets, closets, drawers.
2. Vacuum fabric floor coverings, upholstery, drapes, bed hangings,
bedspreads and tablecloths or other exposed textiles (original fabrics
may well require much gentler care); blinds or shades; tops of door
and window frames and other high ledges in reach from the floor;
light fixtures.
Public Access Areas 5
1. Vacuum fabrics, blinds, high ledges and light fixtures as in exhibited
IOOIHS.
2. Buff waxed floors.
3. Clean and polish door hardware or other bright metal fixtures and
fittings unless originals, when corrosion inhibitor plus hard lacquer
should be applied as needed—perhaps annually.
1. Vacuum carpets, drapes, upholstery, dust covers, blinds, high ledges
within reach, light fixtures.
2. In storage and utility rooms dust all horizontal room surfaces within
reach from the floor, furniture, storage cabinets and shelves,
equipment.
Biweekly
Exhibited Rooms
1. Burn candles and oil lamps briefly to remove traces of dust.
Public Access Areas
1. Burn dust from exhibited candle and lamp wicks.
Monthly
Exhibited Rooms
1. Damp wipe and dry mirrors, glass panels in furniture and picture
glass.
2. Blow dust from carved or molded picture frames.

3. Clean plastic ultraviolet filters and similar plastic surfaces.
4. Vacuum walls or wipe with clean dust cloth.
Public Access Areas
1. Clean mirrors, furniture glass and picture glass as in exhibited rooms.
2. Clean plastic filters and protective plastic coverings.
3. Vacuum walls.
1. Buff waxed floors in staff rooms.
Wet mop floor in utility rooms, and in storerooms if appropriate.
9°!“ Spot clean carpets in staff rooms.
Quarterly
Exhibited Rooms
1. Wash windows (but semiannually if original fabrics must be taken
down).
2. Wash light fixtures.
4 Public Access Areas
1. Wash windows.
3. Wax and buff floors requiring it.
1. Wash windows.
-PU>l\J
. Wash light fixtures.
. Vacuum walls.
. Dust or vacuum high pipes, ceiling fixtures and other features requir
ing ladders.
5. Clean or replace filters in heating and ventilating equipment.
6. Renew pesticides in stored organic materials.
Unused Spaces
1. Wash windows.
Semiannually
Exhibited Rooms
1. Vacuum or dust ceilings and other high areas requiring ladders.
2. Clean walls and ceilings around radiators and air grilles.
Public Access Areas
1. Vacuum ceilings and other high places as in exhibited rooms.
2. Wash non-historic wall coverings.
3. Strip, wax and buff waxed floors.
4. Dry-clean non-historic carpets (some may need it much more often).
Housekeeping 211

1. Vacuum ceilings.
2. Clean walls and ceilings around radiators and air grilles.
Annually
Exhibited Rooms
1. Clean rugs, drapes, bed hangings, bedspreads, exposed clothing and
other textiles not suitable for wet washing (but check first with the
conservator, who may advise less frequent cleaning).
2. Launder window curtains, bed linens, table linen and other loose
fabric coverings on furniture (but check first with the conservator).
3. Remove tarnish from silver, brass, copper and pewter objects and
treat with inhibitor (oftener if necessary).
4. Wash ceramics, glass and marble furnishings, using special techniques
for historic marble.
5. Wash Venetian blinds.
6. Clean floors thoroughly—wet mopping, stripping and waxing or other
treatment appropriate to the kind of flooring.
Public Access Areas
1. Clean modern drapes and renew flame retardant.
2. Launder window curtains and renew flame retardant.
3. Wash or clean furnishings as in exhibited rooms.
1. Clean modern drapes and renew flame retardant.
2. Wash window curtains and dust covers, renewing flame retardant.
4. Clean floors thoroughly in staff and storage rooms—wet mopping or
stripping and waxing as appropriate.
Unused Spaces
1. Vacuum floors, walls and ceilings.
Biennially
Exhibited Rooms
1. Treat leather in bookbindings, upholstery, harness, trunks and other
objects.
2. Clean and wax woodwork of furniture and room paneling except
where painted, oil finished or raw wood.
3. Clean historic wall coverings.
Public Access Areas

1. Clean and wax historic woodwork as in exhibited rooms.
2. Clean historic wall coverings.
1. Treat leather as in exhibited rooms.
2. Clean and wax woodwork of stored and office furniture as in exhibited
rooms.
Equipment
A housekeeper needs proper tools in order to clean thoroughly and

efficiently. The tools require good care. The following annotated list adapts
recommendations from the cleaning practices of large public and commer
cial buildings:
Bags
To minimize the spreading of dust and save many steps housekeepers
may carry plastic bags into which they empty wastebaskets and dustpans.
The bags, closed with a wire tie, hold the trash and dirt until removed from
the premises or transferred to metal cans or bins with tight covers. Poly
ethylene bags large enough to fit a 32-gallon (120-liter) can are convenient.
Some national park museums use ones 38% inches long X 191/2 inches X
141/2 inches (c. 1 X .5 X .4 m). If the plastic is at least .002 inch
(.05 mm) thick, the bags are strong enough to wipe out and reuse. In case
trash must remain bagged overnight or longer in or near the historic build
ing, use polyethylene bags of the fire-retardant type. As another fire pre
caution never empty smokers’ refuse from ashtrays or sand urns into the
trash bags. A small tin can makes a safer receptacle for collecting and
removing it.
Brooms
Traditional upright brooms and push brooms tend to raise and scatter
dust. Replace them with dust mops and vacuum cleaners, at least indoors.
On the other hand a hearth broom, like an ordinary upright broom but on a
smaller scale, makes a handy tool for sweeping piles of dirt or bits of litter
into a dustpan without continual stooping. A whisk broom also finds oc
casional use in loosening and removing dirt from crevices. Both should be
made of the best quality broom corn fiber or of nylon. Brush or comb loose
dirt from these brooms after each day’s use. When they become soiled,
wash them in warm water with soap or detergent, then rinse. Hang them up
to dry so any remaining water drains out and the weight does not rest on
Housekeeping 213
the fibers. Store them in the same manner when not in use. Discard them
when they start to shed.
Brushes
Historic housekeepers find several kinds of brushes helpful. Articles of

furnishing too delicate to dust with a cloth may permit gentle brushing. For
this purpose use a camel hair lens or negative brush about 1 inch (25.4
mm) wide with inch-long bristles. Tufted upholstery, some pottery and a
few other furnishings may call for a slightly larger and stiffer dusting brush.
Select an inexpensive artists’ paint brush, No. 14 broad. A conventional
radiator brush with narrow body and long horsehair bristles can pull dirt
from awkward recesses to within reach of a dust mop or vacuum cleaner.
A scrub brush shaped well for grasping and with tapered ends helps in
cleaning stubborn dirt or old wax from the corners and edges of floors or
stairs. It also loosens patches of dried mud on carpets or other surfaces.
Select one with nylon bristles an inch or a little more (c. 25-30 mm) in
length. If rubber or plastic runners along traffic routes become muddy, they
may need to be taken outside to be hosed and scrubbed. In this case a long
handled deck or floor scrubbing brush with bristles of palmetto or other
coarse plant fiber may be useful. To remove lint and loose dirt from the
bristles of housekeeping brushes and brooms use a hairbrush with stiff
nylon bristles as well as a comb. Wash brushes when they become soiled,
using warm water and soap or detergent. Hang them to dry after rinsing
and when not in use so the bristles remain straight.
Carpet sweeper
If carpet runners cover much of the traffic route, they may require
frequent cleaning to remove grit and obvious dirt. A non-electric household
carpet sweeper can do this quickly between more thorough treatments. It
can also be used with care on historic rugs. After each day’s use empty the
catch pan, clean lint from the brushes, wipe the outside clean and put the
sweeper away carefully in its assigned place. In situations where soiled
spots on the runners become an everyday problem, select a carpet sweeper
that can also shampoo rugs with “dry” foam. After using it for this purpose
rinse the brushes and sponges, empty the shampoo reservoir and wipe off
the entire sweeper before returning it to storage.
Chamois
In washing windows and perhaps other glass surfaces a soft, oil-tanned

sheepskin chamois may replace a wiping cloth. Wash it well after use and
hang it spread out to dry.
Cloths
Dust cloths should pick up dust rather than push it off one surface onto
another or into the air. For this reason cloths intended for the purpose are
better than rags. A good dust cloth should be of soft cotton fabric and
should have all edges hemmed or selvage. It should be big enough to
permit folding so the housekeeper will have several fresh surfaces. One a
yard or a meter square folded to a convenient 9 inches (or 250 mm) pad
gives 32 clean sides in turn. When a dust cloth has been properly treated
with a specially formulated mineral oil emulsion, it picks up dust much
more efficiently. On the other hand it smears some surfaces and leaves a
possibly harmful residue on others. Use a treated cloth to dust finished
wood, metal and other hard surfaces unlikely to absorb oil. Do not use one
on glass, which it smudges, or on marble, paper and other porous materi
als. Dust these with an untreated cloth. Both treated and untreated dust
cloths require frequent laundering. This removes the emulsion from the
former, so retreatment is necessary. While housekeepers can buy the oil
emulsion in either liquid or aerosol form from hardware stores or janitorial
supply houses and apply it themselves, it is hard to get just the right
amount into the cloth. Consequently it is generally wiser to rent the treated
cloths, returning soiled ones for washing and processing. In either case be
sure the treating mixture has an Underwriters’ Laboratories fire hazard
rating between 0 and 20 and that tests have shown that cloths treated with
this material are not subject to spontaneous combustion. Even so, keep all
treated cloths in self-closing metal safety cans before and after use. For
damp wiping or for drying damp-wiped furnishings and fixtures select a
highly absorbent, soft cotton cloth, for example with waffie weave. Wiping
cloths should be of a convenient size with hemmed or selvage edges. These
also need laundering often. If the museum has plastic ultraviolet filters on
windows or lights, or protective plastic coverings over fragile materials
within reach of visitors, cloths impregnated with an antistatic solution
make it easier to clean them (see Detergents under Methods and Materials
below; nonionic detergents have antistatic properties).
Comb
A hair comb, preferably of metal and with long teeth, helps in cleaning
lint from the housekeeper’s brushes and brooms.
Dustpans
A janitorial style dustpan teams with the hearth broom in gathering up

sweepings and litter with less physical exertion. It has an upright handle
like the broom so it can be manipulated without stooping. The hooded
Housekeeping 215
metal body swings back when lifted, holding the dirt without spilling. For
close work around historic furniture an ordinary household dustpan made
of rubber or flexible plastic helps prevent scratches. Wipe dustpans clean
after use and hang them to protect the edge.
Floor polisher
Museums that have only a small area of waxed floors to maintain usu
ally can rent a floor polishing machine or strip, wax and buff the floor by
hand. When the amount of work justifies owning a polisher, one of the
household models should be adequate for most furnished historic struc
tures. These polishers usually operate two 6-inch (c. 150 mm) brushes.
The machine should have interchangeable sets of brushes and pads de
signed respectively for stripping old wax, scrubbing and bufling. Some
polishers have two- or three-speed motors to drive the brushes at different
rates for the separate processes. Some also have reservoirs and additional
brushes for shampooing rugs. This feature is desirable only if the museum
has carpet runners on traffic routes or considerable modern carpeting in
staff areas. In using a floor polisher be sure the switch is off before plugging
in the cord. Have the machine in position and a firm grip on the handle
before switching on the motor. When the job is finished, remove the brushes
and pads used, wash them in warm water with soap or detergent, rinse
thoroughly, shake out the remaining water and hang up to dry. Then wipe
all dirt from the machine and cord, wind the cord loosely and secure it in
place and return the polisher to its assigned storage.
Gloves
Historic housekeepers usually need two kinds of work gloves. To avoid

leaving fingerprints that will etch themselves into metal objects, thin cotton
gloves must be worn whenever metal in any item of historic furnishing is
touched. Thin gloves assure a firmer grip. White ones show dirt quickly to
tell when they need laundering. National park museums use a kind manu
factured for photographic darkroom use or ones supplied to undertakers.
To protect housekeepers’ hands from disinfectants and strong cleansers
rubber gloves should be worn, as when cleaning toilet fixtures. Wash the
rubber gloves in warm water with soap or detergent after each use. The
cotton gloves can be washed as needed several times before being discarded.
Ladders
Numerous cleaning operations involve surfaces, fixtures or furnishings

out of reach from the floor. For these tasks the housekeeper usually needs
to work from a step ladder. If the ladder is too short, it tempts one to climb
higher than the second step from the top, which risks a bad fall. If the
ladder is too long, moving it and setting it up increases the risk of damage
to the historic furnishings. A job that can be done more safely by two
people, such as taking down heavy drapes, requires two ladders of the
proper length. These considerations call for providing as many step ladders
of different sizes as will best fit the specific tasks. All the step ladders
should meet safety standards (see Safe Practices in Housekeeping, Chapter
12). Wipe them clean before and after use and be sure to check that all
braces and brackets are solidly attached. Any straight ladders needed for
window washing or other cleaning on the outside of the building should
also conform to safety standards in construction and be the right length for
the job.
Mops
The best tool for the daily sweeping of bare floors is a dust or sweep
mop. Select one with a handle about five feet (1.5m) long attached to a
mophead holder by a universal joint. The mophead should be either of two
types. One consists of cotton duck formed into a pocket to fit over and
fasten to a metal frame. The lower surface of the mophead bears short tufts
of cotton yarn in an arrangement designed for efficient dust collecting. The
frame is about 5 inches (130mm) wide and comes in a range of lengths to
suit the extent and openness of the area to be swept. The second type is a
loose sleeve of cotton osnaburg (a coarse, heavy cloth) that slips over a
special brushhead. The brushhead, a wood form with short bristles to grip
the cloth as it moves along the floor, is also about 5 inches wide and of
various lengths. For most historic structures the dust mop frame or brush
head probably should be between one and two feet (300-600mm) long.
Both kinds of mophead contain the same dust-absorbent mineral oil emul
sion as treated dust cloths. Like the dust cloths, the mopheads can be
obtained on a rental basis and returned for laundering and retreatment. As
dust accumulates on the mop during use, shake it outside the building and
remove additional dirt with a vacuum cleaner. When the mophead becomes
soiled beyond such cleaning, have it laundered and processed. Store all
treated mopheads in self-closing metal safety cans when not in use. For
floors that require wet mopping choose good quality string mops, for ex
ample with strands of eight-ply cotton yarn about 30 inches (750 mm)
long, attached by a spring lever clip to a 60-inch (1.5 mm) handle. Use
one mop for initial cleaning and a fresh one for rinsing and drying the
floor. After use rinse the mops in clear water, wring them, fluff out the
strands and hang head up to dry. When they become dirty, follow the same
steps after washing them in warm water with soap or detergent.
Housekeeping 217
Pails
Several cleaning tasks require the use of warm water with soap, deter
gent or other cleaning agent in it. These jobs need clear rinsing water as
well, and so call for two pails. One-piece molded polyethylene pails are
lighter and easier to keep clean than metal ones, and are less liable to mar
furniture on accidental contact. Select nine- or 10-quart (8-10-liter) sizes
with bail handles. Those having graduations molded in the side help when
cleaning solutions should be mixed to the right proportions. Wet mopping
demands three pails, but larger ones strong enough to support the mop
wringer. Galvanized metal mop buckets of 16-quart (15-liter) capacity
with bail handles and attached casters should serve the mopping and rins
ing needs of many furnished structure museums. The casters may add more
weight than advantage if only small areas need mopping. All housekeeping
pails should be rinsed thoroughly after use, wiped clean inside and out,
then stored where they will not become dented or pressed out of shape.
Putty knife
This is the tool generally used to scrape off gum, tar or similar deposits
that have stuck to the floor. Use it for this purpose only, not to pry open
cans or tighten loose screws. Keep it clean and dry.
Sink
Housekeeping requires a convenient source of hot and cold water, an

easy way to fill and empty pails and a suitable fixture in which to wash
brushes, cloths, mops and sponges. Bearing in mind the structural integrity
of the historic building the restoration architect should provide the sink or
sinks best adapted to the needs of the housekeeper that will not be disrup
tive to the building fabric. He may select a janitorial sink, a mop basin, a
laundry tub, a kitchen sink or some combination of these. Wipe or scrub
the sink clean at the end of the day.
Sponges
Coarse-textured cellulose sponges of convenient size to hold in the hand
work better than cloths for many damp wiping, spotting and surface wash
ing tasks. Obtain the sponges in at least three different colors, reserving
each color for a particular kind of job. One common practice assigns green
sponges for general use, confines yellow ones to wiping toilet seats and the
outside surfaces of toilet bowls and urinals, and employs pink ones to clean
toilet partitions and adjacent walls. Wash all sponges after use in warm
water with soap or detergent, rinse in clear water, squeeze and store where
they will dry.
Squeegee
A common window washing technique employs a squeegee to wipe the
glass dry. It should have a rubber blade firmly held in a brass frame. The
frame should include a centrally placed socket to hold a pole for reaching
high windows, but also to provide a convenient handle for close work.
Select a blade length to suit the size of the panes. Wet the edge of the blade
before starting the first stroke. Keep it wiped clean. Store it so no weight
rests on the rubber.
Syringe
Even a lens brush can dislodge bits of carved wood or gilded gesso from
old picture frames. To dust them use a two-ounce (56 ml) rubber ear
syringe. Squeezing the bulb creates a small blast of air for blowing off the
loose dust.
Toilet bowl swab
For cleaning the inside of toilet bowls, urinals and sanitary napkin re
ceptacles with necessarily strong solutions a chemically resistant swab has
some advantages over the traditional toilet brush. The swab of polyester
yarn should have a sliding protective cup on the handle. Wash the swab
well after using it, rinse, shake out and hang up to dry.
Vacuum cleaner
This important cleaning tool should be relatively light and compact for
safe maneuvering among easily damaged furnishings. It should facilitate
cleaning under beds or other large pieces of furniture without moving or
marring them. It should have attachments for working on bare floors,
walls, carpets, drapes and upholstery, and for reaching into corners and
crevices. A household model of the canister type probably fits the needs of
most furnished historic structures better than either an upright or an in
dustrial one. If the furnishings include fragile textiles, the amount of suc
tion must be regulated. The control provided by a hole in the wand covered
or uncovered with a rotating sleeve is insufficient. Have an electrician
install a motor speed control on the cleaner. Whenever operating the vac
uum cleaner make sure the switch is off before connecting the cord. Empty
the dust bag after each day’s use. Clean the bag thoroughly with a vacuum
Housekeeping 21!
or brush about once a week. Clean the brushes and other attachments after
using them. Before putting the machine away wipe it and the cord clean
and coil the cord loosely. Report any needed adjustments or repairs
promptly.
Wax applicator
If the museum needs a floor polishing machine, it can also use a special
tool for spreading fresh wax evenly over the floor. This applicator usually
has a handle about 41/2 feet (1372 mm) long. The block holds a replaceable
pad of lamb’s wool. After using the applicator take off the pad, wash it
thoroughly in a solution that will remove the wax, rinse and shake out,
then replace it on the block and hang in storage where the pad will dry.
Wringer
Wet mops require frequent, controlled and often thorough wringing as

the work progresses. Wringers for this purpose fit onto the rim of the mop
bucket. Cleaners who do much mopping prefer one having a gear and rack
mechanism to exert a downward squeeze. Select a wringer of this type to
fit the size of mops and buckets being used. Keep it clean by rinsing and
wiping after each mopping session.
This equipment list implies the need for space in which to store and take
care of the housekeeping tools and supplies. The space should be large
enough to permit orderly storage. It requires the means for hanging certain
tools and cabinets, shelves or fire-safe containers for others. It needs good
ventilation both for fire safety and to dry the equipment washed after use.
It should have facilities for this washing. Its location should make the
transportation of the heavier tools and supplies to and from work sites as
easy as possible. Since housekeeping has a vital role in the preservation of
the historic building and its furnishings, the restoration architect should
make the best provisions he can for these functions.
Methods and Materials
The methods used for cleaning furnished historic rooms and the sub
stances applied in the process should meet three tests. First they should
help preserve the artifacts being cleaned, specifically avoiding potentially
harmful operations or ingredients. Next they should leave the surfaces
looking as they would have when the historic occupants cleaned them.
Finally these techniques and materials should clean as efficiently and eco
nomically as the foregoing considerations permit. Cleaning methods for

present-day buildings have a different priority of requirements. They must
first of all work quickly, effectively and as easily as possible, saving time
and labor. Their long-term effects are of secondary importance because the
building surfaces and furnishings they are intended to clean or polish have
a limited life expectancy. These procedures have no occasion to match the
visual results of methods abandoned years ago. Consequently it is more
fortunate than intentional when convenient modern techniques and the
products readily available from supermarkets or janitorial supply houses
happen to prove entirely suitable for cleaning historic buildings and their
furnishings. Labels and sales literature on cleaning and polishing supplies
seldom reveal what they contain. This aggravates the difficulty of choosing
safe and satisfactory ones. Some modern equipment and supplies, like the
vacuum cleaner, do the job far better than" anything a pre-20th century
housekeeper had. Others are the same as, or quite similar to, what she
used. Some involve preservation hazards. Until conservators have analyzed
and tested them, cleaning methods and materials should be selected on the
basis of their closely observed effects reinforced by scepticism about their
advertised virtues. Exercising these precautions, consider the highly effi
cient techniques developed for cleaning public buildings only as a starting
point for your adaptations. The needed application of scientific conserva
tion to historic housekeeping, when it comes, will provide surer guidance.
Housekeeping supplies suggested in the cleaning procedures discussed
below have been chosen with the criteria for historic furnishings care in
mind, but often without benefit of the analysis and scientific testing they
ought to receive. In making the choices the preservation of historic surfaces
being cleaned has outweighed the ease or effectiveness of cleaning. Even
so, apply the cleansing agents with sceptical caution. Always read carefully
the directions and warnings on the containers before use. Gentle cleansers
do not handicap the historic housekeeper. Regularly scheduled care of
surfaces already in exhibitable condition makes harsh, heavy cleaning un
necessary as a rule. Most of the selected products should prove reasonably
convenient to obtain. The principal ones include:
Abrasives
When cleaning or polishing requires steel wool, use the 000 grade. To
polish steel get 600 grit, A weight emery paper. Hardware stores usually
carry these. The desirable abrasive for polishing copper and brass consists
of precipitated chalk in ammonia and ethyl alcohol. Presumably some
commercial polishes such as Noxon or Brasso approximate this composi
tion. They tend to overpolish, so apply them carefully. Avoid acid polishes
intended for shining modern copper kitchenware. For pewter, if polishing
becomes necessary, use a commercial mixture designed specifically to do it.
Housekeeping 221
Goddard’s pewter polish is one example. Fine jewelry stores and depart
ment stores should offer a selection of acceptable silver polishes including
Goddard’s, Gorham’s, International Silver and 3M. Choose one with an
anti-tarnish ingredient. Obtain whiting (powdered chalk) and rottenstone,
both mild abrasives, from a hardware or paint store. Get rubber polishing
“erasers” from jewelers’ suppliers.
Detergents
In choosing among the many varieties and combinations of synthetic

detergents conservators often avoid potential hazards by selecting ones that
do not react chemically with other materials and are neither acidic nor
alkaline. They use a nonionic neutral detergent such as Igepal CA-630 (a
GAF Corporation product), Lissapol N or DuPont’s Merpol SH. Lissapol
has European distributors. Another kind of nonionic neutral detergent that
is water soluble and conforms to U.S. Military Specifications MIL-D
l679lE should provide a relatively safe and convenient general purpose
cleaning agent for historic housekeeping, at least when used in the mini
mum concentrations recommended on the container. National Park Service
museums may be able to obtain it from the Federal Supply Service (Item
7930-282-9699 in the GSA Supply Catalog) when in stock. Janitorial
suppliers perhaps can furnish a commercial detergent that meets the same
strict specifications. Ask for a liquid, nonionic, water soluble product com
posed at least 99% of a surface active agent of the alkyl aryl polyether
alcohol (alkyl phenol ether or polyethylene glycol) type when the alkyl
group is iso-octyl or iso-nonyl, that contains no builders, soaps or addition
agents of any kind. This technical description may help the dealer identify
or approximate your need. In many situations a neutral soap is preferable
to synthetic detergents provided it can be used in soft water (distilled or
deionized water, or filtered rural rainwater). Obtain a soap free of builders
or additives, for example Ivory or a comparable type.
Protective coatings
Various transparent coatings over bright metals can delay the need for
repolishing. Synthetic lacquers such as Krylon, Quelspray, Frigilene or
Incralac applied by aerosol can or brush serve this purpose. Dealers in
artists’ supplies handle at least some of them. Microcrystalline waxes pro
vide an even better barrier against corrosive agents. Objects which cannot
conveniently be dipped in the molten wax, require its application in paste
form. Making up a paste involves the risk of heating flammable solvents. It
seems wiser to use a prepared microcrystalline wax paste such as the
British Museum formula marketed by the Smithsonian shops and other
dealers as Renaissance Wax. Easier to obtain, although not quite as effi
cient as a metal coating, are hard, clear paste waxes of natural origin.
These include Butcher’s and Simoniz available in hardware stores and also
used as protective coatings for furniture and wood floors. Any commercial
stove polish consisting of powdered graphite in a suitable vehicle should
protect the cast iron of stoves and fireplace fittings. British Museum leather
dressing, marketed under that name by chemical companies and library
suppliers, is a mixture formulated after careful research. It functions at
least partly as a protective coating.
Solvents
Water is the solvent most used by historic housekeepers. Ammonia

water—ordinary nonsudsing household ammonia-aids it in removing
grease from glass. Perchlorethylene, a dry cleaning solvent, packaged with
an inert powder in an aerosol container may act like a poultice when
sprayed on a stain. Obtain it as a fabric spotter from dealers in cleaning
supplies or as Goddard’s Dry Clean spot remover. Stoddard solvent, widely
used in dry cleaning, is a petroleum distillate. A local dry cleaning plant
might supply the relatively small quantity an historic housekeeper would
need. Chemical suppliers and paint stores also carry it. While turpentine
substitute from the hardware or paint store provides the solvent for paste
wax, water emulsion floor waxes require a liquid dewaxer to emulsify
them. Get one recommended by the wax manufacturer.
. Other supplies
Some paper cleaning tasks call for the use of powdered eraser, such as
Opaline or Skum-X available from library suppliers or art shops. Library
suppliers also market a leather protector comprising a solution of potas
sium lactate to buffer airborne acids and a fungicide to retard mold growth.
Dealers in silverware carry a mixture of liquid chemicals for removing
tarnish under such names as Silver Dip and Tarnex. Silver cleaned by this
method needs a tarnish inhibitor. Available products include Silver Shield
and Goddard’s Tarnish Preventive Spray.
Floors
The care of modern floors involves sweeping, mopping, scrubbing, buff

ing, stripping and waxing depending on the kind and condition of floor and
finish. These processes can often apply directly to the staff, storage and
utility areas of the museum. Employ them also in the public use areas,
modified as necessary for antique floors on which visitors walk. Adapt
them for cleaning in the exhibited areas to the extent that they contribute
to the preservation and historic appearance of the floor. Some of these
Housekeeping 223
possible adaptations will be discussed following description of current

procedures.
Floors are now swept with a treated dust mop. It gathers the loose dirt
from the surface without raising dust. Sweep in a planned pattern that will
save steps while moving the dust mop over every bit of exposed floor in the
room. Start with the dust mop, radiator brush, dustpan, hearth broom and
putty knife clean and ready at hand. Move light furniture out of the way
carefully and turn back rugs a little. If the space to be swept is less than
eight feet wide (c. 2.5 m), walk forward pushing the dust mop straight
ahead. At the far end of the room turn, keeping the mop moving on the
floor and the same edge forward, and follow a parallel path overlapping the
first one slightly. Continue this pattern until the space is completely swept.
Stop along the way only to use the radiator brush for pulling dust out of
corners or other spots inaccessible to the mop, to sweep under furniture
that could not be moved or to pry gum and similar substances loose with
the putty knife. To avoid marring furniture with the mop handle reach
halfway under from each side when practicable. In wider spaces swing the
dust mop in an arc from side to side as you walk forward or backward,
using the straight push only around the edges. Keep the same side of the
mop forward by twisting the handle at the end of each arc, and the long
axis of the mophead at a 45° angle to the direction of stroke. While using
either pattern keep the mop flat on the floor. Lift it only to transfer ac
cumulated dirt onto a dust pile, raising the mop a few inches and giving it a
quick shake or two. If too much remains on the mophead, clean or rotate
it. Use the hearth broom to gather the small dust piles into the dustpan for
prompt disposal. When finished sweeping take the equipment back to the
housekeeper’s storeroom, clean it carefully and put it away. In sweeping
marble or terrazzo floor be sure the treated mop has only a minimum of the
oil emulsion in it. Excess oil would harm these porous surfaces.
Damp mopping removes light films of clinging dirt from all types of
floors. This process requires a string mop, mop bucket and wringer. Fill the
bucket half full of cold water. Take the equipment to the room being
cleaned. Take along all the regular sweeping equipment because a floor
should be swept thoroughly just before you mop it. After sweeping wet the
string mop in the bucket. Wring it nearly dry. Then draw the mop along the
floor close to the baseboard. Rinse the mop and wring it as before. Carry it
to the far end of the room and mop the open floor with long, continuous,
side to side strokes. To do this stand with feet apart and one a little ahead
of the other. Step back as the mop passes close to the foot in front.
Throughout the stroke keep the mop heel on the floor and the strands
spread. At every fourth stroke lift the heel of the mop slightly as it comes
in front of you and reverse the direction. This turns the opposite face of the
mop to the floor. Rinse and wring the mop frequently. Change the water as
soon as it becomes dirty. Be careful not to slap the strands against base
boards, furniture or rugs. Use a push-pull stroke under furniture. Wipe the
floor around the legs and in corners with the mop strings held in your hand.
Rub scuff marks with the mop heel. When the floor is clean, return the
equipment to the storeroom, wash the mop, shake out the strands and hang
to dry. Then rinse and wipe the bucket and wringer.
Damp mopping with clear water may not suffice for floor areas in the
direct path of visitor traffic. If experience proves the need for more clean
ing action there, follow the same procedure but with a dilute detergent. Fill
the mop bucket half full of warm water. Add the amount recommended on
the label using, if possible, a nonionic neutral detergent conforming to U.S.
Military Specifications MIL-D-16791E. Sweep the floor and then mop it as
described above. The mop should be a little wetter, so wring it with slightly
less pressure. Damp mopping modern floors with a mild and dilute deter
gent does not ordinarily require rinsing. For original or accurately repro
duced historic floors this additional step does seem advisable. In this case
go over the area again promptly using clear water from a second bucket.
Keep the mop damp enough to pick up any residue of the detergent. Rinse
and wring the mop often. Wipe over the floor finally with the mop wrung as
dry as possible.
Wet mopping should be used only on hard surfaced floors such as mar
ble, other stone, ceramic tile, terrazzo or cement. Its purpose is to clean off
moderate films of dirt that would resist damp mopping. The job requires
two string mops, three buckets and a wringer as well as the sweeping tools
to prepare the floor for mopping. Fill one bucket with hot water. Add a
nonionic neutral detergent to the recommended proportions. If this is un
obtainable, select a detergent marketed for use on such floors. Use clear
water to fill another bucket. Attach the wringer to the third, empty bucket.
Have all the equipment ready. When the floor has been cleared and swept,
dip a mop in the cleaning solution. Do not wring it out, but let the excess
drip back into the bucket. Draw the saturated mop along the floor to mark
off an area of about 9 >< 12 feet (2.7 >< 3.7 m). Dip the mop again and let
it drain. Mop the marked out space with long swinging strokes like those
used in damp mopping. Be especially careful not to spatter baseboards or
furnishings. Mop over the wetted section again to agitate the cleanser.
Scrub corners and especially soiled spots by hand with the mop strands or,
if necessary, with a brush. Wring the mop dry. Go over the same area again
to pick up the cleaning solution. Turn the mop over and over, wringing it
frequently. Do not allow the detergent to lie on the floor longer than 10
minutes. Before this portion of the floor has time to dry, take the second
mop, saturate it in the clear water letting the excess drain back. Mop the
same area once more to rinse it thoroughly. Then use this mop to pick up
the rinse water. Turn and wring the mop often as above. Finally mop the
section as dry as possible with the mophead wrung hard. Return to the first
mop and cleanser. Mark off an adjacent area of about the same size as
Housekeeping 225
before. Follow the full cycle of washing, picking up, rinsing, picking up and
drying. Continue until you have done the entire floor. Since a wet floor is
slippery, leave warning signs in place until the surface has dried completely.
Take all the equipment back to the storeroom, clean each item properly
and put it away. In wet mopping observe two special precautions. Do not
let the mop wet with cleanser stand on the floor while not in actual use.
Such prolonged contact may damage the surface. Do not let the solution or
rinse water get into electrical floor outlets. A resulting short circuit could
cause injury or fire.
Scrubbing supplements wet mopping. It becomes necessary when the
latter process fails to clean hard surfaced floors adequately. The operation
employs an electric floor polisher fitted with scrubbing brushes. In addition
it calls for all the equipment to sweep and wet mop the floor. Follow the
procedures in the preceding paragraph from initial sweeping up to the point
of agitating the cleaning solution. When the solution has been mopped onto
a section of the floor, use the polishing machine as a scrubber. Lay the
machine on its side and attach the brushes. Set it upright. Make sure the
switch is turned off. Plug in the cord. Standing directly behind the polisher
and gripping the handle, switch on the motor. Guide the machine back and
forth over the wetted area in wide swinging arcs. For places the polisher
cannot reach shut off the motor and scrub them with a hand brush. Having
finished scrubbing set the machine aside, being sure the wet brushes do not
rest on the floor. Then resume the mopping steps. Pick up the cleaning
solution with a wrung out mop, remembering not to let the liquid remain
on the floor for more than 10 minutes. Rinse the scrubbed area, pick up the
rinse water and dry. Complete the first section before wetting the next. At
the end of the job wash the scrubbing brushes thoroughly as well as the
mops. Wipe the polisher and cord clean and dry. Coil the cord properly.
Rinse and wipe the buckets and wringer. Clean the dust mop and dust pan.
Store each item carefully.
Buffing helps to clean waxed floors and improves their appearance. It
removes slightly imbedded dirt from the finish and restores its gloss. For
lightly soiled floors buffing may take the place of damp mopping. When dirt
has become moderately ground into the wax, bufling should follow damp
mopping. In either case start by sweeping the floor thoroughly with the dust
mop. If a floor needs only buffing, take all the regular sweeping equipment
and the electric floor polisher to the room. The polisher will need buffing
brushes or pads. Sweep up and remove loose dirt and any gum or similar
substance carefully pried from the floor. Take the polishing machine to the
far end of the room. Turn up the polishing head to attach the buffer. Check
the switch to be sure it is off, then connect the cord to the electrical outlet.
With the machine standing directly in front of you grasp the handle and
turn on the switch. Guide the polisher from side to side stepping backward.
Continue back and forth in parallel paths until you have buffed the entire
area of exposed floor. Be careful to prevent the machine from striking the
baseboard or furnishings. As soon as the work is done, replace furnishings
and return all equipment to the storeroom. Clean the buffing brushes or
pads. Wipe the machine and cord and coil the latter. Clean the sweeping
equipment. Then put each piece in its place.
In the second case, when a moderately dirty waxed floor requires damp
mopping, follow the steps for this process as given above using clear, cold
water. Rinse and wring the mop and change to fresh water frequently.
After mopping let the floor become completely dry. Then buff it as just
described. The mop, bucket and wringer will need cleaning afterwards
along with the buffing brushes or pads, the polishing machine and the
sweeping gear.
Stripping consists of removing completely old floor wax in preparation
for fresh coats. All waxed floors require it from time to time. It becomes
necessary when dirt has worked deeply into the wax, when the wax has
deteriorated from exposure and wear, or when repeated applications have
built up an objectionable thickness. The process involves spreading a liquid
on the floor that will soften and dissolve or emulsify the wax and then
removing the mixture of liquid and old wax before it damages the floor.
Details vary with the kinds of floor and of wax finishes. In all cases sweep
first. If the floor is wood, it probably has a solvent type paste wax coating.
To strip it begin at a point farthest from the entrance. Wet a coarse cloth
with turpentine, or preferably an odorless oil-paint thinner which is more
stable. Rub hard with it over the floor within easy arm’s reach. This should
soften and pick up the old wax and dirt. Take a clean cloth and rub the
same area dry. If any dirty spots remain, go over them with a little more
turpentine on a pad of 000 steel wool. Then rub again with the dry cloth.
Move to the adjacent area and continue the wetting and rubbing until the
entire floor has been stripped clean. Change cloths as often as necessary.
Observe precautions against two dangers throughout the process. Turpen
tine and its substitutes are moderately toxic when inhaled or absorbed
through the skin. Therefore ventilate the room especially well while strip
ping and wear rubber gloves. Both turpentine and wax are flammable. So
are paint thinners. Keep open flames and smokers away from the work
area. Place a fire extinguisher for Class B fires at the entrance ready for
emergency use. Do not let soiled cloths or the material stripped from the
floor remain in the building. Store the supplies of turpentine and fresh wax
outside the historic building, if possible, or in a cabinet approved for the
safe storage of flammable liquids.
Linoleum floors and those surfaced with any of the non-ceramic tiles
usually have a water emulsion wax finish. To strip these floors use a wax
remover, an emulsifying liquid which may contain flammable and irritating
substances. Follow the procedures for wet mopping or scrubbing. Fill the
first bucket with hot water to which add the proportion of wax remover
Housekeeping 227
specified on the label. In the case of concentrated solutions this may be one
part dewaxer to 32 parts of water. Saturate the mop and drain the excess
back into the mop pail. Mark out a 9 X 12 foot section (2.7 X 3.7 m) and
wet it thoroughly with the mop. Then go over the area again with the mop
freshly saturated agitating the liquid on the floor to loosen the old finish. If
the floor is unusually dirty as well, agitate with scrubbing brushes attached
to the electric floor polisher instead of the mop. With either method be
especially careful not to spatter the baseboards or furnishings. Pick up the
liquid and old wax promptly with the mop, wringing each mopful into the
empty bucket. Do not let the mixture stay on the floor more than 10
minutes. If this treatment leaves any dirty spots, hand rub them lightly with
000 steel wool wet from the bucket of dilute dewaxer. Use a cloth to pick
up the residue. Before the section of stripped floor dries, rinse it well with
the second mop using sufficient changes of water. Then pick up the rinse
water with the wrung out mop leaving the floor as dry as the mop will make
it. If the wax remover is flammable and should not come in contact with
your skin, take precautions to guard against fire in using, storing and
disposing of it. Wear protective gloves when handling it. Wash the mops
and scrubbing brushes used for stripping without delay. It will take warm
water and detergent to clean the old wax out of them. Clean and store the
other equipment promptly also.
Waxing concludes the list of processes customarily employed in the care
of modern floors. It follows stripping as soon as the floor has dried, before
dust again settles on the cleansed surfaces. It consists of paste-waxing or
emulsion-waxing according to the type of floor. To wax a wood floor
dampen a clean, soft cloth. Squeeze out any excess water. Fold the cloth
into a convenient pad. Place a small amount of paste wax on it. Then wipe
it over the floor to leave a thin, even coating. Begin at the far corner of the
room. Add wax to the cloth when necessary and continue until the entire
floor is lightly covered. Attach bufling brushes to the floor polishing ma
chine and carry it to the far side of the room. Connect the cord and operate
the machine as previously described. Guide it over the whole floor area.
The brushes assure that the wax is evenly distributed. If the floor needs a
higher gloss, put buffing pads on the polisher and go over the waxed
surface again. Finally dust mop the room to pick up any fine particles of
wax scattered by the brushes. You can vary either step of the waxing
buffing procedure to fit the amount of floor space. For a room too large to
wax by hand spread the paste with the floor polisher. Put a tablespoonful
of wax on the floor. Start the polishing machine and set the rotating brushes
directly on the lump of paste. Move the polisher from side to side in the
usual way. Put down more wax as required until you have spread it thinly
over the whole area. Buff with pads on the polisher. In a small room you
can buff the wax by hand as well as applying it and not need a polishing
machine at all. First work over the freshly spread paste with a fiber brush
to make sure the coating is thin and even. Then rub the floor hard with a
clean cloth pad. After waxing replace the furniture and wash without delay
the brushes, pads and cloths used. This gets the wax out of the equipment
before it hardens. Prompt cleanup also reduces the fire hazard. Store the
supply of wax outside the building or in the approved cabinet for flam
mable liquids.
The solvent in paste wax permits reconditioning the finish on a wood
floor numerous times before it needs stripping. When regular buffing fails
to restore the desired luster even after damp mopping, wax the surface
again lightly and buff it as described in the preceding paragraph. The
solvent helps to clean the soiled finish and minimizes the build-up of thick,
unsightly layers of wax.
The application of water emulsion wax to linoleum or non-ceramic tile
floors requires different methods. The wax being in liquid state pour a
sufficient amount into a mop bucket. Prepare a second bucket with clear
rinse water. As soon as the stripped floor is completely dry, dip the long
handled lamb’s wool wax applicator into the wax. Press out the excess
against the inside of the bucket. Draw the applicator along the floor about
4 inches (c. 100 mm) from the baseboard. Then with side to side, slightly
overlapping strokes spread the wax over the rest of the floor. Dip and press
out the applicator when more wax is needed. Rinse and wring out the
lamb’s wool pad if wax begins to accumulate on it. Let the wax remain on
the floor until dry to the touch. This usually takes 20 to 30 minutes. Next
use the polishing machine with buffing brushes to smooth the coating and
give it a sheen. The brushes will extend the wax over the uncoated strip
along the baseboard. Start buffing at the far side of the room. Follow
previous instructions for keeping the polisher safely under control and
moving it in wide strokes. If the floor sustains particularly heavy traffic,
apply a second thin coat of wax after buffing the first. Spread it in the same
way and let it dry well before using the polishing machine again. Dust mop
the finished floor if buffing leaves a powdery residue. Discard any wax left
in the bucket. Wash the wax applicator, bucket and buffing brushes thor
oughly before the wax sets in them. Wipe the polisher and cord. Clean the
dust mop and put away all equipment.
Water emulsion wax has no solvent action on previous coats. Successive
layers applied to recondition a floor would build up to objectionable thick
ness. Before stripping becomes necessary, however, worn areas of finish
can be patched to a limited extent. Clean the floor thoroughly. Spread fresh
wax thinly over the worn portion. Buff it, using the polisher to blend the
new finish as well as possible into the older wax surrounding it.
Acrylic emulsion floor finishes and those incorporating silicones work
satisfactorily on the modern resilient floors for which the manufacturers
formulate them. In general confine their use to such floors and follow the
directions on the containers. These finishes often require special stripping
Housekeeping 229
materials, as do some kinds of water emulsion wax finishes. Be sure to

check the flammability and toxicity of both the finish and stripper used.
Take the precautions indicated.
Adapting current methods of floor care to exhibited historic rooms re
quires some acquaintance with older practices. In North America before
1900 most buildings intended for human occupancy had plain board floors,
often of pine. Ordinarily the boards had no applied finish. If untended and
uncovered, they assumed a dull gray look. They readily absorbed grease
and other stains from accidental spills. To keep such floors clean and
bright demanded much time and hard work. In addition to the difficult job
of extracting grease spots and stains promptly, the housekeeper who fol
lowed English tradition swept them, perhaps daily. The broom raised dry
dust which settled on the furnishings. To prevent this she might fling hand
fuls of damp sand hard against the floor before sweeping. The rolling,
bounding sand grains gathered at least some of the fine dust. Or she might
scatter damp used tea-leaves, kept for the purpose, then sweep. Preferably
about once a week the housekeeper would supplement sweeping with dry
rubbing. She used dry sand, sometimes heated, on the floor, rubbing it hard
with a long handled scrubbing brush, working always with the grain, never
across the boards. Less often, but still frequently, she scrubbed the boards
on hands and knees with sand and water. She used ample water, scrubbed
hard lengthwise of the boards, then wiped it dry quickly because water
tended to darken the wood. When the whole floor had dried, she might rub
it again with clean dry cloths. During the 1800’s soap came to replace sand
in the scrubbing process. Such care conscientiously applied produced a
bright, light colored floor in which the wood grain plainly showed. Perhaps
relatively few rooms attained this condition consistently, but it was the
goal
Modern ways to achieve a similar appearance without an impractical
investment of time and labor need more study and experimentation. Start
by exposing the natural color of the floor boards. You can do this by
scraping them carefully with a floor finisher’s or carpenter’s hand scraping
tool. Remove only enough of the surface to reach clean wood. Do not try
to cut down raised edges or level the irregularities caused by wear. Do not
subject an original floor to this scraping more than once. To keep the floor
looking reasonably bright try vacuuming it frequently enough to prevent an
accumulation of dust and grit. Use the suction at full strength. Do not use a
treated dust mop on the floor. When it becomes noticeably dull, mop it
with clear water. Wet only the area within reach in front of you. Push and
pull the mop back and forth along the boards, not across them. Rinse the
mop often and change the water so you apply clean water with a clean
mop. Dry the mopped area well with a wrung out mop before wetting the
next section. Perhaps once a year you may need to scour the boards.
Not all floors in early American buildings lacked a finish. In the 1700’s
some, probably well-to-do, homes had floor boards in one or more rooms
stained to look like mahogany. To obtain this result by one recommended
method the housekeeper swept the floor clean. Then she strewed selected
herbs over it and rubbed them hard with a scrubbing brush. After the plant
juices released from the crushed stems and leaves had colored the boards,
she let the floor dry before sweeping up the remnants. Such a finish re
mained presentable for some time without the use of sand or water. Sweep
ing and perhaps occasional dry rubbing sufficed. A similar effect should
come today from treating a clean board floor with brown mahogany water
stain and dust mopping it regularly. Other finishes used to some extent,
particularly in the 1800’s, included paint, varnish and linseed oil. People
painted kitchen floors more often than other rooms because bare boards
there were especially hard to keep clean and available coverings were
unsuitable. Paint also served to cover the narrow band of exposed floor
between the rug and the walls. Varnishing provided another popular
method of finishing this band and sometimes entire floors. It probably
involved an annual application of varnish stain to a well cleaned floor.
Similar finishes of paint or varnish stain can be put on clean board floors
readily. Regular dust mopping and damp mopping should keep them in
satisfactory condition. Linseed oil wiped periodically on a wood floor pro
vided a finish that did not require scouring. An oiled floor swept regularly
and at intervals sponged with water stayed clean enough. Adding a little
milk or kerosene to the water gave the floor a slight sheen. Oiling a floor,
however, turned it dark, so this finish found its principal use in buildings
other than homes. A treated dust mop and occasional damp mopping
should clean adequately an oiled floor on exhibition.
A waxed floor before about 1880 would have been rare if found at all.
Therefore do not wax exhibited floors representing an earlier period unless
this finish is unquestionably documented. Unavoidable heavy visitor traffic
on an original wood floor might justify an exception because wax would
protect the boards to some extent. In this case wax only the areas actually
under foot. It would be better interpretation to let a reproduced floor wear
out than to prolong its life by using anachronistic wax.
The small pieces of an old parquet floor may tend to splinter. Do not use
a vacuum cleaner on it if this condition exists. Dust mop with extra care.
When marble or other stone floors required more than washing, oldtime
housekeepers employed whiting or a similar mild abrasive. Modern sweep
ing, mopping and scrubbing techniques should produce comparable results.
Waxing these floors would not, unless they represent 20th- or very late
19th-century occupancy.
Brick, packed earth and other less common floors do not have as well
recorded cleaning practices. Common sense suggests that regular use of a
vacuum cleaner should maintain a brick floor adequately if the bricks are
well laid and closely set. Occasional sweeping of sand over bricks is also
Housekeeping 231
very effective. Occasional scrubbing with clear water and a fiber brush may
need to supplement it. Vacuuming with reduced suction and a light touch
may also clean an earthen floor more safely than other means.
Wood floors, if they were well kept, cost a housekeeper much time and
labor. She consequently sought practical ways to cover them. In England
straw traditionally covered many floors during the winter. Rushes replaced
the straw from Whitsunday till autumn. American housewives may have
used these or other expedients, but such transitory materials require docu
mentation before being used in exhibited rooms. By the late 1700’s carpets
and other manufactured floor coverings became available at prices many
people could afford. The care of these furnishings assumed growing
importance.
Floor Coverings
Carpet care in modern buildings involves four operations. Vacuum
cleaning at regular intervals removes the loose dirt and grit that cause most
wear. Areas that accumulate obvious dirt or litter between times need
sweeping. Spot removal takes place promptly when some staining sub
stance is spilled or tracked on the carpet. When a film of soiling adheres to
the fibers, the carpet is shampooed. Apply these procedures to office car
pets or rugs and to carpet runners along the tour route. The latter may
need daily vacuuming. Once a week should suffice in staff areas. Make sure
the dust bag, filter and attachments are clean. Carry the equipment to
the room and set the canister in a central location. Attach the rug brush to
the vacuum cleaner wand. Check that the cleaner switch is off, then plug
in the cord. Hold the wand with both hands using one to move and the other
to guide it. With the switch turned on propel the brush forward and back
ward at least twice over the area covered by the first stroke. Make the next
series of strokes parallel to the first and overlapping a little. Continue in this
fashion over the entire carpet. Lay the nap as you proceed by doing the
final stroke of each series in the same direction. Turn off the machine,
remove the rug brush and replace it with the crevice tool. Use this to
extract thoroughly the dust and lint that settle between the edge of the
carpet and the baseboard, a favorite breeding place for carpet beetles and
clothes moths. When finished, return the vacuum cleaner to the storeroom.
Empty and clean the dust bag. Clean the filter and attachments. Wipe off
the machine and cord. Then coil the cord and put away all the equipment
used.
The second procedure serves to clean small, heavily used portions of
carpet that become unsightly or gritty under foot before the whole carpeted
area needs vacuuming again. For this task use a non-electric carpet
sweeper. It is handy, light, quiet and causes less wear than a broom. You
can bring it quickly and gather up the worst of the dirt with a minimum of
disturbance. Roll the sweeper back and forth in several directions over the
part that needs cleaning. Pick up by hand bits of litter, threads or lumps the
sweeper fails to get. When putting the carpet sweeper away, empty the pan
and clean the brushes so it will be ready for immediate use.
Stains left on a carpet overnight become more difficult to remove. As 1
I
soon as possible after discovering a spot take measures to extract it. These
comprise a third aspect of carpet care. If the spill is still wet, blot it
carefully with absorbent paper or cloth. Work from the edges inward to
avoid spreading it. Soak up all you can. In case the material has become
sticky or pasty, use a putty knife to scrape up as much of it as you safely
can. If it has dried into a crust, brush as much loose as will respond to a
hand scrub brush. Gather the particles into a dustpan. The next step de
pends on whether the remaining spot is soluble in water or is greasy. For a
water soluble stain use the nonionic neutral detergent recommended above.
Mix a small amount to proper proportions in one pail. Have clear rinse
water ready in another. Wet a clean cloth in the detergent solution and
squeeze out the excess. With strokes that describe a circle around the spot,
begin just outside the stained area and work toward the center dampening
the discolored portion. Take a clean absorbent cloth to blot up the deter
gent and stain with the same pattern of strokes. Repeat the dampening and
blotting until the spot has disappeared. Then rinse and dry the area with
fresh cloths still using the circling, inward moving strokes. Finally arrange
the pile strands so they conform with the rest of the carpet. To remove an
oily or greasy stain wet a cloth pad with Stoddard solvent and apply it to
the spot with the same motions as just described. Follow the solvent with
the detergent solution and rinse water always working around and inward.
Stoddard solvent is flammable. So keep smokers away. Dispose of the used
cloths promptly outside the historic building. Store the container of solvent
safely.
Museum carpets may suffer from dripping candles, discarded chewing
gum or dropped cigarette ashes. To remove drops of candle wax scrape off
what you can with a putty knife. Lay a clean blotter on the spot and place
a warm flatiron on the blotter. Most of the remaining wax will melt and the
blotter will absorb it. Treat what is left as a grease spot. To get gum out of
a carpet freeze it with a little dry ice (solid carbon dioxide as used by ice
cream salesmen). Use a putty knife to scrape loose the brittle mass. A
greasy spot may remain to be removed with Stoddard solvent, detergent
and rinsing. To render a small burned spot less conspicuous gently rub
away the charred ends of the fibers with sandpaper.
A few carpet stains may resist these methods. If such spots become a
problem, get a stain removal kit such as professional rug cleaners use. It
will contain the necessary chemicals and instructions. When the problem
consists of too many ordinary stains to remove by individual treatment a
special non-electric carpet sweeper that also shampoos with “dry” foam
Housekeeping 233
may take out most of them. Use this tool only on modern carpeting. Follow
the directions on the sweeper and on the container of shampooing solution
in careful detail.
Machine shampooing, the final cleaning technique suggested for the mu
seum’s modern carpets and rugs, attacks the dirt that clings to fibers.
Carpets vacuumed faithfully and spot cleaned promptly should need
shampooing no oftener than once a year. Consider hiring a commercial rug
cleaner to do it or renting a machine for the occasion rather than buying
and storing seldom used equipment. One type of shampooing machine
discharges a cleaning solution onto the carpet. Rotating floor brushes beat
this into a foam and scrub the carpet with it. A skillful operator can control
the release of the liquid so the carpet does not get too wet. A second type
has an additional beater inside that generates the foam before releasing it.
Such a “dry” foam machine avoids the danger of wetting the carpet exces
sively. Either kind of machine calls for the supplemental use of a wet-dry
model vacuum cleaner to pick up the spent suds. Some household floor
polishing machines have shampooing attachments, usually for the “wet”
foam process. The shampooing procedure starts with a thorough vacuum
ing of the carpet. Mix the cleaning solution exactly as directed on the
container. Fill the machine reservoir and pour some additional solution
into a pail. Use the latter with a hand brush to clean any parts of the carpet
the machine cannot reach. Dry these areas with a clean absorbent cloth.
Start the machine at one corner of the carpet. Keep the rotating brushes flat
on the surface to be cleaned. Moving the machine in small circles work
straight across the carpet. Return in a parallel slightly overlapping path.
Stop after cleaning a few strips and use the wet-dry vacuum cleaner to pick
up the dirt-filled foam. It should not remain on the carpet longer than four
minutes. Push the vacuum brush forward in straight, parallel strokes so the
nap will lie uniformly. Continue to shampoo and pick up alternately until
the whole carpet is clean. Afterwards rinse out the reservoir, pail and
vacuum tank. Clean all the brushes used. Wipe off the machines and cords.
The carpets and rugs in the historically furnished rooms require gentler,
more specialized care. Unlike modern ones they cannot be replaced at will.
As the first procedure, learned long ago from costly experience, protect
them from direct sunlight. Close the blinds or draw the shade at each
window during the hours the sun would shine through it onto an historic or
reproduced carpet. Do this even though the windows have ultraviolet filters
(see Protecting the Building and Furnishings, Chapter 12). Both meas
ures are important.
Removal of loose dirt comprises the next housekeeping concern essential
to the preservation of the exhibited carpets and rugs. The vacuum cleaner
provides the safest means, but use it with extra care. Slow chemical
changes coupled with wear have weakened the threads of old carpets.
Strong suction could break fibers or tear loose those already broken. Fol
Manual for Museums
low in general the vacuuming procedures described for modern carpets, but
first adjust the control to reduce the pull (see Equipment, Chapter 11).
Use the least amount of suction that will lift the dirt particles. If the carpet
has a pile, move the vacuum only in the direction the pile lies, not against
nor across it. Where the fabric has already frayed, lay a sheet of plastic
window screening over it to hold damaged threads in place. Vacuum
through the mesh. Bind the cut edges of the screen with tape to protect the
carpet. Do not wait to vacuum old carpets until dust has settled thickly
among the strands, but avoid vacuuming them oftener than they require
it.
Clinging dirt inevitably collects on these carpets, but machine shampoo
ing is too harsh for them. Have a textile conservator wash or dry-clean
exhibited carpets. If you cannot call on the direct services of a trained
conservator, carefully select a professional rug cleaner to do the job.
Choose one, if possible, who has successfully cleaned historic rugs for
other museums. Even so a textile conservator should specify the techniques
and cleansers to use.
If something spills on one of these carpets, blot up the excess at once.
Use the inward circling application of an absorbent pad to prevent further
spreading. Dampen a clean cloth in water and with similar motions get out
as much more as you can. Then notify the curator immediately. Old fibers
and dyes may not react to stain removal techniques like modern carpets do.
So consult a textile conservator or professional rug cleaner if time permits.
Otherwise test the fastness of the colors before proceeding. Wet a cotton
swab in the nonionic neutral detergent solution. Dampen a very small area
of each color involved. Press a clean white blotter against the dampened
spot. The blotter will pick up dye if it runs. Repeat the test with Stoddard
solvent for a greasy stain. Unless some of the colors do run, you can use
with relative safety the stain removal procedures previously described.
Another class of floor coverings includes rubber or plastic runners and
entrance mats. They collect dirt by intention to keep it from the floor or
carpets they protect. The frequent cleaning they therefore require involves
two stages. Vacuum the runners and mats in place as often as they need it.
Use the vacuum attachment that works best on their variously molded or
fibrous surfaces. When they call for more thorough cleaning, vacuum them
first. Then take them outside. Use a brush and hot detergent solution to
scrub them. Rinse them amply with a garden hose. Be sure both top and
bottom surfaces are clean and dry before putting them back in place. Also
vacuum thoroughly the areas of floor or carpet they will cover. This is a
good time to look for signs of accelerated wear.
Rooms correctly refurnished to show conditions of the 1800’s and later
l700’s may have other kinds of floor covering no longer commonly used.
Modern cleaning technology has not taken these into account. Straw mat
ting often replaced carpets in summer or covered floors the year round.
Housekeeping 235
Matting gets as dirty as exhibited carpets do. It tends to turn yellow.

Wetting harms it. Old time housekeepers swept matting with care and
damp wiped it, usually with salt water, which you should not use as it
might corrode metal objects nearby. The salt seemed to retard yellowing.
For routine cleaning now use the vacuum cleaner. Select an attachment
that will not abrade the reeds. Move the wand back and forth in the
direction the reeds run, not across them. Observe the effect and control the
amount of suction accordingly. When the matting looks soiled or dingy,
vacuum it and then damp wipe it. Dip a clean cloth in clear warm water
and squeeze out the excess. Rub the cloth over the matting lengthwise of
the reeds. Change cloths and water as often as necessary. Dry the matting
by wiping it with a fresh cloth. If clear water does not take out the dirt, use
a solution of the nonionic neutral detergent applied in the same manner.
Rinse with a cloth dampened in clear water and wipe dry. Finally wash out
the cloths, rinse and wipe the pails, empty the vacuum dust bag and clean
the attachment.
Another obsolete floor covering formerly common is oilcloth. A fore
runner of linoleum, it adorned many hallways, some kitchens and occa
sionally other rooms. It consisted of burlap stretched and covered with
many layers of oil paint applied to both sides. The upper surface often
carried stencilled or block printed designs. The housekeeper swept floor
cloths regularly. They required occasional washing, usually with clear
water because the very alkaline soap available affected the paint. To
brighten an oilcloth and give a slight gloss it was sponged with milk and
rubbed dry. Most oilcloths in exhibited rooms are reproductions. Clean
them by dust mopping, vacuuming and occasional damp mopping. Those
subject to wear should receive a fresh coat of varnish when needed to
protect the design. Clean them thoroughly first. Waxing them would give a
false appearance. A little beeswax applied to the old ones made them
dangerously slippery, so its use was avoided.
Walls and Ceilings

Some of the airborne dust and soot in any room comes to rest on walls
and ceilings. A film of dirt accumulates almost unnoticed except where air
currents above radiators or around duct openings concentrate the deposit.
Walls also become dirty where people touch them or where objects being
moved rub against them. Modern practice includes four wall cleaning
measures. These comprise spot cleaning, dusting, washing and the cleaning
of high wall or ceiling grilles. Most modern wall finishes permit the amount
of washing involved. Historic wall coverings often require modified or
different care. Old finishes may occur in public access and staff areas as
well as in the exhibited rooms. Some of the restored walls in the latter may
be quite washable. Check with the restoration architect to determine the

cleaning characteristics of all walls in the historic building.
Spot cleaning forms a regular part of daily room care. It removes from
washable surfaces the smudges and marks left by hands and accidental
bumps. Use a clean cloth or sponge dampened with water and a clean, dry
wiping cloth. Rub the spot gently with the damp cloth or sponge to wipe
away the dirt. Then dry the area with the second cloth. If water alone does
not remove the spot, dampen another cloth with the nonionic neutral de
tergent solution and rub it again. Wipe off any detergent residue with the
first cloth or sponge and follow with the dry cloth. If the spot now looks
cleaner than the surrounding wall, use the first damp cloth or sponge to
blend in the edges.
Many building managers have the walls and ceilings dusted with a clean,
untreated dust mop. Others employ a vacuum cleaner for this purpose.
Except when dealing with molded plaster ornamentation, for example, use
the vacuum to dust walls in historic buildings because it collects the dirt
more efficiently. Attach the wide brush designed for wall dusting. Start in a
corner at the baseboard and move the brush upward. Touch the wall lightly
and evenly with the brush hairs. Overlap successive strokes. Continue
around the room. Keep the brush clean to avoid streaks. Lift cobwebs
outward and upward so they do not smear. Change tools, if necessary, to
clear heavier deposits from ledges, moldings and other horizontal surfaces
beyond reach of daily dusting. Vacuum the ceiling with the same wide
brush and with equal care. Dusting overhead is muscle straining work that
calls for periods of rest or alternation with other tasks. When finished,
clean the vacuum brushes used, empty and clean the dust bag. Wipe off the
machine and cord.
Wall washing requires preparation. Move furniture to the center of the
room. Take down whatever is hanging on the walls, window draperies and
curtains as well as pictures and mirrors. Spread drop cloths. Have ladders
ready. Mix a solution of the nonionic neutral detergent in one pail and
provide clear water in another. Dust the walls with the vacuum cleaner.
Then begin washing. Dip a clean sponge in the detergent and squeeze out the
excess. Starting at the baseboard in one corner of the room wet a section of
the wall about two feet wide and five feet high (.6 >< 1.5 m) or a com
parable area without rubbing. Then rub the wetted section with the sponge
using straight strokes up and down or sidewise and enough pressure to take
off the dirt. Rinse immediately with a fresh sponge squeezed out of the
clear water. Dry the cleaned section with a wiping cloth. Continue around
the lower half of the wall wetting, rubbing, rinsing and drying about 10
square feet (c. 1 m2) at a time. Overlap the preceding section a little with
each new one. Wash the woodwork in the same manner as you come to it.
Return to the starting point, set the step ladder in position and wash
successive sections of the upper wall with the same technique. If any
Housekeeping 237
detergent or water drips or runs onto a portion already cleaned, wipe it off
at once with a clean damp cloth or sponge. Wash the ceiling following the
same steps. Throughout the process keep the sponges well rinsed. Change
the solution and rinse water and take a fresh drying cloth as often as neces
sary to clean the surfaces well. At the end fold the drop cloths neatly, put
the furnishings carefully back in place, clean the vacuuming equipment,
rinse and wipe the pails, wash the sponges and cloths and return all to
proper storage.
If dark splotches of soot and dust settle above radiators or around the
grilles covering air vents before the walls need a complete washing, clean
them off as follows. Wet a sponge in water containing a little household
ammonia (not the sudsing variety). Squeeze it well to prevent any drip
ping. Damp wipe the smudged area clean. Then dry it with a clean wiping
cloth. Damp wipe accumulated dirt from all the grille surfaces within reach
and dry them also.
Historic housekeepers must often maintain old wall finishes by painstak
ing methods. The exhibited walls in their care may have relatively fragile
coverings of documentary importance or accurate reproductions as un
washable as the originals. Rather than subject especially valuable ones to
spot cleaning, use protective measures to prevent visitors from touching
them (see Protecting the Building and Furnishings, Chapter 12). Staff
members who work beyond the barriers should exercise caution to avoid
damaging these walls. When finger smudges and marks appear on old
plaster or woodwork, clean them off carefully by damp wiping with a
sponge dipped in very dilute ammonia water. Wipe the cleaned area dry
with a cloth. This method should ordinarily work for walls and touchable
ceilings that are unfinished, painted, varnished or wax polished. If the dirt
persists on unfinished woodwork, scour the smudged area with a thin paste
of whiting and water using a stiff brush. Then wipe off any residue of the
abrasive with a damp cloth. Should a waxed surface require more thorough
spot cleaning, use a cloth dampened with turpentine or the substitute paint
thinner to remove the soiled wax and apply a thin coat of fresh paste wax
to the cleaned spot. Dispose of the soiled cloths promptly. If modern
proprietary finishes regardless of historical appearance have been used to
polish exhibited walls, follow the manufacturer’s cleaning instructions.
Mural paintings on walls or ceilings of course require the attention of a
paintings conservator for any sort of cleaning. When smudging or marking
occurs on old wallpaper, roll powdered eraser gently over the surface as the
cleaning agent (e.g., Opaline or Skum-X). Brush off and vacuum up the
used powder. Damp wipe spots from washable reproduction wallpaper.
Before attempting to clean smudges from wall coverings of silk, leather or
other exceptional materials consult a conservator.
To dust most old walls and ceilings use the vacuum cleaner as described.
Be extra careful to manipulate the brush gently. Reduce the suction where
Manual for Museums
it seems advisable. Vacuum fine fabric covered walls through plastic

screening. Molded plaster, as in cornices and ceiling medallions, may re
quire careful dusting by hand. Do not use the vacuum on mural paintings
nor on any painted surface that shows the slightest flaking. At the first sign
of paint loosening, inform the curator. In the case of a mural or of original
paint the curator will call in a conservator. Otherwise he may refer the
paint problem to the restoration architect.
When old walls finished with paint, varnish or wax require washing, do it
cautiously with a mild solution of the nonionic neutral detergent. Follow
the procedures for wetting, rubbing, rinsing and drying detailed above.
Should woodwork without a finish require more intensive cleaning, scour it.
Use soap and dry after scouring. If this involves a whole wall, do a section
at a time following the pattern of ordinary wall washing. Do not attempt to
wash some wall coverings. These include wall fabrics, old wallpaper and
reproduced paper that is not guaranteed washable. Depend on regular
dusting to keep them presentable for as long as possible. When further
cleaning eventually becomes necessary, a conservator should supervise it.
Whitewashed walls and ceilings, formerly common in many rooms besides
the cellar, received fresh coats at least once a year, so they did not require
washing. Most restoration architects imitate the effect of originally white
washed surfaces with a more durable paint that can be washed with care.
The sooty accumulations above radiators or around air grilles sometimes
occur on unwashable historic wall finishes or coverings. These situations
require strict attention to the cleaning and replacement of air filters and
any other measures that will reduce the rate of deposit. More frequent
dusting may also help. Protective coverings may become necessary. A
conservator should specify methods for cleaning the soiled areas consider
ing both the nature and condition of the historic surface and the kinds of
dirt deposited.
Windows
Modern window cleaning involves two stages, dusting and washing. Both
differ little from past practices. Housekeepers wipe or vacuum the inside
woodwork of windows and wipe the inside of the glass as part of daily
dusting. They use an untreated dust cloth on the glass, dampening it if
necessary to remove fingerprints. Window washing entails considerable risk
of falling. As a safety measure building managers often have experts do
this work under contract. Whoever washes the windows checks the condi
tion of the ladders and the windows before trusting in their strength. The
job requires suitable ladders, dusting equipment, a sponge, a squeegee or
chamois, a pail of water containing a little nonsudsing household ammonia
and pads to protect the floor and sill. It proceeds as follows. Take down
curtains and drapes liable to be soiled during the operation. Exercise great
Housekeeping 239
care to avoid damaging fragile textiles in the process (it may even be wiser
to wash such curtained windows only twice a year). Clear any objects from
the sill or adjacent floor. Dust thoroughly the window frame, sill, mullions
and panes, inside and out. Get into a safe position to wash the outside of
the glass. Dip the sponge in the cleaning solution and squeeze out the
excess. Rub the wet sponge over the glass in straight, horizontal, over
lapping strokes working from the top of the pane downward. Remove all
the dirty water from the glass with a squeegee or chamois. Use the sponge
to pick up excess water at the lower edge of the pane and to keep the
squeegee blade clean. In using the squeegee wet the edge of the blade. Then
draw it in straight, overlapping strokes either from top to bottom of the
pane or from side to side with a continuous turning movement at each end
of the horizontal strokes. If small panes make a squeegee awkward to
manipulate, rub the wet glass with a chamois to pick up the dirt laden
water. Repeat the washing process on the inside of the glass. Then inspect
the window carefully, using the sponge and chamois to remove any streaks
or spots that remain. For good results change the water frequently. After
washing the windows rehang curtains and drapes, replace objects moved
out of the way, rinse and wipe out the pail, wash sponges and chamois,
clean the squeegee and return equipment to storage.
Earlier housekeepers often polished windowpanes after washing them.
To do this they rubbed the glass with a clean, soft linen cloth or with
chamois or crumpled newspaper. They avoided washing windows in direct
sunlight because rapid drying tended to leave streaks.
To clean plastic ultraviolet filters mounted over windows see Case Ex
hibits, Chapter 15. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions for cleaning
filter films applied directly to the glass.
Window Shades and Venetian Blinds
These furnishings naturally collect dirt that seeps in around closed win
dows or blows through open ones. Shades and blinds therefore need clean
ing regularly. Their continual exposure to strong light weakens the cloth of
shades and the tapes of Venetian blinds. This limits the choice of cleaning
methods. The sizing used in many window shades also makes it inadvisable
to wash them. For shades two processes should combine to keep them
reasonably clean. Dust them frequently to remove loose dirt. Damp wipe
them before more persistent soiling becomes apparent to visitors. Do the
dusting with a vacuum cleaner in most instances. Use an attachment with
soft bristles. Employ straight, overlapping strokes. Reduce the suction if
the fabric isold or weak. Vacuum both sides. If the shade is mounted on a
spring roller, pull it down full length to dust the inside. Then raise it slowly
while moving the brush back and forth along the roller to vacuum the
outside. To damp wipe shades use a sponge or wiping cloth dipped in clear
water and squeezed nearly dry. Preferably take the shades down and lay
them flat on a smooth surface one at a time. Wipe the upper side gently
with straight, overlapping strokes to lift off adhered dirt. Rinse the sponge
or cloth often and change the water before it becomes cloudy. Dry the
cleaned surface with a fresh absorbent cloth. Then turn the shade over and
repeat the process on the other side. Be sure both sides are quite dry before
rewinding. If this fails to clean a shade satisfactorily, have a textile con
servator test the sizing and any colors in order to recommend a safe clean
ing solution. In dusting and damp wiping shades do not overlook the pull
cord and ring. Grease from fingers on the latter may require the use of a
little dry cleaning solvent in wiping it.
Modern Venetian blinds with metal slats present a familiar cleaning
problem. Large establishments dust them by either of two methods and
choose among three washing procedures. To dust a Venetian blind in
accordance with these practices lower it full length and turn the slats to the
closed position. Sweep the entire surface with a treated dust mop or with a
vacuum cleaner. Begin at the top and work back and forth along the slats.
Do not neglect the housing. After finishing one side tilt the slats in the
opposite direction and repeat the process to dust the other side. Then
adjust the slats open and brush the dust out of the tapes. Use a hand scrub
brush dry or the vacuum. Furnished structure museums having modern
style blinds in staff, storage or utility areas should probably dust them with
a vacuum cleaner because it removes the dirt with less scattering. A long
bristled dusting attachment works best for the slats and the upholstery tool
for the tapes. Clean the dust mop or vacuum before putting it away.
Venetian blinds may be washed in place, taken down and washed by
hand or machine washed. The first method applies particularly to blinds
awkward to get down and reinstall. Hand washing fits most other situations.
Only the necessity to clean many blinds warrants an investment in special
machines. To wash a Venetian blind in place dust it thoroughly as de
scribed. Prepare one pail with the nonionic neutral detergent solution and
another with clear water. Provide three clean wiping cloths and a step
ladder of the proper height. Set the slats flat open. Dip the first cloth in the
detergent solution and squeeze out the excess. Use it to wipe the top slat
clean from end to end on both sides. Wet the second cloth in the clear
water, squeeze it and rinse the cleaned slat. Wipe it dry with the third cloth.
Continue this three-step process one slat at a time until the blind is finished.
Keep the wet cloths well rinsed. Change the solution, rinse water and
cloths as necessary to assure effective cleaning. Wipe any spills or spatters
from the window and surrounding woodwork before cleaning and putting
away the equipment.
To wash blinds by the second method take them to a suitable work
space. If neglected until quite dirty, immerse them a few at a time in a
solution of the nonionic neutral detergent. A bathtub can serve as a tank
Housekeeping 241
for this purpose. Let them soak only long enough to loosen the dirt. Then
hang each blind in turn fully open from a support of the proper height. Tilt
the slats closed. Wash the exposed side with a scrub brush dipped in the
detergent solution. Rinse with a hose. Reverse the slats and repeat the
scrubbing and rinsing. Transfer the washed blinds to a drying area and let
them hang open with the cords slack overnight or until completely dry.
Mop the floor of the washing area and clean the equipment used. This
mode of washing suits museum blinds that have no part in the historic
scene.
Period Venetian blinds and exhibited reproductions of them usually have
wooden slats and often have fancy tapes. Old tapes have surely weakened
with time. Replacements are likely to be more delicate and costly than
conventional ones. Dust these blinds carefully, but regularly to prevent
rapid accumulation of dirt. Follow the procedure given for modern blinds,
but take extra precautions with fragile tapes. Use reduced suction when it
seems safer. Interpose plastic screening as further protection if needed.
Dust especially weak or valuable tapes by hand with a lens brush.
Do not wash wood-slatted Venetian blinds on exhibition. Instead damp
wipe them in place. If the paint on the slats is intact, adapt the three-step
method described for washing modern blinds in place. Use a minimum of
detergent in the solution and wring out both the washing and the rinsing
cloths more completely. Wipe the slats gently. For slats with exposed wood
avoid wetting. Use a powdered eraser pad with a trough below to catch the
crumbs. Wiping the wood with potassium oleate in Stoddard solvent might
also work. A textile conservator should examine old tapes before recom
mending safe ways to clean them. If reproduced tapes become soiled and
have fast colors, dampen them with a cloth or sponge dipped in the deter
gent solution. Rinse in the same manner with clear water and absorb this
with a fresh cloth. Should the dirt not respond, start again. Dampen the
tape first with Stoddard solvent observing fire precautions. Then apply the
detergent solution as before, rinse and dry.
Fireplaces
Keeping a fireplace clean involves more than the neat handling of fuel
and the control or removal of ashes. It includes regular care of the hearth,
mantel and fire irons. These need more frequent attention in a working
fireplace than in one displayed without an actual fire. They should not be
neglected even in a fireplace emptied for the summer. Modern cleaning
methods do not fit all aspects of this task, particularly in regard to hearths.
Different kinds of hearths require different cleaning procedures. The old
practices may still be the best for maintaining the historic appearance of
brick ones.
A brick hearth, according to housekeeping instructions in the 1830’s

1860’s, should have the bricks coated. Those near the fire should have
received a wash of redding, a mixture of powdered red ochre in water or
milk, applied with a paint brush. A conscientious housekeeper would have
used the redding every day the fire burned, or at least often enough to
maintain a freshly treated appearance. The bricks out in front of the fire
were more likely painted with powdered graphite mixed in water, or pref
erably in a hot solution of soft soap which gave them a black gloss. This
finish lasted somewhat longer. Redding and blacking made a fireplace look
clean and well kept, although the extent to which housekeepers followed
this practice is uncertain. The coatings were probably not applied often to
the bricks of a kitchen fireplace. Here bricks not so treated should surely
show evidence of being frequently washed.
Freestone hearths scrubbed daily with soap and water and occasionally
scoured with sand remained quite clean, but tended to darken. House
keepers restored the original color periodically by washing the hearth well,
then rubbing it with a paste of powdered stone in water. They obtained the
powder from a stone cutter, preferably one working the same kind of rock.
When the paste dried, they swept up the excess. The hearth then looked
almost new. The stones of a cooking fireplace cleaned more easily if
rubbed from time to time with the whale oil used in lamps. Present day
methods should keep a stone hearth comparably clean. If it is exhibited
without an actual fire, dust it daily with a treated dust mop or vacuum
cleaner. Damp mop the stones before they become dingy. In a working
fireplace dust with equal care. Wet mop or scrub the stones with the usual
detergent solution as often as necessary to remove marks caused by the fire
or the activities around it. Rinse off the detergent residue and wipe dry. To
extract grease spots from the stone apply Stoddard solvent in a poultice of
fuller’s earth or whiting. The evaporating solvent should draw the worst of
the stain into the poultice powder to be brushed into a dustpan. Do not use
a flammable solvent, of course, while any fire remains. Alternatives include
using ammonia water in the poultice or on non-porous stone spraying dry
cleaning powder on the spot from an aerosol can. The latter acts like a
poultice but usually with perchlorethylene as the solvent. Follow the manu
facturer’s directions. Brush up or vacuum the powder remaining.
Early housekeepers apparently found marble hearths hard to keep clean.
Various methods were advocated, some of which seem quite harsh. They
included the application not only of strong soapsuds, but of abrasives and
acids. Under museum conditions convenient modern procedures should do
the job. Clean the marble in four stages as needed. Remove surface dust
daily with a vacuum cleaner or an untreated dust cloth. At intervals deter
mined by the rate of soiling damp wipe the marble with a sponge dipped in
clear water that, as recommended by the Smithsonian Institution, has stood
for 24 hours in a covered plastic bucket in contact with white marble chips
Housekeeping 243
and dry it with a soft cloth. If wiping fails to take off all signs of dirt, wash
the hearth with the nonionic neutral detergent solution using a hand scrub
brush lightly. Rinse with clear water and a sponge or absorbent cloth. Wipe
dry with a clean cloth. Examine the hearth each day for spots or stains.
Apply spot removal techniques promptly. For water soluble stains brush
with a lather of the detergent solution, rinse and wipe dry. A poultice of
hydrogen peroxide and whiting may take out a more persistent spot. Treat
oily ones with a poultice of ammonia water or Stoddard solvent and fuller’s
earth or whiting. If fuller’s earth or whiting is not at hand, substitute pads
of cotton batting. An aerosol spot remover may also work, as should
commercial marble cleaners such as Goddard’s or Vermarco.
Tile hearths should stay clean by daily dusting and occasional damp
wiping. If they require more, wash them with the detergent solution and a
sponge. Then rinse and dry.
Mantels present a variety of materials that require cleaning. Wood, mar
ble, other stone, tile and brick occur most frequently in jambs. Mantel
pieces are often wood or marble. The wood may be unfinished, painted or
polished; the marble white or colored, plain or carved. Fine mantels attract
attention, so proud housekeepers kept them well polished. Modern cleaning
should reflect corresponding care. Dust all mantels daily. Use a vacuum
cleaner or treated dust cloth on wood, tile, freestone and brick. Choose the
vacuum or a soft, untreated cloth for marble. Take pains to get the dust out
of carvings and moldings. If smoke from the fire leaves a deposit of soot,
wipe it off a fine mantel promptly. Use ammonia water and a sponge,
followed by a dry cloth. Note that ammonia darkens many fresh woods.
Use it only if, after testing on an unobtrusive area, the wood does not
darken and remain dark after the surface has dried. Wash the finished
woodwork of mantels along with the adjacent walls. Use the same weak
solution of detergent. Wet a portion at a time, rub it, rinse it with clear
water and wipe it dry. An unfinished wood mantel shelf may need scouring,
but not often. Damp wipe marble mantels more frequently than washing
them. After sponging with clear water rub the marble dry with a soft cloth.
Do not let excess water drip or run down the stone. When washing be
comes necessary, apply the nonionic neutral detergent as a lather with a
soft brush. Wash one relatively small area in this manner, rinse and dry it
before proceeding to the next. Avoid drips. In addition to regular washing
remove stains whenever discovered. Use techniques suggested above for
marble hearths. If continual dusting, wiping and washing eventually dull
the polished surface of the marble, have a conservator recommend treat
ment. It will probably involve careful rubbing with a mild abrasive. Damp
wipe mantel tiles as they need it. Wipe them dry promptly. As with hearth
tiles, wash them occasionally. When brick or freestone jambs become
soiled, wash them with the detergent solution and hand scrub brush. Rinse
and dry them. Some brick jambs can appropriately take the old treatment
of painting with red ochre mixed with milk or water.

Andirons, grates, fire backs, fenders and fire tools also demand continual
attention. Iron rusts, brass tarnishes, soot and ashes soil the metalwork.
Rust prevention comes first. Use stove blacking to keep cast iron andirons,
grates or fire backs polished. Andirons and tools forged of wrought iron
resist rust quite well. In the absence of a hearth fire and in especially humid
situations give them added protection by applying a thin coat of micro
crystalline wax or hard paste wax. Check the tools frequently. If any rust
appears, remove it with fine steel wool and wax the surface. Bright steel
fenders and fine tools rust much more readily. Give them a high polish
using 600 emery paper. Avoid making fingerprints. Work while the steel is
warmed by an electric heater and in the absence of fumes from burning
coal or kerosene. Then protect the polished surface with a thin layer of
microcrystalline wax carefully rubbed on to cover the steel completely and
melt it into a uniform thin film by means of an electric heat lamp. Brass
fenders, andirons and tool handles also require polishing. Use a polish
containing a mild abrasive and ammonia, for example, Noxon. For a flat
surface brush on a little of this mixture, rub it over the brass with a flat
stick of sugar pine wood and wipe the polished area clean. Continue until
the whole piece is uniformly bright. To polish a round surface replace the
stick with strands of soft cotton wrapping twine. Cut about eight strands of
convenient length and tie them together at one end into a bundle. Loop this
once around the brass piece. Having applied the polishing mixture to the
brass, work the strands back and forth by pulling alternately from each
end, or fasten the strands by the knotted end and work the piece back and
forth along them. Then wipe clean. Each polishing, of course, cuts away
some of the metal. This justifies a protective coating to delay tarnish for
mation. Some commercial brass polishes contain a corrosion inhibitor.
Spray the brass thinly but evenly with a synthetic lacquer or rub on micro
crystalline or paste wax. The latter will dull the shine a little. Polishing fire
irons and protecting them from corrosion meant daily hard work. Since the
metal tended to corrode in the summer dampness of unused fireplaces,
housekeepers commonly rubbed the metal fireplace fittings with something
oily, wrapped them carefully and stored them in a dry attic each summer.
In fireplaces being used follow also the old daily practice of cleaning soot
and ashes off the shovel, tongs, grate or other metalwork.
Stoves
Cast iron cooking or heating stoves require cleaning and protection from
rust. Housekeepers in the 1800’s accomplished both purposes by blacking
and polishing their stoves with powdered graphite. Instructions called for
doing this every day. Before convenient stove polishes became available,
the daily chore included mixing the graphite with a suitable liquid such as
Housekeeping 245
egg white, spreading it over the stove and rubbing it with a stiff brush until
it shone. Stove polish now comes ready to use and makes the job much
easier. Apply it to all cast iron stoves. In many situations do it often
enough to maintain a freshly polished look. Follow the directions on the
container. As another aspect of cleanliness cook stoves used in demonstra
tions should have the tops washed after the preparation of each meal in
keeping with 19th-century recommendations. Polished steel or brass embel
lishments on stoves need to be treated as described in the preceding
paragraph.
Furniture
Economy and convenience determine the cleaning methods appropriate

for modern furniture in staff offices and workrooms, storerooms and areas
of public access. Dust wood, metal and composition surfaces with a treated
dust cloth. Do it on schedule frequently. Much less often clean and polish
the wood. For this purpose dust it. Then apply one of the current silicone
cleaner-polisher products. Spray or wipe it on the wood, then wipe it off
following the directions on the container. When metal or plastic surfaces
become dirty, wash them with the nonionic neutral detergent solution. Dust
them first. Dip a sponge in the solution. Squeeze out the excess and wipe
over the surface to be cleaned. Rub enough to loosen dirt. After rinsing the
sponge squeeze it and use it to pick up the dirt-filled liquid. With a fresh
sponge and clear water rinse the washed surface. Dry it with the rinsing
sponge or a clean cloth. If metal furniture has been waxed to deter rust,
clean it by stripping the old wax. Use a cloth dampened with a petroleum
distillate paint thinner, a chemically stable substitute for turpentine, to
soften it. Then wipe off any remainder with a dry cloth. After cleaning
apply a fresh coat of paste wax. Keep linoleum work surfaces clean by
dusting, damp wiping and occasional rewaxing. Clean the upholstery by
employing four procedures. While doing other dusting, clean out crevices
with a whisk broom. Vacuum the upholstery on a regular schedule using
the attachment designed for the purpose. Remove stains as they occur. If
one of the aerosol spot removers (not to be applied to leather without
special reason and precautions because it may remove necessary greasy
substances) does not work, try the spotting techniques for carpets de
scribed above. When the upholstery becomes soiled, have a commercial
cleaner shampoo it.
The furniture on exhibition requires cleaning by methods that will pro
long its life and, if possible, preserve the appearance it had when the
historic occupants used it. Cleaning operates primarily on the surfaces of
furniture. It therefore serves both these objectives when it protects the
historic finish without altering its color, texture or luster. The choice of
methods depends on the kind of finish and its visual characteristics. Before
a housekeeper can safely undertake the care of historic furniture, the

curator should identify and record the original and any overlying finishes.
They are not only among the most valuable aspects of the objects, but
provide the reference points for future care. A conservator can often help
make the identifications. He should also remove any accumulated layers of
dirt or products of deterioration and restore the surface to an historically
accurate and exhibitable condition. If no qualified conservator is available,
the curator may have a reliable furniture restorer under supervision apply
nondestructive interim measures to make the piece presentable. Whatever
the restorer does should not jeopardize later analysis or conservation. He
should document his work completely. The housekeeper’s responsibility
begins when the furniture is ready for exhibition.
Cabinetmakers and chairmakers applied several kinds of finishes to fur
niture wood. Cleaning requirements for the wood surfaces differ accord
ingly. That is why the housekeeper needs to know what each finish is. All
the finishes need dusting and measures to remove clinging dirt. Most call
for polishing as well. With the exceptions noted below dust all types with a
treated dust cloth. Change to a clean face or a fresh cloth frequently. Get
the cloth into all the crevices of carved, molded or fretted ornaments.
Immediately after dusting rub most polished finishes with a clean, soft,
untreated cloth to brighten the polish. Do not use modern furniture pol
ishes nor older abrasive ones. Neither serves the objectives of historic
housekeeping. In damp wiping and washing use a minimum of water to wet
sponges or cloths. As another general rule do not let furniture remain in
direct sunlight. It can fade wood finishes severely. Close blinds or draw
shades to prevent it. Treat the various finishes more specifically as follows:
Raw wood
Some work furniture and pieces made under frontier conditions have no
coating over the generally smoothed surface of the wood. The furniture at
the outset has the natural color of the wood. This changes gradually as
whatever comes in contact with the porous surface tends to leave a residue.
Dust this kind of furniture daily with an untreated cloth to avoid staining
the wood with oil. Subsequent rubbing is unnecessary. Remove spots or
stains that disfigure the article as they occur. Scrub the stained area with a
little of the nonionic neutral detergent solution, rinse and dry. Under
normal conditions damp wipe and dry the wood once in two years. Aim in
doing this to keep the wood as nearly as possible in the condition of initial
display by minimizing progressive discoloration from accumulating grime.
Kitchen table tops and perhaps a few other special surfaces require a
higher level of cleanliness. Scour them as needed. Early housekeepers used
sand or wood ashes, water and a scrub brush. Substitute a modern scouring
powder or soap.
Housekeeping 247
Oil-finished wood
Linseed oil applied directly to the wood in several coats with much hard
rubbing’ produced the finish on many pieces of furniture. The oil hardens,
darkens and eventually shrinks a little. Dust this finish each day with a
treated cloth. Rubbing after dusting should bring up some of the initial
gloss. Once in two years as a rule wash the wood with a sponge dampened
in the nonionic neutral detergent solution. Rinse with a second sponge and
clear water. Wipe dry with a cloth. Then rub to polish. Use the detergent
solution promptly to wash off stains. If this does not work, rub the stained
area with a little turpentine substitute and a mild abrasive. Oldtime house
keepers used rottenstone. After about five years of regular cleaning the
curator might have a fresh, thin coat of boiled linseed oil applied to the
wood and rubbed to a fine gloss, making sure that “more is rubbed off than
was put on.” A light cleaning with the turpentine substitute would probably
be safer.
Painted wood
Both common and high style furniture may have a painted finish. Some
times a coat of clear varnish covers the paint. Whether exposed or var
nished, dust the painted furniture with a treated cloth daily. Use a damp
sponge or cloth to wipe off soiled spots or stains as soon as discovered. If
water fails to remove the stain, try carefully a cloth moistened with Stod
dard solvent. Usually a biennial damp wiping with a sponge or cloth and
clear water should remove the dirt that resists the dust cloth. Wipe dry
afterwards. If this does not suffice, wash the paint with a mild solution of
the detergent, rinse and dry. Use a minimum of liquid in the process. Paint
and varnish chip easily. Be especially careful not to hit furniture having
these finishes during cleaning operations. Vacuum cleaners, dust mops, belt
buckles and buttons too frequently damage wood finishes of all kinds
through carelessness.
Varnished wood
A fine varnish finish consists of many layers of an oil varnish, each

carefully flowed onto the wood and rubbed very smooth. Often the varnish
has a surface coating of wax. If so, clean it as wax-finished wood. Other
wise dust it each day with a treated cloth. Then dry rub with a soft cloth to
maintain the polish. Remove stains by prompt damp wiping, washing with
detergent solution or rubbing with a cloth dampened in Stoddard solvent. If
white spots occur, rub them with a little linseed oil. Should more drastic
treatment be necessary for spot or stain removal, consult a conservator.
For the biennial cleaning damp wipe and dry the wood, or if necessary,
wash with detergent solution, rinse and dry. Then polish by dry rubbing
with a soft cloth.
Waxed wood
Beeswax dissolved in turpentine provided a popular finish applied di

rectly to wood or over varnish. It was often kept highly polished. Dust it
daily with a treated cloth. Give it additional rubbing with a hard cloth if
necessary to polish the wax. If damp wiping does not clean soiled or
stained spots, wipe them with a very little paste wax on a cloth. Then rub
to polish. At two-year intervals clean the surface with a cloth dampened in
turpentine substitute. Wipe well. Then apply a fresh coat of hard paste
wax. Use only a little wax. Spread it thinly. Rub it to a fine polish. Use a
small brush to clean old wax out of carvings and crevices and to polish the
fresh wax in these awkward spots.
French-polished wood
This finish used on some fine furniture consists of many thin layers of
specially applied shellac. Dust it carefully with a treated cloth. Polish it
lightly afterwards with a clean, soft cloth. Use the same spot cleaning
methods as for varnish. Damp wipe to remove clinging dirt. Damaged
French polish requires an expert to repair.
Gilded wood
Gold leaf forms the gilding on some furniture. This delicate finish may
decorate only a small part or cover the whole surface as in fine mirror and
picture frames. When a coating of varnish thoroughly covers the gold leaf,
the appearance of the gold suffers, but its care involves less extreme cau
tion. In this case clean it like other varnished surfaces. Be gentle in the
process. Avoid using detergents. If the gold leaf is exposed, do not touch it.
Dust it regularly by blowing the particles of dirt off with a rubber ear
syringe or other suitable, mild air blast. Leave any further cleaning to a
conservator. Housekeepers of the 1800’s covered gold leaf frames with
paper or cloth during the summer to keep fly specks off the gilding.
Finally, keep in mind that marquetry, other inlays and veneers are usu
ally held in place by water-soluble glues. In damp wiping and washing such
furniture use a minimum of water. Dry the work quickly and thoroughly.
Historic furniture in storage also needs attention, of course, regardless of
its state of repair. It should have individual dust covers of unbleached
muslin treated with fire retardant or of polyester or polyethylene plastic
sheeting. The housekeeper cleans the protective covers, makes sure no
condensation occurs beneath the plastic ones and watches for any signs of
insect attack.
Housekeeping 249
The glass components of furniture present fewer cleaning problems.

Wipe mirrors, the outside of cabinet doors and clock glass, drawer pulls
and other exposed glass daily with an untreated dust cloth. Dust less ex
posed glass surfaces in the same ways, probably once a week. To remove
the film of dirt that deposits on glass and the accidental finger marks damp
wipe furniture glass about once a month. Use a sponge or chamois damp
ened either with clear water or with water containing a little nonsudsing
household ammonia. Squeeze out all the excess water and manipulate the
sponge or chamois carefully to clean the entire glass surface without wet
ting the surrounding woodwork. Wipe dry with equal care using a soft, lint
free cloth or chamois. Furniture glass exposed to touching by visitors will
need to be damp wiped more frequently. Some furniture glass has painted
decoration on its inner side. Do not touch the painted side. Let a conserva
tor take care of it. Clean the exposed side with extra care and the least
possible moisture on the sponge or chamois. Treat the glass covering
framed pictures in the same way.
Marble tops of tables, bureaus, washstands and exhibited toilet fixtures
soil easily and, if subject to use, stain readily. Keep them clean by daily
dusting. Use a vacuum cleaner fitted with its dusting brush in preference to
an untreated dust cloth. Perhaps once a month damp wipe the marble with
a clean sponge. Dampen the sponge with clear water. If soot or other oily
dirt is a problem, add a little nonsudsing household ammonia to the water.
Rub the marble dry with a soft cloth. Wash it once a year. Use a lather of
the nonionic neutral detergent. Do a small area. Then rinse and dry it
before proceeding. If spots or stains occur, follow the methods suggested
above for marble hearths.
Furniture hardware exposed to view is commonly brass. Keep it polished
using the materials and methods described for fireplace fittings. In this case
start by fitting a template of cardboard or stiff paper closely around the
brass to protect the wood. Use masking tape or other self-adhesive tape to
hold together the parts of the template, but do not apply the tape to the
surface of the furniture. Lacquer the polished brass to avoid the wear of
frequent polishing. Brass bedsteads and door hardware require similar
treatment, but it may not be practical to use lacquer on some door brasses.
Polish the steel keys of cabinets, desks and drawers with abrasive rubber.
Then give them a protective coating of wax. Iron hinges and locks may
rust. Use fine steel wool to remove the rust, being careful not to scratch
adjacent wood. Wax the metal afterwards. Finely chased and gilded metal
ornaments on furniture may be truly fire gilt. Treat them like gold leaf.
Leather desk tops and leather upholstery require cleaning and protection
from direct sunlight. The latter is vital. Be faithful in closing window blinds
or shades during the periods the sun would shine on the leather. Keep the
leather well dusted. Use a treated dust cloth on flat areas, but work the dust
out of crevices and rolled seams with a vacuum. When washing becomes
necessary, perhaps every four years, use saddle soap. Follow the directions
on the container. After the leather has dried, wipe it with potassium lactate
solution (see Miscellaneous Furnishings below). Then treat it with an
hydrous lanolin in Stoddard solvent or with British Museum leather dress
ing well rubbed into the leather, then as much as possible removed with a
clean cloth. Observe fire precautions while applying the dressing as well as
in storage of the material and disposal of cloths. Between washings use the
leather dressing about once a year.
Fabric upholstery provides different problems for the historic house
keeper. They parallel those encountered with exhibited carpets discussed
above and fabric furnishings considered in the following section. As with
carpets the older textiles have weakened while reproduced ones usually are
expensive and hard to replace. Compared with carpets upholstery fabrics
are more delicate and often more easily harmed. Since direct sunlight acts
destructively on textile fibers and colors even faster than on leather and
wood finishes, adjust shades or blinds without fail to exclude it during
critical periods. The care of fabrics justifies keeping all the blinds closed
except during visiting hours to reduce the total amount of light exposure.
Dust upholstery regularly. Once a week seems desirable in average situa
tions. Use a vacuum cleaner with a flat, brushless upholstery attachment.
Be sure the attachment is clean. Reduce the suction by means of the
control to allow for weakened fibers. Hold the plastic screen on the fabric
and draw the dust out through it. Changing to the round dusting attach
ment with long bristles, which should also be clean, work the dust out of
pleats, seams, tufting and fringes. To get dust out of deep pleats or from
around buttons use a small brush in conjunction with the vacuum. A lens
brush is too soft for this purpose. Try an artists’ bristle brush, No. 14
broad, with bristles about 11/2 inches long (c. 38 mm). If an old uphol
stery fabric requires further cleaning, a textile conservator should under
take it. Should a reproduced fabric become obviously soiled or stained,
apply dry cleaning powder from an aerosol dispenser. Let it dry completely.
Then vacuum up the powder, brushing the area carefully to free the
particles.
Fabric Furnishings
Historic structure museums ordinarily contain a variety of textiles.

These may include window curtains, window drapes, portieres, tapestries,
bell pulls, bed hangings, coverlets, blankets, bed linens, towels, table linen,
doilies and others in addition to the carpets, wall coverings and upholstery
already discussed. Cotton, linen, silk, wool and synthetic fibers differ in
their cleaning characteristics. So do the wide range of weaves and dyes.
Age and condition greatly influence the choice of safe methods and the
frequency with which cleaning should occur. A textile conservator should
Housekeeping 251
therefore examine the fabrics, if possible, and prescribe the ways to keep
them clean.
In general give first attention to protecting the textiles from sunlight.
Operate window blinds or shades to keep the sun from shining directly on a
fabric. Reduce the light at other times when interpretive needs permit.
Historically many housekeepers took down and put away window curtains
and drapes during the summer. Some furnished structure museums wisely
follow this practice.
As the second consideration keep fabric furnishings dusted. Whether
hanging or lying exposed they usually need dusting on a weekly schedule to
prevent a build-up of dirt. If a textile is installed in a hanging position and is
sufficiently strong in structure and condition, go over it carefully with the
round drapery or dusting brush attachment on the vacuum cleaner. Wash
the brush first to make sure the bristles are clean. Work in vertical strokes
from the top down except as necessary to get the dust out of pleats, swags,
trim and tiebacks. Vacuum both sides of the hanging. To dust a more
fragile hanging take it down carefully and lay it flat on a clean surface. Use
the flat, brushless upholstery attachment. Wipe it clean. Diminish the suc
tion. Place the plastic screen over the fabric and vacuum through it. After
dusting one side turn the fabric over carefully and do the other in the same
way. Using the brushless attachment, the screen and controlled suction
vacuum the textiles that normally lie on a bed, table or other surface. Turn
them over and vacuum the back as well. Lay muslin or polyester dust
covers over historic textiles in drawers, closets or elsewhere out of visitors’
sight, but vacuum the covers regularly. Keep a hidden dust cover on top of
the tester of a high post bed as oldtime housekeepers did.
Fabric furnishings should be washed or dry-cleaned periodically unless
their condition precludes it. This prevents the accumulation of dirt that
would hasten deterioration. Nevertheless, do not attempt to wash colored
textiles, ones of historical importance or ones with weakened threads
without the direct advice of a textile conservator. Those which can be
washed safely, do by hand. The best procedure employs a temporary,
shallow tank. The tank, devised from a large sheet of polyethylene held by
a plywood bottom and board sides, should be big enough to hold the textile
unfolded. Fill the tank with clear water. Use warm water for cotton or
linen. Keep it at room temperature for silk or wool. Lay the fabric on a
sheet of plastic screening the same size or slightly larger held rigid by a
wood frame. Cover it with a second screen if necessary. Lifting it by the
screen, lower it into the water with the screen still beneath it. Push the
textile gently to the bottom repeatedly so the water moves back and forth
through the cloth. This should flush out the particles of dirt. Lift the screen
out of the tank carrying the textile supported on it. Empty the tank, wipe it
clean and refill it. Immerse the screen and fabric again. Create the same
gentle flow of water among the interwoven threads. Repeat the rinsing
cycle until the water remains clear. Remove the fabric this time, still sup
ported by the screen, onto another polyethylene sheet laid flat on a suitable
working surface. Absorb the excess water by blotting with clean towels.
Smooth out all the wrinkles gently by hand. If necessary, use pins to block
the fabric so the threads run straight and the edges true. Leave it to dry. An
electric fan will speed the drying, but do not let it blow the cloth. Washed
and dried in this manner the fabric should not need ironing. When ironing
is imperative, do it gently with an iron moderately warm. Clear water
should suffice to launder a textile merely exposed to room air for a year. If
more cleansing power is required, add a little of the nonionic neutral
detergent solution to the first bath. Rinse it out thoroughly in the sub
sequent changes.
An alternative procedure demanding less space and fewer hands employs
a bathtub as the tank. It involves more risk because the fabric receives less
support while weighted with moisture. Fill the tub nearly full with clear
water, either warm or at room temperature depending on the kind of fiber.
Fold the fabric as little as necessary to fit the tub. Lower it into the water.
Holding it submerged gently fold and refold. These movements propel
water through the cloth to dislodge the dirt. Drain the tub and refill it.
Manipulate the folds again as the fabric becomes submerged. Repeat the
rinsing until the water remains unclouded. Roll the fabric loosely while still
under water. With hands beneath the roll to support it, lift it out and lay it
on the flat sheet of polyethylene. Absorb excess water from the roll with
towels. Then unroll and unfold the textile on the plastic sheet. Complete the
blotting of excess water. Smooth the fabric as before and block if necessary.
Leave it to dry, perhaps aided by a fan.
With a conservator’s approval use the hand washing technique to clean
colored textiles of suitable weight and strength in which all dyes are fast.
Reserve dry cleaning for furnishings composed of two or more kinds of
fabric which cannot be taken apart, some especially heavy materials and
those with dyes or sizing not safe to wash. Have the work done by a
carefully selected dry cleaning plant. Ask the operator to test the dyes and
sizing with whatever solvent or combination of cleaning agents he proposes
to use. Review the test report before authorizing him to proceed. See that
the dry cleaning fluids he uses on the museum textile are completely fresh.
He should also enclose and support it in a suitable protective bag during
the cleaning process. Inspect the cleaned fabric critically and observe its
condition through the ensuing year. These observations will determine any
needed modification of procedures the next time. The National Institute of
Dry Cleaning, Silver Spring, MD, has done museum quality cleaning of
textiles, when necessary without the dangerous use of tumbling machinery.
Window curtains or drapes in staff rooms and public access areas usu
ally consist of modern textiles, even if reproducing the appearance of old
ones. Their location makes them more liable to catch fire and to endanger
Housekeeping 253
human life if they do ignite. Unless they are fiberglass, they should contain a
flame retardant. Washing or dry cleaning removes it, requiring its renewal
each year. If these non-historic fabrics are laundered, transfer them from
the last rinse into a solution of seven parts borax, three parts boric acid and
100 parts water. Be sure the solution saturates the cloth. Lift the fabric
onto a flat sheet of polyethylene as described above for handwashing his
toric textiles. Omit the blotting step because as much as possible of the
chemical retardant should remain in the cloth. Smooth out the wrinkles
carefully because ironing the treated material risks discoloration. Then let it
dry. Run a test strip of similar fabric through the same procedure. Try to
ignite pieces of this strip at intervals during the year to make sure the
chemicals remain effective until the next washing. If the modern curtains or
drapes are dry-cleaned, request the cleaner to flame proof them and a test
strip for you to check periodically.
Miscellaneous Furnishings
Historic housekeepers, like their predecessors, must spend much patient
effort on the smaller, usually more numerous objects that comprise the
intimate furnishings of a room. Handling these often fragile as well as
valuable articles tests skill in addition to patience. For the sake of safety do
not hurry such tasks. Remember to wear clean cotton gloves when touching
metal objects. The following notes suggest cleaning methods for some of
the common minor furnishings:
Books
To dust a book adequately use a vacuum cleaner with the long bristled
dusting brush. Be sure the bristles are clean before starting. Hold the book
in one hand. Pass the brush along the top, inner edge and bottom of the
pages. Then lay down the vacuum and, unless the book has a fine leather
binding, wipe the spine and covers with a clean dust cloth. While a treated
cloth with only enough oil emulsion should not smear a book cover, it is
safer to use an untreated one. Replace the book and take the next one. While
dusting, make sure the books are not packed tightly on the shelf. Look for
signs of mold, insect attack or damaged bindings. Report any to the curator.
Dust the shelf behind the books.
Leather-bound books require special treatment. Since dust particles can
scratch the leather, some experts prefer not to use a dust cloth on these
bindings. Instead dust the spine and covers with the vacuum. Attach the
flat, brushless tool and pass it over the leather surfaces without quite
touching them. About once in two years take each leather-bound volume,
except those in suede covers, and lay it on a clean surface. Slip a sheet of
waxed paper or plastic inside the front and back covers to protect the
pages. Brush a thin coating of British Museum leather dressing or an

hydrous lanolin in Stoddard solvent over the leather. Use the least possible
amount. Be careful to keep it from staining the endpapers that line the
covers and the cloth or paper on the covers of half and quarter bound
books. Rub the dressing in thoroughly with your fingers. Stand the book in
normal position with the covers slightly open for about two days to let the
dressing dry. Then polish the leather with a lint-free cloth and replace the
book on the shelf. Report any breaking hinges, powdery leather or other
deterioration to the curator. The solvent in the leather dressing is flam
mable and mildly toxic. Keep smokers and other sources of ignition away
while the books are being dressed and dried. Ventilate the work space
adequately.
Every fourth year, unless exposure to acid air pollution makes more
frequent treatment desirable, wash the leather as follows before applying
the dressing. After dusting, wipe the spine and covers with a sponge slightly
dampened in a mild solution of the nonionic neutral detergent. Rinse them
with a clean sponge dampened similarly in clear water. Wipe very lightly
over any gilt tooling. When the leather has dried, wipe it again lightly with
a sponge dipped in a solution of potassium lactate. Library suppliers market
the solution in the correct strength and add a fungicide to retard mold
growth. The lactate buffers the leather against acids from the air that attack
leather. Again let the binding dry. Then apply a leather dressing as before.
Most other leather furnishings require periodic washing and dressing in the
same manner. For suede and leathers tanned or finished by less common
methods consult a conservator.
If a book lies open in a furnished room, the housekeeper should turn
several leaves to expose a fresh page each day as a routine part of the
dusting operation. This reduces damage to the paper caused by light.
Ceramic ware
Dust porcelain and most glazed or moderately vitrified pottery with an

untreated cloth unless trial proves that the treated cloth leaves no discern
able film. Use a lens brush instead of a cloth to get dust off ceramic objects
having intricate molded decoration. To avoid smearing or scratching po
rous unglazed ware brush the dust from it also. Wash most ceramic furnish
ings annually under average conditions. For porcelain and glazed or other
nonporous pottery use warm water and the nonionic neutral detergent, but
water alone for gilded or overglaze painted pieces. Add mild soap if neces
sary. Rinse well in clear, warm water. Let the pieces air dry or wipe them
carefully with a clean towel. Do not wash relatively soft, porous, wholly or
partially unglazed earthenware in the detergent solution. Dip it in clear
water at room temperature. Agitate the water gently to carry away loos
ened dirt. Dry this ware by blotting or patting with a dry towel rather than
Housekeeping 255
wiping. Check with the curator before attempting to wash American Indian
or African pottery and any ware of which the clay or pigments might not
withstand wetting.
Glassware
Use an untreated cloth to dust glass. Wash glassware about once a year
with a solution of the nonionic neutral detergent in warm water. Omit the
detergent if the glass is gilded or painted. Rinse thoroughly and wipe dry.
Watch out for any pieces mended with a water-soluble cement. See also
cleaning methods for the glass of lamps and other lighting equipment de
scribed below.
Kitchenware
Most historic kitchen utensils are made of iron, copper, brass, tin or
wood. Many combine two or more of these materials. Earlier housekeepers
understood the importance of cleanliness in the kitchen. They scoured at
least the inside and lip of iron pots and pans used on the hearth, and the
outside also of those used on stoves. To prevent food contamination from
the corrosion products of brass and copper they cleaned utensils of these
metals just before as well as after use. Tinware they cleaned thoroughly,
but carefully to avoid wearing or scratching through the thin layer of tin.
The iron core it protected would rust quickly. Steel knife blades required
daily scouring on the knife board (a leather-covered utensil coated with
abrasive). In the same spirit keep exhibited kitchenware looking as clean
as its users would have. Wipe all the utensils with a treated cloth often
enough to keep them free of visible dust. Wash the metal ones on an
annual schedule. Use warm water and the nonionic neutral detergent.
Rinse and dry thoroughly. Damp wipe wooden utensils and the wood parts
of composite ones. If rust develops on any of the ironware, use fine steel
wool or abrasive rubber to remove it. Polish rusted steel utensils with 600
emery paper. Then wet either the iron or steel with a corrosion-inhibiting
liquid such as CRC 3-36 (available from dealers in shop supplies and
some hardware stores). After standing for one day, wipe dry with changes
of clean cloth and coat with an inconspicuous layer of microcrystalline wax
or hard paste wax to retard further rusting. Remove the tarnish from
copper and brass utensils with the mild abrasive and ammonia polish rec
ommended above for use on fireplace fittings, but do not necessarily bring
them to as high a gloss as ornamental brass. Apply a light coating of
synthetic lacquer or wax to avoid the wear of frequent repolishing. Be
particularly careful to clean off any of the green corrosion liable to appear
in lip crevices and at handle attachments. A cook would not tolerate its
presence. Treat tinware like copper, but rub gently to preserve the tin.
When “living history” participation or demonstrations involve kitchenware,

use replicas as a matter of sound preservation policy.
Lights
Modern light fixtures require frequent cleaning. Dust accumulating on
lamps, reflectors, filters or bafffes quickly reduces their efficiency. Remove
it weekly with a vacuum cleaner and dusting attachment. Wash the lamps,
reflectors, baffies and housing four times a year. Use a sponge dipped in
water containing a little nonsudsing household ammonia and squeezed to
prevent dripping. Wipe dry with a clean cloth. Clean ultraviolet filters at
the same time, but follow the direction in Case Exhibits, Chapter 15,
because these parts are plastic.
Candle holders of all types and materials should be dusted regularly. Use
a treated cloth for those of metal or wood, an untreated one for ceramic or
glass. Glass pendants are an exception. Use a brush to dust them and work
carefully to avoid knocking them against one another or dislodging them.
They chip easily and the wires break or pull loose. The candles themselves
also gather dust, especially at their tops. To get rid of it light each candle
briefly once every two weeks. Guard against fire in the process. Notify the
curator in advance and have a fire extinguisher at hand. Wash candle
holders annually. Most candlesticks can be washed in a warm solution of
the nonionic neutral detergent, rinsed well and wiped dry. Candelabra
usually will come apart for washing. Damp wipe metal or composite chan
deliers with a sponge. If you use a detergent solution, rinse them well by
wiping again with a sponge and clear water. Dry them carefully. Again
crystal chandeliers present a laborious exception. Their effectiveness de
pends on the sparkling cleanness of the faceted drops. Washing is essential,
but requires you to unhook and take down each pendant piece. Lay these
in precise order on a polyethylene sheet spread on the floor so you will
know the exact position and sequence for reassembly. Then wash each
pendant with ammonia water and polish it dry with a clean, lint-free cloth
or chamois. When all are clean, carefully put them back together. Brass
and silver candlesticks require polishing. Treat the brass as described above
for fireplace fittings. For silver see the section on silverware below. Snuffers
and extinguishers need polishing similarly. Use 600 emery paper to polish
steel snuffers, which rust if not carefully maintained. Candle holders in use
become caked with the wax or tallow that drips or runs. Careful house
keepers, now as in the past, clean off the drippings the next morning. Dip
metal candlesticks in boiling water and wipe them clean immediately. Run
warm water over glass ones to soften the wax or tallow and rub clean.
Oil lamps generally demanded more housekeeping attention than can
dles. Their safety, efficiency and appearance depended on frequent clean
ing. The daily care of a kerosene lamp when in use, for example, should
Housekeeping 257
include dusting the shade and body of the lamp, washing the chimney,
trimming the wick, wiping the burner clean and clearing out all the air
holes in it with a toothpick, filling the oil reservoir to within a half inch of
the top (c. 12 mm), wiping the outside of the oil can, and finally washing
or disposing of the oily cloths. In addition the reservoir should be emptied
once a week and the cloudy oil at the bottom discarded. The shade may
need washing at the same time. Earlier housekeepers were advised to
empty the reservoir and oil can each month and wash them out with an
alkali solution (pearlash water). All the alkali had to be gotten out before
refilling. Dust lamp shades with an untreated cloth unless their fragility
requires the lens brush. Most lamp bases can be dusted with a treated
cloth. Use warm water and the nonionic neutral detergent to wash chim
neys, glass shades and other glass parts. A bottle brush or dish swab helps
clean the inside of chimneys. Trim the wick with scissors or by lifting off
the charred ends with a dry cloth.
Pewter
Utensils of this variable alloy should appear well cared for and clean.
Dust them daily with a treated cloth. Wash them about once a year in a
denatured alcohol shellac solvent. Rinse them well afterwards and wipe
dry. As the surface becomes dull, polish it lightly with a good quality
commercial pewter polish. Do not try to bring old pewter to a high gloss.
Pewter is relatively soft, so polishing tends to wear away any raised decora
tion. If gentle polishing does not produce the desired result, obtain the
advice of a conservator. Treat Britanniaware like pewter.
Pictures and frames
Housekeepers should not, under any circumstances, attempt to dust or

otherwise clean paintings and prints. Touching the surface of an oil paint
ing can cause severe damage, even if not noticeable at the time. Works of
art on paper also suffer if touched. Leave the care of these furnishings to a
trained conservator. Frames and the glass covering pictures, on the other
hand, permit cautious cleaning. Carved, molded and gilded frames require
particular care. Do not dust them with a cloth. Blow the dust from carved
and molded ones. A small ear syringe provides a suitably gentle blast. Be
careful not to bring the tip of the syringe into actual contact with the
frame. As far as possible direct the air stream to blow the dust away from
the surface of the painting. For plain gilded frames use a lens brush. Dust
simple ungilded frames with a treated cloth, but keep it off the picture
surface or glass. In glazed frames dust the outside of the glass lightly with
an untreated cloth, watching out for the frame in the process. Damp wipe
the glass when necessary with a sponge dipped in ammonia water and
squeezed almost dry. Do not let the moisture get onto the frame or under
the edge of it.
Silverware
The historic occupants in most instances esteemed the bright luster of

their silverware. Keep it clean and well polished accordingly. Dust silver
regularly with a treated cloth. Wash it at least annually, but use a mild
soap instead of detergent. Any phosphate in the detergent might cause a
stain. Silver tarnishes readily, so requires polishing. For small pieces use a
commercial silver dip. It contains an acid, a sequestrant and a wetting
agent and removes all the tarnish quickly, even out of fine depressions in
the decoration. Immerse the article completely, remove it at once and rinse
it thoroughly in clear water. Dry it and spray it with a commercial tarnish
inhibitor. Rub larger pieces of tarnished silverware with a good quality
commercial silver polish containing a tarnish inhibitor. Follow the direc
tions on the container. Because each polishing removes a little more of the
silver, apply a protective coating as well as the inhibitor to make the
treatment last longer. Either spray the polished silverware with synthetic
lacquer in a thin, even layer or rub on microcrystalline wax. Silverplate
should receive the same housekeeping care.
Housekeeping 259
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Up-to-date cleaning manuals generally are developed for internal use by

organizations maintaining hospitals, hotels, office buildings and other large
complexes. An example is:
Shields, William R. Procedures for Building Cleaning Maintenance. Guide.
Clearwater. Environmental Management Association.
For miscellaneous furnishings in particular see such curatorial guides as:

Museums and Collections. LaJolla. Laurence McGilvery, 1973.
Guldbeck, Per E. The Care of Historical Collections: A Conservation Handbook
for the Nonspecialist. Nashville. American Association for State and Local
History, 1972.
American housekeepers of the 18th century who consulted books probably

turned to ones published abroad. For insights into English practice see:
Glasse, Hannah. The Servant’s Directory, or Housekeeper’s Companion. Lon
don. 1760.
Whatman, Susanna. The Housekeeping Book of Susanna Whatman, 1776-1800.
London. G. Bless, 1956.
Among the numerous 19th-century books written to help housewives in their

domestic duties the following seem especially useful. Most appeared in many
editions. The dates given are those of the earliest ones available in the Library
of Congress:
Beecher, Catherine E. A Treatise on Domestic Economy. Boston. 1841.
Child, Mrs. Lydia Maria. The American Frugal Housewife. Boston. 1835.
Eaton, Mrs. Mary. The Cook and Housekeeper’s Complete and Universal Dic
tionary. Bungay. 1823.
Holt, Mrs. Elizabeth F. From Attic to Cellar or Housekeeping Made Easy.
Salem. 1892.
Leslie, Eliza. Miss Leslie’s Lady's House Book. Philadelphia. 1863.
Scott, Mrs. M. L. The Practical Housekeeper, and Young Woman's Friend.
Toledo. 1855.
Wigley, Mrs. W. W. Lessons in Domestic Economy. Book II. The House. Lon
don. n.d. (c. 1880).
Chapter 12 Protection
This chapter concerns the safety of museum objects and of people in the
museum. Conditions inherent in a furnished historic structure complicate
both these aspects of protection. The furnishings and the building itself are
historic specimens. Preserving them is consequently a primary responsibil
ity as it would be in any museum. Here, however, the curator cannot use
display cases to shield them. The objects he must protect are unavoidably
exposed to varied hazards. At the same time visitors and staff find them
selves in a building not originally designed for use as a museum. They often
encounter narrower passageways, steeper stairs or fewer exits than safety
standards ordinarily require. Warning signs and safety aids appropriate in
other situations would seriously intrude on the historic setting. Under these
circumstances protection of both specimens and occupants demands care
ful planning and continuous concern.
Safe Practices in Housekeeping
The people who most endanger the furnishings and themselves are the
staff members. They spend much more time in the museum than a visitor
does and have more to do. They have a corresponding responsibility to
avoid accidents. Does everyone who must lift a chair or move a cabinet
know how to do it safely? How many good stepladders and helpers make it
safe to take down the drapes for cleaning or to dust the chandeliers? What
routes are least hazardous in carrying the ladders from room to room?
Who is to see that no oily dust mop or cloth remains in the building
overnight? These or similar questions are pertinent to most furnished his
toric structures. Multiplied to cover every aspect of maintenance and oper
ation, they suggest the action needed. It differs in detail for each museum
but consists of: analyzing the potential hazards, object by object and oper
ation by operation; establishing procedures that minimize the chances of
accident; providing the equipment needed to apply safe practices; training
260
all staff members in the safe ways to do their work; instilling and sustaining
staff alertness to the dangers. Publications of the National Safety Council
can be especially helpful in explaining how to prevent work accidents.
Check carefully the application of the Occupational Safety and Health
Act.
To safeguard the furnishings translate the analysis of hazards into such
rules as these and abide by them faithfully:
1. Never move historic furniture by pushing or pulling it. Raise it off the
floor. Lift chairs by the seat frame, not by arms or back. Takehold of
other pieces only by solid parts of the frame, not by convenient projections.
2. Before moving furniture empty any drawers or compartments. Then
fasten shut the doors and drawers, or take out the drawers and move them
separately.
3. Remove marble or glass tops and carry them separately, on edge
rather than flat.
4. Cover the furniture to be moved so hands or clothing do not rub
against the upholstery and finish. Wearing clean cotton gloves gives added
protection against harmful fingerprints.
5. If large or heavy pieces must be moved more than a few feet, use a
padded dolly or flat-bed hand truck. The vehicle should be longer and
wider than the object carried so no parts overhang. Maneuver it with great
care to avoid striking other furniture, walls or door jambs. Remember that
two or more pairs of hands are better than one when moving large pieces.
6. In moving antique curtains, draperies, bedspreads, rugs or other large
textile specimens, even from room to room, roll each one carefully. Use a
paperboard cylinder several inches in diameter and a little longer than the
full width of the fabric. Stores selling carpets often have such tubes for the
asking. Remove any curtain hooks or rings before rolling. Employ enough
helping hands to keep the weight of the textile evenly distributed as it is
lifted or lowered and smoothly rolled. Have two workers carry the roll, one
at each end of the tube. If the specimen will remain on the roller for several
days or longer, cover the face of the fabric with acid-free tissue paper as
you roll it.
7. Carry a smaller textile specimen with both hands to avoid folding or
straining it.
8. Pick up tableware, lamps, ornaments, books and other small items
only one object at a time. Use both hands, one beneath the specimen and
the other holding it by the side. Do not grasp it by the handle or rim. Wear
clean cotton gloves, especially if your hands will touch metal.
9. To carry such an object out of the room, put it in a well ‘padded
container. A market basket makes a safe and convenient carrier if it has a
soft lining sewn in place and covering the rim, and if the handle is firmly
attached. When carrying two or more specimens in the container, separate
them with additional padding.
261
10. Lift framed pictures or mirrors from the wall with one hand grasp
ing the bottom of the frame and the other hand holding one side of the
frame. Take hold of the frame where it is solid, not in areas of carved or
molded ornament. Carefully avoid touching the face or back of a painting
or breaking the sealed paper covering the back of a framed print. Do not
try to move large or heavy ones alone.
11. While the picture or mirror is off the wall, remove the screw eyes
and hanging wires. Rest the bottom of the frame on padded blocks or
padding on the floor. Lean the specimen against the wall, face out. Be sure
the pads will not slip on the floor. Cover the face of the object with a sheet
of corrugated cardboard or other stiff material wider and taller than the
frame. Others can lean against it, each with a similar protective cover, but
no more than five should be stacked together.
12. Use a vacuum cleaner, carpet sweeper, floor polisher, dust mop or
other housekeeping tool with enough care to avoid striking or rubbing it
against any piece of historic furniture.
13. In all cleaning, waxing and polishing operations use only those
materials and methods approved in advance by the curator or conservator
as safe and beneficial to the structure and furnishings.
14. Do not smoke while handling specimens, so both hands are always
free and the hazards of hot embers and ashes are avoided.
Consider another set of rules to protect the housekeeping staff from

injury. These may include:
1. Before moving a piece of furniture think how to do it. If the piece is
big or heavy, you may require help. Ask for it. Check the route for danger
spots where you might slip, stumble or bump into something. Find out
exactly where the furniture is to go. Select places along the way to set it
down safely if arms or fingers need a rest.
2. Do not bend over to pick up the piece. Stand close to it with your feet
well apart. Bend your knees until your hands can grip the frame properly.
Then rise, letting your leg muscles rather than your back do most of the
lifting. Carry the load close to your body and low enough, if possible, so
you can see where to go. When turning move with your feet rather than
twisting your body. Set the furniture down by bending your knees again
rather than your back alone.
3. If two or more people help carry it, put one person in charge. Be sure
each helper knows what to do. Keep in step.
4. For jobs that require a stepladder use one that is strongly made, in
good condition and the right length. The bottom step should have metal
braces and all steps should preferably be rodded or braced. The back legs
should have horizontal rungs for bracing. The metal spreaders should pro
vide rigid support when opened. The ladder should be no taller than neces
Protection 263
sary to reach the work while standing on the second step from the top. Do
not climb higher.
5. When moving a stepladder during a job be sure no tools or other
objects have been left on it. Carry the ladder with the front end higher and
check both ends at every turn.
6. Take similar precautions with a straight ladder. Select one that has a
steel reinforcing rod beneath each rung and feet designed to prevent slip
ping. Inspect the side rails and rungs to be sure they are in good condition.
Set the ladder at an angle so the bottom is out from the wall about 1/, of
the ladder’s length (45 inches out for a 15-foot ladder or 1.14m for a
4.5m one). Use both hands in climbing, so carry tools in a pouch or haul
them up afterwards. Do not go higher than the second rung from the top.
While working hold onto the ladder with one hand, do not reach too far
and do not push or pull. Carry a ladder with the front end high and watch
both ends for clearance.
7. Before plugging in an electrical housecleaning appliance check the
cord, plug and switch. If the insulation is worn, any connection loose or
any wire or part broken, have it repaired before using the appliance. Do
not use electrical equipment when your hands or feet are wet. Modern
appliances have a three-prong grounded plug and should be used with a
three-hole power outlet. If an adapter is used, be careful to ground it to a
cover plate screw.
8. Have the curator or conservator check each kind of insecticide, fun
gicide, cleaning solvent, wax, polish and other similar material you use so
both of you are aware of its poisonous properties and its flammability.
Then follow the special safety instructions for each.
For more complete lists of desirable precautions consult Robert P. Sug
den, Care and Handling of Art Objects, New York, Metropolitan Museum
of Art, 1946; Frieda Kay Fall, Art Objects, Their Care and Preservation:
A Handbook for Museums and Collectors, La J olla, Laurence McGilvery,
1973; and leaflets of the National Safety Council.
Protecting Visitors
When you invite the public into a museum, you assume a responsibility
for the reasonable safety of your visitors. Your first concern in this regard
is to avoid injuries. A furnished historic structure often requires an aggres
sive accident prevention program because it contains hazards not com
monly found in other kinds of museums. In spite of such precautions the
time will almost surely come when an accident happens. At that moment
the staff must be ready to give effective help. The museum also may have to
pay the costs of injury suffered by a visitor. You need to make sure that
payment will not cripple the institution financially.
Avoiding Accidents
First identify the hazards. Your visitors will be in unfamiliar territory.
The historic scene recreated around them will tend to draw their attention
away from possible dangers. Study every step of the route they will follow
through the grounds and building. Look for obstacles likely to trip some
one or throw him off balance—unusually high steps, sudden changes in floor
level or raised thresholds for example. Floors may be slippery, especially
beneath wet shoes. A lintel may be too low for some people to pass under
without stooping. A stairway, particularly if visitors descend it, is a danger
point often made worse by dim light, narrow or worn treads and inade
quate handrails. Furniture along the way may be topheavy, liable to tip
over if someone leans against it or a child tries to climb on it. It may have
projections sharp enough to snag clothing or cause bodily harm. In examin
ing the route think of the different kinds of people who will use it. Not all
your visitors will be healthy adults of average height and weight. Some will
have impaired vision, arthritic joints, weak hearts or other common dis
abilities. A fairly large proportion of your visitors will be wearing bifocal
or trifocal glasses. Consider them particularly. Many visitors will be chil
dren, so conduct your search at their eye levels too.
This initial study of the situation gives you a list of potential or apparent
hazards. These need to be checked, if possible, against actual experience.
Watch a variety of people follow the planned route. Observe how they fare
in the presumed areas of danger. Note any additional obstacles their move
ments reveal. Continue to observe visitors and have attendants report in
cidents of stumbling, tripping or bumping as well as any real accidents.
Such data will refine the list and keep it up-to-date. You may find that
some apparently hazardous conditions cause little or no trouble while other
less obvious ones involve more risk. The front doorstep of the Harper
House at Harpers Ferry National Historical Park is deeply and unevenly
worn. It is backed by an unusually high threshold. Thousands of visitors go
in and out the doorway. They have experienced no observed difficulty with
the irregular footing. On the other hand, the single step between the door
yard and the front porch looks innocent but occasionally trips people. The
step is of convenient size, firm and level, but is an inch or two farther
below the porch than one expects. As these two examples suggest, you
need to evaluate the danger points before proceeding to the next phase of
accident prevention.
Having spotted the conditions that actually endanger visitors, eliminate
or mitigate the hazards. Here you must recall that you also are responsible
for preserving the historical integrity of the structure and its furnishings as
well as the interpretive quality of the whole. It would seldom be justifiable
to alter the original fabric of the building or the historic placement of
furniture. Neither would you want to introduce safety devices that clash
Protection 265
with the setting. You would not cut down old thresholds, raise lintels,
replace worn floors or change floor levels, for example, unless no reason
ably satisfactory alternative remained. Nor would you install yellow warn
ing strips on the edge of steps, modern non-skid treads on original stairs,
signs warning visitors to watch out or emergency exit signs. Many other
possibilities may be more acceptable and at least as effective. A change in
the visitor route may bypass a dangerous situation. A simple ramp, perhaps
concealed by the floor covering, may greatly decrease the chance of some
one falling over an obstruction. If floors are slippery under ordinary condi
tions, changing housekeeping practices such as the kind of wax and
frequency of polishing in areas where visitors walk may suffice. When wet
weather creates a slipping problem, provide an efficient doormat outside
and absorbent rugs inside the entrance so people can clean and dry the
soles of their shoes. Furniture that might topple can usually be anchored by
inconspicuous hooks or braces without screwing into or otherwise van
dalizing the piece. Positive safety can often find a place in the interpretive
message. A word of warning at the proper moment in the guided tour
leaflet or audio can do more than a sign and be far less intrusive. Other
more subtle ways of helping visitors get through the museum without ac
cident warrant trial. A little augmented light at one point, a change of color
or texture in the floor covering at another, may be all that people need to
take the extra bit of care required.
Stairways that visitors go down often constitute hazards calling for spe
cial attention. While you cannot change the original width of treads or
height of risers, you can make the footing as secure as these conditions
permit. You can keep the surface finish in good shape, nonslippery and free
of any splinters or nails that might catch a heel. You can be sure stair
carpets are securely fastened and without holes or threadbare areas. You
can assure good lighting so people will easily see where to step. Original
lighting appliances for a stairway frequently are inadequate under museum
traffic conditions. Wiring the old fixtures for electricity is of questionable
value and taste. So is the installation of additional electric fixtures in period
style. Concealed spotlights or floodlights completely recessed and shining
through small holes in the ceiling have solved the problem well in some
instances. A luminous ceiling or a continuous light source hidden below a
handrail might fit other circumstances. Whatever the methods, visitors
should find sufficient light to see each step without being conscious of the
source. Safe descent also requires the aid of handrails. These need to be
sturdy, set at the right height and of a size that permits a firm grip. Some
stairways need rails on both sides. If you install new handrails for safety, it
is good practice to make them unobtrusively functional, frankly added
rather than faked to seem original.
Some furnished structure museums lack original stairways capable of
safely handling as many visitors as have to descend them. At the Home of

Franklin D. Roosevelt the National Park Service has erected a metal stair
way extending from the second floor to the ground. The new stairs are
entirely outside the walls of the house, but being on the back are com
pletely hidden from view as you approach and enter the mansion. One
carefully reconstructed historic house has a deliberately added stairway
inside. This unhistoric feature is designed for safety. Since it is obviously
although unobtrusively modern, ‘visitors can understand that it does not
represent part of the building as it originally existed. Stairways become
critical factors also in cases of emergency evacuation (see Evacuation
below).
Coping with Accidents

When it finally happens that a visitor is hurt or stricken, a well managed
museum will be ready to respond. Regardless of the nature of the injury or
illness—broken bone, sprained joint, concussion, heart attack, epileptic
seizure, fainting or whatever, the nearest staff member will initiate a three
step procedure which has been planned and practiced. One person, perhaps
whoever is responsible at the time for answering the phone, will immedi
ately telephone for a doctor. Whoever makes the call will find at hand the
proper phone number, based on advance arrangements with an individual
doctor, a medical switchboard, an emergency dispatching service or a hos
pital, depending on local circumstances. While expert help is on the way,
staff members will administer first aid, for which they all have received
recent, standard training. As soon as the victim is receiving care, a desig
nated employee will gather information for a detailed report of what hap
pened. The report will describe the accident or seizure, tell exactly when
and where it occurred, note the apparent injury or illness, state what was
done for the person and record the names and addresses of witnesses who
can vouch for the facts. A thorough, accurate report will help in preventing
a recurrence, improving emergency procedures and settling questions of
liability. If the museum has only one person on duty, this individual per
forms the three steps in sequence.
Paying for Accidents

For most museums this means carrying adequate liability insurance. Be
sure the claim agent who will handle your cases has on file full information
about what the museum has done and is doing to protect visitors from
accidental injury. Get from him or her detailed instructions on the specific
data needed concerning an accident. The agent may provide accident re
port forms as a guide. Park museums, since the government is self-insured,
Protection 267
should document all accidents to visitors with at least equal care in prep
aration for tort claim suits. Standard report forms designed to compile
accident prevention data include the kinds of questions to be answered, but
may allow space for only a summary narrative of what happened.
Protecting the Building and Furnishings
Most of Chapter 4, Caring for a Collection, applies with equal urgency

to a furnished historic structure museum. The building and its contents
comprise the collection. The same agents of deterioration threaten it: ad
verse climatic conditions, airborne pollutants, strong light and destructive
organisms including ourselves. Basically the same methods are available to
combat them. The same standards of protection govern, but the curator
must try to achieve them with a minimum of alteration in the historic
fabric of the structure and with the least visible intrusion. The restoration
architect shares intimately in the solution of some of the problems these
requirements create. He knows, for example, that cutting a pipe chase in an
original brick wall, although hidden from sight, smacks as much of ir
responsibility or even vandalism as installing electrical outlets in fine old
paneling.
Environmental Protection
Most furnished historic structures require continual knowledgeable ac

tion to control relative humidity and temperature, harmful particles or
gases in the air, the amount and kind of light falling on the furnishings,
infestations of insects or other vermin and mildew. Problems of control for
each of these factors will be considered in turn.
Too much or too little moisture in the air within a historic building in
relation to the temperature can cause serious damage. So can wide, rapid
fluctuations in the relative humidity. The historic furnishings will ordinarily
last longer if the indoor climate maintains a steady (constant) relative
humidity between 40% and 60% and a temperature between 60° and 75° F.
(16°-24° C.) day and night the year round. Air-conditioning can pro
vide the close control if designed and operated for protection rather than
comfort. Such an installation requires equipment to cool, heat, humidify,
dehumidify, filter and distribute the air. It also must provide measures to
prevent harmful condensation that would occur if the conditioned air came
into contact with cold walls or windows. When the building itself is a
reconstruction, the machinery, ducts, grilles and insulation for optimum air
conditioning can be planned into it or added with relatively few technical
obstacles. For an original structure, on the other hand, two critical ques
tions must be answered first. Can the system be installed without significant
changes or losses in the fabric of the building that will erode its historical
integrity? Can the museum afford the costs of continuous operation and
maintenance without which air-conditioning cannot accomplish its pur
pose? Some original historic buildings have been air-conditioned success
fully. Many must do without this protection. These must rely instead on the
staff’s vigilance and care in manipulating the limited controls available.
Vigilance in this case means monitoring the climate inside and correlat
ing it with the weather conditions outdoors. Using instruments described
under Climate Control in Chapter 4, maintain a continuing record of
the relative humidity and temperature in the furnished rooms. Watching the
instrument readings and weather forecasts, take positive action to hold the
conditions indoors as close as possible to the safe ranges. In summer you
can open or close windows and blinds as housewives have traditionally
done to moderate changes in temperature and consequently in relative
humidity within the building. You can augment ventilation with discreetly
placed electric fans. This will decrease the chance for pockets of warm,
damp, stagnant air to accumulate behind books on a shelf or in closets.
Portable dehumidifiers can also be placed out of sight in the rooms. These
appliances should have humidistats set to turn them on automatically when
the relative humidity rises above 55%. Be sure to empty the accumulated
water from the reservoirs before they overflow. In winter the central heat
ing system should hold the indoor temperature well within the proper
range. If the heating unit delivers air to the rooms through ducts, the
system should incorporate a controlled humidifier so the incoming air has
the proper amount of moisture in it. When some form of radiation in the
rooms heats the air, use portable humidifying units. These should operate
by evaporation and have humidistats to start them wherever the relative
humidity falls below 45% or another selected setting. Unless you add
moisture, the dry air of a centrally heated building can wreak havoc on
some furniture even in a single night, although the damage usually occurs
less dramatically. On the other hand, the building itself may suffer harm if
the added moisture condenses on or in cold walls and windows. If walls are
not adequately insulated and windows double-glazed, this may happen
when the relative humidity of the inside air is well below 40%, and con
sequently too low for the health of furnishings. In such a dilemma steer a
narrow course raising the relative humidity as near to the recommended
range as the situation permits and watching closely for signs of damage to
either furnishings or structure. In winter hold the indoor temperature as
low as you safely can in order to keep the relative humidity high. Some
times it is practicable to warm visitors only by radiant heat, leaving the
furniture at almost outdoor temperatures when necessary to prevent loss of
water from its substance. Some historic buildings have improved the situa
tion under varying conditions by having automatically controlled humidifi
ers and dehumidifiers continuously activated, one or the other turning itself
Protection 269
on whenever the relative humidity goes beyond prescribed limits.

The airborne pollutants you see in furnished structure museums are the
particles of dust and soot which find their way in and settle on the historic
materials. If allowed to remain, they do more than make things look dusty
or soiled. Such particles can become minute centers of chemical deteriora
tion or augment abrasion with every movement. Their removal requires the
cleaning procedures discussed in Chapter 11, but cleaning unavoidably
increases the rate of wear and tear. So consider measures to minimize their
entry and deposit. Under normal conditions you can establish some control
by such commonplace methods as keeping a clean filter in the furnace and
a clean and effective doormat at the entrance, being sure windows and
doors fit and close tightly and cleaning all air grilles regularly. If the air
outside carries a heavy load of dust or soot, you should explore other
means. Your objective would be to seal out the unclean air except as drawn
in through efficient filters, and this might not be practical short of full air
conditioning. In selecting filters do not use electrostatic precipitators. They
remove the particles effectively, but on occasion generate ozone in the
process which contributes to specimen deterioration.
Not all airborne pollutants are visible. Some are colorless, odorless gases.
One common example is sulfur dioxide, frequently produced when coal,
oil or other fossil fuels burn. When sulfur dioxide comes into contact with
historic furnishings, some of it often changes to sulfuric acid. All the
ingredients necessary for this chemical change are likely to be present in
the air and the specimen. The acid does not evaporate readily, so tends to
accumulate. Even in very small quantities it weakens cotton and linen,
discolors leather and turns it powdery. The air in rooms may contain a
higher concentration of sulfur dioxide and other gaseous pollutants than
does the freely moving air outside. If you wait until the effects become
evident, damage will already have occurred, so test the air in the furnished
rooms. An indicator paper that changes color in the presence of sulfur
dioxide may be exposed in the room, or your local air quality control
agency may be willing to check samples (see also fig. 14). The enforce
ment of clean air regulations will lessen the dangers from these invisible
pollutants, but your collection may need active protection in the meantime.
If sulfur dioxide is present, treat leather bookbindings and other leather in
the furnishings thoroughly and regularly as described in Methods and Ma
terials, Chapter 11. Place valuable papers in acid-free buffered folders and
interleave books with buffered paper. Clean cotton and linen textiles more
frequently. Improve ventilation. Air-conditioning systems can give good
protection from pollutant gases by washing the air with a mildly alkaline
solution and using an activated charcoal filter properly maintained.
Daylight provides the principal source of illumination for most furnished
historic structure museums. Accurate portrayal of the original setting or
dinarily requires you to use it. Light is a form of energy. It can cause
chemical reactions harmful to some of the materials common in historic

furnishings. It fades colors and weakens fibers in particular. The rate at
which the chemical degeneration occurs depends on the amount of energy
supplied. This in turn depends on the intensity of the light and the duration
of exposure. Light from the sun is especially damaging because it is very
bright and you cannot turn it off. So your furnishings tend to be exposed to
strong light for long periods. Even on cloudy days the light coming in a
window may be 10 or more times brighter than is good for the preservation
of mildly light sensitive materials. It far exceeds the level recommended by
conservators for such objects as watercolor paintings. Daylight also con
tains a high proportion of the ultraviolet wave lengths which pack more
harmful energy than the visible ones. Obviously the use of daylight entails
protective measures.
You can do at least four things to minimize the undesirable effect of
daylight. Direct sunlight acts quickly to damage many curtains, drapes,
upholstery fabrics, rugs, papers and wood finishes. To prevent this follow
the sound and simple old practice of closing blinds or drawing shades at
windows on which the sun is shining. When a window is in shadow again,
reopen the blinds or shades. To give further protection from the intensity
of daylight line the backs of window drapes and use slipcovers to shield
fine upholstery fabrics, at least in the summer as the historic occupants
may well have done. Unless you have strong evidence to the contrary, place
the most vulnerable objects in the darker parts of a room. These would
include watercolors and other works of art on paper, silks and open books.
To reduce the length of exposure keep the blinds closed or shades drawn
during whatever daylight hours the museum is not open to the public. To
eliminate most of the ultraviolet radiation install ultraviolet absorbing filters
over the inside of the windows. Start with the sunniest, but consider
covering the others as well.
Sheets of specially formulated, 1/4-inch (6.35mm) thick, clear, almost
colorless plastic such as Plexiglas UF-3 make efficient, durable filters.
You can mount a single large sheet in front of a window fastening it to the
frame with inconspicuous mirror clips or other devices. You should be able
to remove it easily for cleaning the filter and the window glass. This
method of installation may work well for windows which visitors view from
a distance, especially when hangings conceal the edges of the plastic. For
windows close to visitors it may be better to cut the filter plastic to fit
directly against the panes and hold it in place by an added fillet pinned to
the moldings that hold the glass. Again, you will need to remove the filter
for window cleaning. At least two other kinds of ultraviolet filters are
available. Both incorporate ultraviolet absorbing substances in clear plas
tic. One uses thin plastic in the form of a roller shade. The other is applied
to the surface of the glass as a varnish. In both these methods the thinness
of the plastic layer reduces the amount of absorbent it can contain, and so
Protection 271
presumably shortens the effective life of the filter. Conservators recom

mend that the thin filters be replaced at least as often as the rooms need
repainting. It would be good practice to have a conservator equipped with
an ultraviolet monitoring instrument test the continued effectiveness of all
filters every five years.
Furnished structure museums often use some form of artificial illumina
tion to supplement daylight. One common method employs hidden electric
lights directed toward the ceiling. Diffused in this manner the added light
makes the furnishings easier to see on overcast days. If the fixtures are well
chosen and properly placed, few visitors become aware of the addition. Use
the supplemental lights only when really needed and check with a light
meter to be sure the intensity at vulnerable objects does not exceed 15
footcandles (150 lux), or 5 footcandles (50 lux) for very light-sensitive
items (see Climate Control, Chapter 4). Cover any fluorescent tubes with
ultraviolet filters such as sleeves or sheets of Plexiglas UF-3. Another
method of artificial lighting especially appropriate if a museum opens in the
evening, uses period lamps. If these are candles, oil lamps or gaslights
older than the incandescent mantle type, they will hardly be bright enough
to cause photochemical damage. They increase fire hazards, of course, so
must be closely supervised (see Protection from Fire below). They also
produce enough soot to necessitate extra cleaning of ceilings, walls, ducts
and air filters as well as often fragile furnishings. If the illuminating gas
contains sulfurous impurities, it may release acidic combustion products.
The injurious insects most often found in historic structures are those
that also infest our homes. So you may already know them by sight or by
the destruction they cause (see Agents of Deterioration, Chapter 4).
Sooner or later silverfish and cockroaches will almost surely attack your
books, documents, prints, wallpaper or other historic furnishings composed
of or containing paper. These pests eat the sizing, paste or glue, spoiling
the paper or binding in the process. They may do similar damage to starched
cloth. Carpet beetles and clothes moths, which feed especially on animal
fibers, will likely invade rugs, woolen clothing and drapes. Expect them
also in the hair stuffing of upholstery furniture and mattresses, in the
feathers of feather beds and pillows and even among the bristles of brushes.
The damage these insects cause can ruin objects for display in a short
time. Termites and the several kinds of powder-post beetles too often
severely damage not only the structural timbers and woodwork of a historic
building but also the wood in its furniture. They feed on cellulose or starch
in the wood. If termites encounter paper, cotton or linen in their tunneling,
they will eat these sources of cellulose as well. When your historic structure
museum represents a period before window and door screens were used,
house flies will gain easy entry in summer. The principal harm will come
from the specks you will need to clean from the furnishings and walls,
unless you prepare or serve food in the museum. House flies can spread
disease when they get on food. All these destructive insects are hardy, wide
spread and abundant. You need to guard against them actively.
To protect the building and its furnishings from insect damage take four
countermeasures. These aim to: keep out the harmful species, deny them a
favorable environment for breeding, detect their presence quickly, extermi
nate those that do get in. Because the threat of infestation is always im
minent, the protective measures must remain in force.
Begin by trying to shut out the destructive insects. While their numbers,
size and habits make complete success unlikely, you can minimize the
occurrence of infestations. Furnishings acquired for an historic structure
not infrequently contain eggs or active stages of these dangerous species.
Avoid bringing the pests into the museum by first having each item of
furnishing fumigated in a vacuum (see Organic Material, Chapter 3). This
should kill all stages of the insects even hidden deep in wood borings,
upholstery, stuffing or seams. If you cannot obtain vacuum fumigation,
apply the best alternative methods you can. Have curtains, drapes, rugs,
bedding, garments and other fabrics laundered or dry-cleaned under the
supervision of a textile conservator. Thorough cleaning will probably elim
inate any insects in them. Should expert cleaning be out of the question,
take woolens outdoors on a sunny day. Brush them gently but thoroughly,
turning pockets inside out and going over other concealed areas. Then let
them hang in the sun for a few hours. The exposed wood of any furnishings
should be inspected inch by inch. Whenever you find the round or oval hole
made by a powder-post beetle larva, inject into it a recommended insecti
cide (see Organic Material, Chapter 3). Fumigate other furnishings follow
ing the instructions in Chapter 3. Such alternatives to vacuum fumigation
will not reach the stuffing of upholstered furniture and mattresses or other
filled bedding, nor the covered parts of wood. Knowing these to be poten
tial sites of infestation, watch them particularly for signs of insect activity.
To keep termites out of the structure itself, first be sure that no wooden
part of it comes into direct contact with the ground. Even a trellis might
form a ready channel of invasion from soil to siding. Remove any wood
lying on or in the soil near the foundation or beneath the building because
its presence invites colonies to start. Fill cracks in foundation walls that
might hide termite tunnels. Effective fillers include cement, coal-tar roofing
pitch and rubberoid bituminous sealers, but you should have the restora
tion architect make the choice. Then have a reliable professional exter
minator treat the soil along the outside and, if possible, the inside of
foundation walls with an insecticide that will form a barrier against
termites.
The second countermeasure to take consists essentially of good house
keeping. In an historic structure museum the furniture is seldom moved.
No one sits on the chairs or sleeps in the beds. No one rummages through
closets, drawers or book shelves. Such freedom from everyday use reduces
Protection 273
wear to a minimum, but it could allow any insect pests that may be present
to feed and multiply undisturbed. Proper cleaning denies them this security.
Use a vacuum cleaner frequently under and behind heavy furniture, along
baseboard and floor cracks and in the other hard to reach spaces. Carpet
beetles and clothes moths can breed in the rolls of dust and lint that
readily collect there. Roaches and silverfish hide in such places by day.
Vacuum carefully the folds, seams and crevices of upholstered furniture
where insects might work unnoticed. Set up a schedule for remaking beds
and for cleaning shelves, drawers, closets, cabinets and their contents.
Since roaches and flies thrive on human food, enforce scrupulous cleanli
ness in kitchens where period cookery is demonstrated, in any room where
staff members may lunch and for those rare special occasions when food
and drink are served to guests. Conscientious cleaning provides the best
overall defense against insect damage. You can practice it without sacrific
ing the important interpretive aspects of housekeeping if you keep both
objectives clearly in mind (see the introduction to Chapter 11).
As your third protective action maintain a close watch for infestations.
Organize your vigilance on three levels. Request all staff members con
sciously to look for insects or insect damage as they carry on their regular
duties. Have them report what they observe. Require this continual search
particularly of those who do the daily cleaning and of whoever makes the
daily security inspection. Be sure everyone on the staff can recognize the
harmful insects and the signs of their activity. At the next level make a
thorough periodic search for evidence of infestation. Go over the building
and furnishings in detail at least three or four times a year. Finally, because
termites can do much damage with little or no visible evidence of it, call in
a professional exterminator to check for them. How often you should do
this depends on the vulnerability of the structure as determined by its
location as well as the materials and methods of construction. Termites
attack buildings in every state except Alaska. The milder the climate, the
more frequent and destructive the attacks. If your museum is in the Gulf
States or California, have it inspected each year.
In making your own inspection look for several kinds of evidence. Cock
roaches are large enough to catch the eye readily (fig. 12a). They come
out in the open at night, so you need to check for them then. When you
suddenly turn on the light, you may see one or more roaches scurrying for
cover. Also search their normal hiding places by day. These include the
undersides or backs of drawers and shelves, the spaces under or behind
sinks and built-in cupboards, the crevices of furniture, baseboard and wall
cracks and openings around pipes or conduits. Look for their small, brown,
leathery egg cases in these same locations (fig. 12b). You can spot silver
fish when they move, although they are smaller and less conspicuous than
roaches (fig. 10). They also hide during the day and should be looked for
at night. In the daytime you may see them when you take books from a
shelf and leaf through them. Also look closely at the backs of pictures and
among stored papers. Search their preferred hiding places. Cool, damp
basement walls attract one kind, warm walls near furnaces or attics in
summer another. Examine the surface and edges of any paper for signs of
their feeding (fig. 11). The bristly larvae of carpet beetles and other
dermestids are small but easily recognized once you have seen them (fig.
7). Search for them feeding on the pile of undisturbed rugs or beneath
them or in woolens and other animal products. If you find spots where they
have destroyed an area of fibers, intensify the search. Often the first evi
dence will be the cast skin of a larva, still bristly, left behind on the fabric
or in the floor dust. When the beetles are at work in the hair stuffing of a
chair or mattress, you may be fortunate enough to detect them by a fine,
grayish powder sifting out through the bottom. A glimpse of an adult
clothes moth in flight or on any furnishing material of animal origin will
warn you of a likely infestation. Examine all woolen fabrics closely for the
small, white tubes or webs of the feeding larvae (fig. 9b). Look especially
in folds, seams and other sheltered points. Check for moth holes as evi
dence of their work since your previous inspection. Remember that they
may also infest furnishings containing hair, feathers and bristles. Detect
powder-post beetles by the fine, whitish powder you may tap from their
holes or that may accumulate in little piles beneath the wood in which they
are working. For termites your regular inspection should consist of a close
examination of the foundation walls inside and out as well as any other
part of the building that touches the ground. Look for the tubes a colony
may build up the surface or in the cracks of a masonry or concrete wall or
post to reach from soil to wood. Also watch for a scattering of small,
transparent wings inside the rooms. Breeding adult termites discard them
when they swarm. Whenever you discover evidence that any of these kinds
of harmful insects are present, implement the fourth measure of protection
without delay.
The fourth step consists of destroying the insects before they do further
damage. It often involves the application of one or more insecticides. Most
of these are poisons. They can harm you or your visitors if not used
properly. Some have proven to be dangerous, long-lasting sources of en
vironmental pollution. So employ insecticides with care and conscience, as
well as in strict accordance with the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
Rodenticide Act as amended (Public Law 92-516). The commercial
formulations change, as do the regulations governing their sale and use.
Therefore, do two things before using a pesticide. Consult a recent authori
tative publication such as the latest edition of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture’s Home and Garden Bulletin No. 96, Controlling Household
Pests. Read carefully and follow the instructions on the insecticide con
tainer and in any accompanying leaflets. You cannot lawfully use the in
secticide in any other way. In addition, avoid applying these chemicals
Protection 275
directly to historic furnishings unless you have assurance from an expert

conservator that it is safe to do so. This restraint complies with the general
rule of specimen conservation to use only substances of which you know
the composition and effects. With these precautions in mind consider the
following methods.
To get rid of cockroaches, apply a persistent contact poison to surfaces
over which the insects will crawl. Then use a fine insecticide spray directed
into cracks and corners to flush the roaches from their hiding places. To
treat the surface select an insecticide in liquid or cream consistency, rec
ommended by the manufacturer for cockroach control and containing a
poison approved for this purpose in the USDA Bulletin cited (the 1971
edition suggests diazinon, malathion or ronnel). Rather than spraying it,
use a brush to paint it on the critical areas of floors, baseboards, pipes,
shelves and other surfaces close to the probable hiding places. The petro
leum distillates that form the base for many household insecticides may
injure parquet, linoleum or asphalt tile floors. So use the material sparingly
in these situations. For the fine spray use an aerosol containing pyrethrum.
Should the historic structure be heavily infected with roaches, you may
need to call in a professional exterminator. Have him specify in advance the
content of the insecticides he will employ and check these with the USDA
Bulletin. Also make clear your restrictions about applying insecticides di
rectly to articles of historic furnishing without prior approval by a con
servator. One of the safest and longest lasting materials he could use might
be a silica aerogel.
To eradicate silverfish first fumigate any papers into which the pests
have gotten (see Organic Material, Chapter 3). Then spread a contact
poison on surfaces over which they will crawl. Choose an insecticide rec
ommended and approved for use against silverfish (USDA Home and Gar
den Bulletin No. 96, 1971 edition suggests chlordane, lindane, malathion
or ronnel). Brush it on book shelves behind the books, around the back
edges of picture frames and on other surfaces adjacent to paper the insects
may attack, but not on exposed parts of historic furniture unless a con
servator approves. Use a fairly course spray to apply the insecticide to
basement or attic walls where silverfish may be breeding. If the product
contains petroleum distillates avoid spraying near any pilot light, other
open flame or electrical equipment which might ignite the flammable
mixture.
When you find evidence that either carpet beetles or clothes moths are at
work, have the affected or suspected furnishings vacuum fumigated
promptly (see Organic Material, Chapter 3). If this is impossible, have
textiles washed or dry-cleaned in accordance with a conservator’s instruc
tions, or sun and brush them carefully. Consider at this time treating
woolen fabrics, furs or other furnishings largely composed of animal fibers
with a mothproofing chemical to deter reinfestation. If you mothproof, use
only materials and methods specifically approved by a conservator (see e.g.

H. J. Plenderleith and A. E. A. Werner, The Conservation of Antiquities
and Works of Art: Treatment, Repair, and Restoration, 2nd ed., London,
Oxford University Press, 1971, pp. 114-115; but the products they rec
ommend are not necessarily registered with the Environmental Protection
Agency and available in the United States). For historic upholstered furni
ture or stuffed bedding no alternatives to vacuum fumigation are presently
registered. Fumigate these furnishings as directed under Organic Material
in Chapter 3. While you have removed the furnishings for treatment, brush
or spray a persistent contact insecticide on surfaces in the room where the
larvae might crawl. These include the edges of baseboards and moldings,
floor cracks, closet walls and shelves, curtain or clothes rods and their
attachments or other places where dust and lint tend to collect. Again
select one of the insecticides recommended and approved for this specific
purpose (USDA Home and Garden Bulletin No. 96, 1971 edition, lists
chlordane, diazinon, lindane, malathion and ronnel in particular concen
trations). If any item of furnishing vulnerable to these pests is stored out of
sight, wrap it after treatment in a tightly sealed package which also con
tains an open weave cloth bag filled with paradichlorobenzene crystals. Use
the crystals at the rate of one pound per 100 cubic feet (162 g per m3).
If powder-post beetles get into a piece of furniture or wooden implement,
have it vacuum fumigated without delay. The alternatives are to paint the
infected wood with an oil-base insecticide containing 2% chlordane or
inject an insecticide containing lindane into the individual holes bored by
the beetle larvae. When the wood has a finish, inject the product having
EPA Registration No. 18910-2 into each hole using the pressurized con
tainer in which the insecticide comes. You can brush the chlordane mixture
having EPA No. 876-100 liberally onto unfinished wood, but might find it
safer to use the lindane injection method. If the larvae are in the timbers or
woodwork of the structure, you can apply the same treatments to infected
areas within reach.
Should termites attack the building, call in an expert exterminator. Have
the restoration architect supervise any treatment or removal of original
framing or woodwork. Furnishings into which termites have penetrated
should be vacuum fumigated if possible.
Unless you regularly prepare or serve food in the museum, house flies
should require no control beyond the use of fly swatters. If the flies become
a real nuisance, spray the air in a room at closing time with one of the
common household insecticides labeled specifically for use against flying
insects. Follow the directions on the pressure can.
Insects are not the only dangerous animal pests. Mice, rats and in some
situations other rodents including squirrels get into buildings to feed or
nest. They can damage historic furnishings more rapidly than insects do
(see Agents of Deterioration, Chapter 4). Guard against them by following
Protection 277
these simple procedures. First inspect the building for possible points of
entry. Plug holes that would make it easy for these animals to get indoors.
If any food attractive to them is kept in the building, store it in closed
metal containers at night. Keep the grounds as well as the interior of the
building clean in this respect. You cannot put out of reach all the furnish
ing materials that rodent teeth and claws might pull apart for nest building.
So watch closely for evidence of this activity as well as for rodent drop
pings during every inspection (see suggestions above for detecting insect
infestations). At the first sign of an infestation set snap traps. Locate them
near walls along which the animals seem likely to run. Place the traps
facing the wall so the intruders will pass close to the baited triggers. Bait
the traps with peanut butter or other strongly attractive foods. If this does
not clear up the invasion promptly, call in an exterminator. Because rats
are hard to trap, you should consult the local health department or an
exterminator as soon as you suspect their presence. In some instances
keeping a cat may be the historic and effective way to combat invasions of
mice, rats or squirrels.
Mildew attacks the furnishings in historic buildings wherever sufficiently
warm, damp conditions exist. It grows destructively on paper, leather and
cotton, linen, silk, wool or even rayon textiles. The mold can also flourish
on interior walls, woodwork and paint. It not only weakens the materials
on which it grows, but often leaves unsightly stains. Mildew is plainly
visible under close inspection as thin, irregularly shaped, usually whitish
patches on the surface of the object. You may also detect its musty odor.
Look for it especially during humid spells in summer. Check poorly venti
lated areas in particular. These include closets, bookcases, cabinets, the
walls behind furniture or pictures and the space within picture frames. If
you can keep the relative humidity below 70% in all such places, mildew
will not become a problem. You can also inhibit mold growth by holding
the temperature below 70° F. (21° C.). In the absence of an air-condi
tioning system capable of maintaining these conditions use room dehumidi
fiers and electric fans to eliminate likely pockets of damp air. When you do
find mold on any article of furnishing, remove the object from the historic
building so as not to spread the spores. If you can fumigate the specimen
with thymol, do so (see Organic Material, Chapter 3). Should this be
impractical, dry it either outdoors in the sun or with a flow of warm, dry
air. You can generate the latter with an electric hair dryer or a combination
of any heating device and an electric fan. As soon as the piece has been
fumigated or dried, remove the mildew carefully with a soft brush and a
vacuum cleaner. If a stain remains, consult a conservator before trying to
remove it by washing, dry cleaning or bleaching. To protect vulnerable
furnishings in poorly ventilated spaces from a recurrence of mold use
paradichlorobenzene crystals as you would for clothes moths and carpet
beetles (see Basic Steps, Chapter 4). Garments in closets or trunks and
books in closed bookcases can be treated in this way, for example. The
chemical acts as a fungicide. When the mildew develops on walls or wood
work, these also need to be dried. Use heat and moving air, but proceed
slowly enough to avoid cracking the plaster or warping and splitting the
wood. Then wipe away the mold with a soft, dry cloth. If more is required
to remove the growth or stain from historic surfaces, get the advice of a
conservator. When the wall or woodwork is not original, you can try a
cloth dampened with soap suds, with water containing a little washing soda
or even with a fungicidal disinfectant containing quaternary ammonium
compounds properly diluted such as janitors use. Then rinse the cleaned
area using fresh cloths dampened with clear water. Finally dry it thor
oughly as before.
Other kinds of fungus attack the wood in historic structures when en
vironmental conditions permit it. These include species that cause soft rot,
white rot, brown rot, dry rot and blue stain. To recognize these forms of
deterioration and initiate their control consult William Merrill, “Wood
Deterioration: Causes, Detection and Prevention,” American Association
(August 1974).
Protection from Wear and Tear
People by their sheer number damage the furnished historic structures

they visit. It is primarily a matter of mechanical friction. Surfaces that have
withstood generations of normal use wear out under the heavy traffic vis
itors unavoidably create. Floors and floor coverings suffer most. Wall cov
erings and occasionally draperies also deteriorate faster in situations where
many people brush against them. When the affected surfaces are original or
actually date from the period being interpreted, protection sooner or later
becomes necessary. The replacement cost of a reproduced carpet or wall
paper may sometimes justify protective measures as well, in spite of their
intrusive effect.
While it is obvious that floors and floor coverings wear out because
people walk on them, at least four factors affect the rate of wear. These
are: the nature of the surface to be preserved, the number of feet treading
it, the amount of dirt underfoot and the kinds of soles and heels on visitors’
shoes. To determine the urgency of protection and the methods to use,
consider each factor as it applies to the situation in your museum and the
extent of your control over it. For example, a stone pavement resists wear
longer than pine flooring and a Wilton carpet longer than an ingrain, but
history rather than durability decides which you have to protect. You could
not rationalize the installation of a flooring material or covering different
from the original just because it would wear better. This factor is beyond
your control. The second one is not entirely uncontrollable, but involves
Protection 279
difficult choices. The more people visit your museum, of course, the greater
the wear on its floors. Is there a point at which the preservation of a floor
justifies turning away people who want to visit? You may have authority to
restrict the number admitted, but few museums have done so for this
reason alone. If the need to protect especially vulnerable floor surfaces
coincides with problems of safe floor loads, emergency evacuation or the
quality of interpretive experience, limiting the number of visitors may be
warranted. You can control the third factor to a greater extent. Grit and
dust ground into a floor or carpet by visitors’ feet accelerate abrasion. The
more dirt tracked in and the longer it remains, the faster floor surfaces are
damaged. Longer open hours tend to increase floor wear. Visitors coming
late in the day do more harm that the same number earlier because they
walk over floors that have become dirty in the meantime. The situation is
liable to grow progressively worse if the cleaners have more dirt to remove
and less time in which to do it. You can do things to minimize the amount
of dirt on visitors’ shoes as they enter and you can regulate cleaning sched
ules. The fourth factor involves the vagaries of fashions. The 1960’s vogue
of spike heels on women’s shoes seriously damaged many historic floors.
Any hard soles or heels cause more floor wear than soft ones. So be alert to
the kinds your visitors are wearing as styles change. Some may require
protective measures. Your analysis of these determinants of the rate of
wear should help you choose among the protective methods that have been
used, or develop better ones.
Floor protection commonly includes two sets of measures, both designed
to reduce abrasion. One keeps the floors clean where visitors walk or stand.
The other puts a layer of expendable material between the bottom of
visitors’ feet and the surface particularly liable to wear. Action on the first
set should begin at the parking area. If this is clean underfoot, it minimized
the transport of dirt indoors. A pavement of stone, brick, cement or black
top would be preferable to gravel in this respect. Less intrusive and as
effective might be a perforated cement surface largely hidden by grass
growing up through the openings. If adherence to historical accuracy allows
a choice in the kind of walkway leading to the historic building, one that
leaves shoe soles cleanest would naturally be best. A brick path would tend
to create less dirt than one of gravel. Tanbark would leave a less abrasive
residue on shoes than would oyster shell. Well drained paths stay cleaner.
Hard surfaced ones should be swept regularly. At the entrance a clean,
effective doormat would invite visitors to wipe their feet as they come
indoors. Inside, the floor along the tour route should be kept as free of grit
as possible. If a thorough daily cleaning is adequate ordinarily, it may need
to be supplemented during wet weather and on days of peak attendance
(see Methods and Materials, Chapter 11 for floor cleaning techniques).
A protective layer can be interposed between floor and feet in either of
two ways, by placing it on the floor or on visitors’ feet. Some historic
buildings in Europe require visitors to remove their shoes, carry them in a

bag provided and don soft slippers for the tour; or the museum issues large,
shaggy cloth covers with elastic tape to slip on over shoes. A number of
historic structure museums and other have counteracted the devastating
damage of spike heels by providing plastic pads that fit onto the heel tips.
The other approach is far more common, being simpler to manage al
though undesirably intrusive. The covering laid on the floor may extend
along the entire tour route as a continuous strip. More often it provides a
protective pathway across an historic carpet or old flooring which is easily
damaged or irreplaceable, or covers the restricted area in front of room
barriers where the concentration of visitors causes maximum wear. What
ever material comprises the protective floor covering should combine sev
eral attributes. It needs to absorb the wear without transmitting it to the
underlying surface. It should therefore be reasonably thick and resilient. It
should stay firmly in place as people walk on it so it will not rub against the
protected surface continually. For reasons of economy it should be long
wearing and easy to clean. For safety it should provide good traction. The
problem is to find these virtues combined in a material that is also in
conspicuous. While it should be clearly a nonhistoric addition to the fur
nishings so anyone noticing it would not be deceived, it should detract as
little as possible from the historic impression. Manufacturers produce sev
eral kinds of runners and mats designed to protect modern floors and
carpets in buildings subjected to heavy foot traflic. Available types include
rubber, vinyl and carpet-faced. Rubber mats and runners of several thick
nesses come in smooth, ribbed and textured surfaces and in a moderate
range of colors. Vinyl ones offer a choice of ribbed and textured surfaces
and may be translucent or colored. Carpet-faced ones usually have a nylon
pile in plain or mixed colors and a vinyl back. These special purpose
coverings afford a good selection in regard to resiliency, wear, cleaning
characteristics and safety. Although they tend to appear uncompromisingly
modern in an historic building, some may fit particular situations quite
well. Strips of carpeting provide another kind of material for protecting
historic floors or rugs. Coming in such a great variety of colors, patterns,
structure and fibers, carpeting may blend more satisfactorily into many
settings. A carpet runner, for example, can match the colors of a protected
rug while differing enough in pattern to distinguish it from the original.
Carpet manufacturers make some types designed to take hard wear and
clean easily. Eighteenth- and nineteenth-century householders occasionally
protected their valuable rugs by laying over them floor cloths of drugget,
baize or painted canvas. Some furnished structure museums use canvas or
similar woven fabrics where visitors walk over historic materials. Straw
matting has also been used. Whatever protective material is chosen, be sure
that its use does not accelerate wear through friction between it and the
historic surface. If it is composed of or backed with rubber or a synthetic
Protection 281
plastic, have a conservator check to be sure no chemical emanation will

damage the rug or floor beneath it. Some reprocessed rubber may be par
ticularly suspect.
Historic wall coverings usually need protection only in limited areas
where visitors tend to crowd into a small space. This situation occurs, for
example, when a room barrier restricts viewers to the corner of a room. A
frequent solution is to cover the endangered area of historic material with a
rigid transparent sheet such as glass or a clear acrylic plastic (e.g. Plexi
glas). The plastic weighs less so should be easier to install, but scratches
more readily and requires more careful cleaning (see Case Exhibits, Chap
ter 15). If glass is used, it should be one of the safety types to lessen the
serious risk of breakage. Mount either material out from the wall so air will
circulate behind it. Otherwise condensation may damage the wall covering.
The moving air should also carry away any harmful chemicals a synthetic
plastic sheet might emit. To minimize the intrusive effect as well as the cost
make the transparent shield no larger than necessary. Cover only the wall
area actually requiring protection. It may need to be only shoulder high or
up to eye level unless the historic surface especially invites touching. A
flocked or embossed wall covering may call for shielding within arm’s
reach.
In similar situations visitors may crowd against, or be tempted to finger,
historic window draperies or wall hangings. The fabric within reach then
requires a protective covering. A sleeve or envelope of thin, transparent
polyester film (e.g. Mylar) usually accomplishes the purpose, although not
without detraction in appearance.
Historic chairs, benches or sofas along the tour route sometimes suffer
damage if leg weary visitors sit on them. Experience indicates that the best
protection occurs when an attendant at the outset explains to visitors where
they may sit down to rest and why they should not sit on historic pieces.
The old practice of stretching a cord or ribbon across the arms or from
back crest to seat front does not make visitors feel welcome. Placing “Do
Not Touch” signs on the seats effectively destroys the sense of experiencing
history.
Protection from Visitor Abuse
A small proportion of visitors to furnished historic structure museums

cause deliberate damage. In most cases they seem impelled to take or leave
a souvenir of their visit. They surreptitiously pocket small objects or de
tachable fragments. Occasionally the urge is strong enough for them to lift
a child over a barrier and send it across a room to snatch something. Less
often they carve initials or indulge in other forms of graffito. Rarely a psy
chopathic individual wreaks wanton destruction. The people under consid
eration here come in as ordinary visitors. They probably have no specific

intention of stealing or vandalizing. You can distingush them from the
majority only by witnessing their unacceptable actions. Unfortunately, these
occur often enough to make protection essential. It involves, as a rule, sur
veillance, fastenings, barriers, alanns or combinations of these measures.
To protect the building and furnishings from abuse by visitors rely first
on surveillance. Few incidents take place under the eyes of an alert at
tendant. Watchfulness prevents losses. Its main purpose is to deter a person
who might act on impulse rather than to catch him in the act. So keep
visitors under observation, but do it in a manner that leaves them practi
cally unaware of it. In this kind of museum they need to get a pervading
sense of historical reality. It would evaporate in the presence of people who
were obviously guards. Therefore, employees engaged in other activities
must do the watching. Receptionists, tour leaders, stationed interpreters,
demonstrators and daytime cleaners should look for pilfering or petty van
dalism as they carry on their primary duties. Successful surveillance under
these limitations requires careful planning and adequate manpower. Every
situation calls for its own solution. One museum allows only four visitors
per well trained guide to assure full control. Another assigns two atten
dants to a tour group of 20-30 people, one leading the party while the
other follows to make sure no one lags behind unobserved. Some museums
station an attendant in each furnished room or on each floor to explain and
answer questions, but also to watch. A costumed employee can clean, do
needlework or carry on some other appropriate activity in an area that
would be unsupervised without it.
The staff members who keep an eye on visitors along with their other
duties must know what to do when someone does commit a misdemeanor
in the museum. At that critical moment they must act instantly and cor
rectly. Their legal authority in such a situation has strict limits. If, while
they are summoning help, the culprit can replace the snitched souvenir
unobserved, further action will embarrass the museum or worse. Work out
practical procedures in detail with the local law enforcement agency. Tailor
them to the individual employees, who will vary in their capacities for
confrontation. Train and rehearse the staff in these important functions. Be
sure they know how to observe without annoying, how and when to warn
or reprimand, how to get assistance quickly. Then consider the other
measures, which can only supplement the proximity of a staff member.
The exceptional visitor who attempts to steal some small object for a
souvenir usually counts on snatching it quickly. If it is fastened down, he
rarely will risk the time and commotion necessary to break it loose. Secur
ing it in place therefore offers a measure of protection, especially for small
items of furnishing which visitors can reach from normal viewing areas.
Tempting things not infrequently have to be placed within reach. You
cannot simply leave the candlestick off the mantelpiece or move the table
Protection 283
to another part of the room when it is contrary to the historical evidence to

do so. The recreated environment ought to be as accurate and complete as
possible. Yet to fasten an historic object securely and inconspicuously
without defacing it or injuring whatever it is attached to demands consider
able ingenuity. Making a hole in a specimen for a screw, nail or other
attachment commits vandalism. Driving screws or nails into the historic
fabric of the building for this purpose is almost as objectionable. Strong
adhesives become very difficult to remove with damaging one or both of
the joined surfaces, so are seldom acceptable fasteners. For some objects
try looping a strong, almost transparent nylon monofilament, such as a fish
line or leader, around or through the object and anchoring the other end of
the line at a hidden point to something solid or heavy. A book might be so
fastened to the pedestal of the table on top of which it lies, for example, or
a pen to the hinge of the desk top. Try cutting and forming a sheet of
transparent acrylic to clasp the base of a candlestick or ink well, extending
the plastic fitting to the edge of the supporting surface and bending it down
and under to clip the object rather firmly in place. Strap brass may also be
fabricated to fit an object closely and then clamp to the support beneath its
far edge. In favorable situations the brass becomes scarcely noticeable
when painted to match the background. Specific circumstances will suggest
other practical methods for attaching articles of inviting size displayed
within visitors’ grasp. Sometimes the value of the original object and the
difficulty of fastening it securely may warrant substituting an expendable
copy.
Room barriers comprise a second supplementary protective measure
(fig. 47a-e). They keep most small objects out of reach by holding
visitors back from selected parts of the furnished interior. In addition, they
prevent wear and tear on furnishings and floors in the protected areas and
help channel traffic to fit the interpretive plan. All barriers are intrusive,
but some detract surprisingly little from the sense of history that visitors
experience. The least objectionable ones seem to share three characteris
tics. They remain below the line of sight while visitors form their impres
sions of the furnished space beyond. People do not have to look through
them except from a distance. They appear neat and attractive when noticed
because they meet good standards in design, materials, workmanship, in
stallation and maintenance. They provide a comfortable feeling of assurance
about where it is proper to go in a museum, implying more strongly that
visitors are welcome here than forbidden there. In practice room barriers
range from hardly more than a suggestion of restraint to complete enclo
sures. They tend to grow more formidable when incidents of petty theft or
vandalism have occurred, but this natural reaction seldom leads to the best
solution. When barriers approach chest height, they seriously affect the
historical atmosphere. If they fully enclose the opening, they destroy any
likelihood of empathy between visitors and the historic occupants. Looking
a. Room barrier, Governor’s Palace, Colo

nial Williamsburg. Light stanchions and
cords, about knee high, effectively chan
nel large groups through the room. Cour- .,::2‘‘t‘£3 -
tesy, Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
'1
b Room barrier, Vanderbilt Mansion Na

tional Historic Site. Rope, stanchions and
end hooks fit the elegance of the setting.
C. Room barrier, Sunnyside, Sleepy Hollow

Restorations. A single bar hinged at one
end and latched at the other stops visitors
at the bedchamber door, but gives the
staff quick access.
dfi Room barrier, Sunnyside, Sleepy Hollow

Restorations. Most visitors respect the
simple stand with cross dowel at the door
way, but a staff member can easily set it
aside.
Figure 47. Examples of successful room barriers.

Protection 285
~ B
B
C A
Corner Details
Showing piano hinge location
(O
N
Open Position
Material:
3/4" amcu PLYWOOD
FINISHED IN 'WEATHERED'
GREY o||. STAIN
Folded Position
B U
A
Kitchen Parlor
3" Radius at all
inside corners
R Furniture glides under

allcorners
:1 ~
Room Plan Corner Detail
e. Enclosing a viewing area, General Meade’s headquarters, Gettysburg National Mili

tary Park.
at a furnished room through a glass or plastic shield or a prison-like grille

changes its interpretive character from an environment for life to an ineffi
cient display of antiques. Good barriers, therefore, depend primarily on
their psychological effect. They obstruct physical passage as little as cir
cumstances permit. When the number or kinds of visitors and the insuffi
ciency of attendants require substantial bars, these are only high enough
and strong enough to force an intruder to climb over them. This much
obstruction will stop all but a few determined pilferers. Other protective
measures discussed in the next section help deal with such incursions. Good
barriers also fit into the historic setting, not by trying to look like part of the
original structure but by being unobtrusively functional. Wide differences
in individual situations preclude standardization. Many varieties of barriers
have proven successful when used in the right places. To design or select
a suitable one calls for taste and judgment.
Some barriers mark one or both sides of the tour route passing through a
room. Others form a viewing space within a room where several people at
a time can stand as they look. Still others stop visitors at a doorway from
which they can see the contents of the room. In any of these forms the
barrier may be a rope or chain, a rod or a fence. Ropes used for this
purpose vary from plush-covered ones 11/2 inches (38mm) or more in
diameter to quite slender cords. Velvet-sheathed cables, braided silk or
rayon cords and ornamental chains connote wealth and luxury. In the
many settings where these are inappropriate, plainer materials work better.
A % inch (9.5 mm) nylon rope affords ample strength, for example. It can
be wiped clean and, if dark colored, is relatively inconspicuous. A barrier
rope ordinarily needs to have an open hook or snap hook spliced or
otherwise neatly attached at each end to fasten into an eye on a stanchion
or door frame. Merely tying the barrier to a doorknob or latch keeper
as well as leaving the ends frayed or knotted debases the installation.
Screwing eyes into historic woodwork for fastening the barrier implies a
lack of respect for the structure. So stanchions often provide more ac
ceptable as well as more adaptable supports. Although the heavy stanchions
intended for crowd control in places of public assembly are efficient, they
look out of place in many furnished interiors. Manufacturers supply lighter
ones, and museums also make them to fit particular needs. Either 1/_> inch
(12.7 mm) iron rods, which may be round or square, or 11/2 inches (38
mm) wood posts provide satisfactory uprights. Bases can be of wood or
iron, but require enough breadth and weight to resist tipping when visitors
accidentally push against the rope. One l2 to 15 inches (305—38l mm)
across and weighing at least 10 pounds (4.5 kg) should suffice in many
situations. Lead poured into holes bored in the bottom of a wooden base
can provide necessary ballast. When a rope barrier borders the route of a
conducted tour, the stanchions may stand a foot or less in height (c. 300
mm). When circumstances make a higher barrier preferable, they average
Protection 287
three to three and one-half feet tall (.9-1 m). Stanchions usually stand not
more than four feet apart (1.2 m).
Rod barriers use rigid bars of wood or metal in place of ropes or chains.
Like the preceding type they mark the limits of permissible entry rather
than creating an obstacle difficult to penetrate. A long rod held several
inches above the floor on free standing supports can designate a tour route
or a viewing area. A shorter one held horizontally by a single stanchion can
close a passageway. A bar firmly anchored at each end and three to four
feet (.9-1.2 m) above the floor can stop visitors at a door or wider room
opening. In each case the rod and its support should reflect careful work
manship in construction and finish. They should respect the integrity of the
original structure and the historic setting they help protect. Good sense
suggests that a low wooden bar be rectangular in cross section with a sharp
edge up so visitors will be less liable to rest their feet on it. Conversely, a
higher, well anchored one should be comfortable to lean on and pleasant to
touch.
Barriers in the form of a fence or railing often stand at the doorways of
furnished rooms or enclose viewing areas just inside the doors. When they
extend across a room these barriers become more conspicuous and seem
justified only if visitors go through unattended or in groups too large for
adequate surveillance. Most of the good fence barriers in use range from
three to about four feet high (.9-1.2 m). A sneak thief should find it risky
getting over a barrier higher than three feet while other people are likely to
be nearby. At four feet most adult visitors can rest their forearms comfort
ably on the top rail as they scan the furnished scene. The top rail should be
thin to minimize its visual intrusion, smooth to the touch without sharp
edges and easy to keep clean. Both extruded metal and polished hardwood
can meet these conditiolns, the best choice depending on the setting. If the
bottom rail is raised a few inches above the floor, dust mop and vacuum
cleaner can do their jobs easier. People, especially children, will step on
this rail. So it should be strong enough to take the weight and have a
durable finish that can be readily maintained. A hard paste wax on metal
or wood may stand up better and renew easier than a paint finish in this
circumstance. As in most railings the upright supports between the top and
bottom members should be no more than 4-5 inches (c. 100-125 mm)
apart for the protection of small children. Metal has one advantage over
wood for these uprights because it can provide the required strength in
smaller sizes and the thinner the upright, the less conspicuous. Quite a few
young visitors cannot see over a four-foot railing. Rather than condemn
them to look at the room through bars or plastic, some museums design
barriers with a viewing space below the top rail (fig. 48). Some fence
barriers can support themselves without attachment to the structure. More
often they require fastening to the floor, door frame or wall. When this
involves historic woodwork, consult the restoration architect to make sure
that damage to the fabric of the building, if permitted at all, is minimal.

Staff members need to get into rooms protected by these barriers, perhaps
quickly in an emergency. Consequently some railings include gates or are
mounted on hinges. Gates must latch securely, and in extreme cases lock.
The need for hinges and latches complicates both construction and anchor
ing. Figure 49 shows one National Park Service solution in which the
barrier lifts to unlatch.
it
Figure 48. Room barrier, Arlington House, George Washington Memorial Parkway.
Children can look through the space below the handrail or stand on the bottom rail
to see over the top.
Protection 289
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The third supplement to surveillance consists of detection and alarm

devices. These can guard valuable furnishings which must be left un
watched part of the time during open hours. If a visitor enters an area or
attempts to remove an object protected by such devices, they summon help.
Their usefulness thus depends on a responsible person receiving the signal
and reacting promptly. The increasing variety of detection and alarm
equipment provides an opportunity to choose the combination best suited
to a particular situation. In selecting components or a complete system
consider not only cost but also safety, reliability and ways in which the
installation will affect the museum. For safety be sure that all parts of the
system are listed by the Underwriters’ Laboratories and that all wiring
conforms to the National Electrical Code (NFPA 70, see also 70A, Dwell
ing Electrical Code). As to reliability all systems demand regular inspec
tion and maintenance. Find out how frequently by consulting other
museums that use the ones under consideration. The protective equipment
can have several side effects on the museum. Visible devices tend to detract
from the sense of history visitors should experience as they view the pro
tected area. To hide them or wire them may entail damage to original
woodwork or disturbing the historic placement of furnishings. Some types
of alarm interrupt staff activities throughout the building. Others require a
staff member to be stationed at the instrument which displays the signal.
With these factors in mind evaluate available equipment. Potentially use
ful detectors include pressure sensitive floor mats, capacitance units, micro
wave units, photoelectric devices, closed circuit television and miniature
pressure switches among others (see Agents of Deterioration, Chapter 4).
The size of a television camera and of the sending and receiving units of a
photoelectric installation makes their concealment difficult in a furnished
historic structure, although they are good detectors. In rooms with a floor
covering thin pressure mats can be hidden beneath it at points where an
intruder would have to step, but care is necessary to make sure that sharp
eyed visitors cannot discern the mats under a light weight carpet or floor
cloth. These mats work like the ones that open supermarket doors. The
added weight closes an electrical contact embedded in the mat. This sets off
an alarm. A capacitance unit consists of a small metal box (e.g. about
3% >< 2 >< 1 inches or 95 >< 51 >< 25 mm) mounted in the protected
area and connected to a larger control box which can be elsewhere in the
building. The unit generates a radio frequency field or “electronic fence”
around an ungrounded metal object to which it is connected. A body or
hand entering this invisible field alters the balanced circuit enough to trig
ger an alarm. The ungrounded metal may be foil behind, beneath or within
protected furnishings. A microwave unit, although a few inches larger than
the preceding one, can operate from a greater distance. It emits and re
ceives a radio beam precisely focused to cover a limited area within a
room. Any movement into the protected zone disrupts the pattern reflected
Protection 291
to the receiver and activates an alarm. Miniature switches guard individual

items of furnishing such as an especially vulnerable chair, picture or candle
stick. The object rests on the switch, its weight preventing the flow of
electrical current. Any attempt to lift the object allows current to pass
through the switch and reach the alarm mechanism. The fine wires leading
to the switch can be quite inconspicuous in favorable circumstances, but
the thickness of the switch, although only a fraction of an inch, may cause
installation problems.
The alarm at the other end of the line in each case can also meet
particular needs. Some situations may justify a clanging bell or blaring, gas
powered horn audible even beyond the premises. Often a softer bell or
buzzer located close to each protected area will effectively call a nearby
attendant. Any type of detector can activate a taped warning message
broadcast at the point of intrusion. The sound can be set just loud enough
to alert the nearest attendant as well. If the museum has a continuously
manned station, the alarm may take the form of a signal on a central
control panel telling where the incident has occurred. While some museums
have the staff capability to develop and install their own detection and alarm
systems using off-the-shelf components, most will find it desirable to obtain
proposals from two or more reputable protection specialists and confirm
their choices on the basis of successful installation in similar institutions.
Some leading firms in the field offer free consultant services worth
investigating.
The attitude of the public toward the museum reinforces or works against
the measures already discussed. An intangible but effective form of pro
tection operates when people regard the historic building with its furnish
ings as a prime community asset, when they feel personal concern for it. A
museum which not only cultivates but earns the respect and affection of its
public minimizes problems of visitor abuse.
Protection from Burglary

A building filled with carefully selected antiques becomes a concentra
tion of marketable goods liable to attract burglars. Furnished historic struc
ture museums therefore need to maintain security at night, and whenever
else they are closed as well as during open hours. Refer to the precautions
noted in Chapter 4. They apply to the historic structure museum with
similar urgency. Establish protection along these lines, but with full respect
for historical integrity. Assign to one staff member clearcut responsibility
for security. Observe the daily closing and inspection procedures with un
remitting care. This should assure that every person has left the building,
that all doors and windows have been locked and, upon reopening, that
nothing has been taken. To these basic measures add as many of the
following as the individual situation can justify. Altogether they form three
lines of defense. The first aims to prevent a would-be intruder approaching

the building. High fences or outside detection and alarm systems would
usually compromise the historic setting. Exterior lighting to illuminate the
doors and windows through which a burglar would have to force his way
acts similarly as a strong deterrent. Careful placement often can make the
fixtures quite inconspicuous by day. When history rather than security
determines the foundation planting, additional lights may reduce potential
hiding places in the shrubbery. The second line of defense lies at the doors
and windows themselves. Their locks should resist forcing, but the installa
tion of modern ones can easily damage historic woodwork or appear ob
viously anachronistic to visitors. In this case consider ways to bolt, bar or
brace the windows and most doors inconspicuously from the inside, leaving
one service entrance to lock with the best modern security hardware. To
protect the points of entry more fully equip them with magnetic contacts or
other detection devices that send an alarm when someone opens a door or
window. Install the devices, as they can be, in ways that will seldom catch
a visitor’s eye. Should a burglar gain entry through a door panel, window
pane or otherwise without detection, the internal defense line provides a
third means of foiling him. This may consist of a night guard, but furnished
structure museums do not always employ one. As a replacement or sup
plement there is a choice of automatic systems that can detect and report
the presence of an intruder. Some use ultrasonic waves, microwaves or
infrared beams to sense his movements. Others react to his body heat or to
whatever source of light he uses. Each of them can send a telephone signal
to the home of a designated staff member, to the central station of a
commercial security agency, or possibly to the local police. Probably to
less advantage they can set off a loud alarm at the museum in the hope that
the burglar will flee without taking anything while neighbors or passersby
call the police. Sophisticated detection systems require regular, expert
maintenance. Their sensitivity may result in false alarms. As already sug
gested, their value depends on the speed with which a capable, responsible
person answers their summons. If they involve equipment that visitors will
see, the adverse effect on the sense of history being evoked makes their
installation questionable.
Protection from Fire
The record of destruction caused by fire in historic structures underlines

the need for concern. If you take seriously the museum’s obligation to
preserve its collections, and its responsibility for the safety of staff and
visitors, you will maintain an active fire protection program. A good way to
start is to study the booklet, Protecting our Heritage: A Discourse on Fire
Protection and Prevention in Historic Buildings and Landmarks, published
Protection 293
by the National Fire Protection Association in conjunction with the Ameri

can Association for State and Local History. Other steps should follow
logically.
In many cases the next step comprises an expert analysis of the problem.
A well qualified team composed, for example, of the museum’s architect
and a fire protection engineer (located through the Society of Fire Protec
tion Engineers, Boston, or your insurance company) examines the prop
erty and operations in detail. This intensive study searches out the
conditions which might cause a fire and contribute to its spread. It checks
the surroundings for possibilities of ignition from outside, the vulnerability
of the site and building to lightning, the nature and condition of the heating
and electrical installations, maintenance practices that might invite spon
taneous heating or carelessness in handling and disposing of flammable
supplies, interpretive activities involving heat or open flame, visitors’ atti
tudes that might lead to arson, and other potential sources. Weighing these
risks it explores practical ways to minimize the chance of fire originating
from each. The investigation also notes the kinds and amounts of com
bustible material in and near the historic building that might feed a blaze,
and studies how to reduce, relocate or isolate them. It spots conditions
likely to accelerate the spread of smoke, heat or flame into and through the
building, then determines what corrective changes would be feasible. It
observes how a fire would be detected and reported, and considers the
various available ways to increase the efficiency of these important func
tions. The inquiry extends to the resources on call for extinguishing fires:
water supply, equipment, trained fire fighters and other factors. If these do
not seem adequate, it examines ways to improve and supplement them.
The safety of people in the museum in case of fire comes under close
scrutiny. Given the existing conditions how many people could get through
the corridors, down the stairs and out the exits in time? From such consid
erations the experts formulate evacuation procedures and evaluate the
possible need to limit numbers of visitors or make structural modifications.
Another point of special concern is the protection of the furnishings, par
ticularly items of exceptional historic value, should fire occur. This enters
every calculation of risk and remedial action. It may also call for special
salvage provisions. The study results in a report which should include cost
estimates and recommended priorities. (See also Appendix G.)
The experts’ report goes to the governing board or whatever authority has
ultimate responsibility for the museum’s collections and policies. Whoever
sets policy must make the hard decision as to how much loss from fire the
museum could tolerate, what proportion of resources to devote to fire
protection, and the sequence of actions needed to achieve adequate protec
tion. Then the report provides guidance for the staff to initiate well consid
ered measures to reduce hazards, upgrade protective equipment and
organize a continuing program of fire protection.
The staff faces other difficult choices in making a furnished historic

structure as safe from fire as possible within the policy limits adopted.
Conventional fire safety practices often seem to conflict with the museum’s
obligation to preserve the historic appearance. From the first point of view
portable fire extinguishers should hang conspicuously at critical locations
for instant use by the nearest person; detection devices and sprinkler heads
should be exposed on the ceilings to achieve their maximum effectiveness;
lighted signs should mark exits; the added safety of structural changes to
make walls more fire resistant or to run water lines for automatic sprinkler
or standpipe systems should outweigh questions of historical integrity es
pecially in hidden places. From the other standpoint such intrusions and
alterations would seriously erode or even destroy the values both sides
earnestly aim to preserve. Fortunately experience has demonstrated that
when a fire protection expert and a curator both approach the problems
with open minds and the patience to understand each other’s reasoning,
creative compromises can ensue. Museums with exemplary fire safety have
in fact successfully concealed from general view portable fire extinguishers,
hydrants, detection devices, sprinkler heads and other fire protection pro
visions and have avoided the use of exit signs. To balance any curtailment
of efficiency in each case these museums have instituted and maintained
specific compensating measures. They carry out more frequent and thor
ough inspections, upkeep and staff training. They control public use more
closely. The way to reconcile the demands of fire safety with those of
historic preservation and interpretation is to match each deviation from
standard practice with steps to achieve a corresponding degree of pro
tection by other, more acceptable means. These alternative steps usually
entail greater responsibility for the staff and involve the unflagging main
tenance of an intensive fire protection program.
The fire protection program for a furnished historic structure museum
should follow the outline comprising Chapter 10, Organization and Super
vision, in the National Fire Protection Association Publication No. 911,
Recommended Practice for the Protection of Museum Collections from
Fire. As with security one staff member should be charged with the day-to
day management of the program (see Agents of Deterioration, Chapter 4).
Usually the same person acts as security and fire protection manager. This
individual needs ready access to the museum director, or to the park super
intendent in the case of a park museum, so any recommendations will
receive prompt consideration and rules will be enforced. The fire protection
manager’s duties should include:
1. Daily inspection to sustain a high level of fire safety in housekeeping

and grounds keeping, storage and disposal of combustible materials, selec
tion and use of electrical appliances, observance of smoking regulations,
maintenance of corridors and exits clear of obstructions, correction of
Protection 295
other fire hazards that may develop and protection of the original copy of
the museum catalogue.
2. Periodic inspections and tests, at recommended intervals usually in
collaboration with an appropriate technical specialist, of fire detection and
alarm systems, portable fire extinguishers, fixed extinguishing systems,
materials treated with flame retardants, heating plant and electrical
installation.
3. Liaison with the local fire department, facilitating its thorough fa
miliarity with the building and contents and its advance preparations for
meeting an emergency in the museum.
4. Staff motivation and training in fire safety so each individual actively
supports the program, knows what to do in case of fire and has become
skilled in doing it; with supplementary training for those selected to moni
tor evacuation, operate fire extinguishers or carry out salvage operations.
5. Personal study to become increasingly knowledgeable in fire pre
vention and protection.
6. Leadership, when fire breaks out, to insure effective action in calling
the fire department, clearing the building, utilizing the extinguishing equip
ment until the firemen arrive, supporting their efforts, preparing a prompt
report of losses and beginning the salvage of historical materials.
No matter how small the museum staff someone should conscientiously
perform as many of these duties as apply to your situation. The danger of
fire tends to increase during periods of structural restoration, repair and
installation, but never warrants neglect. The NFPA publication on pro
tection of museum collections cited above contains additional helpful
recommendations (see also Agents of Deterioration, Chapter 4).
Protection from Other Catastrophes

Furnished historic structures have no inherent virtues that protect them
from tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, civil disturbances or war. The potential
destructiveness of these occurrences is obvious. Equally clear are the lessons
learned by museums that have survived such disasters. Hard experience has
demonstrated that it pays to weigh the possibilities in advance, then plan
and prepare accordingly.
Evaluate the risks realistically. Available data permit you to do so. If the
museum site has ever flooded, this may well happen again in spite of
intervening flood control measures. Study not only the water levels reached,
but also the combination of factors that resulted in major overflows.
Weather records show tornado zones and hurricane tracks, so you can
appraise the degree of risk for the museum’s locality. Early warning sys
tems provide a few hours or days of grace in which to make final prepara
tions. Community conditions that lead to riots and bomb incidents seldom
develop without observable signs of unrest. Government can usually warn
its citizens of impending war. Take civil defense recommendations

seriously.
Having considered the chances try to visualize what would happen in the
kinds of emergency you think might arise. People in the museum may need
a safe shelter. Broken windows or other damage to the building may re
quire you to cover or move furnishings quickly. You may have to secure
the premises from illegal entry or move the collection to a safer place.
During the most critical period and for awhile afterward the museum will
probably be without electricity or telephone service. Police, the fire depart
ment and other public agencies will be too busy or handicapped to offer
normal support. The help and supplies you need to make emergency re
pairs or apply essential preservative treatment to damaged furnishings will
be in urgent demand by other victims.
With the potential problems in mind plan what you can do to be ready.
Then make whatever advance preparations seem justifiable. You can de
cide what space will offer the safest refuge for staff and visitors and make
sure that its regular use will not preclude its occupancy when needed. You
can procure the supplies or supplementary equipment which should be on
hand. These may include materials to board up windows and doors or
protective covers for exposed furnishings. Emergency lighting or communi
cations equipment may be in order. Develop whatever standby arrange
ments seem advisable for transporting, storing, securing or salvaging the
collections. To prepare for bomb threats, which may accompany civil un
rest, instruct the staff members who might receive a warning call. The
person who takes such a call should remain calm, obtain as much informa
tion as possible about the location and timing of the bomb, and note
peculiarities of the caller’s voice and manner. As soon as the caller hangs
up, the police should be notified as well as the staff member responsible for
security. The latter should initiate established procedure to evacuate the
building and keep people out until the police have removed the bomb or
become convinced the call was a hoax. For museums within imminent war
zones well tested practice has comprised two principal steps. The staff has
removed the museum’s treasures swiftly but carefully to predetermined
safe hiding places. Then staff members have followed the guidance of the
civil defense authorities in protecting the building and its remaining contents.
The preservation of objects remains a basic function of museums. Re
sponsibility for the safety of persons has an even broader base. Therefore
you cannot avoid the obligation to practice protection in its manifold and
changing aspects.
Evacuation
Some emergencies require that all visitors and staff get out of the mu
seum quickly. This situation arises, for example, in case of fire or a bomb
Protection 297
threat. Only careful planning and practice can reasonably assure rapid
evacuation. A staff member on duty must have the clearly assigned re
sponsibility to notify all occupants and make sure that all have actually left
the building. All staff members should know from participation in fire drills
what route to follow and which exits to use. In addition the number of
visitors allowed inside the building at any one time should be limited to its
safe capacity. If more than that crowd in, some people would probably not
escape should a crisis occur. To estimate how many visitors should be
allowed in the building or any part of it at a time you need the reasoned
judgment of a fire protection engineer. The latest edition of the National
Fire Protection Association’s Life Safety Code will also help identify the
factors to be considered such as distances to exits, size of passageways and
the nature of the structure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Safe Practices in Housekeeping

Museums and Collectors. LaJolla. Laurence McGilvery, 1973.
Keck, Caroline K. A Handbook on the Care of Paintings. New York. Watson
Guptill Publications for the American Association for State and Local
History, 1965, pp. 4-5, 7.
National Safety Council. Handbook of Accident Prevention. 6th ed. Chicago.
National Safety Council, 1972 (or latest edition).
Sugden, Robert P. Care and Handling of Art Objects. New York. Metropolitan
Protecting Visitors
National Fire Protection Association. Life Safety Code. NFPA 101. Rev. ed.
Boston. NFPA, 1970 (or latest edition).
National Safety Council. op. cit.
Protecting the Building and Furnishings

In addition to many of the references cited under Agents of Deterioration
and Climate Control in the bibliography for Chapter 4 see:
don. Constable and Company, Ltd., 1971, pp. 124-141.
FitzSimmons, Neal. “Emergency Measures and Museums,” Museum News, 43:6
(February 1965 ), pp. 23-24.
Hatch, John Davis. “The Case Against the Heel,” Museum News, 42:9 (May
1964), p. 29.
Hopkins, Kenneth. “Confrontation . . . and Community,” Museum News, 48:3
(November 1969), pp. 11, 48.
. “Is Confrontation in Your Future?” Curator, XIII:2 (1970), pp.
120-124.
Jenkins, Joseph F., ed. Protecting Our Heritage: A Discourse on Fire Protection
and Prevention in Historic Buildings and Landmarks. Boston. National
Fire Protection Association with assistance from American Association for
State and Local History, 1970.
Keck, Caroline K. “On Conservation,” Museum News, 50:9 (May 1972), p. 9.
Merrill, William. “Wood Deterioration: Causes, Detection & Prevention,”
History News, 29:8 (August 1974).
National Fire Protection Association. National Electrical Code. NFPA 70. Rev.
ed. Boston. NFPA, 1974.
. Electrical Code for One and Two Family Dwellings. NFPA 70A. Rev.
ed. Boston. NFPA, 1972.
. Life Safety Code. NFPA 101. Rev. ed. Boston. NFPA, 1973.
. Protection of Library Collections from Fire. NFPA 910. Rev. ed.
Boston. NFPA, 1970. Rev. ed. in prep.
. Protection of Museum Collections from Fire. NFPA 911. Rev. ed.
Boston. NFPA, 1974.
Noblecourt, André. Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed
Conflict. Museums and Monuments—VIII. Paris. UNESCO, 1958.
United States Department of Agriculture. Subterranean Termites, Their Pre
vention and Control in Buildings. Home and Garden Bulletin 64. Rev. ed.
-i—. How to Prevent and Remove Mildew: Home Methods. Home and
Garden Bulletin 68. Rev. ed. Washington. Government Printing Office,
1971.
. Controlling Household Pests. Home and Garden Bulletin 96. Rev. ed.
Chapter 13 Interpretation
An accurately restored and furnished building is an historical resource.

It is preserved because it embodies and documents something important
about the past. Therefore visitors come to see it. Merely looking at it, like
watching Old Faithful erupt, enriches a visit. But as with a geyser, seeing it
only taps the surface. The more a visitor understands about what he sees,
the more he appreciates and enjoys it. Unaided, however, his aroused
interest may be diverted by details and miss the primary significance. For
tunately, a furnished historic structure is also an interpretive medium. It
displays real things arranged in context to communicate meaning. It uses
the artifacts to transmit an experience of what is important about its past.
Nature of the Experience
Visitors to a furnished historic structure museum encounter an almost

total environment preserved or recreated with the objective of complete
ness rather than simplification. Only the historic persons who once oc
cupied the rooms are absent. Evidence of their activity, however, pervades
the scene. The place looks lived in; under ideal conditions it feels as though
the historic occupants might return at any moment. A visitor’s first glimpse
of a furnished room gives him a flood of sensory stimuli. After the initial,
quick, general impression his attention begins to focus on individual ob
jects. His senses linger with some, brush over others and miss some entirely.
A mental picture of the room forms. Emotional responses become more
specific. Noticing things that seem familiar or strange, esthetically pleasing
or distasteful, suggestive of pleasant or unpleasant experience, he feels the
room to be comfortable and inviting perhaps, or exciting, or saddening. At
the same time he starts to think about the room and its contents. Questions
come to mind. He associates what he sees with things remembered. Specu
lations and judgments take shape. This is the critical point. His thoughts
may proceed, or be led, along either of two paths. If the room retains its
unity, he should acquire a strong sense of the reality of the people and
activities represented by this setting. He should gain a clearer conception of
what the people were like and what took place here. His understanding,
enriched by many details, associations and insights, should be nearer the
299
whole truth. His feeling of discovery and accomplishment, linked with a

fresh desire to learn more and often reinforced by esthetic satisfactions,
should add up to a thoroughly enjoyable and rewarding experience.
If, on the other hand, the furnishings or architectural details in them
selves become the center of interest, the visitor begins to misuse the me
dium. Because the objects are arranged throughout the room to illustrate
their environmental role, as individual pieces they get in each other’s way,
compete for attention and defy close inspection. The Kentucky rifle hangs
on the frontier cabin wall to tell of lurking danger, of the need to hunt fresh
meat, of the concerns and activities of its owner. When the visitor tries
instead to study its distinctive features and workmanship, he cannot get
close enough, the lighting is unsatisfactory and other things partially hide it
or distract his attention. He not only risks frustration, but loses sight of the
significant concepts the total setting is intended to express.
A second threat to a satisfactory experience in a furnished structure
museum comes from intrusions. The sense of reality that the furnished
space should convey is easily destroyed. The thoughts and feelings which
make a room come alive get diverted whenever a visitor becomes conscious
of something incongruous or anachronistic. He promptly loses part of the
historical experience intended for him. Individuals vary in their sensitivity
to distraction, but the best course is to eliminate as many intrusions as
possible and minimize the adverse effect of those that must remain. Objec
tionable ones commonly encountered include:
—signs, especially those attached directly to the historic structure; donor
plaques on rooms or furniture; “do not touch” signs; posted notices;
conspicuous room labels
—fee collecting and sales equipment or activity inside the historic struc
ture, especially near the entrance
—extraneous conversation among attendants
—exhibit cases or interpretive panels in a building primarily furnished,
collections displayed in cupboards, closets or other parts of the fur
nished structure
--visible evidence of modern wiring and heating, often electric lights
burning in period fixtures, but also switches, wall outlets, thermostats
and air duct grilles
—exposed protective devices such as fire extinguishers, hose cabinets,
fire and burglar detection and alarm systems, modern door locks,
room barriers and protective floor coverings
—modern screen doors and window screens
—most artificial flowers, wax fruit, plaster models of meats or baked
goods, stuffed household pets.
Unfortunately, when overcrowding or thoughtless behavior occur, vis
itors themselves may become intrusive.
Interpretation 301
What to Interpret
Each furnished historic structure museum has an interpretive mission.

This is spelled out for it in the first section of the Furnishing Plan. Its task
is to illustrate, in depth, certain historical ideas the truth and significance of
which are grounded on solid research. The building, its setting and the
furnishings unavoidably embody many ideas. The relatively few of these
carefully chosen for active interpretation should fulfill three conditions.
The ideas should be important in themselves or, in the case of a park,
because they support a significant aspect of the park story, for this makes
them worth communicating. They must permit the furnishings to be se
lected and arranged in full agreement with the historical evidence, for the
integrity of the museum depends on this. They must also find expression by
means of fully furnished rooms, for this is the nature of the medium.
Alternatives to complete furnishing, discussed at the end of this chapter,
create different interpretive means.
The ideas selected for interpretation comprise the central subject which
the complex environmental setting should make more real, more under
standable and more interesting. The kinds most often appropriate involve:
Persons
Some buildings serve best to help us understand an historic person. The

structure, grounds and furnishings reflect his interests, activities, tastes,
social position, economic status, family and friends. Concrete evidence
about such facets of his life may not explain the acts which made him
famous, but it can make the man and his contribution to history more vital.
It provides data for considering him from many angles. Visitors can get a
fuller and more accurate conception of him. At the same time the environ
ment that surrounded him can often shed light on key points of his charac
ter or career. For example, all the things in and about Arlington House
which illustrate Robert E. Lee’s strong attachment to it can be interpreted
to emphasize the heart-rending difficulty of his decision to go with the
South. At Glenmont, Edison’s library can recapture in some measure the
tireless searching so characteristic of his achievements. Theodore Roose
velt’s love of adventure becomes apparent in many of the furnishings at
Sagamore Hill. Furnished buildings that interpret important individuals
may illustrate only one period of their lives, a lifetime, as at the Home of
Franklin D. Roosevelt, or even several generations as does the Adams
home. Each presents opportunities available nowhere else for illustrating
selected aspects of a career which the detailed setting can illuminate. Fig
ure 50 illustrates one such museum.
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Figure 50 The study, Frederick Douglass Home National Capital Parks-East.

Interpretation 303
Events
The significant association for some buildings is with an event. What

took place there overshadows the participants. The ideas to interpret, ac
cordingly, center on the action and its meaning. The furnished structure
sets the scene, suggests the nature of the action and recreates to some
extent the atmosphere of the occasion. With this help visitors not only get
the emotional impact of standing at the actual spot, but can visualize what
happened more vividly and in richer detail. This in turn should make the
significance of the act more understandable. Visitors to Independence Hall
can picture the delegates signing the Declaration and catch something of
the spirit which must have filled the room. Interpretation can extend the
experience to include the deliberation of the Continental Congress and the
Constitutional Convention. The McLean House at Appomattox recreates
the setting for the brief meeting of Grant and Lee on which the interpreta
tion concentrates. The Moore House at Yorktown as noted above (see The
Furnishing Plan, Chapter 10) presents a similar opportunity. Such build
ings where the principal action involved only one room force a difficult
decision. Does the exhibition of additional furnished rooms in each particu
lar case enhance or dilute interpretation of the main theme? In some other
instances the mood of the event demands primary consideration as in the
House Where Lincoln Died and the little plantation ofiice to which Stone
wall Jackson was carried from the battlefield (fig. 51).
Figure 51. Room where Stonewall Jackson died, Jackson Shrine, Fredericksburg and
Spotsylvania National Military Park.
Ways of Life
Other furnished structures illustrate concepts about everyday activities

of the past. The persons who occupied the buildings represent categories of
people. They stand for such groups as soldiers on garrison duty, the iron
workers at a charcoal furnace, storekeepers and their customers, home
steaders, lighthouse keepers or landed gentry of the Gilded Age. Buildings
and furnishings combine to give a feeling approaching that of participation,
a strong impression that this is what it was like to live as these people did.
Often the installation also makes clear a technical operation, telling plainly
that this is how they did it. Innumerable aspects of life and work might be
illustrated by furnished structures, each filling in a bit of the mosaic of our
history. Careful selection of what to present therefore becomes necessary.
The choice should rest on activities of historical significance in most cases.
Occasionally a group or activity of minor importance may merit the use of
this medium because it contributes a needed element to the interpretation
of a park, for example. In furnishing a building to show a way of life, base
it on a known occupant if possible. This gives integrity and vitality to the
setting. Lacking a known personality, a measure of vitality can come from
a clearly visualized hypothetical occupant based on careful research, not on
imagination. In either case, however, the significantly typical rather than
the individual aspects of the scene should dominate the interpretation (fig.
52).
Architecture and the Decorative Arts
Preservationists have often restored a building because of its architec

tural merit and have furnished it in harmony with the style. The structure
and its contents illustrate the artistic creativity and fine craftsmanship of a
period. The purpose is to give esthetic pleasure, cultivate good taste and
even foster connoisseurship. These commendable objectives seldom, if
ever, control the development of furnished historic structure museums in
the national parks. This is so first because buildings preserved in the parks
are significant for historical rather than esthetic reasons. Second, if a build
ing is saved because it is architecturally important, interpretation should
try to emphasize and explain its architecture. Refurnishing would conceal
or draw attention away from the aspects of primary concern. In the same
way, furnishings preserved for their individual artistic quality call for dif
ferent interpretation. See alternative methods at the end of the chapter.
The Pope-Leighey House by Frank Lloyd Wright, a National Trust prop
erty, illustrates an exception that would prove the rule. A building designed
by a famous architect and containing the furnishings he intended for it
becomes an historic document to be interpreted as a whole.
Interpretation
Figure 52. Tavern converted to a field hospital as restored at Manassas National

Battlefield Park.
A furnished historic structure museum rarely interprets its point of em

phasis to the complete exclusion of other aspects. For some visitors an
installation primarily aimed to interpret a person or event will give insights
into a way of life or provide esthetic enjoyment. Visitors are free agents
bringing their individual interests and reacting to various stimuli. The task
of the interpreter is to help them grasp the particularly significant ideas the
furnished structure illustrates.
Interpretive Methods
The interpretation of a furnished historic structure involves three stages

—preparation, the visit and follow-up. The actual visit, although clearly
the most important element, does not constitute the entire experience or
the sole interpretive opportunity. Each stage calls for the extra effort of
intelligent experimentation. The unique aspects of every historic building
should rule out stereotyped methods, as should the state of the interpretive
art.
Preparation
Pre-visit interpretation aims first to induce a receptive attitude. It seeks
to generate anticipation and curiosity, set an appropriate mood, channel
thinking toward the principal meaning of the furnished structure and give
people the essential facts needed in order to grasp this meaning. The in
terpreter’s tools for accomplishing these objectives include publications,
signs, the surroundings through which visitors approach the building and
personal contacts. Two special situations call for additional tools.
The publication which park visitors ordinarily see in advance is the free
information leaflet for the park. The format often allows only a sentence or
two, or a captioned picture, about the furnished historic structure museum.
These words and pictures that convey a first impression should be chosen
carefully to express or suggest what is primarily significant about the his
toric building and its contents. The folder should avoid calling attention to
subsidiary aspects. When a crucial meeting in the parlor is the real focus,
for example, do not comment on the icehouse or the slave quarters, how
ever interesting they may be. The text and illustrations which direct the
visitor’s thoughts toward the central theme can also begin to evoke feelings
that will help him catch the essence of the place. So can the design of the
folder, sometimes to a marked degree, by its visual suggestion of dignity,
excitement or other appropriate attitude. It is not beyond the power of the
brief reference to raise questions in the reader’s mind and make the im
pending visit seem a desirable and perhaps exciting thing to do. The folder
Interpretation 307
can do these tasks well if the persons who write, edit and design it under
stand fully the interpretive purpose of the furnished structure and the in
tended functions of the leaflet in helping to attain it. On the other hand, the
free folder does not seem to be the best means for giving visitors the
background facts. Who, for example, were the Wicks and how did their
house fit into the winter encampment of Washington’s army at Morris
town? The leaflet lacks space for such details unless the furnished building
is the principal feature of the park. Even when the leaflet does provide the
background story, it can seldom call the information actively to the vis
itor’s attention at the time he most needs it.
Other publications which may prepare the prospective visitor well or
poorly for his experience are tourist guidebooks and road maps. An alert
curator, although he has no control over these commercial aids to travelers,
can often influence what they say about the historic feature. If the refer
ences to the furnished structure museum create the right impression of its
nature and purpose, these publications also contribute to the visitor’s
readiness.
Signs comprise a second set of preparatory tools. They interpret while
they inform. Posters, and signs having a similar function, invite visitors to
come. They tell people that an historic feature is available. Posters are
designed to attract attention and arouse interest. The design can use color
and pictorial elements to turn thoughts toward the dominant ideas of the
furnished structure and help create the kind of mood desired. A poster’s
few words usually name the feature, perhaps tell where it is, and say no
more.
Directional signs may lead visitors to the furnished structure. If so, these
signs have considerable effect on the attitude of visitors when they arrive.
Making it easy to find the way eliminates annoyances that weaken or spoil
the interpretive experience of the actual visit. Directional signs should
identify the destination and point the way clearly at a glance. They should
be placed wherever visitors question the route. They should catch the eye
unfailingly. It is ordinarily unwise to ask them to do more. Without ad
ditional content these signs can increase respect and anticipation for the
historic building by the fine quality of their design, construction and
maintenance. If the design incorporates a symbol suggesting an important
aspect of the restored site, the visual impression will start some visitors
thinking along the lines desired. Better no symbol, however, than one that
interferes with showing the way.
When visitors reach the historic structure, they usually encounter one or
more signs. These may serve several functions—to tell what the building is,
to state its central theme, to fit it into a wider context, to identify sponsors
and to give information on open hours and admission fees. Visitors come
upon them at the moment when their minds should be shifting into high
gear for the actual visit. Here the preparation for the visit attains its climax.
Every aspect of the signs at this point affects interpretation. Their appear
ance helps to set the tone for the visit. Overall quality is fully as important
as with directional signs, but the need is greater here to keep in harmony
with the setting. (Reflecting the period style of the furnished building is not
the only way to do this.) Their placement is also critical. If they are
mounted directly on the historic structure, they violate good practice in two
ways. The building no longer looks as nearly as possible like it did at the
time of its significance, and fastening the signs to it exposes a lack of
concern or respect for the original fabric. Signs also intrude if they stand in
the way of good views of the historic scene, either for the eye or the
camera. Visitors should be able to look at and photograph the building in
its setting without interference from signs (fig. 53).
What the signs say is even more crucial than how they appear and where
they are placed. There is always a temptation to tell too much at this point.
The preparatory signing should prime the visitor’s imagination by provid
ing it with the main ideas and key facts necessary for understanding what
will be seen. The signs should stimulate his imagination to repeople the
scene. What they tell him should make him ready to feel as though he were
taking part, at least as an observer, in the activities implied by the furnish
ings. He should leave the signs in a questioning mood, actively searching
for answers. Too complete an account or a full pictorial recreation of the
scene robs him of the incentive and opportunity to discover and visualize
for himself. The most timely message for this location is usually the central
theme. The principal ideas the furnished structure is intended to illustrate
should be close to the center of the visitor’s attention as he begins his tour.
A clear, brief, evocative statement in a well-designed and properly placed
sign should receive a high percentage of effective use. The visitor’s next
most important need is often for the historical background which links the
site to the broader picture. He should realize that the occupants of the
Wick House at Morristown National Historical Park, for example, were
involved with the impatient, hungry, cold army encamped around them.
Sometimes one sign can do both of these jobs. If it would require more
than about 25-50 words, however, a supplementary audio station or an
additional sign should be considered. With the danger of over-signing in
mind it is wise to subordinate or eliminate purely informational messages
like hours and fees or sponsors’ names at this point.
The visitor gathers sensory impressions as he approaches the historic
site. What he sees, hears and smells along the way influences the mental set
with which he begins the actual visit. If he drives to an 18th-century
tidewater plantation through tobacco fields and pastures, he is more ready
to understand and appreciate the rural life he finds interpreted at his destina
tion. The sight of cannon drawn up on the Manassas battlefield waiting to
fire prepares him to visit the nearby refurnished field hospital. Careful
development of the approaches pays interpretive dividends. Sometimes it is
Interpretation 309
Figure 53. Entrance sign at the Todd House, Independence National Historical Park.
possible to recapture the general character of the original environment for

the last quarter-mile or more of the way. At others a single vista glimpsed
in passing can create the impression desired. Screening modern intrusions
that break the spell is also important. Perhaps plantings can hide the
neighboring factory or utility lines can go underground. The parking area
makes one of the last strong impressions before the visitor starts his tour.
Its location, treatment and screening affect interpretation and require care
ful thought from this standpoint. The possibilities of manipulating the ap
proach to prepare the visitor’s mind differ with each furnished structure.
Good solutions contribute much to the visit.
The personal contacts that prepare people for the visit often take place
at an entrance station or a visitor center information desk, during an orien
tation program or where the admission fee is collected. The contact in each
case is likely to be brief and more informational than interpretive. In each,
however, the person whom visitors encounter can do much to prepare for a
pleasant and rewarding visit to the furnished structure. He or she can refer
to the structure in terms of its significance and in a manner that will arouse
interest. He can tell people to follow the tour signs to the Wick House and
see how a farmer and his family adjusted to a starving, freezing army
camped in their fields, for example. The collection of an admission fee in
the historic structure intrudes seriously on the interpetive experience of the
actual visit. In most parks, at least, this chore can be done more satis
factorily as part of a preparatory contact, perhaps at the visitor center
information desk.
Two situations give the opportunity for more intensive preparation.
When the furnished structure is the principal resource, a separate reception
building may have this as its primary function. Most people stop at such a
building to find out about the historic building before they visit it. Here
audiovisual and exhibit methods can be used to prepare visitors more
thoroughly in keeping with the significance of the site. An audiovisual
presentation, for example, can do wonders to stir the feelings and point the
thoughts. Like the Story of a Patriot at Colonial Williamsburg, it can
prepare visitors unforgettably to grasp the meaning of the building and its
furnishings. Or it can use the attributes of the AV medium to accomplish
other results in preparation for the visit. Exhibits in the visitor center can
use original objects to point out the relation of the people and events
represented in the furnished structure to the mainstream of history, and to
underline their reality. Both media can raise questions for visitors to an
swer in their tour, but should avoid encroaching on the visitor’s chance to
discover some things for himself.
The second situation calling for intensive preparation involves visits by
organized groups. When a school class or other such group plans to visit
the furnished structure, preparation should involve two steps. First, induce
the teacher or leader to make a preliminary visit. This enables him to see
Interpretation 311
how the historic resource fits into what the class will be studying. The
teacher also becomes familiar with the mechanics of the tour—where to
park, the location of drinking fountains and restrooms, the timing. In
discussing plans with the teacher, the curator finds out the nature of the
class and its educational objective, the age and background of the children,
whether the visit is an introduction to a new subject, part of an ongoing
class project or the summarizing follow-up of previous work. Second, sup
ply the teacher and class with a packet of preparatory material—the free
information folder, a suitable bibliography, a vocabulary of unfamiliar
terms they will encounter, perhaps postcards or other pictures to build
anticipation and to relate the structure to historical people or events al
ready studied, and any instructions about when and where to report or
about other details of the visit. Some museums including Old Sturbridge
Village have developed pre-visit resource kits to involve classes deeply in
imaginative ways. A well prepared group gets maximum benefit from its
trip.
The Visit
Interpretation during the actual visit may take several forms. A visitor
may guide himself through the furnished building and grounds using a
leaflet, labels or audio devices. One or more interpreters along the way may
assist him with directions, explanations, demonstrations and answers to
questions. A guide may conduct him on a tour. Each of these methods—
self-guiding, attended stations and conducted tours—has its advantages.
Each fits some circumstances better than others. The curator should there
fore use them selectively. He can also combine them creatively. The objec
tive in each case is to give the visitor understanding through an enjoyable
experience rich in both sensory impressions and mental responses.
A self-guided tour with a leaflet has much to recommend it. It allows
each visitor maximum freedom. He can proceed at his own pace as dictated
by his interest and available time. The leaflet treats each visitor equally. It
does not get tired as the day goes on. The visitor can carry it away to help
him remember what he saw. To function well, however, a guide leaflet must
have good quality in form and content and should be distributed properly.
Regarding form, the leaflet should be suitable in size and shape. The visitor
should find it easy to hold, easy to leaf through, easy to slip into pocket or
purse. Both the 6 >< 81/2-inch (152 >< 216 mm) and 4 >< 91/1-inch (102
>< 235 mm) sizes familiar in park publications have proven convenient in
use. So has the 5-inch >< 7-inch (127 X 178 mm) form of some guide
booklets. The leaflet should be staple-bound if it requires more space than
the four pages of a single fold sheet. A multifold format becomes too much
trouble to use when the visitor must stand, move about and consult the text
intermittently. The leaflet should be attractive. Its typography, color and

decoration should invite use. If they also bring to mind the ideas being
interpreted, the design does double duty. The leaflet for a mansion can
connote elegance or that for a fort strength. Design elements can suggest
period, person or event as well. The major concern of form, however,
should be legibility. The visitor should find the text easy to follow and
pleasing to the eye. The content of the leaflet has two principal functions—
to guide and to interpret. By using the leaflet the visitor should find his way
surely to each room or other feature in turn. The text, perhaps aided by a
map or diagram, should do this without making it necessary to post
names or numbers at the rooms. Then it should help him imagine the
original occupants using the furnishings in ways that relate to the central
theme. It should sharpen his eyes for significant details. It should encour
age him to make comparisons and speculate on how things were done or
why. It should lead him to consider matters he will want to look up later.
But it should strictly avoid diverting his attention to things peripheral to
the main ideas. To prepare such a text requires interpretive insight and a
good command of words. Fortunately, preliminary versions can be tried and
refined in temporary form before committing it to print. Occasionally
something a participant has said can make a room come alive and can be
quoted in the leaflet. One additional consideration is important. Experience
has demonstrated that the way in which visitors receive a guide leaflet
strongly affects their use of it. When an attendant offers it with a friendly
invitation to read it as they go along, people are much more likely to use it
well. If it must be dispensed impersonally, a warmly worded label or audio
message should tell visitors what they are getting and how to use it. Refer
ences to it during the preparatory phase can also help. Leaflets merely
handed out or picked up from a dispenser often are unread and discarded.
Guide leaflets have another use. Some visitors come with a legitimate
interest in aspects of the structure or furnishings intentionally passed over
in the interpretation of the main theme. If the specialist can buy a supple
mentary guide explaining the architectural details or the furnishings of
particular interest to collectors, he finds his needs well served without loss
to the main interpretive effort.
Self-guiding through labels offers some of the advantages of the leaflet
and costs less. But it gives the visitor nothing he can carry away for future
reference and introduces non-historic features into the carefully recreated
environment. Also, only a few people can get close enough to a label to
read itat the same time. This adds to traffic problems when visitors are
numerous. Nevertheless, room labels when they are used, and any direc
tional or warning signs if these are essential, should receive as much care in
their design and wording as a guide leaflet requires. Legibility and attractive
ness are as important as in the leaflet. So the typography should be excel
lent. The size of the letters becomes more critical because a visitor cannot
Interpretation 313
move a label to his best viewing distance as he can the leaflet. For this
reason most room labels should use 30-point type in lines about 71/2 inches
(190 mm) long or 24-point with 6-inch (152 mm) lines. Two considera
tions control the mounting and placement of the labels and of any signs
required. Do not attach them directly to the fabric of the building or place
them on an article of furnishing. To do so would show a lack of concern
and respect for the historic resource. Locate them where a visitor can see
the room without having a label or sign in his field of vision. They should
not intrude while he looks at the room. The dilemma of having to place a
label where the visitor can use it conveniently but does not see it.in his
view of the historic setting has several possible solutions. The label can be
put on the room barrier, hanging just below the hand rail and hinged at the
top so a visitor can lift it to a good reading angle. It can be mounted on
brackets on the room side of the barrier, low and at the proper angle so a
person standing at the barrier may look down and read it but will not see it
as he looks up at the contents of the room. Similarly, the label can be on a
wedge-shaped block placed on the floor just inside the barrier. Another
possibility is to mount the label on a stanchion freestanding near the en
trance so visitors may read it before stepping into the doorway to look. The
location of the label helps to determine its color, shape and material. It may
be printed and framed, silk-screened onto a hardboard plaque, made in
metalphoto or produced by some other technique. It should be compatible
with the setting and may suggest the central theme or the period. Whatever
form the label takes, it must be brief to be unobtrusive. The text has the
same work to do as that of a guide leaflet. The need for compression
requires at least equal writing skill.
The third method of self-guiding uses audio equipment. The visitor car
ries a small, battery operated tape reproducer or record player, or ear
phones to plug into a jack at each visiting station or a radio receiver; or
each station may have a message repeater he can activate and listen to
through an attached earphone. He can look while he listens. The experi
ence and its interpretation go on simultaneously. He can proceed at his
own rate. (Audio systems using individual receivers and a short-range
broadcasting loop that require listeners to move in a compact group at a
predetermined rate do not fit the requirements of a furnished structure
museum.) The great advantage of the audio technique lies in the opportuni
ties it offers to deepen and enrich the interpretation. Its disadvantages are
largely operational. Equipment and maintenance are fairly expensive. Most
existing installations amortize part of the cost by renting the sets to visitors.
Although fees are moderate, they come on top of the admission charge.
Parks commonly find that only a small proportion of visitors will pay to
use the audio devices. To avoid this wasteful and perhaps undemocratic
situation, use of audio should be free to all visitors if possible. The me
chanics of checking the equipment out and in, recharging it and cleaning
ear pieces before reuse require personnel and paraphernalia. These become
far too intrusive if located in the historic structure. They belong at a
reception point preceding the actual visit. Even with individual earphones
some sound reaches other visitors. When a number of people are using the
devices in the confined space of an historic building, the faint voices spill
ing from several instruments overlap and make it hard to concentrate. In
spite of these difficulties the interpretive potential is enough to warrant full
consideration of audio guiding. A visitor will usually tolerate more words
when they are spoken than when he has to stand and read them. This gives
the interpreter a better chance to communicate in depth. He can use voices
to describe and explain, but also to recreate historic encounters. Grant and
Lee might discuss the surrender terms in the McLean parlor, for example,
if their original dialogue was reliably reported. In exceptional cases the
voice of an historic participant can guide the visitor, as Eleanor Roose
velt’s does in the unforgettable interpretation at Hyde Park. The medium
invites the use of appropriate sounds—churning butter in the kitchen, a
child practicing on the piano or violin and street noises from outside, for
example. As with a guide leaflet, however, the script should concentrate on
the central theme and should stimulate imagination and thought, not sup
plant them.
A friendly, knowledgeable person can help visitors understand and enjoy
a furnished historic structure in ways beyond the reach of printed or re
corded guides. He or she can observe individual needs or interests and
actively mold his presentation to fit them. He can respond immediately and
flexibly to visitor reactions or questions. To do his job well the live inter
preter needs to know the central theme and appreciate its significance. His
understanding of the main ideas which the furnished structure represents
should grow in breadth and depth through continual directed study. He
also should have a strong interest in the historic occupants and get to know
them as intimately as sound scholarship permits. He needs a detailed
knowledge of the activities they carried on in and about the building and
how they used the furnishings. Stylistic knowledge of the structure and its
contents is useful, but less important. At the same time the interpreter
especially needs the ability and the desire to transmit his interest and
knowledge to visitors. He should actively cultivate his skills of communica
tion through study, experimentation, observing other interpreters and self
criticism. Since personal services poorly rendered do more harm than other
media which can be more easily tuned out, the interpreter needs to guard
against various faults. These include the set speech memorized and par
roted, the too long and too detailed presentation that outlasts visitors’ inter
est, the presentation played for laughs and dullness in manner or content.
The good interpreter sets his goals in contagious enthusiasm tempered by
taste and judgment, and in an equal division of his interest between the
story he has to tell and the visitor whom he serves. This comprises a
Interpretation 315
demanding assignment calling for a person who is scholarly as well as

effectively communicative.
A live interpreter may be assigned to contact visitors as they pass
through a particular room or section of the building. As a stationed at
tendant he may interpret his area by several methods. He may give an
informal talk, engage people in conversation, answer questions, use the
queries to start a discussion or demonstrate some activity or technique
appropriate to the room. Ordinarily he will use such methods in varying
combinations tailored to the size of groups, ages and interests, time avail
able and similar factors. All his methods should use the furnished space as
a concrete, visual means of promoting interest in, and understanding of, the
central theme. Since his station is only part of the tour, what he tells should
fit into the whole. He should recall what visitors have already seen as it re
lates to his portion and should prepare them for what lies ahead, or sum
marize if this is the last stop. Whatever interpretive technique he uses should
allow for questions and discussion. Demonstrations, because of their strong
appeal, should be clearly pertinent to the main theme or of direct help in
visualizing the historic occupancy. Furnished historic structures offer many
opportunities to show how things were done and to let visitors take part.
Some demonstrations can be almost continuous like preparing food in a
kitchen, spinning or weaving. The attendant interrupts the work as neces
sary to talk with visitors. Other demonstrations may be occasional, for
instance playing a musical instrument or a game. Some are seasonal, others
may be brief ones worked into a talk or discussion. The attendant might
use a penknife to cut a quill, for example, and let visitors try the pen as he
talks about important writings of the historic occupants. Like the other
methods, demonstrations require accurate and detailed knowledge.
A stationed attendant becomes to some degree a part of the setting.
Consequently, he or she should be of the sex appropriate there—a man for
duty in the guardroom at a fort or a woman in a domestic kitchen. For the
same reason the interpreter assigned to a particular station may well be in
costume. If so, his or her appearance should meet the same standards of
accuracy as the furnishings. The costume should be correct in materials,
cut and fit. A proper fit often requires the wearing of corresponding under
garments. Shoes, stockings and accessories should be equally accurate. Eye
glasses may have to be especially made. Wedding rings can be a problem.
Hairdo and makeup should reflect the right time and place. Any anachro
nisms tend to detract not only from the authenticity of the scene but also
from interpretive effectiveness. An attendant in costume takes on some
thing of an actor’s role. He plays the part of an observer of the historic
activities, or even of a participant in them. This does not usually involve
conscious acting, although he must get to feel at ease in the costume. In
special circumstances, if he has the talent and training for it, he may
literally act out a role with considerable interpretive impact. The Raleigh
Tavern baker at Colonial Williamsburg angrily appealing to his customers

to help look for his truant apprentice affords an example. He uses a dra
matic technique, drawing the visitors into it in this case, to give a vivid
insight into the nature of master-apprentice relationships. Other situations
surely offer comparable opportunities.
Instead of acting as stationed attendants at key points to serve visitors as
they pass, interpreters may conduct people through the furnished structure.
A conducted tour gives the guide more time in contact with each visitor.
He has longer in which to communicate the ideas and attitudes that com
prise the main theme. He has the opportunity to present a dramatic running
account of people and events so the story unfolds with maximum clarity
and interest. He can make each room in turn come alive as he stimulates
the imagination of visitors while they look. He is able to answer questions
on the spot and tie them into the storyline. He can adjust to individual
differences and cater to individual needs. With these advantages a good
guide can make a conducted tour the best way of seeing a furnished his
toric structure. To be good at it the interpreter must combine knowledge,
skill and enthusiasm. Even these are not enough if the group is too large. A
guide also has to minimize for visitors the annoyances of being regimented
into a group of strangers, being permitted only so long to look and having
to compete for vantage points in order to see and hear. To lead tours well
an interpreter should develop his skills as a cordial host, greeting people
warmly and putting them at ease. He should become adept as a marshal,
organizing people into a coherent group and moving them under control
from room to room. At each stop he needs to command attention for what
he has to say. He must allow everyone the chance to look and react without
letting others become restless. He must keep all his party with him in mind
and body throughout the tour. If at the end visitors recall how nice the
guide was rather than how interesting or important the theme, he has not
been skillful enough.
Conducted tours that have proved successful at one site often include
techniques which can be adapted for use elsewhere. In some of the best
tours guides wear period costume. They employ this device to help visitors
repeople the furnished rooms and feel closer to the past. It should be said,
however, that good guides accomplish excellent results in modern civilian
dress or uniform. Skill is the paramount factor, not what the guide wears.
Another practice that has worked well is to start with a good introduction.
The interpreter assembles his group away from other people where he can
talk without distractions. He makes his visitors comfortable, letting them
sit if possible. He sets an informal, conversational tone that will invite
questions and comments. He arouses anticipation for what lies ahead,
explains ground rules and tells how long the visit will require. Then he
introduces them to the historic occupants they will be seeing in imagina
tion, underlines what is significant about them and relates it to history that
Interpretation 317
is already familiar. Finally he tells the group where they are going next,
how they will get there and what to look for as he shepherds them to the
second stopping point. An effective technique for each of the tour stops
consists of brief comments by the guide which induce his group to look at
the furnishings with specific interests in mind, imagine the historic oc
cupants using them and think about their broader meanings all more or less
at the same time. The guide at Wayside in Concord (Minute Man National
Historical Park), for example, speaks warmly of Mrs. Lathrop sitting there
in the wicker rocking chair before the fireplace, rocking with her eyes
closed and daydreaming the adventures of the children who will people her
next book. Her thoughts, he recalls, were typical of Victorian New England
in their bright optimism, strict morality and simple patriotism. He then
encourages visitors to remember when they had read her books and to talk
about it a little. Good tours also have a well-structured conclusion—a
remark or two that will help drive home the main points of the experience
and suggest follow-up, a chance for visitors to get final questions or com
ments off their chests, and a friendly farewell. The sine qua non of a
satisfactory guided tour is, of course, a group small enough not to over
crowd the available viewing spaces. When numbers exceed this limit, use
other interpretive methods.
School classes and other groups of children merit tour techniques
adapted to their needs. They should not be subjected to the standard pack
age. Their needs vary with age and cultural background, but particularly
with what the children are studying in school or working on in their other
group activities. The tour should provide a vital element in a learning
program, not an isolajted experience. For this to happen, the interpreter
must find out what the visit can contribute to the group’s educational
project and plan the tour to do so. As discussed under preparation for the
visit he needs to confer with the teacher or leader well in advance. The
interpreter should take the initiative in assuring that the visit is mutually
planned so the class comes prepared and leaves with a usable accomplish
ment. In planning the tour he should consider the potential resources rep
resented by children among the historic occupants of the structure and
their role in the historic activities. Working their life into the tour, if
appropriate, would add authenticity and vitality. When the group arrives,
every child should know that he has specific things to look for and perti
nent questions to find answers for in the furnished rooms. Throughout the
tour his eyes and mind should be productively busy. So should his hands.
Children have a real need to touch things as part of the learning process.
Fortunately, furnished historic structures offer many opportunities for chil
dren to participate in firsthand experiences. To write on a slate, snuff a
candle, carry a pail of water from the well or stove wood from the shed
merely suggest the possibilities an alert guidecan develop. Some historical
restorations have groups of children spend a day, a weekend or longer
living as the children of historic occupants did. Using accurately repro

duced objects that can be replaced as these wear out, they sleep in oldtime
beds, eat traditional meals cooked at an open hearth, do chores, study old
school books and play old games. Another kind of educational activity
suited to a children’s tour involves the use of work sheets. Each child fills
in the answers to questions requiring close observation and thought and
draws pictures of significant objects. The guide needs to have the materials
ready, of course. Conducting children’s tours requires patience and under
standing along with special skills. Two books by Molly Harrison (Museum
Adventure, London, University of London Press, 1950; Learning Out of
School, London, Educational Supply Association, Ltd., 1954) contain
helpful advice based on actual experience with methods that are imagina
tive and aim at solid results.
Of all the means of interpretation that may operate during the visit, the
most important is the furnished structure itself. If it does not speak to the
visitor, supplementary methods will add relatively little. A room at first
sight should communicate a strong impression of the life it reflects. The
furniture tells what the room was used for and its arrangement shows how
it was used. The intimate grouping of objects makes people imagine the
action implied and sense the reality of the occupants. Numerous details,
carefully thought out for their effect, give visitors flashes of insight, stir
memories, spark discoveries. Any detectable sham such as plastic flowers,
wax fruit or plaster poultry may spoil the effect. Smell and touch confirm
that the ham is genuine. Heat and the odor of smoke from the hearth fire
attest its reality. Everything conveys the flavor of life, of the specific life, of
the room—the soot above the candles, the reeking clay pipe, the un
finished game of cards, the book or handwork just laid aside, the mess
around the cuspidor or the profusion of bibelots in a patrician drawing
room. The room should truly reflect the standards of furnishing, decora
tion, use and cleanliness of its own time and place, not of ours. It should
tell its story, skillfully aided by the live interpreter, leaflet, label or audio.
Follow-up
The interpreter has no control over visitors after they leave, but with
foresight he can add to their future enjoyment and understanding. He can
do this by helping them recall the experiences of their visit, to sustain and
expand the interests created and in the case of children to clinch what they
learned. Visitors should get the chance to carry awayreminders of what
they saw and what it meant. Photographs they take during their visit will be
looked at on repeated occasions. The pictures will be shown and described
Interpretation
to friends. Each time theypwill bring to mind some aspect of the site or its
story. If the snapshot or slide shows Junior holding that quill pen and behind
him the cluttered table where the terms of surrender were drafted, he and
his family will remember tlfe significance of the Moore House. An alert
staff, by creating opportunities or making suggestions, can help visitors get
better and more meaningful photographs. The postcards, prints, picture
books and other illustrative materials visitors can buy also aid recall. Pur
chasers will receive better value if the staff has chosen ones which call to
mind the more significant features. Guide leaflets and information folders
that visitors take home have a similar effect. Some people go away after
their visit wanting to learn more. They are the interpreter’s most successful
product and his greatest opportunity. He can cultivate the interests he has
aroused. He can encourage these people to read a good biography of the
historic occupant, for example, and make it easy for them to find one. He
can stock the sales counter with books and pamphlets carefully chosen to
sustain the interests of different age groups. He can pick items that rate
high in accuracy and readability. He can offer selected bibliographies and
annotate them to stimulate, as well as guide, further reading. He can have
at hand information leaflets for related historic sites and suggest visits to
them. The volumes of the National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings
should be in evidence too. When the interpreter feels a real concern for
making the visit a highlight of an ongoing educational process, he will find
opportunities to help people dig deeper, broaden their understanding or
follow specific leads.
For school classes, and to some extent for other groups of children,
follow-up can be more direct. When the visit is properly integrated into a
classroom project, the teacher will see to it. He will have the children apply
the experience in various ways. They may prepare notebooks containing
essays, stories or poems they have written and pictures or maps they have
drawn. They may dramatize what they learned. What they produce may
concentrate on the furnished structure and its themes, but preferably it will
tie the story of the site into the larger concerns of the class projects. The
interpreter can often help by suggesting during the tour ideas the children
can develop in class, but he should consult the teacher beforehand. The
museum can provide the class with an imaginative quiz sheet which the
teacher can use to reinforce the learning experience. This has the double
advantage of offering the interpreter some feedback to help appraise and
improve the effectiveness of his visit techniques. The museum may also
offer to lend the class slides, mounted pictures or specimens that can be
handled to provide material for a follow-up discussion. It may also give the
teacher references and reading lists. The familiar packet of thank-you let
ters contributes little. The interpreter, working with and through the
teacher, can do much to make the visit a longer lasting part of the chil
dren’s education.
Alternatives to Furnishing
A furnished historic structure museum is a complex and expensive inter

pretive device. Complete furnishing is not the only way to interpret an
historic structure, nor always the best way. It depends on what the institu
tion wants to accomplish by exhibiting it, and to some extent on limitations
imposed by the structure. Alternatives are largely experimental as yet, and
wide open for innovation. They will differ profoundly from typical re
furnishing in one respect. The furnished historic structure aims to recreate
an environment in all its rich detail. The alternatives simplify by selecting
and emphasizing single aspects.
Hypothetical examples suggest some of the possibilities:

1. Stage setting. In the theater a few props carefully selected and art
fully placed turn the stage into a forest or an elegant drawing room. Often
the sharp realism of a focal grouping catches the essence of a scene and
triggers the imagination of spectators to fill in the rest. Similar effects
should be possible in an historic structure. Thomas Jefferson hammered
out his draft for the Declaration of Independence in a Philadelphia room
ing house. If the purpose is to focus attention on the framing of a docu
ment that embodied the political and social aspirations of an age, the room
need not be furnished completely with its bed, dresser, tables, chairs, fire
place fittings, draperies and accessories. Instead, visitors might see only key
objects in a darkened and largely empty room. Attention would concen
trate on the single central setting—a Windsor chair drawn up to an ap
propriate table, on the table a replica of Jefferson’s writing box open and
bearing a partially finished manuscript, pen and ink ready for use, a lighted
candle illuminating the page, a few reference books and discarded drafts
lying about. Theatrical lighting would contribute all it could to enhance the
effect. With the aid of audio, great phrases from the Declaration would
echo through the minds of visitors as they looked.
2. Sound and light. This versatile and dramatic technique interprets
historic structures from the outside, often with striking success. It requires
only such furnishings as would be visible through the windows at a dis
tance. Draperies and perhaps chandeliers would ordinarily be enough. The
adaptation of sound and light for indoor use, as at Ford’s Theatre, prom
ises at least equally good results when the situation permits gathering an
audience in full view of the scene of great events. The stirring narration
augmented by lights and shadows that change and move in step with the
story can carry visitors deeply into the experience. The extent of furnishing
required for this kind of presentation will certainly vary, but the main
reliance will be on stimulating the imagination to see things that are not
there. Will sound and light also work for visitors moving through the rooms
Interpretation
of an historic structure when only a few people at a time can see? Perhaps
the technique can effectively stand in for live interpreters in situations
where details need to be pointed out and explained. Moving and pointing
lights synchronized with a description, for example, might show how a mill
worked without having to restore the machinery to full operating condition.
Similar devices might explain the multiple functions a now-empty barn
once served. Lights and sound might even add a feeling of life in stalls and
pens. Consider a house having greater significance as an example of domes
tic architecture than as a setting for daily life or historic events. Laymen
need help to understand the architectural lessons it illustrates. Might a tour
of the unfurnished house prove rewarding if at each room a sequence of
spotlights singled out structural features while an audio interpreted them?
In place of a fully automatic program, the lights could be activated by
visitor-operated push buttons. The switches could be cross-referenced to a
guide booklet, and a booklet would offer the added advantage of explana
tory sketches. Sound and light in any historic structure should be installed
in ways that will not violate the original fabric of the building.
3. Symbolism. Objects sometimes have a symbolic value that is height
ened when they are seen out of normal context. This attribute of objects
should be useful to highlight particular aspects of historic interiors. If
visitors looked into the dormitory of the Little Kinnakeet Coast Guard
Station, for example, and saw instead of rows of cots and foot lockers an
almost sculptural composition of dripping slickers, sou’westers and boots,
would it help create a sense of the imminence of danger in the lives of the
historic occupants? Would these symbols of storm turn the thoughts of vis
itors to shipwrecks and rescues? Could sand-encrusted shoes and a smoke
stained lantern make the dormitory seem a haven of comfort in contrast to
the long, lonely beach patrol? Such symbols would hardly be self-explana
tory, but might well reinforce words strongly.
4. Adaptive occupancy. The most frequently advocated alternative to
furnishing an historic structure as a museum is to put it to present-day use.
If an historic house is preserved primarily as an example of period archi
tecture or as part of an historic scene, restoration of the exterior serves the
main purpose. The interior can be adapted for current occupancy. Bona
fide activity in and around the building gives it a genuine life that can be an
interpretive asset. When the old house serves as a residence and, in fact,
whenever the new use relates to the old, visitors are more likely to appreci
ate the historic role of the building. Adaptive use, however, is more often a
method of saving buildings that would otherwise be lost than a way to
interpret them.
Other ways to interpret special aspects of historic structures should be
conceived and tried. The problem invites avant-garde solutions. At the
same time the techniques of interpretation by complete furnishing warrant
continual improvement.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alexander, Edward P. “Bringing History to Life: Philadelphia and Williams

burg,” Curator, IV:1 (1961), pp. 58-68.
. “Artistic and Historical Period Rooms,” Curator, VII:4 (1964), pp.
263-281.
“A Fourth Dimension for History Museums,” Curator, XI:4 (1968),
pp. 263-289.
The Interpretation Program of Colonial Williamsburg. Williamsburg.
Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1971.
don. Constable & Company Ltd., 1971, pp. 116-134.
Benedict, Paul L. “Historic Site Interpretation: the Student Field Trip,” Ameri
can Association for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 19, History
News, 26:3 (March 1971).
Black, Patricia F. The Live-In at Old Economy. Ambridge. Old Economy
Village, 1972.
Coleman, Laurence Vail. Historic House Museums. Washington. American
Association of Museums, 1933 (Repr. Detroit. Gale Research Co., 1972),
. 87-95.
Colwgil, Wayne. “Windows on the Past,” Museum News, 50:10 (June 1972),
Flemiiijg,. 36-38.
E. McClung. “The Period Room as a Curatorial Publication,” Museum
News, 50: 10 (June 1972), pp. 39-43.

Low, Shirley P. “Historic Site Interpretation: the Human Approach,” American
News, 20:11 (November 1965).
McCaskey, Thomas G. “Reaching Your Public: Turning Travelers into Visi
tors,” American Association for State and Local History Technical Leaflet
29, History News, 20:6 (June 1965), rev. 1970.
Montgomery, Charles F. “The Historic House—a Definition,” Museum News,
38:1 (September 1959), pp. 12-17.
Parr, Albert Eide. “Habitat Group and Period Room,” Curator, VI:4 (1963),
pp. 325-336.
Wall, Alexander J. “The Case for Popular Scholarship at Old Sturbridge Vil
lage,” Museum News, 47:5 (January 1969), pp. 14-19.
Wall, Charles Cecil. “A Thing of the Spirit,” Museum News, 46:6 (February
1968), pp. 13-19.
Part 4 Exhibit Maintenance
and Replacement
324 Introduction
325 Chapter 14. Maintaining the Exhibit Room
325 Cleaning
326 Refinishing
326 Lighting
327 Atmosphere
328 Chapter 15. Cleaning Exhibits
328 Case Exhibits
331 Open Exhibit Panels
332 Exposed Specimens
335 Chapter 16. Maintaining Outdoor Exhibits
335 Cannon and Cannon Carriages
338 Statues and Stone Monuments
342 Cast Aluminum Markers
346 Chapter 17. Rehabilitation, Repair, Revision and Replacement
346 Preventive Maintenance
347 Programming the Work
323
Introduction
Whoever operates a museum carries out the day-to-day responsibilities

involved in this assignment himself or supervises other staff members who
share them with him. Parts 1 and 2 discuss his work on the collections. He
also must concern himself with the care and use of the exhibits. Exhibits
are tools of his trade. He therefore keeps them in as good working condi
tion as possible to assure their maximum effectiveness. As a manager he
also knows they represent a substantial capital investment. It is his duty to
extend their useful life through proper care. The chapters which follow
should help with routine maintenance, the problems of repair and the
procedures for replacement of exhibits.
Chapter 11 discusses the cleaning of furnished historic structure mu
seums in some detail. Other museums share some of the same maintenance
problems. So some of the same considerations and methods apply. In the
organization of the work the curator still has an important role, but the
chief of maintenance or building superintendent usually plans and super
vises it. He is responsible for the regular cleaning and repair of museum
facilities. These include the exhibits. He may budget the maintenance funds
and directs the employees who do the work. The maintenance staff per
forms the work within its capability. Maintenance funds pay for this and
often for the more specialized repairs or rehabilitation that must be done
by others. The curator, who must see that the exhibit rooms and study
collection rooms function efficiently, therefore consults with the chief of
maintenance to set standards, establish schedules and estimate costs. The
curator then checks to make sure the methods used will not harm the
contents of the museum and that accepted standards are met. When neces
sary, he and his staff supplement the work of the maintenance crew. The
chief of maintenance needs to realize that cleaning the exhibit rooms, and
particularly the exhibits, requires a gentle and sympathetic hand. He may
find it best to hire someone especially for such housekeeping tasks, even if
on a part-time basis. Both visitors and the museum benefit directly from
good teamwork between curator and maintenance staff (see Organization,
Chapter 1 1 ).
324
Chapter 14 Maintaining the
Exhibit Room
Good housekeeping in the exhibit rooms pays dividends. It helps protect

the specimens from agents of deterioration (see Chapter 4). It impresses
visitors favorably, tending to create better friends and supporters for the
museum. It adds to their enjoyment, which is part of the museum’s under
lying purpose. It acts psychologically to reduce littering and vandalism.
The exhibit rooms probably rank next to the lobby and restrooms as areas
in which the quality of housekeeping makes the strongest impression.
Chapter 15 considers the care of the exhibits. Maintenance of the room,
aside from the exhibits themselves, involves cleaning, refinishing, keeping
the room properly lighted and sustaining the desired atmosphere.
Cleaning
The choice of techniques and schedules for cleaning the exhibit room
depends on several variable factors. Each museum must work out the best
combination of practices to meet its needs. The kind of floor, wall finishes,
volume of traffic and weather affect the decisions. One objective to keep in
mind is that no visitor should be aware of dust or dirt in the room.
The techniques developed for cleaning public buildings described in
Methods and Materials, Chapter 11, apply in general to rooms containing
formal museum exhibits. Refer to these methods in relation to the follow
ing cleaning operations.
The floor ordinarily requires daily cleaning. Use a treated dust mop or
vacuum cleaner as detailed in Chapter 11. Floors of stone, ceramic tile,
composition tile, linoleum or cement need to be mopped frequently, per
haps once a week, but oftener in sloppy weather. Wood, composition tile
and linoleum floors should be kept waxed and buffed, except those having
acrylic or silicone polishes. For these newer coatings follow the manu
facturer’s instructions. Remember, however, that museum floors ought not
to be highly reflective nor slippery. The accumulation of old wax must be
removed with a safe solvent or emulsifier at least once a year. Avoid such
325
Manual for Museums
evident signs of poor workmanship in floor care as mop marks on base

boards and dark lines of dirty wax along cracks and edges.
All other surfaces where dust collects should be dusted daily with a
vacuum or a clean, soft cloth. These include furniture, ledges, moldings
and light fixtures. Use a treated cloth on non-porous surfaces that do not
smear. Walls and other vertical surfaces should be brushed with a vacuum
about twice a year or wiped more frequently with a clean, untreated dust
mop. Hand marks and smudges on walls, doors, chair arms or other places
should be removed without delay. Most finishes now in use will permit such
spot removal first with a damp cloth and a little mild soap (e.g. Ivory) or
nonionic detergent, then with a second damp cloth to wipe away the soap
and finally with a dry cloth. Work gently avoiding scrubbing and an excess
of water or soap. Dust drapes and Venetian blinds as part of the daily
vacuum cleaning. The drapes will also need to be laundered or dry-cleaned
perhaps as often as once a year. After cleaning be sure to renew the flame
retardant (see Methods and Materials, Chapter 11). Venetian blinds
should be taken down and washed annually. Any windows in the exhibit
room should be washed regularly. To minimize these housekeeping chores,
clean or replace filters in the air ducts on schedule.
Refinishing
In spite of regular cleaning the finish on walls and woodwork will deteri
orate in time. The room should be repainted or otherwise refinished before
the deterioration becomes obvious. Visitors are likely to notice shabbiness
before someone who lives with the gradual changes every day, so try to
observe the room as through a visitor’s eyes. Be sure the new finish
matches the original in color and texture because these relate to the design
of the exhibits. If any change is necessary, consult the designer. Since it is
often impossible to move the exhibits out of the way, the painters or other
workmen need to apply the new finishes with special care. Drop cloths
should be treated to retard fire.
Worn upholstery and faded drapes also require replacement before their
condition becomes conspicuous. They are part of the overall design too, so
should not be replaced by something different unless the designer concurs.
Lighting
In a properly designed exhibit room the general illumination and special

lighting effects have an important part in the total scheme. Unplanned
changes in the amount or quality of the light can physically damage the
exhibits as well as decreasing their effectiveness. Maintenance consists of
Maintaining the Exhibit Room 327
keeping lamps lit at all times their illumination is intended, and of keeping
them and their fittings clean.
Lamps, reflectors, lenses and louvers should be dusted frequently and
washed as often as necessary to retain the full amount of reflection or
transmission. The remains of insects attracted to the lights should be re
moved before they accumulate. After each cleaning make sure that re
flectors, louvers and spot or flood lamps aim exactly where they did
originally. Otherwise the lighting will not function as planned and visitors
will encounter annoying glares.
As soon as an incandescent bulb burns out, put in a new one of precisely
the same type and wattage. Replace burned out or flickering fluorescent
tubes immediately, using the same color and wattage. It was probably
chosen to minimize ultraviolet emission, so be sure to have a supply of this
kind on hand. A fluorescent tube may need replacement before it burns out
because its light output gradually diminishes. After a tube has burned
during normal open hours daily for nine months, remove and destroy it. If
it has an ultraviolet filter sleeve, transfer this to the new tube. The curator
has responsibility to test the continued effectiveness of all ultraviolet filters
or have them replaced periodically (see Climate Control, Chapter 4).
Atmosphere
The environment created in the exhibit room influences the amount of

understanding and enjoyment visitors get from the exhibits. Keep the right
setting. This entails maintenance of some other environmental factors in
addition to those already discussed. Movable items of furniture should
remain in the positions intended. If the decoration includes growing plants
or cut flowers, these should be well tended and replaced as often as neces
sary. Artificial plants or flowers hardly provide an acceptable substitute.
The temperature in the room should be controlled for both the preservation
of the specimens and the comfort of visitors. The range should stay be
tween 60° F. and 75° F. (16°-24° C.), and preferably not above 70° F. or
21° C. Relative humidity should be held as close as possible to 55%. In
controlling temperature and humidity do not neglect air circulation. Air
should remain fresh in spite of the many people who may be in the room.
Keeping the exhibit room in top condition will help in the more special
ized job of maintaining the exhibits.
Chapter 15 Cleaning Exhibits
Dirt on an exhibit is especially conspicuous to visitors because it is

unavoidably on display. Keeping exhibits clean is therefore a never-ending
aspect of museum maintenance. The more successful the exhibit, the
sooner it gets soiled by visitor use and the oftener it must be cleaned. The
variety of materials composing an exhibit, the susceptibility of its elements
to damage and the relatively high cost of their repair or replacement make
cleaning a delicate and sometimes difficult task. In general, three sets of
problems occur—those of case exhibits, open panels and exposed speci
mens. The first step in handling each is a close, daily inspection by the
curator responsible. He must decide what needs to be done, how often and
by what means.
Case Exhibits
Glass
Most exhibit cases in museums have glass fronts, tops and sometimes
sides. The glass through which visitors look at the exhibit gets touched
continually. The resulting greasy smears are disfiguring to the exhibit and
annoying to subsequent visitors. They need to be washed off every day. The
old reliable method is to use lukewarm water, adding a little household
ammonia to cut the grease. Rub the glass vigorously with clean cloth or
chamois well wrung out so the cleaning solution does not drip on other
parts of the case. Then wipe it dry with a second clean cloth or chamois.
Numerous glass cleaners are on the market, but most are less satisfac
tory for museum use than the ammonia water. Those with an alcohol base
tend to leave a film on the glass. So do the ones with a polishing com
ponent. The cleaners containing a mild abrasive leave a powder that ac
cumulates in the edges of the frame. They also may dull the surface of the
glass in time. Some spray-and-wipe glass cleaners employing quaternary
ammonium compounds work well.
328
Daily washing will not sufiice in many instances to keep case fronts in
satisfactory condition. The museum attendant or a maintenance employee
should walk through the exhibit room several times during the day wiping
the more obvious smears from the glass with a dry cloth.
Visitors do not touch the inside of the glass, but a film does develop on it
slowly. Look through the glass at an acute angle to see it. To remove it
open the case and wash the inside of the glass with ammonia water or other
proven glass cleaner. Do it at least once a year, and more often if the film
becomes noticeable. The curator should supervise the opening of cases.
The weight of a hinged plate glass case front as it swings open can spring
the hinges or topple the case. This weight must be supported continuously.
Cases with glass on all four sides may collapse if both ends are opened at
the same time.
The top glass invariably gathers dust, even when it is covered. If the case
is built into a wall, lumps of plaster and other detritus tend to collect on the
glass. Dirt on the case top reduces the amount of light reaching the exhibit
as well as being unsightly. Dust case tops frequently, preferably with a
vacuum. Wash the top glass whenever the lamps and reflectors are cleaned.
Be careful to wring out the cloth well so no water runs down into the
case.
Plastic
Clear acrylic plastic replaces glass in many exhibit cases. It gets soiled
and dusty like glass, but requires different cleaning methods. Being softer
than glass it scratches more easily. Dust particles often leave scratches
when wiped off with a cloth. Rubbing the surface of the plastic creates a
static charge which attracts more dust. As the first step in cleaning, use a
dampened soft, clean cloth to lift off the dust. Do not rub. Then go over the
surface gently with one of the plastic cleaners containing both a cleaning
solution and an antistatic component. Many brands are on the market.
Avoid those which contain an abrasive unless the case front has already
received fine scratches (e.g., from careless dusting). Ask the nearest dis
tributor of plastics to recommend a safe cleaner for Plexiglas such as
Kleenmaster Brillianize.
To remove scratches requires cutting away the surrounding plastic to the
depth of the scratch. Careful hand rubbing with a cleaning and polishing
liquid containing a fine abrasive will eliminate small ones. Choose a brand
which conforms to Military Specifications MIL-C-18767B (ASG) or have
the local plastics dealer recommend one. Deep scratches may need buffing
with a power driven cloth wheel and #884 abrasive compound. This will
leave a depression, but it will ordinarily be less conspicuous and more
transparent than the scratched surface.
329
Metal Frames
Many exhibit cases have extruded aluminum frames. A few have brass,
bronze, Monel metal or stainless steel. Visitors touch the metal as they do
the glass. Airborne chemicals and dirt also affect the finish. It becomes dull
and soiled. To prevent this and keep the frames in good condition, clean
the metal regularly. Once a week should suffice under normally heavy
museum attendance. For aluminum, brass and bronze use a non-abrasive
metal cleaner. Park museums use whatever kind is stocked by the General
Services Administration for cleaning the interior metalwork of public build
ings. If extruded frames have gotten too discolored to respond to this
treatment, rub them carefully with a damp cloth pad dripped in pumice. To
clean stainless steel, Monel metal or anodized aluminum, wash it with the
same ammonia and water solution used on glass.
Wooden Parts
Case bases are usually made of wood. So are the sides frequently, and
sometimes the frames which hold the glass or Plexiglas. These parts of an
exhibit case also get dirty from handling and other causes. If the wood is
painted or covered with a vinyl wall fabric, wash it carefully as often as
necessary. Use mild soap and water following the directions given below
for cleaning exhibit panels. The same procedures should work whether the
supporting material is solid wood, plywood or hardboard.
When the wood has an oil finish, do not wash it. Instead use a mixture
containing equal parts of boiled linseed oil and turpentine. Dip a cloth in
the oil and turpentine mixture and wipe it over the wood to be cleaned.
Then rub the wood with a dry cloth. Ordinarily a cleaning every two weeks
should prove adequate. Do it at the end of a day to allow the oil as much
time to dry as possible before the museum reopens. If an objectionable film
of oil builds up in time, use paint remover to cut it. Do not apply this
treatment to historic furniture or any wood in other museum specimens.
Case Interiors
If a case is well built and properly assembled, the interior stays remark
ably clean. Air moves in and out of a case to some extent, however, as
temperature and air pressure change. The air entering the case carries some
dust. Insects find their way even into apparently tight cases. Particles of
dirt or other fragments fall from specimens or from cut edges in the case
construction. The result is slow accumulation of dark specks and small
pieces of foreign matter on the floor of the exhibit case. Such dirt is
particularly conspicuous and unsightly. It should be watched for critically.
As soon as any appears, open the case and use a soft clean brush to remove
it.
Cleaning Exhibits 331
Open Exhibit Panels
Many existing exhibits in park museums are open panels unprotected by

cases. These units ordinarily have a background panel spray painted in
colored lacquers. The panel is usually of tempered hardboard framed in
wood, although older ones are of plywood. The lacquered surface bears
silk-screened or handpainted illustrations and labels and the whole is cov
ered in turn by a coat of clear lacquer. Mounted photographs and speci
mens are attached to the panel. The photographs have no protective
coating. If a specimen is rugged enough to permit handling, it is merely
fastened securely to the panel. When a specimen requires more protection,
a cover of transparent plastic shields it. Being invitingly exposed, panel
exhibits receive a full share of the dirt in the museum.
Background Panels
Dust the top edge of the panel, the lower sill of the frame and any other
horizontal surfaces daily. Use a vacuum cleaner if possible.
Whenever the panel face shows dirt, wash the lacquered surface as
follows. Dip a clean, soft cloth in lukewarm water. Rub it on a bar of mild
soap (e.g., Ivory). Squeeze the cloth to work the soap well through it and
get rid of excess water. Then wash the face of the panel itself with gentle,
circular strokes. Carefully avoid getting soap or water on the specimens or
photographs. Use a second clean cloth, dipped in clear water and wrung, to
rinse off the soap. With a third cloth dry the panel.
Spot cleaning individual smears by this method may be tried, but usually
shows where the cleaning stopped. It is generally wise to do the whole
painted surface of the panel at one time. The frame and face of the panel
might be cleaned separately if desirable.
Although the clear lacquer coat covers the labels and background il
lustrations, these features are raised above the general surface by the thick
ness of their paint. They therefore receive more wear during cleaning. They
are the most expensive parts of the exhibit to replace. For this reason be
sure the washing, rinsing and drying are done gently. Do not scrub. At the
first sign of wear on the lettering get advice about renewing the clear
lacquer coat. If the original lacquer is still in good condition, a fresh coat
can sometimes be applied over it safely. Deteriorated lacquer usually must
be removed with a solvent or abrasion before the panel is recoated. This
requires a skilled hand.
Clean vinyl or melamine covered exhibit surfaces in the same way.
Photographs
Dust them frequently. Do not wash them. At the most, wipe them with a
slightly damp cloth and dry them without rubbing. Replace them if they
become obviously dirty. Single smears can sometimes be removed by a sol
vent. Benzine (petroleum) (e.g., lighter fluid) serves this purpose but should
be used with full precautions against fire.
In park museums photographic prints, both black and white and color,
are not sprayed with clear lacquer because such protective coatings tend to
pull the emulsion away from the paper causing the picture surface to
crackle. Some museums use a transparent film applied with heat to cover
exposed photographs that will be discarded when they become worn or
faded.
Specimens
Objects mounted openly on the panels should be dusted carefully with a
vacuum cleaner each day except as noted in the next section.
The clear plastic sheets and boxes covering specimens should be cleaned
in the same manner as acrylic case fronts (see Case Exhibits above).
Exposed Specimens
Instructions for the day-to-day cleaning of specimens openly displayed

in the museum can be generalized to only a limited extent. Each object
calls for its own regimen to some degree. Therefore, apply the following
directions with good judgment. The curator should supervise specimen
cleaning and should ask a conservator’s advice on specific problems.
Flags
Shake the dust off modern or reproduced flags as part of each day’s
cleaning. About once a week dust these flags with a vacuum cleaner or a
soft brush. Take them outdoors for brushing, if possible, to avoid spreading
dust in the exhibit room. Repeated touching or soot in the air can deposit
more persistent dirt. To remove this have the flags dry-cleaned or laun
dered, perhaps annually. Older flags normally require much more careful
handling. Even after expert restoration they need more protection than
exposed display provides.
Furniture
Pieces of furniture on display should be dusted daily with a dry, soft

cloth. Do not use furniture polish. Vacuum the upholstery regularly.
About once a year clean the wood of most specimens with a cloth
dipped in turpentine substitute. This will remove the coating of wax on the
Cleaning Exhibits 333
finish with its accumulated dirt. Then apply a fresh coat of wax. Use a
hard paste wax such as neutral Simoniz or Butcher’s. Fold a 12-inch (300
mm) piece of cloth into a pad. Place a spoonful of the wax within the
folds. Apply a thin, even coating to the wood by rubbing with a circular
motion. Polish with a fresh cloth.
For furniture which has an oil finish do not use turpentine and then wax,
but wash the wood about every two years with a damp sponge and nonionic
detergent solution. Rinse and dry it. Then rub it with a dry cloth.
Unfinished wood, such as tool handles for example, should be dusted
regularly wth a dry cloth. Do not apply any cleaning solution. If the wood
gives evidence of drying out by checking or cracking, correct the tempera
ture and relative humidity promptly. A conservator may have to repair the
damage to the specimen. See Furniture under Methods and Materials,
Chapter 11.
Metal Objects
Wipe them with a clean, dry cloth to remove as much as possible of the
corrosive fingerprints which result from touching by visitors. The best time
to do it is at the end of the day so the prints do not remain on the
specimens overnight. Should signs of corrosion appear, see Basic Steps,
Chapter 4. The curator should remove the corrosion products carefully and
renew the protective coating.
If the exposed specimens include metals which tarnish readily, the metal
should be lacquered to avoid frequent treatment with abrasives. It is most
likely to be brass. It may be cleaned by rubbing with a metal polish
containing precipitated chalk or whiting in ammonia and incorporating a
corrosion inhibitor if available, being careful not to get it on adjacent wood
parts.
Models
Most models displayed without cases will need regular careful dusting.
They often invite touching, so require additional cleaning periodically.
Topographic models usually have a painted surface that may be washed.
Use the method described above for exhibit panels, but dampen the cloth
with only a minimum of water. Clean other models according to the ma
terials and finishes involved.
Mounted Animals
In a few instances mounted birds and mammals are exhibited without a

protective case. Do not attempt to clean them. Dusting or gentle brushing
may disarrange the lay of fur or feathers which plays a big part in the
proper appearance of the specimen. As soon as the animals become soiled

or dingy, return them to the taxidermist for cleaning.
Oil Paintings
Do not attempt to dust either the picture or the frame unless the frame is
a plain molding. Gesso and gold leaf are very easily injured. A conservator
will need to clean them periodically. Framed watercolors and prints are also
best left to an expert. If the glass must be wiped off, use a minimum of
moisture.
Stone
Geological specimens and stone carvings are often shown exposed. Dust
them frequently with a vacuum or soft brush. Before they get too dirty,
wash them with mild soap and wann water as described for open panels. A
piece of marble sculpture should be washed with great care, a small area at
a time, beginning at the top and making sure that no dirty water runs
down. Be sure the water contains no trace of iron. Distilled or deionized
water that has been stored for 24 hours in contact with clean white marble
chips (Smithsonian recommendation) used in a glass container should be
safe. Rinse the soap off thoroughly. For marks and smears on marble,
consult a conservator.
When visitors touch an exhibit, they get it dirty. At the same time by
touching they learn more about it. Children especially seem to have a real
need to feel with their fingers as they look. This applies to labels as well as
objects. For adults feeling the shape and texture of a specimen and perhaps
testing its weight or balance also adds to understanding and appreciation of
it. Therefore, the right solution is not to discourage people from touching
the exhibits that can take it, but to clean them as often as necessary.
Specimens too fragile or valuable to risk the dangers of public handling
need to be installed in ways to provide adequate protection.
Chapter 16 Maintainiigg
Outdoor xhibits
It is a characteristic of park museums to extend beyond their walls.

Some of their most important specimens are outside in the parks. These
objects or the interpretive devices associated with them present mainte
nance problems shared by an increasing number of other museums having
exhibits out-of-doors.
Cannon and Cannon Carriages
Artillery preserved in the parks consists of historical specimens, most of

them on exhibition outdoors. They require proper care.
Tubes
Bronze guns under normal conditions of exposure acquire a hard green

patina. This tends to protect the metal from further corrosion and should
ordinarily be left intact. Chemically active pollutants in the air may cause
additional corrosion in some situations, however. Rain usually washes
harmful deposits off the upper surfaces, but they may collect in less ex
posed portions. If necessary, wash the cannon barrel using a neutral soap
and a bristle brush. Should evidence of active corrosion develop, consult a
conservator because specialized treatment may be needed.
When bronze guns were in service, they apparently were not polished
bright but allowed to tarnish to a dull bronze color. If any cannon are to be
displayed in this condition, do not attempt to remove the green patina with
abrasives. Removal of this coating calls for expert chemical treatment.
Maintaining the bronze at the right degree of tarnish then becomes a chore.
Daily rubbing with a dry cloth should suffice. If the tarnish gets too dark,
use bronze wool, not steel, grade medium or fine.
Iron cannon rust if unprotected. In service they were painted black and
this practice should be continued. Repaint them as often as necessary to
prevent air and water coming into direct contact with the metal. Inspect iron
cannon tubes frequently for signs of rust. If rust spots appear, clean the rust
335
away with a wire brush and steel wool. Then prime the exposed metal with
a red lead or damp-proof primer paint and follow with a second coat of
black paint. Select good quality paints formulated for use on ironwork.
While it is not the practice to paint the bore, rainwater can collect in the
chamber and should be drained out if it does.
Cannon Carriages, Limbers and Caissons

Any original specimens of these vehicles with wood construction should
be preserved indoors. The wooden parts probably will need specialized
treatment to compensate for decay.
Many of the older replacement carriages as well as some siege and
casemate ones were manufactured of iron and newer ones often have cast
iron wheels and fittings. These must be kept painted and inspected regu
larly for signs of rust. Treat rust spots as described above and if necessary
(usually in cast iron) use dewatering rust inhibitors such as CRC 3-36
before priming. Finish with black paint when the parts were originally iron,
but paint the castings that simulate wood in the historically correct color as
detailed below. Check to make sure that water does not collect inside the
hollow castings of wheels or trails. Its presence would accelerate rusting in
these hidden areas. Provide for drainage if necessary. Keep the wheels and
the end of the trail away from direct contact with moisture in the ground.
Cement blocks set under them almost flush with the ground surface and
suitably colored serve this purpose. Rotate the wheels occasionally to
equalize stress and strain.
Many replacement artillery vehicles include wooden members as in the
originals. The wood must be kept painted to withstand the deteriorating
effects of exposure. In service the wood was thoroughly primed and given
two coats of oil paint of the proper color. It was then repainted as often as
necessary to maintain the protective coating. Nowadays, prime any cracks
that develop in the wood with boiled linseed oil, fill with glaziers’ compound
and repaint. Use high quality exterior oil paint of the following colors:
British, colonial to 1812 —lead gray

French, Valliere system —red
Gribeauval system —blue
Spanish, to about 1750 —turpentine
after about 1750 —blue
American, Revolutionary —gray, red or blue
according to origin
and type, sometimes
brown
1780 to 1840 —light blue
1840 on —olive drab
Maintaining Outdoor Exhibits 337
The colors were mixed to formulas which varied somewhat from time to
time and place to place so the exact shades must have varied. The lead gray
was a light gray such as would be obtained by mixing 100 lbs. of white lead
ground in oil, 1 lb. of lampblack and 6 gals. of linseed oil (40kg
400g-20 1). The red used was red lead. It gave a fairly dark color. The
blue was obtained by mixing Prussian blue with white lead. Before 1780 it
varied from light to almost a royal blue. After 1780 American gun car
riages generally were light blue. Olive drab resulted from mixing 46 lbs. of
French yellow ochre, 40 lbs. of boiled linseed oil, 5 lbs. of litharge, 2 lbs.
of lampblack, 5 lbs. of turpentine and 2 lbs. of Japan varnish according to
one formula (21kg-18kg-2.3kg-.9kg-2.3kg-.9kg). Satisfactory approxi
mations of the historic colors can be obtained from paint dealers who mix
white house paint with colors ground in oil to customers’ specifications. For
example, a local store mixed Pratt and Lambert paints as follows:
gray —light base house paint with 1 oz. lampblack and 1/1 2 oz.
yellow ochre per quart (31.7 g-2.7 g-1 1).
blue (pre- —deep base house paint with % oz. thalco blue, % oz.
1780) lampblack, 1% oz. ultramarine blue and 1% 8 oz.
thalco green per quart (19.7 g-19.7 g-51 g-6.6 g—1 1).
blue (post —light base house paint with 2%,, oz. lampblack, % oz.
1780) ultramarine blue, 1%,; oz. thalco green and 11/2 oz.
white per quart (17 g-26.2 g-6.6 g-47.3 g—1 1).
olive —deep base house paint with 4 oz. lampblack, 31/2 oz.
burnt umber, 3 oz. yellow ochre and 11/12 oz. Hansa
yellow per quart (126 g-110.3 g-94.4 g-34.3 g-1 1).
This mixture contains too much pigment to bind and
adhere well.
To obtrain a red satisfactory in color but more glossy than preferred this
store started with a red house paint, the pigment content of which was
40.8% ferric oxide, 5% molybdate orange, 21.6% titanium oxide and
32.6% magnesium silicate. The mixer added 21/2 oz. of white color in oil
per quart of this paint (78.8 g-1 1).
With wood carriages it is even more important to keep wheels and trail
ends away from direct contact with the ground and to rotate the wheels
periodically.
To attach labels to gun tubes or carriages by drilling holes, using screws
or nails or any other means that would deface or alter the specimen is a
form of vandalism that should not be tolerated. Placing a label directly on
a specimen in any event is poor museum practice.
Statues and Stone Monuments
Sculptured metal and stone are relatively durable materials. Exposed to

weather or vandals, however, they require maintenance to control cor
rosion, repair breaks and remove surface dirt. Many parks have responsi
bility for the care of outdoor statues, commemorative plaques, gravestones
and other examples of monumentation. Often metal sculpture is mounted
on stone, so the materials must be treated in combination. Too frequently
maintenance procedures must depend on experience unsupported by scien
tific knowledge because the problems have not been sufficiently studied.
Metal Sculptures
Bronze
Being by far the most common metal for outdoor sculpture, this material
presents the most frequent problems. Bronze tends to change in color from
deep brown to blackish and finally to pale green. These changes result
largely from sulfur compounds, increasingly prevalent as pollutants in the
air. The airborne chemicals corrode the surface of the bronze. A coating of
dark sulfides develops. Slowly, often over many years, a light green pa
tina composed principally of basic copper sulfate replaces it. This forms a
protective layer between the metal and the air inhibiting further corrosion.
Maintenance usually aims at promoting the natural development of the
patina. During the often unsightly intermediate stages when the bronze is
blotched or streaked with black and green, the patina seems to form best on
the areas washed clean by rain. Accumulations of soot, bird droppings and
other dirt not only add to the disfigurement but retard patination and may
cause deeper corrosion. Regular cleaning therefore becomes the primary
maintenance practice.
Clean outdoor bronze sculptures by washing. Scrub the metal with bristle
brushes using warm water and a neutral soap. Then rinse it thoroughly,
using a hose stream if possible. Some areas of encrusted dirt, perhaps
mixed with thick corrosion products, may resist brushing. Use a wooden or
copper scraper to loosen this grime. The underside of a figure or other
parts sheltered from rain and runoff may need particular attention. Steam
cleaning may be used instead of washing if the equipment is available. With
either cleaning method protect the stone base from the runoff of dirty
water. Usually plastic sheeting can be taped in place for this purpose.
Bronze that can be washed often enough probably needs no other treat
ment. Waxing the metal when it is clean, however, may permit an interval
of 2 to 10 years between washings. The wax improves” the appearance of
the bronze and does not prevent formation of the green patina. Two thin
coats of a hard paste wax, such as neutral Simoniz, applied and polished by
hand on a warm day give satisfactory results. Paraflin dissolved in carbon
tetrachloride and sprayed on the statue, beeswax dissolved in turpentine or
in a suitable petroleum distillate and sprayed or brushed on and a lanolin
paraffin mixture in Stoddard solvent have been used, but each has
disadvantages.
When a statue has been waxed previously, brush and wipe it with Stod
dard solvent to remove all remnants of the old wax before washing with
water.
Inspect bronze sculpture at regular intervals between washings. Look
especially for spots of active corrosion that may result from “bronze dis
ease.” Chloride pollution in the atmosphere can cause chemical reactions
in the bronze which are not self-healing like the sulfate patina. Such spots
should be scraped clean, given a protective coating of wax and watched for
any recurrence. If they persist, have a conservator treat them.
Vandalism of statues usually takes the form of breaking off pieces (e.g., a
sword, tassel or tail); scratching names; or smearing with paint or other
colored material. Missing parts must ordinarily be remodeled by a sculptor,
cast in bronze and reattached. Sometimes the new parts can be securely
fastened by tapping and bolting. Bolt heads can be cut off and finished
flush to the surrounding surface leaving only a small spot of brighter color.
In other instances the replacements must be welded to the statue. The heat
of welding tends to discolor the bronze for some distance around the mend.
If scratches are too disfiguring to tolerate, they may be removed by abrad
ing away the surrounding metal to the depth of the cut. Buffing may re
move light markings, but deep scratches require filing and sanding first.
Removal of scratches, of course, leaves a conspicuous area of bare metal.
A coating of darkened wax would help conceal it temporarily. Paint or
other color daubed or sprayed on the bronze should be cleaned off without
delay. Use a paint remover composed of organic solvents, being particu
larly careful to keep it off the stone base.
Some bronze is gilded. The film of gold over the bronze is thin and
relatively soft. The gold shows little tendency to tarnish and, if the coating is
complete, protects the bronze from corrosion. Gilded statues get dirty,
however. Wash them with ammonia water and rinse thoroughly, but do not
use brushes and avoid hard rubbing. Proceed carefully watching for any
abrading of the gold. If the result is unacceptably dull, rinse with dilute
formic acid (wearing gloves) and then with clear water.
If neglected bronze sculpture has reached too unsightly a stage of cor
rosion and partial patination, a firm specializing in bronze treatment can be
employed to remove the natural coatings and give the metal an artificial
patina by chemical means. Look for such companies under Bronze in the
yellow pages of telephone directories. The resulting finish seems to be less
durable and to require more care than a naturally formed patina.
Aluminum
The parks contain a few statues cast of aluminum. Aluminum exposed

to the weather acquires a dull tarnish which tends to protect the metal by
slowing the rate of further corrosion. As with bronze, these sculptures
should be washed periodically to remove corrosive deposits of dirt. Use a
nonionic detergent because weathered aluminum is particularly sensitive to
alkalis. Rinse thoroughly. Protect the stone base from dirty runoff. Do not
wax the aluminum.
To repair after vandalism, see recommendations under Bronze above.
Lead
Some parks have architectural or garden ornaments of lead. This metal

oxidizes when exposed to the weather. If the dull gray oxide coating forms
a continuous layer, it protects the surface from further reaction with the
air. The sculpture then requires no treatment, but should be washed peri
odically like bronze to remove accumulations of dirt. Polluted air, how
ever, may oxidize the surface unevenly. Swelling incrustations of lead
carbonate may form. Active corrosion usually calls for chemical treatment
to remove the offending salts and seal the surface against them. If such
problems develop, consult a conservator because treatment in the labora
tory may be advisable.
When lead sculpture is vandalized, shallow scratches can be burnished
out, deeper ones can be filled with solder and replacements for broken
parts can be attached by soldering. Use organic solvent removers to clean
off paint smears.
Iron and steel
Modern sculptors use iron and various kinds of steel among the materi
als for their creative work. Stainless steel should only require washing. The
same may be true of the metal pretreated to develop a fine protective
coating of rust. Many works in iron or steel, however, are painted. The
original colors and textures comprise important aspects of the pieces. Pre
sumably they will need to be repainted every few years to prevent rusting
as the paint weathers. Follow the sculptor’s specifications for the paint,
color and method of application. When the artist cannot be consulted, clear
with the recognized authority (e.g., the curator. the city architect or the
local Fine Arts Commission) the details of treatment including removal of
old paint and rust spots. Since experience with the weathering of iron and
steel sculptures is limited, inspect them frequently.
Stone
When an architect or sculptor chooses stone for a monument, he can
judge its appearance and test its workability, but in regard to durability he
can only depend on its reputation. Whether he picks granite, marble, lime
stone, sandstone or some other kind, they are all composed of mineral
particles bonded together. They vary greatly in chemical content, grain
size, the nature and strength of cohesion between grains, porosity and other
aspects. Variation occurs not only between the different kinds of rock, but
also in the same kind from one quarry to the next and even in stone coming
from different parts of a single quarry. Consequently, some stones stand up
well to weathering while exposure causes others to crumble, flake or crack.
Maintenance involves delaying or counteracting disintegration, repairing
damage and preserving the desired appearance of the stone.
Stone deteriorates as a result of chemical and physical changes. Rain
water or dew, for example, may pick up acid from airborne gases, or from
soot deposits, bird droppings or plants clinging to the rock. Acid reacts with
some components of stone forming soluble salts which leach out leaving
the affected portions weaker and more porous. This is the process which
eventually converts granite to clay and sand. When water penetrates into
stone, picks up soluble salts and then evaporates, the salts recrystallize. As
they form, they may exert pressure enough to break the bonds between
rock particles causing crumbling or flaking. Water alone, if it freezes in the
pores of the stone, has a similar effect because it expands as it crystallizes.
For more than a century people have been trying to seal the surface or
impregnate stone to keep out water or to reinforce weakened cohesion.
What too frequently happens is that the outer layers of the stone affected
by the treatment respond to daily and seasonal temperature changes by
expanding and contracting a little differently than the underlying untreated
portion. When this occurs, cracks may develop and the surface layers fall
off in bigger flakes or chunks than before.
Better methods are being developed in conservation research labora
tories. Until they have been tested in use, treat stone conservatively. Wash
it frequently enough to prevent accumulations of foreign matter on the
surface. Adjust the Washing technique to the condition of the stone. Per
haps steam cleaning will do less harm to stone in excellent condition than
leaving it dirty, but this is a relatively drastic treatment. Cemeteries use
various strong chemical cleaners on gravestones. These include chlorinated
lime, and mixtures of dilute acids and detergents. Such methods and other
cure-alls should be considered too drastic for use on historic monuments.
British authorities after much experimenting in cleaning old stone struc
tures advocate using a gentle, long continued spray of water without de
tergents or brushing. A lawn sprinkler head playing on an area of stone for
days or weeks has removed sooty incrustations up to 3 inches (76 mm)
thick, for example. Historic stone buildings in France are being cleaned
with plain water and nylon brushes. As a rule, therefore, stone monuments
should be cleaned using low water pressure, no soap or detergent and as
little brushing or rubbing as the situation permits.
To remove paint from stone monuments use organic solvents applied
with cotton swabs. Soak up the dissolved pigment with the cotton. Thick
accumulations can be scraped carefully first to cut away the paint almost
down to the stone. If the stone is not too porous, it should be possible to
get all the pigment out with the solvents, but some staining from the paint
vehicle may remain. Start with a mixture of equal parts of acetone and
benzene (benzol). If stronger solvents are required, consult a conservator.
For ink stains try chloramine-T (obtainable from chemical supply
houses) made up fresh in a 2% aqueous solution. This is an oxidizing
agent, so the stone should be rinsed thoroughly afterwards. The greenish
stain that washes down from bronze statues or plaques appears to be
harmless to the stone and should ordinarily be left alone except for the
periodic washings.
On the basis of present knowledge, monumental stonework should be
protected from the penetration of moisture only by: (1) providing good
drainage so that no water stands on the stone or accumulates around the
foundations, (2) keeping all joints well pointed or caulked and (3) insert
ing a waterproof barrier between the stone and the ground if one is not
already in place. Special instances of advanced deterioration may call for
further protection. In this case a conservator should be asked for advice.
The repair of stone sculptures and monuments calls for individual diag
nosis and treatment. In some circumstances a stone that, because of
weathering or accident, no longer performs its function can be removed
and replaced with a new one. Sometimes the weathered portion of a stone
can be cut away and new stone fitted in its place. In either case a perfect
match is unlikely. The insert will look newer than the original work around
it for a long time. Broken corners and carvings are more often patched with
a plastic material molded to reproduce the original form. Stone of the same
kind as the original is ground and mixed with cement or a synthetic resin to
produce a similar texture and color. The work is usually done under con
tract by specialists who are still in the trade secret stage regarding the mix
tures they use. As long as the patch is durable and a good match, concern
centers on the method of attachment to the original stone. Will the joint
cause further damage to the stone from water penetration or differential
expansion and contraction? So far, past experience with the same product
and methods supplies the best guide. Fortunately, responsible research
continues on the care of stone.
Cast Aluminum Markers

Many parks use these markers for outdoor, on-site interpretation be
cause they are exceptionally durable, resistant to vandalism and easily

maintained. The marker consists of a cast aluminum plaque 1/2 inch (c. 13
mm) thick with lettering, outline maps and other illustrative details raised
about 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) above the background surface. The manufactur
ers coat the plaque with a high grade automotive baked enamel. They then
roll on the letter colors also using automotive enamels. The resulting sur
face is quite weather-resistant and needs no additional protection. Attempts
to cover the markers tend to trap moisture which hastens the otherwise
slow deterioration of the paint.
Metalphotos (photographs reproduced on aluminum by an anodizing
process), often mounted in recessed frames as part of the marker, some
times deteriorate sooner and are more vulnerable to vandalism. By having
duplicates on hand the park can replace a metalphoto as soon as it be
comes unsightly, merely by mounting a new print directly over the old one
with epoxy adhesive.
Cleaning
Dust and soot collect on these outdoor interpretive devices, especially
when the surface is not vertical. Rain runs off around the raised parts
leaving streaks of dirt. To keep the markers satisfactorily clean, wash them
as often as necessary. The enamel finish permits them to be washed like a
car. Use plenty of water to flush away the dirt. Avoid rubbing because the
dust acts on the enamel as an abrasive. Use a soap or detergent that is safe
for car washing, but rinse it off thoroughly. Wipe dry with a clean, soft
cloth or sponge.
Repainting
When the enamel becomes worn, dull, faded or disfigured by scratches

or chipping, repaint the marker. Be sure to use the type and colors of
enamel specified by the manufacturer.
First wash the marker as described above. Sand any scratches or chipped
areas lightly with 180 grit sandpaper to cut away loose or rough edges of
the paint film. Then clean the entire surface with a solvent to remove all
grease. Use Stoddard solvent to lessen the fire hazard in this operation, but
avoid over-exposure to the liquid or fumes. When the marker is clean and
dry, cover any metalphoto inserts with heavy kraft paper and masking
ta PNext
6. spray the entire face of the marker with the background color. If it
is desirable to do the work with the marker in place and regular paint
spraying equipment cannot be transported to the site, the paint distributor
should be able to supply self-contained spray cans for the enamel.
After the overall spray coat has dried thoroughly, paint the raised por
tions of the casting. The most efficient and satisfactory method is to roll the
enamel on with a brayer. Dab a small amount of the specified enamel on a

glass sheet or other smooth, flat surface. Roll the brayer back and forth
through the paint until it is completely coated. Then roll it lightly over the
letters and other raised surfaces. Do not attempt to apply enough paint to
color the letters adequately in one coat because this will cause excess
enamel to run down the letter edges. A thin coat should be applied, allowed
to dry, then covered with another thin coat. If any raised details are too
small or otherwise inconvenient for rolling, apply the enamel with a brush.
When the second coat dries, remove the masking from the metalphotos.
Experience indicates that a dense rubber or composition brayer should be
used for the enamel. One marker manufacturer uses the #1 brayer, 2 ><
2% inches long (51 X 70 mm), standard composition, with handle, pro
duced by the Samuel Bingham’s Son Manufacturing Company, 88 South
13th Street, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15203.
Repair
If severe vandalism causes dents or holes in the aluminum, repair them
with the metal mending epoxy compound used for body repairs on auto
mobiles. After filing and sanding the patch flush and smooth, repaint the
marker as described above.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boekwijt, W. O., and B. H. Vos. “Measuring Method for Determining Moisture

Content and Moisture Distribution in Monuments,” Studies in Conserva
tion, 15:2 (May 1970), pp. 81-93.
Fink, Colin G. “The Care and Treatment of Outdoor Bronze Statues,” Technical
Studies in the Field of the Fine Arts, 2:1 (1933), p. 34.
Gettens, Rutherford J . “Composition of the Patina on a Modern Bronze
Statue,” Technical Studies in the Field of the Fine Arts, 2:1 (1933), pp.
31-33.
Greathouse, Glenn A., and Carl J. Wessel, eds. Deterioration of Materials:
Causes and Preventive Techniques. National Research Council, Preven
tion of Deterioration Center. New York. Reinhold Publishing Co., 1954.
Hempel, Kenneth J . B. “Notes on the Conservation of Sculpture, Stone, Marble,
and Terracotta,” Studies in Conservation, 13:1 (February 1968), pp. 34
43.
. “The Restoration of Two Marble Statues by Antonio Corradini,” Studies
in Conservation, 14:3 (August 1969), pp. 126-131.
IIC, ed. Preprints of the Contributions to the New York Conference on Con
servation of Stone and Wooden Objects, 7-13 June 1970. London. Inter
national Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 1970,
pp. 1-64, 71-76, 103-134.
Lewin, S. Z. “The Preservation of Natural Stone 1839-1965: An Annotated
Bibliography,” Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts, 6:1 (1966),
pp. 185-277.
, and N. S. Baer. “Rationale of the Barium Hydroxide—Urea Treatment
of Decayed Stone,” Studies in Conservation, 19:1 (February 1974), pp.
24-35.
Organ, Robert M. “Aspects of Bronze Patina and its Treatment,” Studies in
Conservation, 8:1 (February 1963), pp. 1-9.
Pelikan, J. B. “The Use of Polyphosphate Complexes in the Conservation of
Iron and Steel Objects,” Studies in Conservation, 9:2 (May 1964), pp.
59-66.
“Conservation of Iron with Tannin,” Studies in Conservation, 11:3
(August 1966), pp. 109-114.
Rawlins, F. I. G. “The Cleaning of Stonework,” Studies in Conservation, III:l
(April 1957), pp. 1-23. _
Stambolov, T. “Notes on the Removal of Iron Stains from Calcareous Stone,”
Studies in Conservation, 13:1 (February 1968), pp. 45-47.
Chapter 17 Rehabilitation, Repair,
Revision and
Replacement
Exhibits gradually deteriorate. Colors fade, paint cracks or wears thin,

adhesives lose their grip. Before aging becomes obvious the exhibits should
either be put back into good condition or replaced. This applies to parts as
well as the whole. Not all elements in the displays age at the same rate, so
some need rehabilitation or replacement before others. Accidents occur in
museums. So does vandalism. Damaged exhibits should be repaired
promptly or removed from sight. Changing conditions make some exhibits
obsolete in content, form or location. They should be revised to remain
functional or else replaced. A healthy chronic dissatisfaction on the cura
tor’s part leads to new insights and fresh ideas that call for changes in
existing displays. Whatever the cause, staff members responsible for the
care and use of the museum must take corrective action. They need good
judgment and foresight to decide what rehabilitation or repair should be
done and how much money to program for keeping the exhibits in proper
condition.
Preventive Maintenance
The scrupulous cleaning described in Chapters 14 and 15 serves as an

excellent form of preventive maintenance. So does adequate surveillance,
preferably by a friendly interpreter rather than a guard. Equally important
is keeping the right environmental conditions in the exhibit room and
inside display cases. These include proper temperature, relative humidity,
light intensity and a minimum of air pollution and ultraviolet radiation (see
Agents of Deterioration, Chapter 4). It is up to the curatorial staff to
replenish insecticides and fungicides in exhibit cases as often as necessary.
Any exhibit case containing woolen cloth, fur, feathers or other specimens
especially susceptible to attack by insects or mold should have the hidden
container of paradichlorobenzene or dichlorvos refilled regularly. Exhibit
346
cases and mountings need to be kept in first class condition. It is surprising
how often close inspection will reveal screws loose or missing, joints begin
ning to separate and small cracks or chips in the glass. Dust and insects can
enter such openings, which also invite tampering. In spite of the best of
care, however, exhibits sooner or later need more than routine maintenance.
Programming the Work
Setting Priorities
It often becomes necessary to choose among exhibits, each of which
needs rehabilitation or replacement. The following guidelines should help
in making the decisions. Apply them in turn:
1. Is the exhibit visibly deteriorating or inoperative? Seeing a rundown
or damaged exhibit gives visitors a bad impression of the museum. It
detracts from their enjoyment and may adversely affect their behavior.
Such exhibits therefore demand first attention. The staff can take care of
the situation in many instances. If a jolt or continued vibration moves a
specimen out of position, put the object back promptly and carefully. If a
photograph starts to pull loose from its mounting, reattach the corner or
edge with a little adhesive (e.g., Elmer’s glue). Hold it in place with a
clamp while the glue sets, but put wax paper over the mend before clamp
ing. Remove the clamp and paper in time to wash off any excess glue
before it hardens. If apanel gets scratched, touch up the scar temporarily
with colored pencils matching the background as closely as possible.
Splinters can be fastened back on with, for example, Elmer’s glue using the
same precautions as jwith photographs. A broken switch on a visitor
actuated device can be replaced by a new one of the same kind. If a case
glass cracks or chips, have a local glazier replace it. On the other hand,
whenever the deterioration or damage involves labels, illustrations, back
ground patterns or other art work, have a qualified artist make the repairs.
When a specimen needs care, check with a conservator unless you are
really qualified to treat it. If the problem involves malfunction of an audio
device, projector or other electronic component, call in an AV maintenance
specialist without delay. A standby unit should be available. National park
museums do have replacements ready and immediately send faulty equip
ment to a repair depot. In any event, do not make a temporary Out of
Order sign and scotch-tape or thumbtack it to the exhibit. This only com
pounds the unfavorable effect. Remove the switch and its label or cover
them neatly. In applying this first guideline watch out for the effects of slow
degeneration. Visitors may react to conditions that have developed too
gradually for the staff to notice.
347
Photographs deteriorate more rapidly than most other exhibit elements.

Color slides and transparencies may fade noticeably within a few months.
Some color prints also fade quickly. Black and white ones wear out under
repeated touching by visitors or the emulsion crackles. Plan to replace
exhibit photographs as soon and as often as they need it, and program the
money to do so.
2. Is the exhibit clearly ojectionable for other reasons? Sometimes un
foreseen circumstances make it necessary to change an exhibit. The altera
tion may need to take precedence over instances of deterioration or dam
age. A case may turn out to have very annoying reflections in the glass, for
example. If visitors cannot see the contents of the case without consider
able effort, a corrective change should be scheduled. Occasionally some
part of the exhibit structure constitutes an apparent hazard. Visitors trip
over it, bump their heads or catch their clothing. Children rather than
adults may be the ones endangered. Any temporary corrective measures
should avoid damage to the exhibits or downgrading their appearance.
3. Does the exhibit contain factual inaccuracies? Museum exhibits owe
much of their effectiveness to their well earned reputation for reliability.
The effort to make and keep them accurate in all respects is well repaid.
Errors sometimes creep into them during production. More often, further
research alters or overturns a conclusion. The staff should report all errors
in exhibits as soon as they are discovered. Because of the materials and
techniques used in exhibit construction a qualified artist will usually need
to make the correction. When the required changes cannot be made at
once, the museum probably should install a neat temporary label pointing
out the correction.
4. Does the exhibit fail to communicate? Each exhibit has, or should
have, a clearly stated interpretive purpose. Refer to this and decide whether
or not the exhibit transmits the facts or ideas or arouses the feelings in
tended. If it does not, it should be revised or replaced. Until the museum is
in a position to measure the effectiveness of its exhibits, however, the
guideline must be applied subjectively. Members of the staff can study the
unit individually and compare their reactions. The behavior of visitors at
the exhibit also can be observed for indirect but useful evidence. Do people
stop to look at it? How long do they stay? How does this compare with the
time apparently necessary to examine the specimens and read the labels?
Does the exhibit generate comments or questions? In judging an exhibit on
this basis, remember the wide variation among visitors and use as large a
sample as circumstances permit. All exhibits will communicate some un
intended things to some visitors, but watch particularly for signs of incor
rect impressions being received.
5. Is the exhibit heavily used? When choices must be made among ex
hibits needing rehabilitation or replacement for one or more of the preced
ing reasons, the number of people likely to benefit from the change merits
Rehabilitation, Repair, Revision and Replacement 349
consideration. Work is more urgent on an unsatisfactory exhibit placed

where 10,000 visitors see it than on one which has only a few hundred
viewers.
6. Is a museum revision planned? If the museum proposes redesign and
replacement of existing exhibits, weigh the advisability of investing in in
terim rehabilitation. Some degree of aging or dissatisfaction may be toler
ated during a normal waiting period. Some conditions, however, might
need to be corrected in the meantime.
7. Is it a key exhibit? In even the most tightly coordinated series of
exhibits some units stand out as focal points of meaning or interest. The
effectiveness of the museum depends especially on them. Therefore, con
sider their rehabilitation or replacement ahead of less important ones.
8. Is the exhibit obsolete in technique or design? Well made and well
cared for exhibits may remain in usable condition for many years. Visitors
change meanwhile in tastes, interests and the background of education and
experience they bring. When an exhibit speaks less clearly and attractively
to a new generation, even though the display is accurate and in good repair,
consider changing it. This situation usually involves the entire installation,
so it is a costly operation. Sooner or later it becomes necessary.
Funding
Rehabilitation and replacement of exhibits involve both regular and
special expenditures of museum funds. Applying the priority guidelines the
curator can plan a well balanced program, estimate costs and justify the
need for money. Keeping exhibits in good repair is a continuing need
financed, in park museums, from the maintenance accounts. In forecasting
the amount required for a year ahead, the curator should include reason
able provision for the emergency repair of exhibits suffering from acci
dents, vandalism or other unpredictable damage.
Funds appropriated for maintenance and rehabilitation may not be used
in a park museum to increase the capital investment. The redesign and
replacement of a whole series of exhibits constitute an effort to improve the
overall quality of the installation. Work on this scale becomes a construc
tion project. Park museums obtain money for preparing new exhibits from
the appropriations earmarked for construction. An important and extensive
revision may properly become a line item in the appropriation act, in which
case budget makers and Congress can consider it on its individual merits.
Whenever an exhibit is rehabilitated or replaced, the museum wishes to
improve it. Every chance to work on an exhibit offers an opportunity to
make it more effective. The incidental redesigning and refining of displays
should accompany rehabilitation and replacement as a matter of course.
This does not ordinarily represent a significant increase in capital value
when individual exhibits rather than entire installations are concerned. So
qualitative improvement characterizes maintenance funded work as well as

construction projects.
Every aspect of a curator’s work, from the acquisition of specimens to
the replacement of existing exhibits, challenges him or her to improve the
quality of its results.
Appendixes
352 Laws Affecting Museum Operations

359 F°"1E*1PfiP°> Scope of Collections Statements
370 Collection Inventory
372 Condition Standards for Antique Firearms
373 Specimen Descriptions for Catalogue Records
377 Furnishings Research
382 Fire Safety Self-Inspection Form
390 Bibliography of Park and Countryside Museums
351
A. Laws Affecting National Park Service Museum
Operations
An Act To increase the public benefits from the National Park System
by facilitating the management of museum properties relating thereto, and
for other purposes, approved July I, I955 (69 Stat. 242)
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United

States of America in Congress assembled, That the purpose of this Act
shall be to increase the public benefits from museums established within
the individual areas administered by the Secretary of the Interior through
the National Park Service as a means of informing the public concerning
the areas and preserving valuable objects and relics relating thereto. The
Secretary of the Interior, notwithstanding other provisions or limitations of
law, may perform the following functions in such manner as he shall con
sider to be in the public interest:
(a) Accept donations and bequests of money or other personal prop
erty, and hold, use, expend, and administer the same for purposes of this
Act;
(b) Purchase from such donations and bequests of money museum
objects, museum collections, and other personal properties at prices he
considers to be reasonable;
(c) Make exchanges by accepting museum objects, museum collections,
and other personal properties, and by granting in exchange therefore mu
seum property under the administrative jurisdiction of the Secretary which
is no longer needed or which may be held in duplicate among the museum
properties administered by the Secretary, such exchanges to be consum
mated on a basis which the Secretary considers to be equitable and in the
public interest;
(d) Accept the loan of museum objects, museum collections, and other
personal properties and pay transportation costs incidental thereto, such
loans to be accepted upon terms and conditions which he shall consider
necessary; and
(e) Loan to responsible public or private organizations, institutions, or
agencies, without cost to the United States, such museum objects, museum
collections, and other personal property as he shall consider advisable,
such loans to be made upon terms and conditions which he shall consider
necessary to protect the public interest in such properties (16 U.S.C. s
18f.)
352
Appendixes 353
Excerpt from An Act To provide for the preservation of historic Ameri

can sites, buildings, objects, and antiquities of national significance, and for
other purposes, approved August 21, 1935 (49 Stat. 666)

States of America in Congress assembled, That it is hereby declared that it
is a national policy to preserve for public use historic sites, buildings and
objects of national significance for the inspiration and benefit of the people
of the United States (16 U.S.C. sec. 461.)
Sec. 2. The Secretary of the Interior (hereinafter referred to as the
Secretary), through the National Park Service, for the purpose of effectuat
ing the policy expressed in section 1 hereof, shall have the following pow
ers and perform the following duties and functions:
(f) Restore, reconstruct, rehabilitate, preserve, and maintain historic
and prehistoric sites, buildings, objects, and properties of national histori
cal or archaeological significance and where deemed desirable establish and
maintain museums in connection therewith.
An Act For the preservation of American antiquities, approved June 8,

I906 (34 Stat. 225)

States of America in Congress assembled, That any person who shall ap
propriate, excavate, injure, or destroy any historic or prehistoric ruin or
monument, or any object of antiquity, situated on lands owned or con
trolled by the Government of the United States, without the permission of
the Secretary of the department of the Government having jurisdiction
over the lands on which said antiquities are situated, shall, upon conviction
be fined in a sum of not more than five hundred dollars or be imprisoned
for a period of not more than ninety days, or shall suffer both fine and
imprisonment, in the discretion of the court. (U.S.C., title 16, sec. 433.)
Sec. 2. That the President of the United States is hereby authorized, in
his discretion, to declare by public proclamation historic landmarks, his
toric and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific
interest that are situated upon the lands owned or controlled by the Gov
ernment of the United States to be national monuments, and may reserve
as a part thereof parcels of land, the limits of which in all cases shall be
confined to the smallest area compatible with the proper care and man
agement of the objects to be protected: Provided, That when such objects
are situated upon a tract covered by a bona fide unperfected claim or held
in private ownership, the tracts, or so much thereof as may be necessary
for the proper care and management of the object, may be relinquished to
the Government, and the Secretary of the Interior is hereby authorized to
accept the relinquishment of such tracts in behalf of the Government of the

United States. (U.S.C., title 16, sec. 431.)
Sec. 3. That permits for the examination of ruins, the excavation of
archaeological sites, and the gathering of objects of antiquity upon the
lands under their respective jurisdictions may be granted by the Secretaries
of the Interior, Agriculture, and War to institutions which they may deem
properly qualified to conduct such examination, excavation, and gathering,
subject to such rules and regulations as they may prescribe: Provided, That
the examinations, excavations, and gatherings are undertaken for the bene
fit of reputable museums, universities, colleges, or other recognized scien
tific or educational institutions, with a view to increasing the knowledge of
such objects, and that the gatherings shall be made for permanent preserva
tion in public museums. (U.S.C., title 16, sec. 432.)
Sec. 4. That the Secretaries of the departments aforesaid shall make and
publish from time to time uniform rules and regulations for the purpose of
carrying out the provisions of this act. (U.S.C., title 16, sec. 432.)
Uniform Rules and Regulations

Prescribed by the Secretaries of the Interior, Agriculture and War to
Carry Out the Provisions of the “Act for the Preservation of American
Antiquities,” approved June 8, 1906 (34 Stat. 225)
1. Jurisdiction over ruins, archaeological sites, historic and prehistoric

monuments and structures, objects of antiquity, historic landmarks, and
other objects of historic or scientific interest, shall be exercised under the
act by the respective Departments as follows:
By the Secretary of Agriculture over lands within the exterior limits of
forest reserves, by the Secretary of War over lands within the exterior
limits of military reservations, by the Secretary of the Interior over all
other lands owned or controlled by the Government of the United States,
provided the Secretaries of War and Agriculture may by agreement co
operate with the Secretary of the Interior in the supervision of such monu
ments and objects covered by the act of June 8, 1906, as may be located
on lands near or adjacent to forest reserves and military reservations,
respectively.
2. No permit for the removal of any ancient monument or structure
which can be permanently preserved under the control of the United States
in situ, and remain an object of interest, shall be granted.
Appendixes 355
3. Permits for the examination of ruins, the excavation of archaeologi

cal sites, and the gathering of objects of antiquity will be granted, by the
respective Secretaries having jurisdiction, to reputable museums, universi
ties, colleges, or other recognized scientific or educational institutions, or to
their duly authorized agents.
4. No exclusive permits shall be granted for a larger area than the
applicant can reasonably be expected to explore fully and systematically
within the time limit named in the permit.
5. Each application for a permit should be filed with the Secretary
having jurisdiction, and must be accompanied by a definite outline of the
proposed work, indicating the name of the institution making the request,
the date proposed for beginning the field work, the length of time proposed
to be devoted to it, and the person who will have immediate charge of the
work. The application must also contain an exact statement of the charac
ter of the work, whether examination, excavation, or gathering, and the
public museum in which the collections made under the permit are to be
permanently preserved. The application must be accompanied by a sketch
plan or description of the particular site or area to be examined, excavated,
or searched, so definite that it can be located on the map with reasonable
accuracy.
6. No permit will be granted for a period of more than three years, but
if the work has been diligently prosecuted under the permit, the time may
be extended for proper cause upon application.
7. Failure to begin work under a permit within six months after it is
granted, or failure to diligently prosecute such work after it has been
begun, shall make the permit void without any order or proceeding by the
Secretary having jurisdiction.
8. Applications for permits shall be referred to the Smithsonian Institu
tion for recommendation.
9. Every permit shall be in writing and copies shall be transmitted to the
Smithsonian Institution and the field officer in charge of the land involved.
The permittee will be furnished with a copy of these rules and regulations.
10. At the close of each season’s field work the permittee shall report in
duplicate to the Smithsonian Institution, in such form as its secretary may
prescribe, and shall prepare in duplicate a catalogue of the collections and
of the photographs made during the season, indicating therein such ma
terial, if any, as may be available for exchange.
11. Institutions and persons receiving permits for excavation shall, after
the completion of the work, restore the lands upon which they have worked
to their customary condition, to the satisfaction of the field officer in charge.
12. All permits shall be terminable at the discretion of the Secretary
having jurisdiction.
13. The field officer in charge of land owned or controlled by the Gov
ernment of the United States shall, from time to time, inquire and report as
Manual for Museums
to the existence, on or near such lands, of ruins and archaeological sites,

historic or prehistoric ruins or monuments, objects of antiquity, historic
landmarks, historic or prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic
or scientific interest.
14. The field officer in charge may at all times examine the permit of
any person or institution claiming privileges granted in accordance with the
act and these rules and regulations, and may fully examine all work done
under such permit.
15. All persons duly authorized by the Secretaries of Agriculture, War,
and Interior may apprehend or cause to be arrested, as provided in the act
of February 6, 1905 (33 Stat. 700) any person or persons who appropri
ate, excavate, injure, or destroy any historic or prehistoric ruin or monu
ment, or any object of antiquity on lands under the supervision of the
Secretaries of Agriculture, War, and Interior, respectively.
16. Any object of antiquity taken, or collection made, on lands owned
or controlled by the United States, without a permit, as prescribed by the
act and these rules and regulations, or there taken or made, contrary to the
terms of the permit, or contrary to the act and these rules and regulations,
may be seized wherever found and at any time, by the proper field officer
or by any person duly authorized by the Secretary having jurisdiction, and
disposed of as the Secretary shall determine, by deposit in the proper
national depository or otherwise.
17. Every collection made under the authority of the act and of these
rules and regulations shall be preserved in the public museum designated in
the permit and shall be accessible to the public. No such collection shall be
removed from such public museum without the written authority of the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and then only to another public
museum, where it shall be accessible to the public; and when any public
museum, which is a depository of any collection made under the provisions
of the act and these rules and regulations, shall cease to exist, every such
collection in such public museum shall thereupon revert to the national
collections and be placed in the proper national depository.
Protection of Endangered and Threatened Species
The Endangered Species Act of I973 (87 Stat. 884) contains the fol
lowing prohibitions:
Sec. 9. (a) General.—(1) Except as provided in sections 6(g)(2) and

Appendixes 357
10 of this Act, with respect to any endangered species of fish or wildlife

listed pursuant to section 4 of this Act it is unlawful for any person subject
to the jurisdiction of the United States to—
(A) import any such species into, or export any such species from the
United States;
(B) take any such species within the United States or the territorial sea
of the United States;
(C) take any such species upon the high seas;
(D) possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship, by any means what
soever, any such species taken in violation of subparagraphs (B) and
(C);
(E) deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign
commerce, by any means whatsoever and in the course of a commercial
activity, any such species;
(F) sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce any such
species; or
(G) violate any regulation pertaining to such species or to any threat
ened species of fish or wildlife listed pursuant to section 4 of this Act and
promulgated by the Secretary pursuant to authority provided by this Act.
(2) Except as provided in sections 6(g)(2) and 10 of this Act, with

respect to any endangered species of plants listed pursuant to section 4 of
this Act, it is unlawful. for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the
United States to—
(A) import any such species into, or export any such species from, the
United States; ,
(B) deliver, receive, carry, transport, or ship in interstate or foreign
commerce, by any means whatsoever and in the course of a commercial
activity, any such species;
(C) sell or offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce any such
species; or
(D) violate any regulation pertaining to such species or to any threat
ened species of plants listed pursuant to section 4 of this Act and promul
gated by the Secretary pursuant to authority provided by this Act.
Sec. 10. (a) Permits—The Secretary may permit, under such terms and
conditions as he may prescribe, any act otherwise prohibited by section 9
of this Act for scientific purposes or to enhance the propagation or survival
of the affected species.
The following excerpt from Part 11, Title 50, Code of Federal Regula
tions applies certain provisions of 54 Stat. 250 as amended by 73 Stat. 143
and 76 Stat. 1246:
Manual for Museums
11.1 Eagles protected.

The taking, possession, or transportation of the bald eagle (Haliaeetus
leucocephalus), commonly know as the American eagle, or the golden
eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), or their parts, nests, or eggs is prohibited, ex
cept as permitted in this part. No bald eagle or golden eagle, or their parts,
nests, or eggs may be purchased, sold, traded, or bartered, or offered for
sale, trade, or barter in the United States or in any place subject to its
jurisdiction.
11.2 Permits to take for scientific or exhibition purposes.
Whenever the Secretary determines that it is compatible with the preser
vation of the bald eagle or the golden eagle to take, possess, or transport
such birds or their parts, nests, or eggs for the scientific or exhibition
purposes of public museums, scientific societies, or zoological parks, a
permit may be issued for such purposes.
B. Scope of Collections Statements
Lincoln Museum, National Capital Parks—West
The Lincoln Museum contains about 4,894 specimens, all of them re

lated in some degree to Abraham Lincoln. Within this theme the museum
has had a broad and rather uncritical accession policy. Consequently the
collection has a miscellaneous character and an extreme range of quality.
A number of the objects have outstanding interest and importance. Others
would share this significance if their direct association with Lincoln could
be verified. Many of the specimens, however, have historical or interpretive
value largely because they illustrate how people have responded to Lin
coln’s life and death. Osborn H. Oldroyd, whose collection provides about
half the museum’s holdings, gathered nearly any kind of object he could
find which claimed some connection with Lincoln, bore his name or image,
or related to places and events in his life. Oldroyd’s collection, purchased
by Act of Congress in 1926, came into National Park Service custody in
1933 and formed the nucleus for the Lincoln Museum. The Service con
tinued to collect Lincolniana within the same wide scope, mainly through
acceptance of specimens offered as gifts. Such unchanneled growth en
dangers the value of the collection. To assure that in the future each
acquisition will fill a recognized, justifiable need, the museum requires
clearly defined purposes and precise guidelines for its collection.
The Lincoln Museum collection serves three legitimate purposes:
1. To preserve objects which give people a truer understanding and
deeper appreciation of Abraham Lincoln in the presidency and in those
other specific aspects of his life interpreted through exhibits.
2. To strengthen and enrich the exhibits of the museum and the House
Where Lincoln Died.
3. To provide resources for limited studies of Lincoln, particularly in
the presidency, and to document the conclusions.
In developing and refining the collection, the basic guideline is as fol
lows: Objects acquired for the Lincoln Museum shall relate directly to
Abraham Lincoln during his presidency from the campaign of 1860 until
his death except as specifically noted below:
1. Specimens selected to improve or enrich exhibits in the museum on
other aspects of Lincoln’s life.
359
2. Specimens importantly related to the assassination and trial of the

conspirators.
3. Objects that were part of or used in Ford’s Theatre, August 27,
1863-April 14, 1865.
4. Furnishings that were in the House Where Lincoln Died on April
14-15, 1865 or objects specified in the Furnishing Plan to represent the
original furnishings of exhibited rooms.
5. Specimens necessary to round out existing series of objects in the
collection which are potentially significant resources for study.
The primary concern of the collection shall be Lincoln from the presi
dential campaign of 1860 until his death.
This basic guideline shall be applied to specific parts of the collection as
follows:
1. Personal Possessions
a. Collect objects satisfactorily authenticated as having belonged
to or been used by Lincoln or members of his family during the
campaign of 1860 or his presidency.
b. Transfer Lincoln possessions associated with his earlier years to
museums at the sites where they were originally used unless such
museums lack adequate facilities for their continued preservation.
If the objects are on exhibition, retain them until suitable replace
ments can be acquired, when they can be transferred to appropriate
sites.
c. Collect objects properly authenticated as having belonged to or
been used by employees of Ford’s Theatre or members of the cast
playing on April 14, 1865 provided that these objects contribute
or support knowledge of the mechanics and operation of the
theatre or the events of that night.
d. Collect objects authenticated as owned or used by the assassin and
conspirators and related to the event.
e. Collect objectssatisfactorily verified as having belonged to occu
pants of the House Where Lincoln Died and been in the house on
April 14-15, 1865.
2. Architecture and Furnishings
a. Collect furnishings, stage property, equipment, fixtures and signifi
cant fragments of architectural detail or of furnishing fabrics
authenticated as used in Ford’s Theatre or the Star Saloon,
August 27, 1863-April 14, 1865.
b. Collect furnishings and significant fragments of furnishings and
finishes authenticated as used in the House Where Lincoln Died,
April 14-15, 1865.
Appendixes 361
3. Lincoln Iconography
a. Paintings
(1) Collect portraits of Lincoln or members of his family painted
1860-1880, consulting with the National Portrait Gallery to
avoid competitive collecting and to assure significance, but
do not acquire paintings depicting Lincoln or his family prior
to 1860 unless specifically needed for an exhibit.
(2) Collect group portraits or historical scenes (painted 1860
1880) which include Lincoln as president or as candidate for
the presidency, including funeral ceremonies.
(3) Collect portraits of Lincoln executed after 1880 only if re
quired for a specific exhibit.
(4) Through proper channels, dispose of non-exhibitable Lincoln
paintings showing him prior to 1860 or painted after 1880.
b. Sculpture
(1) Collect original works of sculpture or casts made under the
sculptor’s supervision depicting Lincoln as presidential candi
date or president and executed 1860-1880, consulting with
the National Portrait Gallery.
(2) Do not acquire sculpture showing Lincoln before 1860 or
done after 1880 unless called for in an exhibit.
(3) Do not acquire mass-produced copies of busts, statuettes or
bas-relief plaques depicting Lincoln unless required to fill
recognized gaps in an existing series important for study
purposes.
(4) Through proper channels, dispose of sculptural representa
tions of Lincoln showing him prior to 1860, or executed after
1880, provided they are not on exhibition or required as part
of significant study series.
C Prints
(1) Collect one each of etchings, engravings, lithographs, wood
cuts and similar graphic art works, 1860-1880, portraying
Lincoln or members of his family during his presidency. Suc
cessive states and variations of the same subject should be
included, but mass-produced copies should not be held in
duplicate.
(2) Collect one each of prints showing groups or events, including
funeral cermonies, of 1860-1865 which include Lincoln and
which were produced 1860-1880, including states and
variations.
(3) Collect political cartoons depicting Lincoln and concerning
his presidential campaigns or presidency.
(4) Consider iconographic items removed from books, magazines
and newspapers as reference material in the library collection,

not as museum specimens.
d. Photographs
(1) Collect only photographs of Lincoln or members of his family
taken 1860-1865 and not reproduced in Charles Hamilton
and Loyd Ostendorf, Lincoln in Photographs, An Album of
Every Known Pose, University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.
(2) Through proper channels, dispose of Lincoln photographs
taken prior to 1860 unless being used in exhibits.
4. Other Iconography
8 Collect contemporary paintings, drawings, prints or photographs,
but not clippings, showing the assassin and conspirators, employees
of Ford’s Theatre 1863-1865, members of the cast of Our Ameri
can Cousin as performed on April 14, 1865, and significant occu
pants of the theatre or the House Where Lincoln Died on April
14-15, 1865.
b. Collect contemporary paintings, drawings, prints or photographs,
but not clippings, showing the exterior or interior of Ford’s Theater,
the Star Saloon, and the House Where Lincoln Died as they ap
peared in 1865.
5. Coins, Medals and Badges

3.. Collect only specimens of coins, paper currency and mercantile
tokens bearing Lincoln’s portrait which are necessary to fill recog
nized gaps in potentially significant study series.
b Collect campaign badges, medals and related insignia for both
presidential campaigns, 1860 and 1864, and for all parties involved
as needed for display or to build up comprehensive study series.
C. Collect mourning badges only as needed to round out existing study
series.
d Collect only such Lincoln memorial medals as are required to fill
known gaps in potentially important study series.
6. Documents
3 Collect political posters, broadsides, election tickets and related
material associated with the presidential campaigns of 1860 and
1864.
b. Collect printed documents that clearly represent Lincoln’s important
acts and opinions as presidential candidate and president.
C. Do not collect Lincoln manuscripts, plays or similar material unless
required for exhibition.
d Collect printed matter issued by or used in Ford’s Theatre, August
1863-April 1865.
Appendixes 363
e. Collect sheet music only as required to fill recognized gaps in series

illustrating Lincoln campaigns, Lincoln memorial compositions and
music used in Ford’s Theatre.
f. Collect original posters, broadsides and notices related to the
assassination.
g. Collect documents printed in connection with Lincoln funeral
ceremonies only as needed to round out existing series.
h. Collect newspapers only if they are original copies, 1860-1865,
containing important news involving Lincoln and are not dupli
cated in other Washington repositories.
7. Miscellaneous
a. Do not collect additional objects associated with Lincoln funeral
ceremonies except as indicated in 5(c) and 6(g) above.
b. Do not collect objects associated with other Lincoln sites unless
needed for an exhibit and then only with the concurrence of site
authorities.
Acadia National Park (draft)
We need to know what kinds of animals and plants inhabit the park and
the principal inanimate factors of their environment. This information is
essential for learning about and keeping track of the ecological processes
going on in the park. Proper management and interpretation require such
knowledge. The management need at Acadia is underlined by experience.
The park has already had to cope with a disastrous forest fire and a critical
overpopulation of deer. In both cases the staff could have done a better,
more efficient management job if the details of the local ecology had been
more fully recorded in advance. From the interpretive standpoint Acadia
has traditionally attracted visitors interested in natural history. It has cata
lyzed similar interests in other visitors. Growing public concern for the
environment now demands that we use the park more effectively to create
ecological understandings.
Much of the information to meet these needs can only come from speci
mens collected and authoritatively identified. This means that Acadia
should have a basic reference collection inventorying its natural resources.
The insular character of the park calls for some paralleling of material.
Special ecological problems may require additional collecting of a limited
nature, but the resulting specimens can usually go to a museum outside the
park for continued preservation. Parts of the reference series not needed at
hand for answering staff or visitor questions can also be preserved outside
the park if suitable museums are available. The University of Maine can
care for some material from the park. The growing State Museum in Au
gusta may develop staffing and facilities to handle other parts of our
collection.
The scope of the natural history collection needed for park operations at
Acadia is defined as follows:
Mammals Each species of mammal occuiing on Mount Desert Island shall

be represented in the collection by a limited series of specimens, viz. one
good study skin and skull of an adult male, of an adult female, of an
immature individual if the young show significant differences from the
adults, and of the minimum number of forms needed to show important
seasonal changes and transitional stages of pelage; one complete skeleton
usually obtained from an accidental kill, and one set of casts showing
tracks of fore and hind feet. Corresponding series shall represent any ad
ditional species found on the Schoodic Peninsula, Isle Au Haut or Baker
Island. To establish what species inhabit Isle Au Haut and Baker Island
the collection shall include the skin and skull of one adult of every species
taken on each island. The marine mammals of the adjacent waters shall be
represented by the full series for seals and single skeletons for cetaceans.
Supplementary specimens illustrating the impact of mammals on their en
vironment, e.g., stomach contents and examples of damage to plants,
should be included in the collection when significant or the subject of
visitors’ questions.
Birds Each species of bird occurring in the park or on adjacent waters

shall be similarly represented by one good study skin and skull of an adult
male, of an adult female, of an immature bird if it differs markedly from
the adults in appearance and is found at this stage in the park, and of the
minimum number of adults needed to illustrate other seasonal plumages
seen in the park; and one complete skeleton (preferably from an accidental
kill). Supplementary specimens such as one set of track casts of shore
feeding species, one example each of conspicuous nests, and stomach con
tents or pellets significant in ecological studies may be included as needed.
Reptiles and Amphibians Each species of snake, turtle, urodele and

salamander found in the park or adjacent waters shall be represented in the
collection by one adult specimen, preserved in alcohol, from each of the
l four major park units where it occurs (Mount Desert Island, Schoodic
l Peninsula, Isle Au Haut, Baker Island). One adult of the opposite sex may
be added to the series when both sexes are not already represented. For
l
amphibians the collection shall include one specimen of each distinctive
l larval stage or developmental form.
Appendixes 365
Fishes Each species of fish inhabiting the fresh waters of the park and
the tidal or marine areas fished by park visitors shall be represented by one
adult specimen preserved in alcohol. Additional specimens illustrating sig
nificant sexual differences or needed for reference use at other stations in
the park may be included.
Insects Each conspicuous species and form likely to arouse visitor interest
because of its appearance, sound, bite or sting (e.g., larger Orthoptera,
Odonata, Hemiptera—Homoptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Hymen
optera, and selected Diptera) shall be represented by at least one properly
mounted adult specimen, but by no more than will occupy the smallest
appropriate size of pinning tray. Conspicuous larvae shall be included on
the same grounds. Each species of importance in park management (e.g.,
parasites and others potentially requiring control measures) shall be simi
larly represented. Each additional insect family occurring in the park shall
be illustrated by at least one adult specimen, but no more than will fill the
smallest appropriate size of pinning tray. The additional specimens may be
of the same or different species within the family.
Other Invertebrates One adult specimen of each conspicuous invertebrate

species of the park’s tidal zone shall be collected and preserved. A minimal
number of additional specimens shall represent important sexual or color
differences. Similarly one adult specimen shall serve to identify each spe
cies of conspicuous marine invertebrate likely to wash ashore from deeper
waters and each principal species of terrestrial or fresh water mollusk and
crustacean in the park. Single adult specimens shall suffice to inventory
each of the other families of macroscopic invertebrates found in the park.
Plankton animals will not be kept in the collection.
Plants Each species of seed plant growing in the park shall be represented
by an herbarium specimen, including fruit as well as flowers whenever
possible, collected from each of the four main units where it occurs
(Mount Desert Island, Schoodic Peninsula, Isle Au Haut and Baker Is
land). Specimens illustrating important variations in form or color and
identifiable hybrids shall be included. Each species of fern, moss, club
moss, liverwort, lichen and conspicuous fungus found in the park shall be
represented by one characteristic specimen. Each species of marine algae
growing on the shores of the park shall be similarly represented, but phyto
plankton will not ordinarily be retained in the collection.
Geological Collections The reference collection shall contain one charac

teristic hand specimen of each rock type and formation exposed in the
park, and one or more thin sections of each if needed for critical study.
More than one hand specimen shall be included when variations in the
composition or structure of any type or formation require it. A good speci

men of each of the few fossils occurring in the park shall be in the collec
tion. Individual specimens which illustrate particularly well glacial, igneous
or tectonic events or processes in the geologic history of the park may also
be included. So may one good crystalline specimen of each mineral enter
ing into the composition of park rocks, even if the specimens come from
elsewhere. To supplement the reference collection additional hand speci
mens for use in interpretive activities may be assembled.
The history of Acadia also involves specimens which the park has an
obligation to preserve and which contribute to the interpretation and wise
administration of the park. Two limiting factors restrict the scope of his
torical collecting at Acadia. History is a secondary resource here which
should not be overemphasized. It is typical of wider areas rather than being
unique in its significance. Accordingly, the collection should conform to
defined park needs as follows:
Indians The park will not actively acquire specimens concerning the
prehistoric or historic Indians except as called for in approved exhibit
plans or as excavated in approved archeological research projects. Indian
specimens not currently on exhibition or under active study shall be de
posited in the Abbe Museum, the University of Maine or the State Museum.
French Colonial Existing material in the Sawtelle Collection will be

supplemented only by specimens required for an approved exhibit or re
covered through archeological investigations within the park (e.g., the Saint
Sauveur site) or in immediately adjacent waters. Exceptions should be
considered, however, if opportunities arise to acquire original material as
sociated with Champlain, Cadillac or the Saint Sauveur settlement and its
destruction.
New England Frontier The collection shall concentrate on those major

local industries which support the interpretive emphasis of the park on
aspects of the sea and its influence on Acadia. It shall contain as far as
possible one only of each kind of artifact illustrating the material culture of
the commercial boat building and fishing activities of the 18th-20th-cen
tury inhabitants of Mount Desert, Isle Au Haut and Baker Island. This will
include objects associated with the Banks fishing, fish drying and packing;
the menhaden fishing; and lobsters. Boat building tools, plans, models,
paintings, drawings, prints, photographs and documentary evidence will be
collected rather than the boats themselves unless the latter are specified in
approved interpretive plans. Material presently in the Sawtelle Collection
on island agriculture, community and domestic life and items associated
with individual settlers will be supplemented only as required for approved
exhibits or research projects.
Appendixes 367
Summer Resort and Park The collection shall include only those speci
mens needed to give visitors an appreciation of the character of the sum
mer colony that developed on Mount Desert and the role of summer
residents in creating the park. Collecting in this subject area should be
minimal until a research project can establish a want list.
Glacier National Park

(from Interpretive Prospectus, 1967)
Study Collections The scope of the study collections will include the
following representative forms:
. The present plant, vertebrate and invertebrate life of the Park.
_4>.o.—’a.' The rocks and minerals of the Park.
. Archeological and ethnological material with local provenience.
Objects associated with the history, settlement, administration and
operation of the Park.
U1 . A file of negatives, photographs and books associated with the Park.
Materials for these dollections should be selectively chosen so that dupli
cation of objects will be kept to a minimum since the basic purpose of the
collections is to provide resources for research, reference and exhibits.
Working space and storage facilities, albeit small, have been provided in
the basement of the Administration Building. Inspection and treatment of
all specimens are regularly scheduled. Researchers, both private and Fed
erally sponsored, are encouraged to use these collections, and they are
readily available to any bona fide student.
Series collections will not be maintained because extensive collections of
both the fauna and flora of the Park are maintained at both The University
of Montana at Missoula, and Montana State University at Bozeman.
To comply with the stated purpose and scope of the study collection the
following guidelines should be followed whenever possible. This does not
preclude the replacing of present specimens with better examples as the
opportunity or need arises. Also, no specimen should be accepted unless all
the necessary information regarding the collector, place of collection and
pertinent measurements and data are available_and recorded.
Guidelines for obtaining and retaining specimens:

1. Herbarium:
a. Minimum, 1 specimen from east and 1 specimen from west of the
Continental Divide.
b. Life history states, i.e., flower, fruiting; for shrubs and trees winter
conditions should be included.
c. Maximum should not exceed 5.
2. Vertebrates:
a. Minimum, 1 specimen from east and 1 specimen from west of the
Continental Divide.
b. If sexes differ appreciably in size and/or color, a male and female
should be included. An immature specimen should be included only
.if it varies in color, not size, from the adult.
c. Seasonal variations of resident animals should be represented by one
specimen in winter plumage or pelage.
d. Maximum should not exceed 6.
e. In the case of larger vertebrates, e.g., bear, deer or mountain lion, a
maximum of two skulls, male and female, and one pelt shall be pre
served in the study collection.
3 Invertebrates:
a. Minimum, 1 specimen from east and 1 specimen from west of Con
tinental Divide.
b. If sexes differ appreciably in size and/or color, a male and female
should be included; adult forms only should be collected.
c. Maximum should not exceed 4.
4 Geologic Specimens:
a. Formations—Representative samples of each recognized geologic
formation in the Park, not to exceed 3 specimens of each formation.
b. Fossils—Samples of various biologic and geologic fossils, e.g., algae,
mud cracks and ripple marks, not to exceed 3 of each species or type.
An exception should be made if the fossil form is in danger of being
destroyed if left in place.
c. Other features—Representative samples of glacial features, etc., e.g.,
glacial striations and polish, not to exceed 3 of each phenomenon.
d. Minerals—Maximum should not exceed 2 of each mineral occurring
in the Park.
5 History:
a. Administration and settlement: The scope of the study collection
should be very limited as to the history of the administration and
operation of the Park. Specimens relating to early settlement and
establishment of the Park are most important; those relating to
normal operation and administration should receive little, if any,
attention. There is value in retaining objects associated with early
Appendixes 369
townsites and commercial ventures in the region, e.g., Altyn Town

site and Cracker Mill.
b. Archeology and ethnology: Standard archeologic practices shall be
followed in retaining specimens in the study collection. In general
this means that all specimens will be retained until studied, after
which a qualified archeologist shall determine whether all specimens
shall be retained in the study collection.
C. Collection Inventory
Tuzigoot National Monument

I. Summary
The collections number approximately 2,000 items; 450 are stored at
the Southwest Archeological Center, the remainder at the Monument. The
collections are of value for (1) display and interpretation, (2) study of
the A.D. 1100-1450 Sinagua, and (3) a source for comparative studies.
The weakness of the collection is that it represents only one site and one
period.
II. Area Value
Tuzigoot preserves the remains of a scientifically excavated hill-top

Sinagua village occupied between A.D. 1100-1400.
III. Collections
A. NPS Museum Records—1,994 (as of Nov. 1962)

Cataloguing is current and complete and the catalogue duplicated for
those items stored at SWAC.
1 Tuzigoot—1,520 items.
The major portion, 1,365 items is from the 1933-34 excavations.
The collection is large, varied, and of excellent quality, valuable
for display, study, interpretation and comparison. Well docu
mented, published artifacts of the A.D. 1100 to 1400 Sinagua.
2 Tuzigoot Extension—l07 items.
Excavated materials, bone, stone, shell and clay.
3 Hatalacva—63 items.
An excavated site, primarily bone, stone, clay and shell.
4 Hidden House and Sycamore Canyon—106 items.
These collections are primarily from sheltered sites, contain 58
perishable items and 10 split-twig figurines.
5 Miscellaneous Verde Valley Locations--78 items.
These include some good display pottery.
6. Provenience Undetermined—120 items.
Catalogued but undocumented materials including 52 perishable
items possibly from Sycamore Canyon.
370
Appendixes 371
B. Collections at Other Institutions

Some display quality items are on loan at the Smoki Museum and
the State Archives in Phoenix.
C. Materials Lacking
Tuzigoot is a completely excavated one period site. The collections
have the usual “open site” weakness in organic materials; materials
from an earlier period are lacking.
IV. Projected Development

No archeological projects are planned.
V. Evaluation
Except for a lack of perishable materials the collections are excellent for
the site; they are also of high display value.
They are of high importance as a definitive Sinagua site collection.
D. Condition Standards for Antique Firearms
Factory New All original parts; 100% original finish; in perfect condition
in every respect, inside and out.
Excellent All original parts; over 80% original finish; sharp lettering,
numerals and design on metal and wood; unmarred wood; fine bore.
Fine All original parts; over 30% original finish; sharp lettering, numerals
and design on metal and wood; minor marks in wood; good bore.
Very Good All original parts; none to 30% original finish; original metal
surfaces smooth with all edges sharp; clear lettering, numerals and design
on metal; wood slightly scratched or bruised; bore disregarded for col
lectors firearms.
Good Some minor replacement parts; metal smoothly rusted or lightly

pitted in places, cleaned or reblued; principal lettering, numerals and de
sign on metal legible; wood refinished, scratched, bruised or minor cracks
repaired; in good working order.
Fair Some major parts replaced; minor replacement parts may be re

quired; metal rusted, may be lightly pitted all over, vigorously cleaned or
reblued; rounded edges of metal and wood; principal lettering, numerals
and design on metal partly obliterated; wood scratched, bruised, cracked or
repaired where broken; in fair working order or can be easily repaired and
placed in working order.
Poor Major and minor parts replaced; major replacement parts required
and extensive restoration needed; metal deeply pitted; principal lettering,
numerals and design obliterated, wood badly scratched, bruised, cracked or
broken; mechanically inoperative; generally undesirable as a collectors
firearm.
(These standards have been developed by the National Rifle Associa
tion. See the general requirements on advertising “The Arms Chest,” The
American Rifleman, also Gun Collectors Handbook, Washington. National
Rifle Association, 1959.)
372
E. Examples of Good Practice in Catalogue Descriptions
of Museum Specimens
1. Mammal
Object. Microtus pennsylvanicus, meadow vole, study skin and skull.

Locality. Harpers Ferry NHP, Jefferson County, WV.
Description. Mature male, total length 180 mm, tail 55 mm, hind foot
22 mm, ear l4 mm, weight 99.2 g; skull data: condylobasal length 25 mm,
zygomatic breadth 18 mm; dentition worn; 1/2 lower jaw lost in cleaning.
Condition: Infected with bot fly (Cuterebra sp.) in inguinal region, left
ear badly scarred, shedline across rump (see sketch); for stomach contents
see catalogue folder.
Collected Oct. 6, 1957 on Bolivar Heights between loop at end of foot
path and pasture fence, elevation 612 feet, snap trap in runway in blue
grass (Poa pratensis), field no. 326.
2. Rock
Object. Sandstone, Navajo Formation.

Locality. Near Courthouse Towers, Grand Co., UT.
Description. Well sorted, well rounded, frosted quartz grains, .75-1
mm; carbonate cement; color white.
Hand specimen chipped to 127 mm >< 76 mm >< 25 mm.
Collected at Site #76 marked on park geologic base map (USGS 71/3
quadrangle, Courthouse Towers), 30’ (9m) above contact with underlying
Kayenta Formation. Field No. 137.
3. Ethnological Specimen
Object. Shirt, war.
Locality. South Dakota.
Description. Painted buckskin with quills, beads, cloth, scalp locks.
Sewn with sinew and thread. Ca. 1850-1875.
Decoration: Upper part of shirt painted blue; lower part painted yellow
and fringed. The neck is bound in red trade cloth as are the fringed cuffs.
Bands of red and yellow quillwork bordered by blue and yellow lazy
stitched beads are on sleeves; the same decoration moves from the chest
over the shoulders to the back. The V at the neck has twelve thin rows of
373
red quillwork, a border of blue and yellow beads, and fringe. Attached to
the sleeve, chest, and back quilled panels are scalp locks wrapped with red
quills at their base.
Body: 78 >< 53, sleeve 60 cm.
History: ex coll. David T. Vernon. Dockstader notes, “Fine example of
such work.” I agree completely; an excellent piece.
4. Textile
Object. Coverlet, double woven Jacquard.

Locality. United States, probably Indiana or Ohio.
Description. Woven on a power operated Jacquard loom. Typical pat
tern and materials—blue wool and white cotton. Pattern: 8 large medal
lions, 6 smaller rosettes, foliage lattice between medallions with pairs of
long-tailed birds; a three-leafed plant is prominent. Border has single
medallions in corners, linear arrangement of rosettes and medallions and
small geometric patterns. Two selvage edges and two edges with small
rolled hem, hand stitched. Made c. 1850-1860. Yarns:
cotton warps S twist 3 ply 20 per inch

cotton wefts S twist 3 ply 20 per inch
wool warps S twist 2 ply 20 per inch
wool wefts S twist 2 ply 20 per inch
Sewing thread used to hem—S twist, 2 ply linen.
Some light stains, especially one overlapping the outer edge of one of the
large medallions near the center and one in a border medallion near the
center of the opposite hemmed edge.
8’ X 6’ 11" (the woven width of fabric) (2.44 >< 2.11 m). Border
9%” on selvage edges (229 mm), 9%” on hemmed edges (248 mm).
Condition is good, fibers strong, no tears or holes. Light stains as noted.
Donor’s family maintains coverlet was handwoven in Scotland. It is too wide
to have been handwoven and there are extremely few examples of coverlets
woven in Britain. Specimen might well have been woven by a Scottish
immigrant in Indiana or Ohio where the donor’s family resided prior to the
Civil War.
Coverlet washed, fumigated and hem repaired Harpers Ferry Center,
July 1974.
5. Furniture
Object. Armchair.
Locality. Philadelphia, PA.
Description. Walnut Queen Anne Chippendale open armchair with slip
seat, circa 1745-1755. Broad serpentine crest rail with plain volute termi
Appendixes 375
nals; solid vase-shaped splat; raking stiles chamfered into octagon below
trapezoidal seat frame; side rails tenoned through rear legs; reverse serpen
tine arm rest terminating in scrolled knuckles, reverse C arm supports; side
rails screwed into arm supports; front rail double reverse S-curves; ogee
knee bracket; side rails shaped; plain cabriole front legs; slipper feet. Fin
ish wax over brushed shellac. Trapezoidal pine slip seat frame, modern
muslin webbing, tacks and all-hair filling, covered with brown leather.
Small knot shows on inside of front seat rail 3" (76 mm) from left end.
Measurements: h. 40%,,” (1.03 m), w. knuckle to knuckle 301/2" (775
mm), depth 181/,” (464 mm), length at seat 1615/16” (430 mm), width
at seat 16%," (407 mm).
Condition: very good. Rear corner blocks replaced.
Reference: John T. Kirk, American Chairs, Queen Anne and Chippen
dale, 1972, p. 6.
6. Firearm
Object. U.S. Model 1842 musket, rifled version.

Locality. Harpers Ferry, WV.
Description. Follows the 1842 pattern, but is rifled as 14,300 of the
M1842’s were between 1856 and 1859. This one has 7 grooves, unusual.
Long range rear sight is an old replacement, calibrated from 100 to 800
yards. Top of barrel has a notch where a nonmilitary sight was once
placed. Hammer screw is a new replacement. Ramrod is an old
replacement.
Marks: stamped on lock plate behind hammer in three lines—
HARPERS/FERRY/ 1854, on lock in front of hammer—U. S. below
eagle, on barrel tang—1855, on left of breech—eagle head proofmark and
U P, on face of breech—P O I J 9, on butt plate tang—U S, deeply on
side plate side of stock the inspector’s initials—N U.
Measurements: .69 cal. (17.5 mm), total length 57.75” (1.466 m),
barrel length 42" (1.067 m), stock length 55" (1. 397 m), lock plate
length 6.25” (159 mm), lock plate width 1.28” (32.5 mm), trigger guard
length 9.625” (245 mm).
Condition: Good, approaching very good. Metal parts including bore
show little wear, rifling clear and sharp. Stock has some storage bruises and
a small sliver of wood missing around rear of ramrod channel.
7. Painting
Object. Oil painting, “Bishop White’s Study,” by John Sartain.

Locality. Philadelphia, PA.
Description. Oil on linen canvas depicting the study of Bishop White’s
house on Walnut Street as it appeared to the artist, John Sartain, in late
summer 1836. Fireplace and reading chair to left, book presses on each
side of bedroom doorway in center background, book shelves and chairs on
right. Canton straw matting on floor. In original goldleaf frame, see Cat.
No. 8130. Marked in paint on back of canvas, “J . Sartain pinx. 1836.”
Measurements: h. 18" (458 mm), w. 211/,” (540 mm). Frame h.
251/2" (661 mm), w. 31%" (800 mm), d. 1/2” (13 mm).
Condition: Good. Restored by W. J. Nitkiewicz, 1968. Prior to restora
tion support was very weak, slack and buckled; small puncture in support
with small losses of ground and paint slightly right of center of cabinets at
right; extensive losses of ground and paint along lower edge with marked
cleavage of ground and paint in same area; net crackle of ground and paint
general; surface film moderately discolored. See treatment report in cat
logue file.
History: Painting commissioned by Elizabeth White Bronson, grand
daughter of Bishop White, to preserve the appearance of his study at the
time of his death in July 1836. A mezzotint, also by John Sartain, after this
painting was published in Bird Wilson’s Memoir of Bishop White, Phila
delphia, PA, 1839. See catalogue file for intervening ownership.
8. Document
Object. Account book.

Locality. Harpers Ferry, WV.
Description. Half imitation leather and marble paper bound containing
c. 146 leaves with blue horizontal ruling and red columnar lines. Entries
beginning from the front record daily medical visits and prescriptions with
occasional receipts of cash or produce from October 1874 through March
1882, pages numbered 6178-6275, then not numbered. Entries beginning
from the back record daily household expenditures and receipts from May
12, 1876 to January 20, 1884, followed by a half page of scattered entries
from March 13, 1884 to August 17, 1885. Several blank pages separate
the two sections, but within them 2 leaves contain later records concerning
the doctor’s estate including an affidavit of Annie P. Marmion dated July
1905 and notations of debts paid May 5, 1913. Pencil marked 290 on
inside of front cover and on pages headed by entries for October 31, 1877,
January 26, 1883, and February 20, 1883; pencil marked 291 on inside of
back cover and on leaf 58. 151/2” h >< 65/16” w (392 >< 161 mm). Both
covers loose and spine completely missing; front cover has buckram miss
ing except for remnant of upper front corner, cover paper badly worn over
most of surface and missing from lower %th, lower corners of board
deteriorated; back cover has buckram strip along back edge and some at
front corners and a loose tab at back bottom corner, cover paper worn,
particularly along front, top and bottom edges; front lining paper wrinkled,
several loose pages and signatures.
Dr. Nicholas Marmion’s day book.
F. Furnishings Research
The historian who prepares Part I of an Historic Furnishings Report

needs to search many sources for relevant information. As a first step he
establishes the identity of the people associated with the structure in its
time of historic significance. These may include the members of the family
in residence, for example, and their relatives, friends and associates. Then
he determines as fully and accurately as possible the material objects which
surrounded them in the structure. One line of investigation seeks the actual
furnishings that have survived and may well involve a systematic tracing of
the dispersal of the family’s worldly goods. Another aspect of the search
concerns specific references to furnishings by people who saw them or used
them there at the time. The third approach hunts clues to the furnishings
that may be inferred from records of occupation, activities, interests and
tastes. Experience has demonstrated the importance of using such sources
as the following:
Letters
The correspondence of the family, friends and visitors often contains

references to specific items of furnishings as well as shedding light on
activities that must have required certain tools, instruments or other equip
ment. Letters also reveal: the cultural milieu which affected the original
choice of furnishings. While such letters may be in the possession of de
scendants, look for them also in public and private manuscript collections.
Diaries, scrapbooks and account books

Material of this sort kept by the family in residence, relatives, friends
and visitors is most helpful. Look for it in the hands of descendants
particularly.
Wills, inventories, papers of administration and other estate records
Although copies may be found in family papers, these important sources

are usually in the appropriate courthouse. The historian needs to under
stand the past and present legal procedures for settling estates in order to
explore the records intelligently. The processes and terminologies vary
from state to state. Remember that jurisdictionalboundaries have changed
377
also. Sometimes the old records move to the new court, but often they
remain behind. Such changes have happened four or five times in the
history of some estates. Even when the right courthouse is known, the
papers may be hard to find. So few people consult old wills and inventories
that they are seldom kept readily at hand. The clerks have little time or
occasion to become familiar with them, although sometimes one will be
come too possessive. Park Service workers have found these files in the
cellars and attics of courthouses or city halls, under years of dust and in
questionable order. To obtain access to them the historian may need to win
the cooperation of the person immediately responsible for their care. Prior
knowledge that the records exist and polite determination may be necessary
to ferret out their present location and gain permission to examine them.
Do not let the initial reaction that the records no longer exist, or were
destroyed or stolen during the Civil War terminate the search. For ex
ample, papers on the estates of residents of the Saratoga battlefield “did
not exist,” but thanks to patient persistence were found in the courthouse
basement along with a magnificent collection of 17th- and 18th-century
documents. In 10 years of searching the records of five Virginia counties,
which appear to be incomplete, all the papers sought were eventually found
except for those of one person. Even stolen records probably still can be
located since several people usually can provide leads. Some states have
centralized the old records in well managed archives which simplifies the
task. On the other hand, the settlement of estates may extend over many
years with long intervals of inactivity so it is easy to overlook useful
material even when the papers are accessible. If the particular papers
cannot be found, use those for other estates of people having similar eco
nomic, cultural and social backgrounds and living nearby at the same
period.
Tax records
Sometimes these contain much valuable information. In late 18th-cen

tury Philadelphia, for example, carriages and silver were specifically tax
able so were listed and described.
Miscellaneous legal papers

Civil suits, bankruptcy and other actions may result in court records that
contain needed information. A prosecution for debt established the occupa
tion of the resident of the Stone House in Georgetown in 1804, for ex
ample. Each jurisdiction may differ slightly in regard to these records, so a
survey of documents available for the period in question should be made to
determine the location of possible information. Indexes to civil court cases
may prove helpful.
Appendixes 379
Federal census records
They may give occupation, age and other relevant data. The 1860 cen
sus showed that the occupant of the Stone House at Manassas was consid
ered a farmer rather than an innkeeper.
License records
These will apply in some cases, although their value varies with period
and jurisdiction.
School records
When some of the occupants were of school age, these records indicate
and sometimes specify possessions they would have had.
Church records
Dates of baptism, marriage and death may add important information.

Church records may identify friends who served as witnesses or godparents
and so open new leads. These sources may also record a person’s occupa
tion, sometimes his travels, and at least suggest household objects associ
ated with his religion.
Cemetery records
These may help with vital statistics.
Military records
Both personal service records and war claims may provide needed in
formation in some cases.
Fire insurance policies

In some instances these indicate content or use of particular rooms and
placement of furniture.
Records of Craftsmen and Tradesmen
These often reflect the purchase of objects used in furnishing a building.

The Lees purchased silver for Arlington at Kirk’s in Baltimore and furni
ture from Green’s in Alexandria. Mrs. Madison’s account at her grocer’s
shows what bottles were in her kitchen.
City directories
They indicate occupation, names of neighbors and of tradesmen whose
records may prove helpful.
Newspapers
The papers recount activities at or near the historic structure. If the
occupant was prominent, much more information may appear in the con
temporary papers. Articles describing Mr. Custis’ celebration of St. Pat
rick’s Day listed his violin, titles of music in his library and his green
coat—all furnishings of Arlington. He wrote a newspaper account of his
talks with Lafayette which revealed information about his Washington
collection. Later newspapers assist greatly in tracing the dispersal of fur
nishings in succeeding generations.
Magazines
The periodicals to which the occupants subscribed may indicate interests

that were reflected in the furnishings. Magazine articles about the building
or its occupants sometimes are valuable.
Catalogues of furniture collections and antique sales

These may trace the ownership of individual pieces as well as giving
descriptive and comparative data helpful in selecting furnishings.
Paintings, prints and photographs

Any contemporary pictures of the structure may provide key data.
Views of other buildings comparable in time, place and function offer good
supporting information. Look for these in public or private collections.
Furnishings
The items of furnishing identified as original often indicate additional
objects not otherwise identified. One piece may establish a set of china or
silver pattern, for example. Period houses and furnishing collections in
museums comprise physical documents worth consulting for comparative
purposes.
Appendixes 381
Site evidence
A close study of the structure by the architect, archeologist and curator

may give invaluable evidence of the original furnishings and their place
ment. Look especially at the layers of paint on the original walls, holes and
lines in the walls, marks on the floor, hardware or marks where it has
been removed or altered, sherds and other objects found in the walls or
basement or on the grounds, especially in old wells, privies and dumps.
G. Fire Safety Self-Inspection Form for Museums
The individual charged with day-to-day fire protection in the museum

should find this checklist helpful. Fit it to the local situation. Then use it to
guide regular, thorough inspections that will indicate how well the fire
safety program is operating. Do not let the use of this form replace periodic
inspections by a professional fire protection expert, nor the regular inspec
tion and testing of fire detection and extinguishing installations by special
ists in their maintenance.
The Libraries, Museums and Historic Buildings Committee of the Na
tional Fire Protection Association is developing a self-inspection form
which should supersede this one when the NFPA issues it. For information
on its status contact the National Fire Protection Association, 470 Atlantic
Avenue, Boston, MA 02210, Attention: Committee on Libraries, Mu
seums and Historic Buildings.
Fire Safety Self-Inspection Form

General Conditions
1. Construction:
fire resistive , non-combustible , combustible __.
2. Size:
floor area ~—
number of connecting buildings or wings iéi
number of entrances —~
number of emergency exits HT
number of employees _?._ _.Y
number of visitors per day, average it‘. 4
maximum >~
3. Exposures: Serious Moderate Light None
north __ ___ i __ ._
east Z __ Z_ H
south ___ ___. ELL ___
west ___ __ ___ ___.
382
Appendixes 383
4 Water Supply:
municipal system , reservoir/pond , storage tanks _____
capacity M
size of water mains ______
distance from hydrants 7
5 Fire Service:
professional __, volunteer , museum brigade _
time required for fire service to reach museum _____.
6 Fire Protection: Yes N0 Partial Corrected

standpipe system
sprinkler system
automatic detection system
inert gas extinguishing
system
interior fire alarm system
direct alarm to fire service
clocked guard service
fire walls and self-closing fire
doors protecting horizontal
openings between building
units
fire walls and self-closing
fire doors separating
furnace room from
rest of museum
fire walls and self-closing
fire doors separating
hazardous operations
from exhibit and col
lection storage areas
fire resistive enclosures
protecting stairways and
other vertical openings
exit doors opening
outward
locked exit doors equipped
with panic hardware
(Note any changes in character of buildings, occupancy, water supply or

hydrants, accessibility or other general conditions affecting fire safety since
the previous inspection.)
General Inspection
1. Roof: Yes No Corrected

is roof covering non-combustible
are scuppers and drains unobstructed
are lightning arrestors in good
condition
are skylights protected by screens
is access to fire escapes unobstructed
do fire escape stairs appear to be in
good condition
are fire escape stairs unobstructed
are standpipe and sprinkler roof tanks
and supports in good condition
are standpipe and sprinkler control
valves in proper position
2. All Floors (inspect from top floor to basement):

are self-closing fire doors unob
structed and properly equipped with
closing devices
are fire exits and directional signs
properly illuminated
is emergency lighting system
operable
are corridors and stairways
unobstructed
are openings to fire escape stairs
unlocked and unobstructed M l ____
are sprinklers unobstructed
are standpipe hose outlets properly
marked and unobstructed
are sprinkler control valves properly
labeled and unobstructed
are recorded weekly inspections made of
1 all sprinkler control valves to make
certain they are open i ____ ___
are dry pipe valves (for sprinklers in
i areas exposed to freezing) in service,
, with air pressure normal
l are all fire-detection and fire
suppression systems in service and
tested regularly
, are sufficient fire extinguishers present ? ? __
Appendixes 385
are extinguishers of the proper type

(see NFPA 10. Portable Fire
Extinguishers)
are extinguishers properly hung and
labeled
are extinguishers properly charged and
tagged with inspection tags
is housekeeping properly maintained
are cleaning supplies safely stored
are all trash receptacles emptied at
least daily
are supply closets and slop sink areas
clean and orderly
3 Ground Floor:
do entrance and exit doors provide
unobstructed egress
4 Basement:
is rubbish removed from the building
daily
is rubbish removed from the premises on
a regular schedule
are stocks of flammable liquids stored
away from the building
Special Area Inspection

1 Exhibit Areas:
are exhibit housings, fittings and other
accessories non-combustible or fire
retardant treated
does exhibit wiring conform to the
Electrical Code
do all electrical components have
U/L labeling
have exhibit installations kept exit routes
unobstructed and visible
is proper salvage equipment ready
for use
/
2 Collection Storage Areas:

is appropriate fire extinguishing equip
ment at hand and unobstructed
are dust covers fire retardant treated
is proper salvage equipment ready
for use
does fire service have access to areas
are catalogue and accession records
in a safe or vault of the proper
fire rating
3 Laboratories:
are flammable solvents and other
chemicals properly labeled and stored
in small quantities in ventilated
safety storage cabinets
are flammable liquids dispensed from
safety cans
are self-closing safety waste disposal
receptacles available at work
stations
are laboratory wastes disposed of daily
with appropriate special precautions
are spray coating facilities adequately
and safely ventilated
is electrical equipment in the spray
area explosion-proof
does the spray area have automatic
fire extinguishing equipment
is laboratory electrical equipment
U/L approved
do electrical appliances have warning
lights
are appliances unplugged when not
in use
are exit routes unobstructed
are employees aware of special hazards
and trained in necessary precautions
is entry limited to authorized persons
4 Shops and Packing/Unpacking Areas:
are paints, thinners and other flammable
liquids properly stored in reasonable
quantities in ventilated safety
cabinets
Appendixes 387
are thinners and solvents dispensed

from safety cans
are self-closing waste receptacles
used for oily rags and other
wastes liable to spontaneous
heating
are flammable packing materials
stored in self-closing safety
containers
are power tools and machines
properly grounded
do woodworking machines have proper
dust collectors
do paint spraying facilities comply
with local codes
does welding equipment meet local
codes
are power tools unplugged when not
in use
are exit routes unobstructed
5 Auditoriums and Classrooms:

is safe capacity posted
is occupancy restricted to safe capacity
do furnishing and wall coverings
comply with fire safety standards
are exits unobstructed, unlocked and
are aisles unobstructed
does projection room meet local codes
6 Restaurant or Tearoom:
is capacity posted
is occupancy limited to safe
seating capacity
are exit routes unobstructed and
are ranges, hoods and exhaust ducts
clean
do exhaust ducts terminate in a
safe area
are grease ducts and deep fryers
equipped with automatic fire
detectors and extinguishing system
Exterior Inspection
1. Evacuation:
have all exits, emergency exits
and fire escapes unobstructed
passage to safe areas
2. Environment:
are grounds clear of accumulations
of flammable material
have neighboring occupancies minimized
exterior fire hazards
is fire service access clear
are standpipe and sprinkler systems
siamese connections unobstructed
and operable
are hydrants unobstructed
Personnel Inspection
1. Training:
do all staff members know how to
transmit a fire alarm
do all staff members know their assigned
duty in evacuating the museum
do all staff members know how and when
to use portable fire extinguishers
do all staff members know their
responsibilities in fire prevention
Appendixes 389
2.0rganization :
is the fire protection manager
or his designated alternate on duty
does he have an adequate training
program in operation for himself
and the staff
is the written fire emergency plan up
to date and properly distributed
does the fire protection manager
get adequate support from the
director and trustees
has the fire service planned or
trained for protecting the museum
since the previous inspection
Inspection conducted by: - . Date: i__.

title: .
Report reviewed by: . Date: ~.

title: .
Corrective actions completed: . Date: _____.

Fire Protection Manager
H. Bibliography of Park and Countryside Museums
Alberts, Edwin C. “Exhibit for Tourists, Or Compromising Our Compromises,”

Clearing House for Western Museums, I:3 (Winter 1961), pp. 1-7.
Aldridge, Don. “Landmark Visitor Centre, Carrbridge, Inverness,” Museums
Journal, 71:1 (June 1971), pp. 3-6.
. Guide to Countryside Interpretation. Part One. Principles of Countryside
Interpretation and Interpretive Planning. Edinburgh. Her Majesty’s Sta
tionery Office for Countryside Commission for Scotland—Countryside
Commission, 1975.
Allan, Douglas A. “Site Museums in Scotland,” Museum, VIII:2 (1955), pp.
107-1 12.
Anon. “Museums in National Parks,” National Park Supplement to Planning
and Civic Comment, 2:4 (October-December 1936), pp. 27-29.
Appleman, Roy Edgar. “An Historical Interpretive Center,” Museum News,
XX:13 (January 1, 1943), pp. 10-12.
Aveleyra Arroyo de Anda, Luis. “The Site Museum of Tepexpan,” Museum,
XV:1 (1962), pp. 22-33.
Beazley, Elisabeth. Designed for Recreation. London. Faber and Faber, 1969,
pp. 39-48.
. The Countryside on View: A Handbook on Countryside Centres, Field
Museums, and Historic Buildings Open to the Public. London. Constable &
Company Ltd, 1971.
Bryant, Harold C., et al. Reports with Recommendations from the Committee
on Study of Educational Problems in National Parks, January 9, I929
and November 27, I929. n. pub., n. d.
, and Wallace W. Atwood, Jr. Research and Education in the National
Parks Washington. Government Printing Office, 1932, pp. 18-36.
Bumpus, Herman Carey. “Relation of Museums to the Out-of-Doors,” and
“Museums in National Parks,” Papers and Reports Read at the 21st An
nual Meeting of the American Association of Museums, Publications of the
AAM, New Series 1, 1926, pp. 7-15, 37-40.
. “Museum Work in National Parks,” Museum News, VII:14 (Jan
uary 15, 1930), pp. 6-8.
. “Objectives of Museum Work in National and State Parks,” Museum
News, XV:4 (June 15, 1937), p. 7.
Burns, Ned J. Field Manual for Museums. Washington. Government Printing
Office, 1941.
. “Park Museums and Public Morale,” Museum News, XIX: 10 (Novem
ber 15, 1941), pp. 11-12.
. “Audio-visual Aids in National Park Service Museums,” Museum News,
25:14 (January 15, 1948), pp. 6-8.
. “Modern Trends in the Natural History Museums of the United States
of America,” Museum, VI:3 (1953), pp. 164-169(167).
390
Appendixes 391
Carr, William H. Signs Along the Trail New School Service Series 2. New
York. American Museum of Natural History, 1927.
. Blazing Nature’s Trail. New School Service Series 3. New York.
American Museum of Natural History, 1929.
—i. Trailside Conversations. New School Service Series 4. New York.
. Trailside Actions and Reactions. School Service Series 5. New York.
. Trailside Family. School Service Series 7. New York. American Mu
seum of Natural History, 1932.
. “Palisades Interstate Park Museums as Agents in Field Education,”
Museum News, XIII:7 (October 15, 1935), pp. 7-8.
. Ten Years of Nature Trailing. School Service Series 11. New York.
. The Desert Speaks. Educational Series 1. Tucson. Arizona-Sonora
Desert Museum, 1956. '
. Tunnel in the Desert. Educational Series 2. Tucson. Arizona-Sonora
Desert Museum, 1957.
Chhabra, B. Ch. “Site Museums of India,” Museum, IX:1 (1956), pp. 42-45.
Coleman, Laurence Vail. Contributions of Museums to Outdoor Recreation.
Washington. National Conference on Outdoor Recreation, 1928, pp. 23-31.
i-. The Museum in America: A Critical Study. Washington. American
Association of Museums, 1939, pp. 55-58, 78, 136-140, 154-156,
567-572 (reprinted Washington. Museum Publications, 1970).
Deane, C. Douglas. “A Field Museum and Nature Trail in Northern Ireland,”
Museums Journal, 65:2 (September 1965), pp. 97-99.
Disher, Kenneth B. “The Future of Museums in National Parks,” Museum
News, XV:4 (June 15, 1937), pp. 7-8.
, et al. “Three Basic Questions in Park Museum Planning,” Museum
News, XVI:4 (June 15, 1938), pp. 11-12.
Downes, George G. “Death Valley: A Living Museum,” Museum News, 43:6
(February 1965), pp. 25-30.
Everhart, William C. The National Park Service. New York. Praeger Pub
lishers, 1972, pp. 63-72.
Gilbert, Rose Bennett. “A New Look for Liberty,” Museum News, 43:6
(February 1965), pp. 11-16.
Good, Albert H. “The Future of Museums in State Parks,” Museum News,
XIV:13 (January 1, 1937), pp. 7-8.
. Park and Recreation Structures. Part II. Recreational and Cultural
Facilities. Washington. Government Printing Office, 1938, pp. 169-184.
Gould, Charles N. “Starting a Museum in the Proposed National Park,” Mu
seum News, XVI:15 (February 1, 1939), p. 11.
Greenwood, Andrew. “Country Cousins—The Future Pattern of Rural Mu
seums,” Museum Assistants’ Group Transactions. No. 6 (April 1968),
. 17-19.
Hall,pKnsel D. “Educational Activities in National Parks,” First Pan Pacific
Conference on Education, Rehabilitation, Reclamation and Recreation.

Report of the Proceedings. Washington. Government Printing Office, 1927,
pp. 397-413.
Hamilton, Dwight L. “Dinosaur National Monument—A Unique In-Place
Museum,” Museum News, 39:6 (March 1961), pp. 20-23.
Hamlin, Chauncey J. “Studying Nature in Place,” First Pan Pacific Conference
on Education, Rehabilitation, Reclamation and Recreation. Report of the

Proceedings. Washington. Government Printing Oflice, 1927, pp. 435-438.
Harrington, J. C. “Interpreting Jamestown to the Visitor,” Museum News,
24:11 (December 1, 1946), pp. 7-8.
Hatt, Robert T. “Educational Programmes of Natural History Museums in
the United States,” Museum, V:1 (1952), pp. 11-16 (13).
Heald, Weldon F. “Urbanization of the National Parks,” National Parks Maga
zine, 35:160 (January 1961), pp. 7-9.
Hudson, J. Paul. “Historic Houses Administered by the National Park Service,”
Museum News, 27:9 (November, 1949), pp. 7-8.
Ise, John. Our National Park Policy: A Critical History. Baltimore. Johns
Hopkins Press for Resources for the Future, Inc., 1961, pp. 200-202, 552.
Johnson, Sally Ann. “A New Look at Fort Laramie,” Museum News, 40:9
(May 1962), pp. 11-15.
Kelly, A. R. “The Need of a Museum of Southeastern Archaeology,” Museum
News, XVI:15 (February 1, 1939), pp. 9-10.
Kent, Alan E., and Horace J. Sheely, Jr. “Museum in a Gun Emplacement,”
Krepela, Rick. “To Tell the Story . . . Interpretation on a Nation-Wide Scale,”
Leavitt, Thomas W. “The Need for Critical Standards in History Museum Ex
hibits: A Case in Point,” Curator, X:2 (1967), pp. 91-94.
Lewis, Ralph H. “The Vicksburg National Military Park Museum,” Museum
News, XIV:19 (April 1, 1937), pp. 7-8.
“A Survey of National Park Service Museums,” Museum News,
XIX:17 (October 1, 1941), pp. 10-12.
——-. “Designing an Exhibit of American Democracy in a National Park,”
Museum News, XXI:14 (January 15, 1944), pp. 7-8.
. “Park Museums—State and Local,” Museum News, 23:10 (Novem
ber 15, 1945), pp. 7-12; 23:11 (December 1, 1945), pp. 7-12.
. “Park Museums as Community Centers,” Fundamental and Adult
Education, V:2 (April 1953), pp. 85-87.
. “Ned J. Burns: Educator, Naturalist, and Museum Expert,” Proceedings
of the Staten Island Institute of Arts and Sciences, XVI:2 (Fall 1954),
pp. 61-74.
“Site Museums and National Parks,” Curator, II:2 (1959), pp. 172
185.
. “Museum Training in the National Park Service,” Curator, VI:1
(1963), pp. 7-13.
“Selecting Exhibit Themes for Park Museums,” Park Practice Guide
line, Interpretation, 14-1 (7/63), pp. 69-73.
“Visible Storage,” Park Practice Guideline, Interpretation, 23-1 (2/67),
pp. 99-101.
—-—. “Museums in National Parks,” Museum Assistants’ Group Transactions.
No. 6 (April 1968), pp. 12-16.
“Environmental Education and Research in Yellowstone National
Park,” Museum, XXV:1/2 (1973), pp. 85-88.
and Rogers W. Young. “The Zenger Memorial,” American Heritage,
n.s., 5:1 (Fall 1953), pp. 24-25, 63.
Mather, Stephen T. Report of the Director of the National Park Service.
Washington. Government Printing Office, 1920, p. 59.
Appendixes 393
Merriam, John C. “Inspiration and Education in National Parks,” National

Parks Bulletin 53 (July 1927), pp. 3-5.
Orth, John. “Trailside Museum and Nature Trails at Bear Mountain,” Museum
News, 27:19 (April 1, 1950), pp. 6-8.
Pane, Roberto, ed. “Museums of the Monument,” Museum, III:1 (1950),
pp. 62-64.
Pennyfather, Keith. Guide to Countryside Interpretation. Part Two. Interpretive
Media and Facilities. Edinburgh. Her Majesty’s Stationery Ofiice for Coun
tryside Commission-Countryside Commission for Scotland, 1975.
Peterson, Roger T. Small Nature Museums. Nature Study for Schools Series,
Part XV. New York. National Association of Audubon Societies, 1938.
Presnall, C. C. “New Trailside Museum in Yosemite,” Museum News, X:6
(September 15, 1932), pp. 6-7.
Riviere, Georges Henri. “A New Introductory Approach at the Chateau de
Compiegne,” Museum, 1:3/4 (1948), pp. 175-176, 216-217.
Robinson, Harry B. Guide to the Custer Battlefield Museum. Repr. Montana
Magazine of History, July 1952, pp. 1-48.
Russell, Carl P. “The Museum in the Yosemite National Park, California,”
Museum, IV:2 (1951), pp. 87-90.
Shankland, Robert. Steve Mather of the National Parks. 2nd ed. New York.
Alfred A. Knopf, 1954, pp. 259-261.
Shaw, Betty. “Interpreting Our Outdoor Heritage,” Museum News, 44:10
(June 1966), pp. 24-28.
Simoneaux, N. E. “Museums and State Parks,” Museum News, XVI:11
(December 1, 1938), pp. 7-8.
Spalding, Branch. “Museum Policy and Display at Fredericksburg and Spotsyl
vania National Military Park Museum,” Museum News, XVI: 12 (Decem
ber 15, 1938), pp. 7-8.
Stansfield, G. “Museums and the Countryside,” Museums Journal, 67:3
(December 1967), pp. 212-218.
, ed. “Conference on Countryside Centres,” Museums Journal, 69:2
(September 1969), pp. 63-73.
Stucker, Gilbert F. “Dinosaur Monument and the People: A Study in Inter
pretation,” Curator, VI:2 (1963), pp. 131-142.
Tilden, Freeman. Interpreting Our Heritage: Principles and Practices for
Visitor Services in Parks, Museums and Historic Places. Rev. ed. Chapel
Hill. University of North Carolina Press, 1967.
Tsuruta, Soichiro. “The National Park for Nature Study, Tokyo,” Museum,
X:1 (1957), pp. 31-33.
Wallin, Harold E. “Educational Opportunities in Trailside Museums,” Museum
News, 27:1 (May 1, 1949), pp. 7-8.
Yeager, Dorr G. “The Educational Program of the National Park Service,”
Museum News, XVII:11 (December 1, 1939), pp. 11-12.
Index
Abrasives, 220-221; aluminum oxide 51; dilution table for, 54-55; as a

paper, 65; bronze wool, 335; emery killing agent, 50, 52, 53, 54; as a
paper, 65, 220, 244, 255, 256; preservative, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
jewelers’ rubber polisher, 65, 221, 64; as a solvent, 158, 162; testing, 54
249, 255; #884 compound, 329; Alcohol-glycerin-acetic acid, as a kill
powdered eraser, 222, 237, 241; ing and preserving fluid, 50, 51
precipitated chalk, 66, 220, 333; Alcohol, isopropyl, as a preservative,
pumice, 330; rottenstone, 221, 247; 55
sandpaper, 232, 343; steel wool, 65, Algae, preservation of, 45
220, 226, 227, 244, 249, 255, 335, Alum: use of, on fish specimens, 48;
336; whiting, 66, 221, 230, 237, use of, on study skins, 46
333; wire brushes, 336 Aluminum, cleaning of, 330, 340, 343
Accession, definition of, 143 Aluminum oxide, 65
Accession book, 145, 154, 162; con American Association of Museums, 2,
tents of, 27, 136, 143-144, 146 26
147, 148, 149, 152, 199; permanent American Institute for Conservation of
materials for, 143, 150; time of entry Historic and Artistic Works, 63
in, 143, 161, 199 Ammonia, household: use of, in clean
Accession file, 143, 144-145; contents ing glass, 222, 238, 249, 256, 257,
of, 22, 27, 30, 137, 144-145, 148, 328, 329; use of, in cleaning metals,
161 330, 339; use of, in cleaning stone,
Accession folder. See Accession file 242, 243, 249; use of, in removing
Accession number, 143, 145-146, 152; soot, 237
undesirability of an open, 161 Amphibians: classification of, 167;
Accession records: function of, 34, preparation of, for study, 49; storage
142-143; installing a new system of, 98
of, 149; retention of incoming corre Andirons, care of, 244
spondence in, 144-145; separation Animals: collection of accidentally
of, from catalogue, 142, 152 killed, 20; rare, 20
Accidents, 260-267 Annelids, preparation of, for study, 53
Acetate, ethyl, as a killing agent, 50 Ants, preparation of, for study, 50
Acetic acid, in a killing and preserving Applicator, wax, 219, 228
fluid, 50, 51 Aquarium cement, for sealing speci
Acetone: as a drying agent, 65; as a men jars, 64
solvent, 66, 158, 162, 342 Arachnids, preparation of, for study,
Air-conditioning, 87-88, 91, 98, 267 52
268, 269, 277. See also Relative Archeological specimens: classification
humidity: control of of, 169-170; culling of, 12-13, 105,
Air pollution: control of, 70, 91, 269, 161; “field collection status” for, 12,
346; effects of, 70, 204, 254, 269; 105, 161; identification of, 56; mark
measurement of, 70, 87, 269; pro ing of, in central repositories, 161;
tection of specimens from, 70, 83, special accessioning and cataloguing
194, 269; sources of, 70, 83, 271 procedures for, 12, 160-161; stor
Alarm devices, 80, 291. See also Secur age of, 12, 93
ity: detection and alarm equipment Architectural specimens, classification
Alcohol, ethyl: as a dehydrating agent, of, 174
395
396 Index
Architecture, interpretation of, 304, of, 160; numbering of, 159; storage
312, 321 of, 104
Archival materials, deposit of, 11-12 Borax: use of, in flame proofing, 100,
Armor, numbering of, 158 253; use of, on study skins, 46
Arsenic, 46 Boric acid, use of, in flame proofing,
Artillery, 160, 173, 335-337 100, 253
Associations, cooperating, 20, 28, 197, Bottles, killing, 50
199 Brass: protective coating of, 40, 66,
Auctions, 21, 197-198 244, 249, 255, 333; removal of dirt
Audio interpretive devices: in exhibits, from, 330; removal of tarnish from,
118; in furnished historic structure 66, 220, 244, 249, 255, 333
museums, 265, 308, 311, 313-314, Brasso, 220
318; in stage settings, 320; mainten Brick: blacking of, 242; cleaning of,
ance of, 347 230-231, 241-242, 243
Brillianize, 329
Britanniaware, care of, 257
British Museum leather dressing, 64,
67, 222, 250, 254
Bags: specimen, 44, 98; trash, 212 Brittle stars, preparation of, for study,
Bedsteads, brass, polishing of, 249 54
Beeswax, 235, 248, 339 Bronze: care of, 66, 330, 335, 338
Benzene, use of, in cleaning stone, 342 339; effects of air pollution on, 70,
Benzethonium chloride, as a fungicide, 335, 338; patination of, 335, 338,
39-40 339
Benzine (petroleum), use of, in clean “Bronze disease,” 339
ing photographs, 332 Bronze wool, use of, on cannon, 335
Benzol, 342 Brooms, 212-213, 214, 223, 229, 231,
Biological specimens: characteristics 245
of, for study, 46; color notes on, 44; Brown rot, 278
control of light on, 69; measurement Brushes, 213; for affixing catalogue
of, 43, 46-47; preservation of, 64; numbers, 157, 162; for dusting, 213,
techniques for preparation of, 41 223, 241, 250, 254, 257; for scrub
55 bing, 213, 229, 231, 335, 338, 342;
Birds: classification of, 167; degreasing for waxing, 227, 248 (see also Floor
study specimens of, 46; exhibition polisher); wire, 336
of live, 7; measurement of, 46-47; Bryophytes, preservation of, 45
mounted, 333-334; skeletons of, 46; Buckets, mop, 217, 219, 223-225, 226,
study skins of, 9, 45-48, 64, 92, 93; 227, 228
whole study specimens of, 46 Buff leather, 64, 66
Blacking: for bricks, 242; for stoves, Butcher’s Wax, 222, 333
222, 244-245 Butterflies, preparation of, for study,
Blinds. See Venetian blinds 50, 51
Blue stain fungus, 278
Board of Survey, 134, 136, 148
Bomb threats, 295-2_97
Bone, insect infestation of, 34
Bookbindings: care of, 64, 66-67, Candle holders, cleaning of, 256
253-254, 269; insect infestation of, Candles: dusting of, 256; use of, 271
71, 76, 253 Cannon: care of, 335-336; cata
Books: care of exhibited, 64, 91, 253 loguing of, 160; labeling of, 337
254, 270; classification of, 176; in Cannon carriages: care of, 336-337;
sect infestation of, 35, 71, 76, 253, cataloguing of, 160
273-274, 275; museum cataloguing Capacitators, 82, 290
Index 397
Carpet beetles. See Dermestids 174, 176; cleaning of, 211, 254-255
Carpets: cleaning of historic, 213, (see also Mantels, cleaning of; Tile:
233-234, 250; cleaning of modern, ceramic floor); effects of light on,
213, 215, 231-233; protective 69; inspection of, 63, 69; numbering
covering of, 193, 234, 278, 280 of, 157, 158
281; spot removal from, 231, 232, Certificates, gift acknowledgment,
234, 245 24-25
Carpet sweeper, 213, 231-232, 262 Chalk, precipitated, 66, 220, 333
Catalogue: fire protection of, 77, 79, Chamois, 213, 238-239, 249, 256, 328
92, 150, 295; function of, 142, 150; Chandeliers, cleaning of, 256, 260
importance of, 150, 163, 199-200; Chewing gum, removal of, 217, 223,
location of, 77, 82, 92, 150, 152; 225, 232
nomenclature for, 151, 152, 153, Chief of maintenance, 205-206, 324
154, 171, 176; separation of, from Chloramine-T, use of, in cleaning
accession records, 142, 152; stan stone, 342
dards for, 151, 163 Chlordane, as an insecticide, 37, 275,
Catalogue cards: cross reference of, 276
150, 166, 167, 168, 170, 172, 176, Chloretone: as a killing agent, 49; as a
177; filing of, 165, 166-177. See relaxing agent, 49, 53
also Catalogue form Chloride salts, effects of, 37-38, 70,
Catalogue folder files, 156; curatorial 235, 339
analyses in, 200; deaccession mark Chlorobutanol, 49, 53
ing of, 148; field notes in, 44, 145, Cicadas, preparation of, for study, 51
154; marking of, on catalogue Cleaning staff, qualifications of, 206,
forms, 155; reference to, 154; 324
samples of fabrics and wallpaper in, Clearing house, 6, 11, 30, 105, 135
195; specimen photographs in, 153; 136
specimen rubbings in, 153'; treat Clippings, classification of, 176
ment reports in, 201 Closed-circuit television, 82, 290
Catalogue form, 150-155, 162; con Cloth, for buffering relative humidity,
tents of, 136, 137, 148, 151-155, 89
165-177; copies of, 105, 150, 152, Clothes hangers, 98
156; permanent materials for, 150, Clothes moths: in carpets, 231, 271;
163; sources of information for, 56; control of, 275-276; evidence of,
time of entry on, 151 72, 76, 271, 273, 274
Catalogue numbers: affixing of, 47, Cloths, dust. See Dust cloths
54, 152, 157-159, 162; assignment Cloths, wiping, 214
of, to component parts of specimens, Cobwebs, removal of, 236
152; assignment of, to objects in Cockroaches: control of, 275; evi
sets, 152; assignment of, to typical dence of, 75, 76, 271, 273
series of archeological specimens, Coelenterates, preparation of, for
161; characteristics of, 157; entry study, 54
of, in accession book, 144, 152; Coins, numbering of, 158
numerical assignment of, 152; per Collections: acquisition program for,
manent materials for, 157-158, 159, 6, 8, 10; basic steps in the care of,
162; purpose of, 145, 152 62-67; cooperative specialization
Ceilings, cleaning of, 210, 235-238 of, 11; goals of, 5, 9, 10; inventories
Cement, wet mopping of, 224, 325 of, 125 (see also Specimens: inven
Centipedes, preparation of, for study, tory of); laws controlling acquisition
52 of, 4, 19-20, 21; limits of, 5; pub
Cephalopods, preparation of, for study, lished catalogues of, 125, 153; ra
54 tionalization of, 133; refinement of,
Ceramics: classification of, 170, 171, 7, 8, 30, 133, 196; responsibilities
398 Index
of maintenance staff in the care of, also Drapes

205, 324; revision of the scope of, Cyanide, as a killing agent, 50
5; scope of, 4-14, 21; utility of, 5,
8, 78. See also Specimens: storage
of; Study collections
Color fastness, testing of, 234
Comb, use of, in cleaning brooms and Damselflies, preparation of, for study,
brushes, 212, 213, 214 51
Conservators: cleaning of gilding by, Deaccessioning procedures, 13, 133
248, 334; cleaning of paintings and 136, 144, 148, 162
prints by, 41, 237, 238, 249, 257, Decorative arts, interpretation of, 304,
334; cleaning of textiles by, 234, 312
250; consulting, on exhibit speci Dehumidifier, 87-88, 268-269, 277
mens, 332, 347; consulting, on Demonstrations, use of specimens in,
leather, 237, 254; consulting, on 118-119
marble, 243, 334; consulting, on Dermestids: in carpets, 231, 271, 274;
metals, 38, 257, 335; consulting, on control of, 275 ; evidence of, 71-72,
mold stains, 277, 278; consulting, 271, 273, 274
on paintings and prints, 40, 257; Detergent, neutral nonionic: antistatic
consulting, on textiles, 211, 234, properties of, 214; for cleaning fur
237, 251, 272, 275; consulting, on nishings, 245, 246, 247, 254, 255,
varnished wood, 247; consulting, on 256, 257, 340; for cleaning stone,
waterlogged specimens, 38; examin 242, 243, 249; for cleaning straw
ation of textiles by, 241, 250-251; matting, 235; for mopping, 224;
identification of historic finishes by, specifications for, 221; for spot re
246; instructions to, 7; reports of, moval, 232, 234, 326; for washing
39-40, 156, 201; selection of, 40, aluminum, 340; for washing textiles,
63; services of, in central laborator 252; for washing Venetian blinds,
ies, 62-63, 200; supervision of his 240-241; for washing walls, 236
toric wall cleaning by, 237, 238; 237, 238
testing of housekeeping methods Development/Study Package Proposal,
and materials by, 220, 240, 262, 186, 187, 190
263, 275, 281; treatment of “bronze Diazinon, as an insecticide, 275, 276
disease” by, 339; treatment of fur Dichlorvos, as an insecticide, 65, 76,
niture by, 246; treatment of leather 98, 104, 346
by, 66-67; treatment of unfinished Dipentene, 66
wood by, 333 Disasters, preparation for, 82, 295
Copper: effects of air pollution on, 297
70; protective coating of, 66, 255; Documents: control of light on, 69;
removal of tarnish from, 66, 211, insect infestation of, 35; numbering
220, 255 of, 159; storage of, 103-104
Cost-benefit, consideration of, in pur Donors book, 26-27
chasing specimens, 21, 199 Donors plaque, 26-27, 300
Costumes: numbering of, 159; storage Door switches, 81, 292
of, 98, 104; wearing of, 315, 316 Dragonflies, preparation of, for study,
Cotton: insect infestation of, 34, 271; 51
mold on, 277 Drapes: numbering of, 159; protective
CRC 3-36, 255, 336 covering of, 193, 270, 281; summer
Crustaceans, preparation of, for study, storage of, 251
53 Dry cleaning plant, selection of, 207,
Curators, tasks of, 2, 120, 125, 133, 252
142, 163, 205, 324, 350 Dry rot, 278
Curtains, summer storage of, 251. See Dust: effects of, 69, 204; exclusion of,
Index 399
93, 102, 121; filtering of, 83, 91, 330; dehumidification in, 88; fumi
269; inspection for, 70, 104; pro gation in, 65, 121; lighting of, 89,
tection of specimens from, 69-70, 90, 91, 121; measurement of rela
98, 100, 103, 248, 251 tive humidity in, 86; stability of, 329
Dust cloths, treated, 214; use of, on Exhibit labels: donor’s name on, 26
books, 253; use of, on ceramics, 27, 122; in furnished historic struc
254; use of, on exhibit rooms, 326; ture museums, 193, 195, 300, 311,
use of, on furniture, 245-246, 247, 312-313, 318; placement of, 337;
248, 249; use of, on kitchenware, preparation of, 121-122, 313
255; use of, on mantels, 243; use of, Exhibit panels: cleaning of, 331; re
on metals, 256, 257; use of, on pic pair of, 347
ture frames, 257 Exhibit rooms: atmosphere in, 325,
Dust cloths, untreated, 214; use of, on 327; cleaning of, 324, 325-326; re
books, 253; use of, on ceramics, 254, finishing of, 326
256; use of, on glass, 238, 249, 255, Exhibitions, special, 116-117, 137
256, 257; use of, on lamp shades, Exhibits: accuracy in, 120, 122, 348;
257; use of, on marble, 242, 243; cataloguing of, 160; cleaning of,
use of, on raw wood, 246; use of, on 324, 328-335, 338-343, 346; de
walls, 326 fined purpose of, 120, 123, 348;
Dust covers: muslin, 69-70, 98, 100, graphic elements in, 121-122; in
248, 251; polyester, 248, 251; poly spection of, 63-64, 328; planning
ethylene, 70, 100, 248 of, 6, 120; preparation of, 120; re
Dustpan, 212, 214-215, 223, 225, 232 habilitation of, 324, 346, 347-350;
repair of, 324, 346, 347-350; re
placement of, 324, 346, 347-350;
standards of, 120, 123; use of speci
mens in, 6, 113-123
Eagles, specimens of, 21 Exterminator, employment of, 76, 272,
Earthworms, preparation of, for study, 273, 275, 276, 277
53 Extinguishers: candle, 256; fire, 77,
Echinoderms, preparation of, for study, 226, 294, 295, 300
54
Electrolysis, 38
Emergency procedures, 266, 279, 282,
293, 295-297
Emery paper, 65, 220, 244, 255, 256 Feathers, preservation of, 64. See also
Environmental Protection Agency, 36 Insect infestations: in feathers
37, 39, 64, 65, 276 Fenders, care of, 244
Ethafoam, 98 Field collecting, 4, 19-20, 41, 43-45,
Ethnological specimens: classification 144; field data, 19-20, 43-44; field
of, 170-172; identification of, 56; notes, 43-44, 145, 154, 156; field
storage of, 93 numbers, 43-44, 46, 51, 153, 160
Ethyl acetate, as a killing agent, 50 161; road-kills, 20; surface finds, 20
Evacuation, emergency, 77, 266, 279, Filters: activated charcoal, 91, 296;
293, 295, 296-297 cleaning of dust, 238, 271, 326;
Events, interpretation of, in furnished cleaning of ultraviolet, 214, 239,
historic structure museums, 184, 256, 270; dust, 91, 269; electro
191, 303, 306 static, 91, 269; ultraviolet, 64, 69,
Exchanges: audit of, 31; documenta 90, 91, 233, 270-271, 327
tion of, 30, 136, 144, 155. See also Fine arts, classification of, 176
Specimens: exchange of Fingerprints, effects of, 40, 77-78,
Exhibit cases, 121, 260, 346-347; air 215, 333
pollution in, 70; cleaning of, 328 Fire, effect of, 77
400 Index
Firearms: classification of, 172-173; 226, care of historic, 229-231; damp

condition of, 154; numbering of, mopping procedures for, 223-224;
158; storage of, 98, 99 parquet, 230, 275 ; protection of,
Firebacks, care of, 244 230, 234, 278-281, 283; recondi
Fire gilt, 249 tioning waxed, 228; scrubbing pro
Fireplaces, cleaning of, 241-244 cedures for, 225, 229; stripping pro
Fire protection, 77, 92, 188, 194, 195, cedures for, 226-227; sweeping
263, 290, 292-295, 296-297, 300; procedures for, 223, 229; waxing
in applying British Museum leather procedures for, 227-228, 230; wet
dressing, 67, 250, 254; correlated mopping procedures for, 224-225
with security, 82, 294; of docu Follow-up interpretation, 318-319
ments, 103; by flame proofing, 69, Formaldehyde: as a fixing agent, 48,
100, 212, 248, 252-253, 295, 326; 49, 50; as a killing solution, 48, 54;
in floor care, 225, 226, 227, 229; in as a preservative, 53, 54
handling acetone, 65; in handling Formalin. See Formaldehyde
alcohol, 49, 50, 52; in handling Formic acid, 339
benzine, 332; from smoking, 212, Fossils, classification of, 167, 169. See
262, 294; in the storage and dis also Study collections: paleonto
posal of flammables, 77, 92, 207, logical
214, 216, 219, 226, 227, 228, Frigilene, 221
232, 237, 260, 294; in using fumi Frogs, preparation of, for study, 49
gants, 36; in using open flames, 242, Fuller’s earth, in poultices, 242, 243
256, 271, 275; in using Stoddard Fumigation: equipment for, 35-36,
solvent, 232, 241, 242, 250, 254, 39, 92, 96; procedures for, of insect
343 infested specimens, 34-37, 64, 76,
Fire tools, care of, 241, 244 201, 272, 275-276; procedures for,
First aid, 266 to control mold, 39, 277; regula
Fishes: classification of, 167; exhibi tion of, by Environmental Protect
tion of live, 7; field data on, 43; tion Agency, 36-37, 39, 64, 65; safe
preparation of, for study, 48-49; practices in, 35-37, 39, 65
storage of, 98 Funds: for exhibit rehabilitation and
Flags: cleaning of, 332; storage of, replacement, 349-350; for museum
100 maintenance, 324; for purchasing
Flame proofing, 100, 252-253. See specimens, 20, 195, 197, 199
also Fire protection: by flame Fungi, preservation of, for study, 45
proofing Fungicides, 263; benzethonium chlor
Flammables, storage of, 77, 92, 207, ide, 39-40; paradichlorobenzene,
219, 260, 294. See also Fire pro 65, 277-278, 346; paranitrophenol,
tection: in the storage and disposal 66; quaternary ammonium, 278;
of flammables thymol, 39, 277
Floods, preparation for, 82, 295-296 Fungus, 45, 278. See also Mold
Floor coverings: carpet runners, 280; Fur, insect infestation of, 34, 76, 275,
floor cloths, 280; oilcloth, 235; 346
plastic runners, 234, 280-281; rub Furnished historic structure museums:
ber runners, 234, 280-281; straw accident prevention in, 260-266;
matting, 234-235. See also Carpets archeologist’s role in, 187, 188; ar
Floor finishes: acrylic, 228-229, 325; rangement of furnishings in, for
linseed oil, 230; silicone, 228-229, accuracy, 194, 195, 264, 300, 301,
325; wax, 222, 225-228, 230, 325 318; arrangement of furnishings in,
326 for protection, 194, 201, 264, 270,
Floor polisher, 215, 219, 225, 227, 282-283; audiovisual pre-visit prep
228, 233, 262 aration for, 310; care of cleaning
Floors: buffing procedures for, 225 equipment in, 205, 207, 212-219,
Index 401
263; care of floors in, 222-231; tive setting for, 308-310; intrusive
checklist of development procedures effect of activities in, 310, 314, 315 ;
for, 186-187; chief of maintenance’s intrusive effect of protective cover
role in, 205-206; children’s activi ings in, 278, 280-281; intrusive
ties in, 317-318, 319; cleaning effect of safety measures in, 260,
equipment for, 212-219; cleaning 264-265, 267, 290, 292, 294, 300;
inspection of, 205-206, 207, 294; intrusive effect of signs and labels
cleaning of, by staff with other in, 281, 300, 308, 313; intrusive
duties, 206, 282; cleaning room elements in, 300, 318; justification
barriers in, 208; cleaning schedule for cleaning of, 204; labels in, 193,
for, 208-212, 265, 273, 279; clean 195, 300, 311, 312-313, 318; land
ing supplies for, 219-222, 262; scape architect’s role in, 186, 187,
cleaning survey of, 206-208; climate 188, 308, 310; lighting in, 194, 264,
control in, 188, 190, 193-194, 267 265, 269-271, 300; limitation of
269, 277; conservators’ role in, 188, visitors in, 279, 297; maintenance
200 (see also Conservators); con schedule for, 194; opening of, be
tracting for special cleaning in, 207, fore completed furnishing, 195, 201;
238; control of light in, 194, 233, operating plan for, 189, 191, 194;
246, 249, 250, 251, 270; coopera park interpreter’s role in, 187, 188,
tive agreements for, 187; coopera 199, 201-202, 205, 306-319; per
tion in development of, 187-189; sonal interpretation in, 306, 310,
criteria for development of, 184 311, 314-318; policies of cleaning
186; definition of, 182; demonstra in, 219-220, 245-246; precautions
tions in, 311, 315; evaluation of, in cleaning of, 204; protection of
188-189, 201-202; exhibits special floors in, 278-281, 300; qualifica
ist’s role in, 195; explanatory ex tions of cleaning staff for, 206; re
hibits for, 183, 300, 310; facilities sponsibility for safety in, 205, 292,
for cleaning in, 217, 219; fee col 296; restoration architect’s coopera
lecting in, 300, 310; fire protection tive responsibilities in, 187; restora
in, 188, 194, 207, 219, 252-253, tion architect’s role in building
271, 290, 292-295, 296-297, 300 restoration for, 190, 195, 217, 219,
(see also Fire protection; Flame 267, 287-288; restoration architect’s
proofing; Flammables, storage of); role in maintenance of, 236, 238,
furnishing curator’s acquisition role 272; restoration architect’s role in
in, 188, 196-199; furnishing cura planning, 186, 187-188, 194; room
tor’s cooperative responsibilities in, barriers in, 193, 282, 283-289; room
187, 188, 199-201; furnis_hing cura inventory for, 157; safety experts’
tor’s installation role in, 195, 201; role in, 188, 293, 297; safety mea
furnishing curator’s planning role in, sures in, 194, 215-216, 238, 260
189-194, 201; furnishing curator’s 267, 279, 296, 297; safety of elec
training role in, 188, 202, 204; trical equipment in, 225, 263; sales
guided tours of, 311, 316-318; in, 300, 319; security equipment in,
hazards in, 260-266, 271; historian’s 190, 195, 283-291, 292, 300;
role in, 187, 188, 189-190, 194; in security measures in, 188, 193-194,
sect infestations in, 271-276; inter 199, 281-283, 291-292; self-guided
pretive maintenance in, 188, 202, tours of, 311-314; size of cleaning
204, 205, 273, 318; as an interpre staff for, 206-208; special require
tive medium, 299-306, 318, 320; ments of, 182; staff instruction for
interpretive methods in, 182, 193, fire protection in, 294, 295, 297;
200, 265, 283, 306-319; interpretive staff instruction for first aid in, 266;
objectives for, 189, 190-191, 202, staff instruction for interpretation
299-306, 314, 320; interpretive in, 188, 202; staff instruction for
planner’s role in, 187, 194; interpre maintenance in, 187, 188, 194, 206;
402 Index
staff instruction for safety in, 260 Gilding, cleaning of, 218, 254, 255,
261, 297; staff instruction for secur 257, 339
ity in, 282, 296; stairways in, 260, Glass: cleaning of, 213, 214, 222, 249,
264, 265-266; standards for, 182, 255, 257-258, 328-329; effects of
191-192, 197, 201-202, 267, 315; light on, 69; inspection of, 63, 329;
stationed interpreters in, 311, 315 moving of, 261, 262; for protecting
316; supervision of cleaning in, wall coverings, 281. See also Glass
205-206; terminology for, 182-183; ware
use of reproductions in, 192, 198 Glassine paper, 102
199, 283 Glassware: cleaning of, 255; number
Furnishings, historic: acceptance of, ing of, 157, 158
on approval, 197; acquisition of, Gloves: rubber, 215, 226, 227, 339;
195, 196-199; association value of, use of cotton, in handling metal, 40,
196-197; classification of, 174-175; 64, 215, 253, 261
curatorial analysis of, 200, 201; Glue: effects of relative humidity on,
dealers in, 196-198; evaluation of, 67-68; Elmer’s, 347; water soluble,
196-197, 199, 201-202; insect in 248, 255
festation of, 271-276; installation Glycerin, in killing and preserving
of, 195, 201; interpretive hazards of, fluids, 50, 51, 52
198; of original occupants, 189, 191 Goddard’s: Dry Clean, 222, 243; Tar
192, 194, 196-197, 198; principles nish Preventive Spray, 222
in treatment of, 200; protection of, Gold leaf, 248, 249, 334
201, 202, 267-296; recording of, Graphite: for fireplace care, 242; in
199-200; reports on treatment of, stove polish, 222, 244
201; safe handling of, 206, 216, 223, Grasshoppers, preparation of, for
237, 247, 253, 260-262; study of, study, 51
196, 200 Grates, care of, 244
Furniture: classification of, 174; clean Grilles, cleaning of, 235, 237, 238
ing of historic, 245-250, 330, 332 Guidebooks, pre-visit role of tourist,
333; cleaning of modern, 245, 326; 307
control of relative humidity for, 69; Gum, removal of, 217, 223, 225, 232
insect infestation of upholstered, 35,
271, 272, 273, 274, 276; moving of
historic, 260-262; numbering of,
158; preventing visitor use of his
toric, 281; protection of historic, Hair: insect infestation of, 71, 76, 271,
from chipping, 223, 247, 261, 262 274; preservation of, 64
Furniture restorer, 246 Hardware, cleaning of furniture, 249
Hearths, cleaning of, 241-243
Herbarium, 9, 13; cataloguing of, 160;
classification of, 165, 166; insect in
festation of, 34, 64; preparation of
Gaslights, 271 specimens for, 44-45, 55, 92; stor
Geological specimens: classification of, age of specimens for, 65, 77, 96-97;
167-169; inspection of, 63; num use of, 123
bering of, 159; storage of, 93. See Hide, preservation of, 64
also Study collections: geological Historical specimens: classification of,
Gifts: acknowledgment of, 22-25, 172-177; identification of, 56;
26-27; curatorial analysis of, 23; storage of, 93
legal title to, 22-24, 144; policy on Historic Furnishings Report, 186-187,
restricted, 11, 26, 196; removal of 188, 189-190, 191-195, 196, 199.
restrictions on, 26-27; tax deduc See also Plan, furnishing
tion on, 155 Historic house museum. See Furnished
Index 403
historic structure museums 273, 274, 276; in wood, 34, 37, 71,
Historic structures, interpretation of, 73, 271, 272, 274, 276; in wool, 34,
320-321. See also Furnished his 71, 76, 271, 272, 274, 275, 346
toric structure museums: interpre Insects: care of preserved, 64, 65;
tive methods in cataloguing of, 160; classification of,
Historic Structures Report, 186, 187 167; insect damage to, 71, 76;
188, 190 preparation of, for study, 50-52, 92;
Horn, insect infestation of, 34 storage of, 96, 97
House flies, 271-272, 273, 276 Insurance: liability, 266; of specimens,
Humidifier, 87-88, 268-269 27-28, 137, 154
Humidity. See Relative humidity; Internal Revenue Service, 155
Water: as a destructive agent International Institute for Conserva
Hurricanes, preparation for, 82, 295 tion of Historic and Artistic Works,
296 40, 63
Hyamine 1622, 39 Interpretive Prospectus, 186, 187, 190
Hydrogen peroxide, in marble clean Inventory: card, 157; of specimens,
ing, 243 157, 162
Hygrometer, 83-86, 88 Invertebrates: classification of, 166
Hygrothermograph, 84, 86, 88 167; exhibition of live, 7; storage
of, 96, 97, 98
Ion exchange method, 66
Iron: drying of, 38, 65, 255, 336;
painting of, 38, 335-336, 340; rust
Igepal CA-630, 221 inhibitor for, 40, 255, 336; rust re
Incralac, 221 moval from, 65, 244, 249, 255, 335
Infrared detection devices, 292 336; stove polish for, 222, 244, 245;
Inlays, cleaning of, 248 treatment of waterlogged, 37-38;
Insect cabinet, 65, 77, 96, 97 washing of, 40, 255; waxing of, 40,
Insecticides, 34-37, 64, 121, 263, 274 65-66, 244, 249, 255
276; chlordane, 37, 275, 276; diazi
non, 275, 276; dichlorvos, 65, 76,
98, 104, 346; lindane, 37, 275, 276;
malathion, 275, 276; paradichloro
Jellyfish, preparation of, for study, 54
benzene, 36, 65, 76, 104, 276, 346;
Jewelers’ rubber polisher, 65, 221,
pyrethmm, 275; ronnel, 275, 276;
249, 255
silica aerogel, 275
Insect infestations, 62, 71-76, 104,
201, 204, 271-272; in bone, 34; in
books, 35, 71, 253, 271; in cotton,
34, 271; effect of temperature on, Keys, steel, care of, 249
35, 68; in feathers, 34, 71, 271, 346; Kitchenware, cleaning of, 255
in folded documents, 35; in fur, 34, Knife, putty, 217, 223, 232
76, 275, 346; in herbarium speci Krylon, 66, 221
mens, 34, 64; in horn, 34; in leather,
34; in linen, 34, 271; in mattresses,
35, 271, 272, 274, 276; in paper, 34,
35, 71, 76, 103, 271, 273-274, 275;
in parchment, 34; in pillows, 35, Labels. See Exhibit labels; Specimen
271, 276; protection from, 63, 93, labels
98, 103, 121; in rawhide, 34; in Lacquer: for catalogue numbers, 157
rayon, 76; in silk, 34; treatment of, 158, 159, 162; as a protective coat
34-37, 76, 201, 272-276, 346; in ing, 65, 66, 221, 244, 249, 255, 258,
upholstered furniture, 35, 271, 272, 331, 333
404 Index
Ladders: step, 215-216, 236, 238, 240, Linoleum, 275; cleaning of, 245, 325;
260, 262-263; straight, 216, 238, stripping wax from, 226-227
263 Lissapol N, 221
Lamps, kerosene, 209, 256-257, 271 Lizards, preparation of, for study, 49
Lanolin: for coating bronze, 339; for 50
leather dressing, 64, 66-67, 250, Loans: cataloguing of indefinite, 161
254 162; deaccessioning of indefinite, 28,
Laws: Antiquities Act, 13, 19-20; En 162; documentation of, 27-29, 136,
dangered and Threatened Species 137-139, 144, 155, 162; exclusion
Act, 4, 21; Federal Insecticide, of, from property accountability
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act, 36, records, 162; indefinite, 28, 55, 136
274; Historic Sites Act, 4; Manage 137, 161-162; intermuseum, 28,
ment of Museum Properties Act, 4, 117; long-term, 27, 28, 134, 135,
30; National Park Service Establish 136-137, 138-139; period of, 27,
ment Act, 4; Occupational Safety 28, 137, 144; post-visit, 319; receipt
and Health Act, 261 form for, 28-29, 137-139; renewal
Lead: corrosion of, by organic acids, of, 28, 137; short-term, 27, 137;
70, 89; effects of air pollution on, unsolicited, 28-29. See also Speci
70, 340; protective coating of, 66; mens: borrowing of; Specimens:
removal of corrosion from, 66, 340; lending of
washing of, 340 Location file, 157
Leaflets: guide, 265, 311-312, 313, Locks, 79, 292, 300
314, 318, 319; information, 306
307, 311, 319
Leather: buff, 64, 66; cleaning of, 66
67, 237, 249-250, 253-254; effects
of air pollution on, 70, 204, 254, Malathion, as an insecticide, 275, 276
269; effects of relative humidity on, Mammals: cased skins of, 46, 159;
67-68; insect infestation of, 34; classification of, 167; degreasing
mold growth on, 277; powdery, 67, study specimens of, 46; exhibition
254, 269; preservative treatment of, of live, 7; measurements of, 46-47;
64, 66-67, 249-250, 253-254, 269; mounted, 333-334; mounted heads
treatment of waterlogged, 37-38 of, 10; numbering skulls of, 47, 159;
Leeches, preparation of, for study, 53 skeletons of, 46, 152, 159; study
Lens brush, 213, 241, 250, 254, 257 skins and skulls of, 9, 45-48, 64, 92,
Letters: acknowledging gifts, 22-24; 93, 152; whole study specimens of,
acknowledging loans, 27; of ex in fluid, 46
change, 30 Mantels, cleaning of, 241, 243-244
Lichens, preservation of, 45 Manuscripts: cataloguing of, 160;
Light: control of, 63, 69, 90-91, 92, classification of, 176; storage of,
346 (see also Furnished historic 103-104
structure museums: control of light Maps: classification of, 176; exhibi
in); desirable limits of, 69, 83, 91, tion of, 121-122; matting of, 102,
271; effects of, 69, 239, 250, 251, 103; pre-visit role of road, 307;
254, 269-270, 326; exclusion of, 93, storage of, 102-103, 104
102; measurement of, 83, 86, 271 Marble: damp wiping of, 242, 243,
Lighting, security, 79, 80, 292 249; dusting of, 214, 230, 242, 243,
Lighting fixtures: cleaning of, 255, 249; mopping of, 224, 230; moving
256, 326, 327; undesirability of of, 261; polishing of, 230; scrubbing
wiring non-electric, 194, 265, 300 of, 230, 243; stain removal from,
Lindane, as an insecticide, 37, 275, 243, 249, 334; sweeping of, 223,
276 230; washing of, 230, 243, 249, 334
Linen, insect infestation of, 34, 271 Markers, care of aluminum, 343-344
Index 405
Marquetry, cleaning of, 248 numbers to, 54; classification of,

Master Plan, 186, 190 166-167; preparation of, for study,
Mats: entrance, cleaning of, 234, 269, 53-54
279; pressure, 81, 290; window, Monel metal, cleaning of, 330
102, 103 Mops, dust: care of, 225, 228, 260;
Matting, straw, 234-235, 280 caution in use of, 247, 262; selec
“Matt reflex” paper, 102 tion of, 216; technique of using,
Mattresses, insect infestation of, 35, 223; use of, on floors, 91, 227, 230,
271, 272, 274, 276 235, 242, 287, 325; use of, on Vene
Mayflies, preparation of, for study, 50 tian blinds, 240; use of, on walls,
Melamine, cleaning of, 331 236, 326
Merpol SH, 221 Mops, string: care of, 216, 224, 225,
Metal: cleaning of, case frames, 330; 226, 227, 241; selection of, 216;
cleaning of exposed, specimens, 333; techniques of using, 223-225; use
continued protection of, 64, 244, of, 226-227, 229, 230, 235, 241,
258; corrosion of, by leather, 98; 242, 325; wringer for, 219
effects of air pollution on, 70, 204, Mothproofing, 275-276
330; effects of handling on, 40, 77 Moths, preparation of, for study, 50,
78, 215, 330, 333; effects of relative 51. See also Clothes moths
humidity on, 67-68, 244; initial Museum maintenance, organization of,
protection of, specimens, 40; inspec 205-212, 324
tion of, 63, 68, 69, 244; lacquering Museum records: computerized, 125;
of, 65, 66, 221-222, 244, 258, 333; deaccessioning procedures in, 13,
numbering of, 158; protective coat 155; fire protection of, 77, 79, 92,
ing of, 64 (see also Metal: lacquer 150, 295; location of, 77, 82, 92,
ing of; Metal: waxing of); waxing 150, 152
of, 40, 65, 66, 95, 221-222, 244, Museums: definition of, 2, 182; ethics
258 of, 30, 133, 198; guideline for de
Metalphotos, 343, 344 velopment of, in national parks, 3,
Meter, light, 86, 91, 271 184-186; purpose and functions of,
Mice, as destructive agents in mu 2-3, 62, 182, 204, 292, 296, 325
seums, 77, 276-277 Mylar, 281
Microscope slides: labeling of, 52;
numbering of, 159
Microwave detection devices, 290, 292
Mildew. See Mold
Military specimens, classification of, National Fire Protection Association,
172-173 77, 290, 293, 294, 295, 297
Millipedes, preparation of, for study, National Institute of Dry Cleaning, 252
52 National Rifle Association, 154
Minerals, classification of, 167-168. National Safety Council, 261
See also Study collections: geologi Newspapers, classification of, 176
cal Noxon, 66, 220, 244
Mirrors: cleaning of, 249; moving of,
262
Models, 121-122, 333
Mold: appearance of, 68, 71, 277;
conditions for growth of, 39, 70 Odors, use of, in exhibits, 118
71, 204, 277; destructive action of, Oil: linseed, 158, 230, 247, 330, 336,
39, 68, 71, 277; protection of speci 337; neatsfoot, 64, 66; whale, 242
mens from, 38, 63, 71, 104, 277 Oilcloth, care of, 235
278, 346; treatment of, 39, 277-278 Oil paintings: cleaning of, 257, 334;
Mollusks: application of catalogue deterioration of, 39-41; effect of
406 Index
relative humidity on, 68; effect of Photoelectric cells, 81-82, 290

temperature on, 69; effect of thymol Photographs: cataloguing of, 160;
on, 39; facing of, 40-41; inspection classification of, 176; cleaning of,
of, 40, 68, 69; moving of, 262; num 331-332; in follow-up interpreta
bering of, 158; packing and ship tion, 318-319; metal, 343, 344; re
ment of, 41-42, 78 attachment of, 347; replacement of,
Opaline, 222, 237 348; of specimens, 92, 153, 155,
Oral history, 19 156, 199-200
Organic materials, treatment of water Picture frames, 100-101, 158; dusting
logged, 37-38 of, 218, 248, 257, 334; moving of,
Ozone, 91, 269 262
Pictures, use of, in exhibits, 121-122
Pillows, insect infestation of, 35, 271,
276
Pails: care of, 217, 237, 239; selection Plan, exhibit, 6, 120, 189
of, 217; use of, 232, 236, 238, 240, Plan, furnishing: amendment of, 187,
242. See also Buckets, mop 195, 201; approval of, 194, 195;
Paint, oil: for cannon carriages, 336 contents of, 190-194, 195, 301;
337; for catalogue numbers, 157 continuing role of, 187, 194, 195;
158, 162; waterproof, 38, 335, 336 implementation of, 186-187, 194
337, 340 195, 196-202; paint standards in,
Paintings, mural, 237, 238. See also Oil 195; preparation of, 188, 189-194;
paintings for structures previously furnished
Paper: acid-free, 102, 103, 104, 261; without a plan, 194; for structures
acid-neutralizing, 98, 102, 103, 104, with original furnishings, 194;
269; carbon, 163; cleaning of, 214, timing of, 188, 190
222, 257; effect of air pollution on, Planning Directive, 186, 189, 190, 191,
204; effect of organic acids on, 89; 194
effects of light on, 91, 254, 270; Plans, classification of, 176
effects of relative humidity on, 67 Plankton, preservation of, 45
68; insect infestation of, 34, 35, 71, Plants: care of preserved, 64; cata
76, 103, 271, 273-274, 275; mold loguing of, 160; classification of,
on, 277; numbering of, 159; preser 165, 166; pressing and mounting of,
vation of, 64, 269; rodent damage 44-45, 55, 92; rare, 20; storage of,
to, 77 65, 77, 96-97. See also Herbarium;
Paradichlorobenzene: as a continuous Study collections: botanical
fumigant, 65, 76, 104, 210, 276, Plaster, cleaning of old, 236, 238
346; as an initial fumigant, 36 Plastics: cleaning of, 214, 239, 245,
Paraffin, 339 256, 281, 329, 332; scratch removal
Paranitrophenol, as a fungicide, 66 from, 329
Parchment: effects of relative humidity Plexiglas: to protect wall coverings,
on, 67-68; insect infestation of, 34 281; ultraviolet filtering, 90, 91,
Parks, categories of national, 9 270, 271
Paste: effects of relative humidity on, Poisonous properties: of arsenic, 46;
67-68; for facing paintings, 40-41 of benzethonium chloride, 40; of
Perchlorethylene, 222, 242 cyanide, 50; of dipentene, 66; of
Permalife paper, 98, 102, 103 ethyl alcohol, 49; of fumigants, 35
Permits, collecting, 9, 19-20 36; of fungicides, 40, 263; of house
Persons, interpretation of, in furnished keeping supplies, 226, 229, 254, 263,
historic structure museums, 191, 343; of insecticides, 65, 263, 274;
301-302, 306 of 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 46; of
Pewter: cleaning of, 257; polishing of, rodenticides, 77
220-221, 257 Poisons, safe storage of, 92
l
1
1
Index 407
Polish: avoidance of, on historic fur

niture, 246, 332; brass, 66, 220, 244,
255, 256, 333; furniture, 245, 246,
332; pewter, 220-221, 257; plastics,
329; silicone, 228-229, 245; silver,
221, 256, 258; stove, 222, 244-245
Polisher, floor. See Floor polisher
Polyester: bags, 98; dust covers, 248, Rats, as destructive agents in museums,
251; for protecting drapes, 281 77, 276-277
Polyethylene: bags, 44, 98, 212; for Rawhide, 64, 66; insect infestation of,
disassembling crystal chandeliers, 34
256; dust covers, 70, 100, 248; for Rayon: insect infestation of, 76; mold
fumigating, 35; for retaining mois on, 277
ture, 38; for washing textiles, 251 Redding, for bricks, 242, 243-244
252 Regional curator, clearing house func
Polyethylene glycol, 38 tions of, 135-136 .
Polyurethane, 94, 98 Relative humidity: buffering agents for
Porcelain, cleaning of, 254 controlling, 88-89, 121; control of,
Posters, for furnished historic struc 63, 87-89, 92, 267-269, 346; con
ture museums, 307 trol of, in exhibit cases, 88, 121;
Post-visit interpretation, 318-319 control of, in furnished historic
Potassium lactate, in leather care, 64, structure museums, 188, 190, 193
66, 222, 250, 254 194, 267-269, 277; control of, un
Potassium nitrate, for treating study der plastic dust covers, 70, 98, 100,
skins, 46 248; control of, to prepare speci
Potassium oleate, 241 mens for fumigation, 35; control of,
Pottery: African, 255; American In in shipment, 78; desirable limits of,
dian, 255 68, 83, 267, 268, 327; effects of,
Poultices, 222, 242, 243 67-68, 267, 268; measurement of,
Powder: dry cleaning, 222, 242, 243, 35, 68, 83-86, 88
245, 250; scouring, 246 Renaissance Wax, 221
Powder-post beetles: control of, 37, Reproductions: cataloguing of, 160;
276; evidence of, 71, 73, 272, 274 cost of, 198, 278; marking of, 198;
Pressure mats, 81, 290 sale of, 198; use of, in exhibits, 6-7,
Pressure switches, 81, 82, 290, 291 91, 122; use of, in furnishing his
Pre-visit interpretation: aims of, 306; toric structures, 192, 198-199, 283;
for organized groups, 310-311 use of, in “living history,” 118-119,
Prints: cleaning of, 257, 334; matting 198, 256, 318
of, 102, 103; moving of, 262; num Reptiles: classification of, 167; prepa
bering of, 159; storage of, 102, 103, ration of, for study, 49-50; storage
104 of, 98
Property accounting regulations, 148, Road-kills, 20
154-155, 162 Rocks, classification of, 167, 168. See
Psychrometer, 83-86 also Study collections: geological
Pumice, 330 Rodents, as destructive agents in mu
Purchase Order-Invoice-Voucher, 21 seums, 62, 77, 93, 276-277
Pyrethrum, as an insecticide, 275 Ronnel, as an insecticide, 275, 276
Rottenstone, 221, 247
Rugs: numbering of, 159; storage of,
100. See also Carpets
Runners, cleaning of, 213, 215, 231,
Quelspray, 221 234, 280
Quiz sheets, 319 Rushes, as a floor covering, 231
408 Index
Silk: cleaning of, 237, 250; effects of

light on, 69, 270; insect infestation
of, 34; mold on, 277
Silkscreen, 122, 331
Silver: effects of air pollution on, 70;
protective coating of, 40, 66, 221
222, 256, 258; removal of tarnish
Salamanders, preparation of, for study, from, 66, 221, 222, 256, 258; tar
49 nish inhibitor for, 66, 221, 222, 258
Scabbards: numbering of, 152, 158; Silver dip, 66, 222, 258
storage of, 98, 99 Silverfish: control of, 275; evidence of,
Sandpaper, 232, 343 74, 76, 271, 273-274
Screen, plastic: for dusting textiles, 67, Silverplate, care of, 258
234, 238, 241, 250, 251; for wash Silver Shield, 222
ing textiles, 251-252 Silverware, cleaning of, 258
Sculpture: care of, 334, 338-342; Simoniz, 222, 333, 339
numbering of, 158; repair of, 339, Sinks, 92, 217
340, 342 Skum-X, 222, 237
Sea cucumbers, preparation of, for Slipcovers, 270
study, 54 Slugs, preparation of, for study, 54
Sea urchins, preparation of, for study, Smithsonian Institution, 168, 242, 334;
54 exchanges with, 134; referral of
Security, 121; correlation of, with fire specimens to, 11, 31
protection, 82, 294; dependence of, Smoking restrictions, 262, 294
on personnel, 79-80, 92, 282, 290, Snakes, preparation of, for study, 49
292; detection and alarm equipment 50
for, 80-82, 290-292, 300; fences Snuffers, 256
for, 292; in furnished historic struc Soap: arsenical, 46; former uses of, in
ture museums, 188, 190, 193, 194, housekeeping, 229, 242; neutral, for
195, 201, 281-292; justifying costs cleaning bronze, 335, 338; neutral,
of, 79, 291; landscaping for, 80, for cleaning exhibits, 330, 331, 334,
292; legal authority in, 282; lighting 343; neutral, for cleaning furnish
for, 79, 80, 292; operating proce ings in historic structure museums,
dures for, 79-80, 282, 291-292; 221, 238, 246, 254, 278, 326:
preventive measures for, 282, 325, saddle, 64, 66, 250
346; public attitude as, 291, 325, Sodium dihydroxyethylglycine, 40
347; room barriers for, 193, 282, Soft rot, 278
283-289; surveillance in, 282, 287, Solander boxes, 102
290, 346 Soot, removal of, 237, 238, 243, 244,
Shades, cleaning window, 239-240 249, 271
Shellac, for catalogue numbers, 157 Sound, use of, in exhibits, 118, 314,
158,159,162 320-321. See also Audio interpre
Signs: attachment of, 308, 309, 313, tive devices
347; directional, 307, 312; entrance, Sound detectors, 81
307-308, 309; exit, 265, 294; invi Source of accession file, 143, 145, 148
tational, 307; temporary, 347, 348; Specimen jars: sealing of, 64; storage
warning, 36-37, 260, 265, 281, 300, of, 98
312 Specimen labels, 41, 43, 152;catalogue
Silica aerogel, as an insecticide, 275 numbers on, 47, 159, 160; insect
Silica gel, in controlling relative damage to, 76; for insects, 51-52,
humidity, 88, 89 160; for invertebrates, 51-52, 53,
Silicone rubber, for sealing specimen 54; materials for, 41, 45, 47-48, 49,
jars, 64 51-52, 53; for plants, 44-45; ro
Index 409
dent damage to, 77; for skulls, 48; inspection of, for dirt, 70, 87, 104;
for vertebrates, 46-48, 49-50 inspection of, for fire protection, 77,
Specimens: acceptance of, on ap 253; inspection of, for insect dam
proval, 11, 21, 56, 144, 197; acqui age, 36, 71-76, 104, 253, 272, 273
sition procedures for, 11, 19-31, 56, 274; inspection of, for light damage,
196-199; appraisal of, 155; associa 69; inspection of, for mold, 68, 69,
tion value of, 7, 10, 11, 196-197; 70-71, 83, 104, 253; inspection of,
authentication of, 30, 56, 197; for rodent damage, 77, 277; inspec
authenticity of, 6, 11, 21, 134; bor tion of, for security, 79-80; inspec
rowing of, 4, 27-29, 117, 144, 196 tion of dry-cleaned, 252; inspection
(see also Loans); card file of de of loaned, 137; insurance of, 27-28,
posited, 8; care of, in central reposi 137, 154; interim storage of, in cen
tories, 105; care of, preserved in tral repositories, 105 ; interpretive
liquid, 63, 64; classification of, 151, purpose of, 6, 120, 299-300; inter
165-177; cleaning of, 62, 63, 69, 70, pretive quality of, 7; interpretive
92, 200, 332-334; collection of, use of, 3, 5, 8, 9, 13, 55; interpre
under permit, 9, 19-20; condition tive use of, in exhibits, 6-7, 8, 113
of, as a factor in their care, 62, 200, 123, 137; inventory of, 157, 162;
205, 206; condition of, as a factor isolation of, 35; lending of, 4, 117,
in their use, 7, 11, 21, 133, 137; 133, 134, 135, 136-139, 319 (see
consideration of, in interpretive also Loans); loss of, 144, 155 ;
planning, 6; contribution of, to his measurement of, 43, 46-47, 153
torical knowledge, 10, 124-125; 154; packing of, 55, 78-79, 137;
costs of storing and caring for, 21 payment for, 21; photographs of,
22, 133, 136; culling of archeologi 92, 153, 155, 156, 199-200; pur
cal, 12-13, 105, 161; deposit of, for chase of, 4, 20-21, 196-199; re
research or documentation, 8, 11, cording exchanges of, 30, 144, 155 ;
14, 105 ; deposit of type, 10; destruc recording the condition of, 144,
tion of, 13, 133, 134, 136, 137, 144, 153-154; recording the identifica
155; disposal of, 13, 133-139, 148, tion of, 155 ; recovery of stolen, 153,
155 (see also Deaccessioning pro 199-200; reference use of, 8, 10,
cedures); documentary use of, 3, 13, 123-124, 165; referral of, from
5, 7-8, 10, 13, 62, 125; donation of, the Smithsonian Institution, 31; re
4, 10-11, 21-27, 196, 197 (see also ferral of, to the Smithsonian Institu
Gifts); effects of soluble salts on, tion, 11, 31; rejection of, 5, 11, 21
37-38, 68, 70, 341; exceptions to 22, 24, 28, 31; repair of, 62, 63, 133,
the use of original, 6-7, 91, 118 199, 200, 201, 347; replacement of,
119; exchange of, 4, 30-31, 44, 133, 7, 195, 196, 199; research use of, 3,
134, 135-136, 196; exhibition of, 5, 7, 9, 10,13, 43, 55, 92, 105, 124
for enjoyment, 116, 117; exhibit 125, 165; responsibility for the pre
mounting of, 121; exhibit series of, servation of, 34, 62, 137; restoration
6-7, 20-21, 27; facsimiles of, 6-7 7 of, 7, 63, 133, 137, 192, 200-201;re
91, 118-119, 121 (see also Repro tention of archeological, in “field
ductions); fastening of, 282-283; collection status,” 12, 105, 161; safe
field collection of (see Field col environment for, 39, 62, 63, 92,
lecting); financial control of, 154 121; safe handling of, 77-78, 94,
155, 162; hazards to, on exhibition, 100, 102, 137, 260-262; sale of, 4,
117, 118-119; history of, 56, 137, 133, 134, 136; scientific importance
150, 153-154; identification of, 11, of, as a control, 155; search for, 10,
44, 55-56, 134, 165, 197; inspec 192, 201; shipment of, 78-79, 89,
tion of, 62, 63-64, 69, 70, 100, 205, 137; storage of archeological, for re
268; inspection of, for corrosion, study, 12; study series of, 5, 7-14,
68, 70, 244, 335, 336, 339, 340; 123-124, 135 (see aIso_ Study collec
410 Index
tions); survival of, 62; symbolic use bronze, 339; use of, in dry cleaning,
of, in exhibits, 6, 113, 115; tem 222, 241; use of, in leather dressing,
porary storage of, before catalo 66-67, 250, 254; use of, in spot
guing, 12, 145; transfer of, 30, 134, removal, 232, 234, 242, 243, 247;
135-136, 144, 155, 196; transporta use of, to clean markers, 343; use
tion of, 4, 78, 260-262; treatment of, to remove wax, 65, 66, 339
of, only with materials of known Stone: cleaning of, 224, 230, 242, 243,
composition and effects, 275; treat 325, 334, 341-342; deterioration
ment of rapidly deteriorating, 38 of, 341, 342; effects of air pollution
41; treatment of waterlogged, 37 on, 70, 204, 341; protection of, 341,
38; unpacking of, 78-79, 148; use 342
of, in environmental management, Stoneflies, preparation of, for study,
9, 13, 123; use of, in historical res 50
toration, 123; valuation of, 21, 30 Stoves, care of, 222, 244-245
31, 134, 154-155, 162, 196-197; Straw, as a floor covering, 231. See
value of, dependent on data, 41, also Matting, straw
142, 150; visitor use of, 8, 13, 92, Study collections: access to, 92, 124;
113, 118, 123-124, 334; want list anthropological, 10; archeological,
of, 6, 135, 192; weighing of, 47, 12-13, 105, 123, 160-161, 169
154 170; botanical, 9, 13, 44-45, 123,
Specimen storage equipment: docu 160, 165, 166 (see also Herbarium;
ment boxes, 98, 103-104; folders, Plants); classified storage of, 151,
102, 103, 104; gun rack, 98, 99; 165-177; criteria of a depository
heat transmission in steel cabinets, for, 8, 11; entomological, 8, 160,
77, 95; herbarium cabinet, 65, 77, 167 (see also Insects); ethnological,
96-97; insect cabinet, 65, 77, 96, 170-172; geological, 10, 13, 123,
97; map file cabinet, 102-103; pic 167-169; guidelines for natural
ture racks, 100-101; print boxes, history, 9-10; historical, 10, 13,
102, 103; relative humidity in 123, 172-177; in historical parks,
standard cabinets, 86; special uses 10-13, 172; justification of natural
of standard cabinets, 35, 39, 65, 76, history, 9, 125; manuscript, 11-12;
145; standard cabinet, 77, 93-95, in natural parks, 9-10; paleonto
102, 104; standardization of units, logical, 10, 167, 169; in park mu
93; steel shelving, 100, 102, 103, seums, 105; photographic, 11-12;
104; storage boxes, 104; sword rack, preparation facilities for, 91-92; in
98, 99; trays, 78, 94-95, 96; utility recreation areas, 13-14; storage
cabinet, 98, 103; wide specimen space for, 68, 91-92, 105, 324;
cabinet, 94, 95 study space for, 91-92, 124; as a
Sponges, 217-218 training aid, 123; visible storage of,
Squeegee, 218, 238-239 124; zoological, 9, 13, 45-48, 123,
Squirrels, as destructive agents in mu 165, 166-167
seums, 77 Suede, 254
Stain, water, 230 Sulfur dioxide, 87, 91, 269
Stain removal kit, 232 Sulfuric acid, 70, 269
Starfishes, preparation of, for study, 54 Sunlight: effect of, on silk, 69; protec
Steel: cleaning and polishing of, 65, tion from, 90, 194, 201; protection
220, 244, 249, 255, 256; protective of leather from, 249; protection of
coating of, 40, 65-66, 95, 244, 249, paper from, 270; protection of tex
255; stainless, 330, 340 tiles from, 233, 250, 251, 270; pro
Steel wool,_ 220; use of, in floor clean tection of wood finishes from, 246,
ing, 226, 227; use of, in rust re 270
moval, 65, 244, 249, 255, 335-336 Superintendent, building, 205-206,
Stoddard solvent: use of, in coating 324
Index 411
Superintendent, park: authority of, in 222, 231, 232, 245, 250; storage of,
museum management, 4, 30; re 98-99, 100, 103, 104, 251;. testing
sponsibilities of, for collection man of, for color fastness, 234; vacuum
agement, 4, 8, 9, 19-20, 22-25, 30, ing of, through plastic screens, 67,
136; responsibilities of, for fur 234, 238, 241, 250, 251; washing
nished historic structure museums, of, 67, 207, 234, 251-252, 272, 275,
186, 194-195, 196, 198, 202, 294 326, 332
Swab, toilet bowl, 218 Thefts, 79, 80, 82, 121, 153, 199, 281
Switches, security, 81, 82, 290, 291, 292. See also Security
292 Thermometer, 83-86
Swords: numbering of, 152, 158; stor Thymol, 39, 277
age of, 98, 99 Tile: ceramic floor, 224, 325; hearth,
Syringe, ear, 218, 248, 257 243; mantel, 243; non-ceramic floor,
226-227, 228-229, 275, 325
Tinware, cleaning of, 255
Toads, preparation of, for study, 49
Tobacco, as an anesthetic, 53
Tables, scouring of kitchen, 246 Tornadoes, preparation for, 82, 295
Tallow, removal of, from candle 296
holders, 256 Tort claims, 267
Tarnex, 222 Transfers, 30, 134, 135-136, 144, 155,
Tax deduction, 155 196
Television, closed-circuit, 82, 290 Tri-M-ite, 65
Temperature: control of, 63, 68-69, Turpentine: avoidance of, in cleaning
89, 92, 98, 327, 346; control of, in furniture, 333; as a paint solvent,
furnished historic structure mu 157, 162, 337; as a wax solvent, 226,
seums, 193, 267-268, 277; control 237, 248, 339; use of, on case
of, to prepare specimens for fumi frames, 330
gation, 35; desirable limits of, 68, Turpentine substitute: for cleaning
83, 89, 267, 327; effects of, 68-69, oil-finished wood, 247; as a wax sol
83, 268; measurement of, 35, 83 vent, 222, 226, 237, 245, 248, 332,
86; relation of, to relative humidity, 339
68-69, 268 Turtles, preparation of, for study, 49
Template, for cleaning furniture hard 50
ware, 249 Typewriter ribbons, 163
Termites, 50, 271, 272, 273, 274
Terrazzo, cleaning of, 223, 224
Textiles: cleaning of, 64, 245, 250
253; control of light on, 69, 91, Ultrasonic detectors, 81, 292
233, 250, 251, 270; dry cleaning of, Ultraviolet light, 69, 90, 121, 346;
67, 207, 234, 251-253, 272, 275, filtering of, 64, 69, 90, 91, 233, 270
326, 332; dusting of, 67, 238, 241, 271, 327; monitoring of, 86, 90,
245, 250, 251, 326, 332; effect of 271; sources of, 69, 90, 270, 271,
air pollution on, 70, 204; effects of 327
light on, 69, 239, 250, 270; insect Uniforms: numbering of, 152; storage
infestation of, 34, 71, 76, 271, 272, of, 98
274, 275, 346; mold on, 277, 346; Upholstered furniture, insect infesta
moving of, 261; numbering of, 159; tion of, 35, 271, 272, 273, 274, 276
preservative treatment of, 64; pro Upholstery, cleaning of, 245, 249-250,
tective covering of, 193, 234, 238 332
239, 251, 278, 280-281; reproduc
tion of, 198-199, 250, 278; rodent
damage to, 77; spot removal from,
412 Index
Watercolors: control of light on, 69,

91, 270; numbering of, 159
Wax, use of, in preserving mussel
shells, 53
Vacuum cleaner, 212, 213, 216, 220, Wax, candle: removal of, from candle
273, 277; care of, 207, 218-219, holders, 256; removal of, from car
231, 237, 240, 251; care in the use pets, 232
of, 231, 247, 262; selection of, 218; Wax, microcrystalline: preparation of,
use of, on books, 253; use of, on 66, 221; use of, on leather, 64, 67;
exhibits, 329, 331, 332, 334; use of, use of, on metal, 65-66, 221, 244,
on fabric furnishings, 251; use of, on 249, 255, 258
fireplaces, 242, 243; use of, on Wax, neutral paste: use of, on floors,
floors, 229, 230-231, 287, 325; use 227-228; use of, on metal furniture,
of, on floor coverings, 231, 233 95, 245; use of, on metal specimens,
234, 235, ‘287; use of, on furniture, 40, 65, 221-222, 244, 255, 338
245, 249-250, 326, 332; use of, on 339; use of, on room barriers, 287;
leather, 66, 249, 253; use of, on use of, on woodwork, 237, 248, 333
lighting fixtures, 256, 326; use of, Wax, water emulsion, 222, 226-229
on Venetian blinds, 240; use of, on Ways of life, interpretation of, in fur
walls and ceilings, 236-238, 326; nished historic structure museums,
use of, on window shades, 239; wet 185-186, 190-191, 304, 305, 306
dry model, 233 White rot, 278
Vandalism, 77, 80, 82, 281-282, 291, Whitewash, imitation of, 238
325, 347 Whiting: in metal polish, 66, 333; in
Vapona, 65. See also Dichlorvos poultices, 242, 243; source of, 221;
Vaseline, use of, on mussel shells, 53 use of, on marble, 230; use of, on
Veneers, cleaning of, 248 unfinished wood, 237
Venetian blinds, cleaning of, 240-241, Windows, cleaning of, 207, 213, 218,
326 238-239, 270, 326
Vermarco, 243 Window shades, cleaning of, 239-240
Versene Fe-3 Specific, 40 Window switches, 81, 292
Vibration detectors, 82 Wood: effects of relative humidity on,
Vinyl, cleaning of, 330, 331 67-68, 87; insect infestation of, 34,
Visitors: observation of, 120-121, 37, 71, 73, 271, 272, 274, 276; in
264, 282, 348; protection of, 260, spection of, 68, 69, 71, 272, 274;
263-267, 279, 293, 295, 296-297, mold on, 277-278; preservation of,
348 39, 64, 336-337; treatment of water
logged, 37-38
Woodwork, cleaning of, 237, 238, 243,
330
Wool: insect infestation of, 34, 71, 76,
Wallpaper: cleaning of, 237, 238; pro 271, 272, 274, 275, 346; mold on,
tective covering of, 193, 237, 238, 277, 346; preservation of, 64
278, 281; reproduction of, 198-199, Work sheets, interpretive, 318
278; selection of, 188 Worms, marine, preparation of, for
Walls: cleaning of, 235-238, 326; pro study, 53
tective covering of, 237, 238, 278, Wringer, mop, 219, 223-225, 226, 227
281; treatment of mold on, 278
Water: as a destructive agent, 37, 67
68, 87, 341; as a killing agent, 49,
53, 54; protection of specimens
from, 38, 68, 335, 336-337, 340, Xylene, use of, in degreasing insects,
341-342; as a solvent, 222 51
NPS 152
lat’ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976 O—573-696

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Manual For Museums

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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

Manual for Museums

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National Park Service

As the Nation’s principal conservation agency, the Department of the

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Oﬁice,

Primary responsibility for this manual has rested on the Branch of Mu

Part 1. Museum Collections 1

Frontispiece Visitor Center, Wright Brothers National Memorial

Part 1 traces guidelines for managing museum collections. While directed

Authority for national parks to collect museum objects derives princi

The National Park Service gives a superintendent permission and en

The exhibit specimens comprise those needed to illustrate and interpret

public interest, at the Smithsonian Institution where professional curators

Some are for reference—to guide administrative decisions, to instruct the

The ultimate goal is a collection which will completely represent, by

—characteristic hand specimens of each rock formation, and additional

The goal is to collect and preserve those man-made or natural objects

determine whether or not it ﬁts the museum’s needs. If it represents a

The objective is to acquire and preserve those study specimens actually

The basic manuals also provide essential background. They include:

Burcaw, G. Ellis. Introduction to Museum Work. Nashville. American Associa

Cameron, Duncan F. “The Museum, a Temple or the Forum,” Curator, XIV:

Washburn, Wilcomb E., et al. “Three Schools of Thought,” Museum News,

A number of the references cited contain useful bibliographies leading deeper

In addition, ICOM News (International Council of Museums, Maison de

Squires, Donald F. “Schizophrenia: The Plight of the Natural History Curator,”

When a museum decides what objects it needs, accession policy should

The permits issued to visiting specialists also help the superintendent

Acquiring a needed specimen by gift saves museum funds and often

Mr. George A. Monroe

Dear Mr. Monroe:

I hereby release to the

Your judgment of the individual circumstances will determine any addi

After the countersigned copy of the acknowledgment is received, it is

NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Cjjzeb;,Jafzizecl . 111'~‘Q dc‘/€)204'I)é(?9€&

Figure 1. Museum donor certiﬁcates used by the National Park Service.

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NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

b. Large form for major gifts.

Prospective donors sometimes insist on conditions which limit the use of

Whereas, museums have commonly received collections through gifts and

Museums ordinarily borrow specimens on their own initiative for either

proper data. Keep a supply of the forms at information desks or other

I have received the following specimens:

Signature and title Date

These specimens belong to:

The specimens are left for: gift, loan, purchase, identification,

Figure 2. Receipt for specimens left at a national park museum.

An exchange consists of giving up one or more specimens your museum

on an exact dollar-for-dollar deal. Utility of the specimens to the museum

Referral to the Smithsonian Institution

Whenever a park museum declines an offer of museum specimens, it

As a general introduction see:

British Museum (Natural History). Fossils, Minerals, and Rocks. Instructions

Purchasing and Gifts

References in the Chapter 1 bibliography on the ethical aspects of accession

Loans and Insurance

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