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Complete GATE Quick Reference Book
Complete GATE Quick Reference Book
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Quick Refresher Guide Contents
CONTENTS
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Quick Refresher Guide Contents
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Quick Refresher Guide Contents
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Quick Refresher Guide Mathematics
Part - 1: Mathematics
1.1 Linear Algebra
1.1.1 Matrix
e.g. [ ]
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A Diagonal matrix in which all the leading diagonal elements are ‘1’.
1
e.g. I = [ 1 ]
1
Note: All the diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix must be zero.
Symmetric Skew symmetric
a h g h g
[h b f ] [h f]
g f c g f
Symmetric Matrix 𝐀𝐓 = A Skew Symmetric Matrix 𝐀𝐓 = - A
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1.1.1.13 Hermitian Matrix: It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to its own
conjugate transpose.
A = A or a = a̅̅̅
A = A or a = a̅̅̅
Multiplication of Matrices:
Two matrices can be multiplied only when number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the
number of rows of the second matrix. Multiplication of (m n)
and (n p) matrices results in matrix of (m p)dimension , - , - =, - .
1.1.1.18 Determinant:
a a
For n = 2 , D = det A = |a a |=a a -a a
Determinant of “order n”
a a a a
a a
D = |A| = det A = || |
|
a a a
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A = | |
|A| must be non-zero (i.e. A must be non-singular).
Inverse of a matrix, if exists, is always unique.
a b d b
If it is a 2x2 matrix 0 1 , its inverse will be 0 1
c d c a
Important Points:
1. IA = AI = A, (Here A is square matrix of the same order as that of I )
2. 0 A = A 0 = 0, (Here 0 is null matrix)
3. If AB = , then it is not necessarily that A or B is null matrix. Also it doesn’t mean BA = .
4. If the product of two non-zero square matrices A & B is a zero matrix, then A & B are
singular matrices.
5. If A is non-singular matrix and A.B=0, then B is null matrix.
6. AB BA (in general) Commutative property does not hold
7. A(BC) = (AB)C Associative property holds
8. A(B+C) = AB AC Distributive property holds
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Note:
Elementary transformations don’t change the ran of the matrix.
However it changes the Eigen value of the matrix.
If we select any r rows and r columns from any matrix A,deleting all other rows and columns,
then the determinant formed by these r r elements is called minor of A of order r.
Other definition: The rank is also defined as maximum number of linearly independent row
vectors.
Rank = Number of non-zero row in upper triangular matrix using elementary transformation.
Note:
1. r(A.B) min { r(A), r (B)}
2. r(A+B) r(A) + r (B)
3. r(A-B) r(A) - r (B)
4. The rank of a diagonal matrix is simply the number of non-zero elements in principal
diagonal.
5. A system of homogeneous equations such that the number of unknown variable exceeds
the number of equations, necessarily has non-zero solutions.
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a a a x
a a x
Where, A = , = , B =
[a a a ] [x ] [ ]
Note:
Cramer’s ule
a x +a x = b ---------------------------------------(i)
a x +a x = b ---------------------------------------(ii)
a a
D = |b b |
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Quick Refresher Guide Mathematics
b a
D =| |
b a
a b
D =| |
a b
x = and x =
Characteristic equation: | A λ I |= 0, The roots of this equation are called the characteristic
roots /latent roots / Eigen values of the matrix A.
For each Eigen value λ, solving for X gives the corresponding Eigen vector.
Note: For a given Eigen value, there can be different Eigen vectors, but for same Eigen vector,
there can’t be different Eigen values.
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Cayley Hamilton Theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
1.1.1.26 Vector:
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1.2.1 Probability
Mutually Exclusive Events (Disjoint Events): Two events are called mutually exclusive, if the
occurrence of one excludes the occurrence of others i.e. both can’t occur simultaneously.
A B =φ, P(A B) =0
Equally Likely Events: If one of the events cannot happen in preference to other, then such events
are said to be equally likely.
.
Probability: P(A)= = .
P(A) P(A’)=1
Important points:
P(A B) Probability of happening of “at least one” event of A & B
P(A B) ) Probability of happening of “both” events of A & B
If the events are certain to happen, then the probability is unity.
If the events are impossible to happen, then the probability is zero.
Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one does not
affect the occurrence of the other.
Conditional Probability: If A and B are dependent events, then P. / denotes the probability of
occurrence of B when A has already occurred. This is known as conditional probability.
( )
P(B/A)= ( )
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Important Points:
Baye’s theorem:
( ). ( )
P. /=
( ). ( )
Random variable: Real variable associated with the outcome of a random experiment is called a
random variable.
1.2.2 Distribution
The set of values Xi with their probabilities P constitute a probability distribution or probability
density function of the variable X. If f(x) is the PDF, then f(x ) = P( = x ) ,
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The Cumulative Distribution Function F(x) of the discrete variable x is defined by,
If F (x) = P(X x) =∫ f(x)dx, then F(x) is defined as the cumulative distribution function or
simply the distribution function of the continuous variable.
Expectation [E(x)]:
1. E(X) = x f(x ) (Discrete case)
2. E(X) = ∫ x f(x )dx (Continuous case)
Properties of Expectation
1. E(constant) = constant
2. E(CX) = C . E(X) [C is constant]
3. E(AX+BY) = A E(X)+B E(Y) [A& B are constants]
4. E(XY)= E(X) E(Y/X)= E(Y) E(X/Y)
Variance (Var(X))
Properties of Variance
1. Var(constant) = 0
2. Var(Cx) = C Var(x) -Variance is non-linear [here C is constant]
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Covariance
Properties of Covariance
1. Cov(x,y) = Cov(y,x) (i.e. symmetric)
2. Cov(x,x) = Var(x)
3. |Cov(x,y)|
Mean:
For a set of n values of a variant X=( x , x , … . . , x )
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(n n ) =n +n +n D +n D
( n) = (n ) (n D )
Median: When the values in a data sample are arranged in descending order or ascending order
of magnitude the median is the middle term if the no. of sample is odd and is the mean of two
middle terms if the number is even.
Mode: It is defined as the value in the sampled data that occurs most frequently.
Important Points:
Mean is best measurement ( all observations taken into consideration).
Mode is worst measurement ( only maximum frequency is taken).
In median, 50 % observation is taken.
Sum of the deviation about “mean” is zero.
Sum of the absolute deviations about “median” is minimum.
Sum of the square of the deviations about “mean” is minimum.
( , )
Correlation coefficient = (x,y) =
-1 (x, y) 1
(x,y) = (y,x)
|(x,y)| = 1 when P(x=0)=1; or P(x=ay)=1 [ for some a]
If the correlation coefficient is -ve, then two events are negatively correlated.
If the correlation coefficient is zero, then two events are uncorrelated.
If the correlation coefficient is +ve, then two events are positively correlated.
Line of Regression:
̅̅̅̅
is called the regression coefficient of y on x and is denoted by byx.
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̅̅̅̅
is called the regression coefficient of x on y and is denoted by bxy.
Joint Probability Distribution: If X & Y are two random variables then Joint distribution is defined
as, Fxy(x,y) = P(X x ; Y y)
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1. Bisection method
This method finds the root between points “a” and “b”.
If f(x) is continuous between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of opposite sign then there is a
root between a & b (Intermediate Value Theorem).
If f(x1) = 0, then x1 is the root of f(x) = 0, otherwise root lies between a and x1 or x1 and
b.
3. Secant Method
x =x ( )– ( )
f(x )
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Given f(x) = 0
Select x0 and x1 such that f(x0) f(x1) < 0 (i.e. opposite sign)
– ( )– ( )
x =x - ( ) ( )
, f(x ) = ( ) ( )
Compute x ………
Here equations are converted into “upper triangular matrix” form, then solved by “bac
substitution” method.
Consider a1x + b1x + c1z = d1
a2x + b2x + c2z = d2
a3x + b3x + c3z = d3
Step 1: To eliminate x from second and third equation (we do this by subtracting suitable
multiple of first equation from second and third equation)
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1’ (pivotal equation, a1 pivot point.)
b ’y + c ’ z = d ’
b ’y + c ’ z = d ’
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3. L U Decomposition
It is modification of the Gauss eliminiation method.
Also Used for finding the inverse of the matrix.
[A]n x n = [ L ] n x n [U] n x n
a11 a12 a13 1 0 0 U11 U12 U13
a21 b22 c23 = L21 1 0 0 U22 U23
a31 b32 c33 L31 L32 1 0 0 U31
Solve for from a) then solve for from b). This method is nown as Doolittle’s method.
Similar methods are Crout’s method and Choles y methods.
4. Iterative Method
If a1, b2 , c3 are large compared to other coefficients, then solving these for x, y, z
respectively
x = k1 – l1y – m1z
y = k2 – l2x – m2z
z = k3 – l3x – m3y
Note: No component of x(k) is used in computation unless y(k) and z(k) are computed.
The process is repeated till the difference between two consecutive approximations is
negligible.
In generalized form:
x(k+1) = k1 – l1 y(k) – m1z(k)
y(k+1) = k2 – l2 x(k) – m2z(k)
z(k+1) = k3 – l3 x(k) – m3y(k)
Start with (x0, y0, z0) = (0, 0, 0) or anything [No specific condition]
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Quick Refresher Guide Mathematics
h
∫ f(x)dx = *( first term last term) (remaining terms)+
h
(b a) max |f ( )|
1 , , -
h
∫ f(x)dx = *( first term last term) (all odd terms) (all even terms)+
h
(b a) max |f ( ) ( )|
1 , , -
(b a)
max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
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Used for finding the y at a particular x without solving the 1st order differential equation
= f(x, y)
K1 = h f(x0, y0)
K2 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
K3 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
K4 = h f(x0 +h, y0 + k3)
K = (k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4)
Y(x0+h) = y0 + k
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1.4 Calculus
Let y = f(x)
Then lim f(x)= i.e, “ f(x) as x a” implies for any (>0), (>0) such that whenever
0< |x a|< , |f(x) |<
( ) n(n 1)(n )
(1 x) = 1 nx x .........x
x a
=x x a x a .........a
x a
e =1+x+ + .........
log(1 x) = x + .........
log(1 x) = x .........
Sin x = x .........
Cos x = 1 + .........
Sinh x = x .........
Cosh x = 1 + .........
sinx
lim =
x
1
lim (1 ) =
x
lim(1 x) =
a 1
lim = log a
x
e 1
lim =1
x
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log(1 x)
lim =1
x
x a
lim = a
x a
lim log|x| =
L – Hospital’s ule
When function is of or form, differentiate numerator & denominator and then apply
limit.
Properties of Continuity
olle’s theorem
Then there exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that ( )=0
Geometrically: There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to
x axis
C
C
2
C1
a b
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(ii) f’(x) exists in the open interval (a,b), then atleast one value c of x exist in (a,b) such that
( ) ( )
= f (c).
(ii) f (x) exists in the open interval (a,a+h), then there is at least one number (0< <1)
such that
then, for a b
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
= ( )
1.4.2 Derivative:
( ) ( )
’( ) = lim
Algebra of derivative:-
i. (f g) = f g
ii. (f g) = f – g
iii. (f. g) = f . g f .g
. .
iv. (f/g) =
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Homogenous Function
Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xn . / is called homogenous function of
order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree.)
f(x,y) = xn . /
= . + .
u= x+ y
Maxima-Minima
a) Global b) Local
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Note: Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval.
Point of Inflexion
If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion
Point of
inflexion
i) = ,
ii) =0,
iii) Neither minima nor maxima exists
Taylor Series:
Maclaurian Series:
h
f(x) = f( ) x f’( ) f ( ) f ( )
r= ,s= , t=
1. = 0, = solve these equations. Let the solution be (a, b), (c, d)…
2. (i) if rt s and r maximum at (a, b)
(ii) if rt s and r minimum at (a, b)
(iii) if rt s < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point.
(iv) if rt s > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation.
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Quick Refresher Guide Mathematics
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Quick Refresher Guide Mathematics
Selection of U & V I L A T E
E
Inverse circular
(e.g. tan 1 x) Exponential
Logarithmic Algebraic Trigonometric
Note: Take that function as “u” which comes first in “ILATE”
Improper Integral
Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a x b in case of ∫ f(x)dx,
then it is called as improper integral.
1.4.6 Convergence:
∫ f(x)dx is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite.
If (i) f(x) g(x) for all x and (ii) ∫ g(x)dx converges , then ∫ f(x)dx also converges
If (i) f(x) g(x) for all x and (ii) ∫ g(x)dx diverges, then ∫ f(x)dx also diverges
( )
If lim ( )
= c where c 0, then both integrals ∫ f(x)dx and ∫ g(x)dx converge or both
diverge.
∫ is converges when p 1 and diverges when p 1
∫ e dx and ∫ e dx is converges for any constant p and diverges for p
The integral ∫ ( )
is convergent if and only if p 1
The integral ∫ ( )
is convergent if and only if p 1
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If corresponding to each point P of region R there is a corresponding scalar then (P) is said to
be a scalar point function for the region R.
(P)= (x,y,z)
If corresponding to each point P of region R, there corresponds a vector defined by F(P) then F is
called a vector point function for region R.
Directional Derivative:
⃗⃗ = | f|cos
f. N
Where ⃗N
⃗ is a unit vector in a particular direction.
Direction cosine: l m n =1
1.4.8 Gradient:
The vector function f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
as grad f.
grad f = f = î ĵ +̂
f is vector function
If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then f is a vector normal to the surface f and has a
magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal.
Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along f and magnitude of this maximum
is | f|.
1.4.9 Divergence:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and
is defined by the equation.
div. F = . F
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F=f + ĵ Ψ̂
div.F= . f = . ĵ ̂ / .( f + ĵ Ψ̂)
= + +
. f is scalar
. = is Laplacian operator
1.4.10 Curl:
The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is
defined by the equation.
ĵ ̂
Curl F = f =| |
f φ Ψ
F is vector function
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9. (F G) = F( G) G( F)
Also note:
1. (f/g)= (g f – f g)/g
2. (F.G)’ = F’.G F . G’
3. (F G)’ = F’ G + F G’
4. (fg) = g f + 2 f. g + f g
1. Dot product of A B with C is called scalar triplet product and denoted as [ABC]
Rule: For evaluating the scalar triplet product
(i) Independent of position of dot and cross
(ii) Dependent on the cyclic order of the vector
[ABC] = A B. C = A. B C
= B C. A= B.C A
= C A. B = C.A B
A B. C = -(B A. C)
⃗ B
2. (A ⃗) C ⃗ = (extreme adjacent) Outer
= (Outer. extreme) adjacent (Outer. adjacent) extreme
(A ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
B) ⃗ = (C
C ⃗ .A ⃗ )B ⃗ .B
⃗ - (C ⃗
⃗ )A
A ⃗ (B ⃗ C ⃗ ) = (A⃗ .C⃗ )B ⃗ .B
⃗ - (A ⃗
⃗ )C
(A B ) C A (B C )
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Line integral = ∫ F( )d
If F( )= f(x,y,z) ĵ (x,y,z) + ̂ Ψ(x,y,z)
d = dx ĵ dy ̂ dz
∫ F( )d = ∫ ( f dx dy Ψ dz )
Surface integral: ∫ ⃗F . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ds or ∫ ⃗F . ⃗N
⃗ ds, Where N is unit outward normal to Surface.
Volume integral : ∫ F dv
If R be a closed region in the xy plane bounded by a simple closed curve c and if P and Q are
continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivative in , then according to Green’s
theorem.
∮ (P dx dy) = ∫ ∫ . / dxdy
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The normal surface integral of a vector point function F which is continuously differentiable over
the boundary of a closed region is equal to the
∫ F .N.ds =∫ div F dv
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1.5.1 Order of Differential Equation: It is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it.
1.5.2 Degree of Differential Equation: It is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it,
after expressing the equation free from radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are
concerned.
Equations of first order and first degree can be expressed in the form f (x, y, y ) = or
y = f(x, y). Following are the different ways of solving equations of first order and first degree:
=V+x
Case I: If
Case II: If =
= = (say)
( )
= ( )
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3. Linear Equations:
d y dy
Second order linear equation: P(x) (x)y = (x)
dx dx
Note: The degree of every linear differential equation is always one but if the degree of the
differential equation is one then it need not be linear.
Ex: x . / y = 0.
.1 Bernoulli’s Equation:
Divide by y
y Py =Q
Substitute, y =z
M (x, y) dx + N (x, y) dy = 0
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Integrating Factor:
1. x dy + y dx = d (x y)
2. =d( )
3. = d [log ( )]
4. =-d( )
5. = d [tan ( )-
6. =d[ log( )-
( )
Rule 3: If the M dx + N dy = 0 and . / = f(x), then I.F. = e∫
( )
Rule 4: If the equation M dx + N dy = 0 and . / = f(y) , then I.F. = e∫
------- y=X
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(D m ) (D m ) - - - - - - (D m )y=0
y = (C C x)e
Similarly, if m = m = m
y = (C C x +C x ) e
i.e. m = i , m = i
y = e (C cos x C sin x)
P.. = X= ( )
.X
Case I:
When X =
P.I. = put D = a [ ( ) 0]
( )
P.I. = x ( )
put D = a [ ’( ) 0, ( ) = 0]
P.I. = ( )
put D = a [ ( ) = 0, ’( ) = 0, ’’( ) 0]
Case II:
P.I. = ( ) put =- , (- ) 0]
( )
=x ( )
( ) put =- , ’(- ) , (- ) = 0]
= ( )
( ) put =- , ’’(- ) , ’(- )
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= , (- ) = 0]
Case III:
When X = , m being positive integer
P.I. = ( )
= [ ( )-
= (D) ,1 ( )
-
= (D) [1 ( ) ( ) ( ) -
Case IV:
When X = V where V is function of x
P. I. = ( )
V
= ( )
V then evaluate ( )
V as in Case I, II & III
Case V:
When X = x V(x)
( )
P.I. = x V(x) = 0 1 V(x)
( ) ( ) ( )
Case VI:
P.I. = ( )
X
. ------ - =X
Substitute x=e
x = Dy
= D (D-1) y
= D (D-1)(D-2) y
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After substituting these differentials, the Cauchy – Euler equation results in a linear equation
with constant coefficients.
( ) ( ) - - - - -- - =X
ax + b = t = ln (ax + b)
(ax + b) =aDy
( ) = D(D-1)y
( ) = D(D-1)(D-2)y
After substituting these differentials, the Legendre’s equation results in a linear equation with
constant coefficients.
z = f(x, y)
=p, =q, = r, = s, =
1. Write A.E.
----- = 0,
Where m = and the roots are , ---- -
2. CF = (y + x) + (y + x) + - - - - - - , are distinct
CF = (y + x) + x (y + x) + (y + x) + - - - - - - , , two equal roots.
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P.. = f (x, y)
( , )
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= is a complex no., where x & y are real numbers called as real and imaginary part of z.
1.6.1 Function of a Complex Variable: It is a rule by means of which it is possible to find one or
more complex numbers ‘w’ for every value of ‘z’ in a certain domain D, then w = f (z)
Where z = x + iy,
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function f( ) to exist for all
values of in a region R.
A single valued function which is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D is
said to be analytic in that domain.
A point at which an analytic function ceases to possess a derivative is called Singular point.
Thus if u and v are real Single – valued functions of x and y such that , , , are
continuous throughout a region R , then CR equations
= , =-
are both “necessary and sufficient” condition for the function f(z) = u iv to be analytic in .
Real and imaginary part i.e. u, v of the function is called conjugate function.
An analytic function posses derivatives of all order and these are themselves analytic.
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If f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the z – plane then the C –R equations are
satisfied.
= , =
= , =
=0 (Laplace Equation)
Note:
(1) For a function to be regular, the first order partial derivations of u and v must be
continuous in addition to CR equations.
(2) Mean value of any harmonic function over a circle is equal to the value of the function at
the centre.
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∫ ( ) =∫( ) ∫( )
Dependence on Path: In general “Complex line integration” depends not only on the end points
but also on the path (however analytic function in simple connected domain is independent of
path.)
If f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D,
∮𝐶 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
Note: In other words, by Cauchy’s theorem if f(z) is analytic on a simple closed path C and
everywhere inside C (with no exception, not even a single point) then ∮ ( ) =
If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve and if a is any point within C, then
( )
( )= ∫
( )
’( ) = ∫ ( )
( )
”( ) = ∫ ( )
. . .
( )
( )= ∫ ( )
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1.6.10 Taylor’s Series: If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C
( )
f(z) = f(a) f’(a) (z-a) + (z-a) + - - - - - - -
f(z) = ( )
( )
where = ∫ ( )
f(a+h) = f(a) + h ’( ) + ”( ) + - - - - - - -
1.6.11 Laurent’s Series: If f(z) is analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric
circles and of radii and ( ) and with centre at a then for all z in R
f(z) = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
where, = ∫ ( )
If f(z) is analytic inside the curve then = and Laurent series reduces to Taylor’s series.
f(z) = ( ) ( ) ( )
= ( )
( )
where =
A “singular point” of a function as the point at which the function ceases to be analytic.
1. Isolated Singularity: If z =a is a singularity of f(z) such that f(z) is analytic at each point in its
neighbourhood (i.e. there exists a circle with centre a which has no other singularity 1, then
z =a is called an isolated singularity).
2. Removable Singularity: If all the negative powers of (z-a) in Laurent series are zero then
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f(z) = ( )
singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a is such a way that it becomes analytic at
z =a
( ) exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity.
Example: f(z) = , then z = 0 is a removable singularity.
3. Essential singularity: If the numbers of negative power of (z-a) in Laurent’s series is infinite,
then z =a is called an essential singularity.
( ) does not exist in this case
4. Poles: If all the negative power of (z-a) in Laurent’s series after are missing then. The
singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n.
A pole of first order is called a “simple pole”.
Calculation of Residues
Note: If an analytic function has singularities at a finite number of points, then the sum of
residues at these points along with infinity is zero.
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1.7.1 Introduction
Laplace Transform (LT) is a method to get generalized frequency domain representation of a
continuous time signal and is generalization of CTFT (Continuous Time Fourier Transform).
Frequency shift
Time shift
If initial conditions are zero (i.e. f(0) = 0),differentiating in time domain is equivalent to
multiplying by s in frequency domain.
Integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in frequency domain, if f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
( )
[ t f(t) ] = and * ( )+ = ( 1) (F(s))
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( )= ( )
This theorem does not apply to the rational function F(s) in which the order of numerator
polynomial is equal to or greater than the order of denominator polynomial.
( )= ( )
For applying final value theorem, it is required that all the poles of ( ) be in the left half of
s- plane (strictly) i.e. poles on axis also not allowed.
, ( ) ( )- = ( ). ( )
( ( )) = ( )
. (s) where (s) = ∫ ( )
4. u(t) 1⁄
5. . ( ) 1⁄
( )
6. t.u(t) 1⁄
7. . ( ) √ ⁄
8. f(t). ( ) F(s-a)
9. sin at. u(t) ⁄( )
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22 e sin ωt ω
⁄((s ) ω )
23 . f(t) ∫ F(s)ds
24 t
√
25 t
√
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2.1 Statics
Statics deals with system of forces that keeps a body in equilibrium. In other words the
resultants of force systems on the body are zero.
Force: A force is completely defined only when the following four characters are specified.
Magnitude
Point of application
Line of action
Direction
Scalar and Vector: A quantity is said to be scalar if it is completely defined by its magnitude
alone. e.g. length, energy, work etc. A quantity is said to be vector if it is completely defined only
when its magnitude and direction is specified. e.g. force, acceleration.
Coplanar force system: If all the forces in the system lie in a single plane, it is called coplanar
force system.
Concurrent force system: If line of action of all the forces in a system passes through a single
point it is called concurrent force system.
Collinear force system: In a system, all the forces parallel to each other, if line of action of all
forces lie along a single line then it is called a collinear force system.
Coplanar like parallel force Weight of stationary train on rail when the trackis
straight.
Coplanar non- concurrent force Forces on a ladder resting against a wall when a
person stands on a rung which is not at its center
of gravity.
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First Law: Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
it is compelled to change that state by force acting on it.
Second law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied
force & it takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
dv
F (m )
dt
Third law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Principle of transmissibility of force: The state of rest of motion of rigid body is unaltered if a
force acting on a body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but
acting anywhere on the body along
Parallelogram law of forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point are
represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram their
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which
passes through the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces.
Triangle law of forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented by the sides
of triangle taken in order, then their resultant is represented by the closing side of the triangle
taken in the opposite order.
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If a number of forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of
a polygon in order, then the resultant of all these forces may be represented in magnitude and
direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in opposite order
P2 E D
𝜃
P1 𝜃
∝ 𝜃
A C
B
Resultant (R) = √
tan ( )
= angle between two forces, = inclination of resultant with force P1
When forces acting on a body are collinear, their resultant is equal to the algebraic sum of
the forces.
Lami’s theorem: (only three coplanar concurrent forces) If a body is in equilibrium under the
action of three forces, then each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other
two forces.
c
∝
P2
P2 P1
𝛾
b
𝛽 P3
∝
P1
P3
a
𝛽
600N 600N
W R1
SMOOTH
P
P
SMOOTH
R2
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A cantilever beam
A block on a ramp
In a free body diagram all the contacts/supports are replaced by reaction forces which it will
exert on the structure. A mechanical system comprises of different types of contacts/supports.
Types of contacts/supports:
Force exerted by the cable is always a tension away from the body in the direction of the
cable.
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Smooth surfaces
Rough surfaces
Rough surfaces are capable of supporting a tangential component F (frictional force as well
as a normal component N of the resultant R.
Roller support
Roller, rocker, or ball support transmits a compressive force normal to supporting surface.
Collar or slider support force is normal to guide only. There is no tangential force as surfaces
are considered to be smooth.
Pin connection
A freely hinged pin supports a force in any direction in the plane normal to the axis; usually
shown as two components Rx and Ry. A pin not free to turn also supports a couple M.
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A built-in or fixed end supports an axial force F, a transverse force V, and a bending moment M.
Varignon’s theorem: The algebraic sum of the moments of a system of coplanar forces about a
momentum center in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant forces about the same
moment center.
B 𝐝𝟐
𝒅
R
𝐝𝟏
𝐏𝟐
𝐏𝟏
A
The algebraic sum of the components of the forces along each of the three mutually
direction is zero.
The algebraic sum of the components of the moments acting on the body about each of
the three mutually perpendicular axes is zero.
When a body is in equilibrium, the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero. Thus, the resultant
force R and the resultant couple M are both zero, and we have the equilibrium equations
R F 0 & M= M=0
∑F ∑F ∑F
∑ ∑ ∑
These requirements are both necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium.
Two forces can be in equilibrium only if they are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and
collinear in action. If a system is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, those three
forces must be concurrent.
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Types of Equilibrium:
There are three types of equilibrium as defined below:
Stable Equilibrium: A body is in stable equilibrium if it returns to its equilibrium position after it
has been displaced slightly.
Unstable Equilibrium: A body is in unstable equilibrium if it does not return to its equilibrium
position and does not remain in the displaced position after it has been displaced slightly.
Neutral Equilibrium: A body is in neutral equilibrium if it stays in the displaced position after if
has been displaced slightly.
Work: When a force acts on a body and moves it through some distance in its own direction, then
work is said to be done. Thus, work may be defined as the product of the force and the distance
moved in the direction of the force. Mathematically, we can write that
U=F×S
When the distance moved by the body is not in the direction of the force then to determine the
work done, the component of the force in the direction of the distance moved may be multiplied
with the distance moved For example if the force F is acting at an angle θ with the direction of
the distance S moved, then work done is given by
U = F cos θ × S
Virtual Displacement: It may be defined as the infinitesimally small imaginary (or hypothetical or
virtual) displacement given to a body or to a system of bodies in equilibrium, consistent with the
constraints. The virtual displacement may be either rectilinear or angular.
Virtual Work: The product of the force F and the virtual displacement δs in the direction of the
force is called virtual work.
δU F δs
It states that if a system of forces acting on a body or a system of bodies are in equilibrium and if
the system is supposed to undergo a small virtual displacement consistent with its geometrical
constraints, the algebraic sum of the virtual work done by the system of forces is zero.
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Trusses are commonly used for construction of roofs of workshop factories and bridges. The
trusses are subjected to mainly three types of loads, viz, dead load, live load and wind load. The
dead load is self weight of truss; live load is the load which is applied to the truss; e.g. the load
acting on a bridge truss due to the passing of a train, load acting on a workshop truss due to an
electric overhead, travelling crane, the wind load due to the high velocities of wind blowing in a
particular region.
m = 2j – 3
where j is the number of joints, then the truss is known as a perfect truss, otherwise imperfect.
The truss is called deficient or redundant, if m < (2j-3) or m > (2j – 3), respectively.
A pin jointed frame which has just sufficient number of members to resist the loads without
undergoing deformation in space is called perfect frame. If number of members in frame is less
than that that required for a perfect frame then it is called deficient frame. If number of
members in frame is more than that required for perfect frame then it is called redundant frame.
A redundant frame is indeterminate.
1. The members of truss are connected at the joints by friction less joints.
2. The members of truss lie in a common plane (plane truss).
3. The loads are applied only on the pins connecting the members and that the lines of
action of the loads lie in the plane of the truss.
4. The weight of members is negligible as compared to the applied loads.
5. The truss is rigid and that it does not deform or change its shape upon the application of
the loads.
The member of a truss may be in tension or compression. A member in tension is called a tie and
a member in compression a strut.
Methods of Solution: Two methods are generally used for determining the forces in various
members of a truss. These methods are
1. Analytical methods
2. Graphical method
While determining the reactions at the supports, the following points should be remembered
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(a) At simply supported (i.e., pinned or roller support) support there can be only a vertical
reaction.
(b) At fixed support, the reaction can take an arbitrary direction.
A frame in which all the member lies in a single plane is called plane frame. While a frame in
which all the member do not lie in a single plane is called space frame.
2 4 4
3
1
5
1
3
For perfect frame, m = (2j -3) 2
If there is only one force acting at joint, then for the equilibrium, this force should be equal zero.
If there are two forces acting at a joint then, for the equilibrium, forces should act along the same
straight line. The two forces should be equal and opposite. If the (only) two forces acting at a
joint are not along the same straight line, then for the equilibrium of the joint each force should
be equal to zero.
If three forces act at a joint and two of them are along the some straight line then, for the
equilibrium of the joint, the third force should be equal to zero.
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2.2 Dynamics
(a) Kinematics
(b) Kinetics
In kinematics, motion of particles or rigid bodies is studied without considering the forces that
produce or change this motion.
In kinetics, motion of particles or rigid bodies is studied with the unbalanced force system that
produces or changes this motion.
Where u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, s = distance of travel, t = time and a = acceleration
v u gs
The following important results can be deduced from these equations:
Time to reach the highest point,
Motion of projectile:
∝
Maximum height (h) =
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∝
Time required to reach maximum height (t) =
∝
time of flight =
∝
Range (R) =
D’ Alembert’s rinciple
It was pointed out first of all by D’Alembert that on the line of equation of static equilibrium,
equation of dynamic equilibrium can also be established by introducing inertia force in the
direction opposite to acceleration in addition to the real forces acting on the system.
F = ma where
or ( )
Now is the inertia force Example represents the D’ Alembert’s principle which may be
stated as follows:
When different forces act on a system such that it is in motion in a particular direction, the
algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the system in the direction of the motion, including the
inertia force taken in opposite direction to motion is zero. Thus in general
F ma
Where or
∑F ∑ ma
where ∑ indicates the sum of all forces acting on the body in the direction of motion.
Centrifugal force =
= angular velocity
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v = linear speed
Or
∫ ∫
If the forces are variable, they must be given as a function of time and should be similarly
integrated. Forces that cannot be expressed mathematically as a function of time may be plotted
on a force-time curve, in which the area under the curve is equal to the left side of the equation.
Linear impulse of a force is defined as Ft and linear momentum is defined as mv. Thus, it may be
expressed as follows:
Ft = mv – mvo
The resultant impulse of the external forces acting upon a body is equal to the change of
momentum of the body. Both impulse and momentum are vector quantities. The units of impulse
and momentum are Ns.
If the sum of the external forces acting on any system of mutually attracting and impinging
bodies resolved in any direction is always zero, the total momentum of the system in that
direction remains constant during the motion.
Let the two bodies have masses and with velocities and respectively, before coming
into contact with each other, and velocities and at the end of the period of contact. Then
according to the conservation of linear momentum, we have
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If two bodies suddenly collide, an impulsive force, or impact, is set up between them. When the
direction of each body is along the common normal at the point where they touch, the impact is
said to be direct. When the direction of motion of either or both, is not along the common normal
at the point of contact, the impact is said to be oblique. If the pressure exerted on the surfaces of
contact coincides with the line joining the mass centres of the bodies, the impact is central. If
such is not the case, it is eccentric.
For a very short period of time after the two bodies come in contact, the mass centres continue
to approach each other. This is known as the period of deformation. During this period the
intensity of the force between the surfaces increases. For an instant at the end of the period of
deformation, the mass centres are moving with the same velocity. If the bodies are elastic, the
impulsive forces causes centres to begin separating and, after a second short interval, the
surfaces of the bodies are no longer in contact. This second short period is known as the period
is known as the period of restitution. Time of impact is the sum of the period of deformation and
period of restitution. The time of impact is very small. For this reason, the resultant impulse of
the external forces acting on the system during this time must be small and can be neglected. On
the bosis of this assumption, the sum of the momentum before impact is equal to the sum of the
momentum after impact, i.e, the conservation of momentum holds, thus for direct central impact,
we have
Coefficient of Restitution
For direct central impact Newton verified experimentally that the relative velocity after impact
is in a constant ratio to the relative velocity before impact. If the bodies collide obliquely, the
same fact holds for their compound velocities along the common normal at the point of contact.
This ratio is known as the coefficient of restitution, and is denoted by e. Thus
The value of e lies between zero and one. It is zero for perfectly inelastic bodies and one for
perfectly elastic bodies.
According to this principle, if a system of two rotating bodies are brought into contact for a short
time period, and no external torque is applied to the system during this time, the resultant
angular impulse on the system is zero.
Suppose the two bodies have moments of inertia and and angular velocities and
repectively, before coming, into contact, and angular velocities and and the end of the
period of contact. Then the principle of conservation of angular momentum may be stated as
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Work: If a force acts on a body and causes it to move some distance, work is said to be done by
the force. Thus, work is a measure of accomplishment. Therefore, work done by a constant force
is equal to the product of the force and the displacement of its point of application in the
direction of the force. It is measured in Nm.
Potential Energy: This is the energy which a body possesses because of its position.
Kinetic Energy: This is the energy which a body possesses because of its velocity.
The work done by a force is equal to the product of the force, F, and its displacement, s, provided
the force is constant and the displacement, of the body is in the same direction as the force.
= F.s
Where represents kinetic energy. This equation represents the principle of work and energy.
Power = (F cos ∝) v.
v is the velocity of the point where the force F is acting.
∝ is the angle between the directions of the force and the velocity.
If both are in the same direction then .
Work of the Elastic force: If a prismatic bar of area of cross section A, length and elastic constant
E is stretched then the work of elastic force can be calculated by treating it as a spring of
stiffness k.
Work energy principle: The work done by a force acting on a particle during its displacement is
equal to the change in kinetic energy of the particle during that displacement.
U ( ) & are
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Net W.D. by the force for displacing a body from (1) to (2)
( )
W.D. by a force for displacing a body from (1) (2) is positive (+ve) and from (1) ⟵ (2) is
negative ( ve).
Principle of conservation of energy: states that the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic
energy of a particle (or of a system of particles) remains constant during the motion under the
action of conservative forces.
E E E E
( ) is positive upwards
is negative upwards.
( )
Force exerted by the spring is not a constant force but it varies linearly with the displacement
from the undeformed position.
U ( )
∫ du U ∫ F dx
sign indicates that Force and displacement are in opposite directions.
Let v and be the velocities of the particle at points 1 and 2 and the corresponding distance be
and .
mV
U
( )
( E) ( E) ( E) ( E)
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Let a couple Fr act on a body so that the body starts rotating. As the body rotates through a small
angle d , the work done by the force is
Fds = Fr d
When the body rotates through the angle the total work done is,
∫ d
Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis 0 with an angular velocity w as shown in a Fig. The
particle of mass dm in this body has a velocity v = rw normal to the radial line r.
W
𝒅𝒎
Rigid body
Therefore,
( )
∫ ( ) ∫
Where ∫ is the mass moment of inertia with respect to the axis of rotation.
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Stress is the internal resistance offered by the body per unit area. Stress is represented as force
per unit area. Typical units of stress are N/m2, ksi and MPa. There are two primary types of
stresses: normal stress and shear stress. Normal stress,, is calculated when the force is normal
to the surface area; whereas the shear stress, is calculated when the force is parallel to the
surface area.
Pparallel _ to _ area
A
Linear strain (normal strain, longitudinal strain, axial strain), , is a change in length per unit
length. Linear strain has no units. Shear strain, is an angular deformation resulting from shear
stress. Shear strain may be presented in units of radians, percent, or no units at all.
L
parallel _ to _ area
tan [ in radians]
Height
Hooke‘s law is a simple mathematical relationship between elastic stress and strain: stress is
proportional to strain. For normal stress, the constant of proportionality is the modulus of
elasticity (Young’s Modulus), E.
E
The deformation, , of an axially loaded member of original length L can be derived from Hooke’s
law. Tension loading is considered to be positive, compressive loading is negative. The sign of
the deformation will be the same as the sign of the loading.
PL
L L
E AE
This expression for axial deformation assumes that the linear strain is proportional to the
normal stress
E and that the cross-sectional area is constant.
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When an axial member has distinct sections differing in cross-sectional area or composition,
superposition is used to calculate the total deformation as the sum of individual deformations.
PL L
P
AE AE
When one of the variables (e.g., A), varies continuously along the length,
PdL dL
P
AE AE
Lf L
Hooke’s law may also be applied to a plane element in pure shear. For such an element, the shear
stress is linearly related to the shear strain, by the shear modulus (also known as the modulus of
rigidity), G.
G
The relationship between shearing deformation, s and applied shearing force, V is then
expressed by
VL
s
AG
Actual rupture
strength
Rupture
strength
Yield point
Elastic limit
Proportional limit
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Proportional Limit: It is the point on the stress strain curve up to which stress is proportional to
strain.
Elastic Limit: It is the point on the stress strain curve up to which material will return to its
original shape when unloaded.
Yield Point: It is the point on the stress strain curve at which there is an appreciable elongation
or yielding of the material without any corresponding increase of load; indeed the load actually
may decrease while the yielding occurs.
Poisson’s ratio, , is a constant that relates the lateral strain to the axial strain for axially loaded
members.
lateral
axial
Theoretically, Poisson’s ratio could vary from 0 to 0.5, but typical values are 0.33 for aluminum
and 0.3 for steel and maximum value of 0.5 for rubber.
Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s law of uniaxial stress to the case of biaxial stress.
Thus if an element is subjected simultaneously to tensile stresses in x and y direction, the strain
in the x direction due to tensile stress x is x/E. Simultaneously the tensile stress y will
produce lateral contraction in the x direction of the amount y/E, so the resultant unit
deformation or strain in the x direction will be
x y
x
E E
y x
y
E E
Hooke’s law can be further extended for three-dimensional stress-strain relationships and
written in terms of the three elastic constants, E, G, and . The following equations can be used to
find the strains caused due to simultaneous action of triaxial tensile stresses:
x
1
E
x y z
y
1
E
y z x
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z
1
E
z x y
xy
xy
G
yz
yz
G
zx
zx
G
For an elastic isotropic material, the modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G, and Poisson’s
ratio are related by
E
G
21
E 2G1
The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity, or the tendency of an object's volume to
deform when under pressure; it is defined as volumetric stress over volumetric strain, and is the
inverse of compressibility. The bulk modulus is an extension of Young's modulus to three
dimensions.
For an elastic, isotropic material, the modulus of elasticity E, bulk modulus K, and Poisson’s ratio
are related by
E 3K1 2
L L.α.t
Where, L is the length, α (/oC) is the coefficient of linear expansion, and t (oC) is the
temperature change.
ϵ= αt
If a temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely no load or the stress will be induced in
the structure. But in some cases it is not possible to permit these temperature deformations,
which results in creation of internal forces that resist them. The stresses caused by these
internal forces are known as thermal stresses.
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When the temperature deformation is prevented, thermal stress developed due to temperature
change can be given as:
σ E.α.t
Cylindrical shells
F 0 : 2 (2 rt ) p(2 r ) 0
2
x
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Spherical shells
F 0 : 2 (2 rt ) p(2 r ) 0
2
x
pr
1 2
Hoop stress = longitudinal stress = 2t
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The shear force, V at a section of a beam is the sum of all vertical forces acting on the beam
between that section and any one of its ends. It has units of Newtons, pounds, kips, etc. Shear
force is not the same as shear stress, since the area of the object is not considered.
The direction (i.e., to the left or right of the section) in which the summation proceeds is not
important. Since the values of shear will differ only in sign for summation to the left and right
ends, the direction that results in the minimum no. of calculations should be selected.
V F i
sec tion _ to
one _ end
Shear is positive when there is a net upward force to the left of a section, and it is negative when
there is a net downward force to the left of the section.
The bending moment, M, at a section of a beam is the algebraic sum of all moments and couples
located between the section and any one of its ends.
M F d i i
sec tion _ to
C i
sec tion _ to
one _ end one _ end
Bending moments in a beam are positive when the upper surface of the beam is in compression
and the lower surface is in tension. Positive moments cause lengthening of the lower surface and
shortening of the upper surface. A useful image with which to remember this convention is to
imagine the beam “smiling” when the moment is positive.
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The change in magnitude of the shear at any point is equal to the integral of the load function,
w(x), or the area under the load diagram up to that point.
x2
V2 V1 wxdx
x1
dV x
wx
dx
The change in magnitude of the moment at any point is equal to the integral of the shear
function, or the area under the shear diagram up to that point.
x2
M 2 M1 V xdx
x1
dM x
V x
dx
Both shear force and bending moment can be described mathematically for simple loadings by
the preceding equations, but the formulas become discontinuous as the loadings become more
complex. It is more convenient to describe complex shear and moment functions graphically.
Graphs of shear and moment as functions of position along the beam are known as shear force
and bending moment diagrams.
The following guidelines and conventions should be observed when constructing a shear
diagram.
The shear at any section is equal to the sum of the loads and reactions from the section to
the left end.
The magnitude of the shear at any section is equal to the slope of the moment function at
that section.
Loads and reactions to the left of the section acting upward are positive
The shear diagram is straight and sloping for uniformly distributed loads.
The shear diagram is straight and horizontal between concentrated loads.
The shear is undefined at points of concentrated loads.
The following guidelines and conventions should be observed when constructing a bending
moment diagram. By convention, the moment diagram is drawn on the compression side of the
beam.
The moment at any section is equal to the sum of the moments and couples from the
section to the left end.
The change in magnitude of the moment at any section is the integral of the shear
diagram, or the area under the shear diagram. A concentrated moment will produce a
jump or discontinuity in the moment diagram.
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The maximum or minimum moment occurs when the shear is either zero or changes its
sign.
The moment diagram is parabolic and is curved downward for downward uniformly
distributed loads.
Note:
If the external load is not at right angles to the axis of the beam, the loading can be resolved
axially and transversely to the beam
If there is any internal hinge in beam , bending moment will be zero at hinge point.
Variation of S.F. and B.M. for different loadings on spans of beams:
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For positive bending moment, the lower surface of the beam experiences tensile stress while the
upper surface of the beam experiences compressive stress. The bending stress distribution
passes through zero at the centroid, or neutral axis, of the cross section. The distance from the
neutral axis is y; and the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber (i.e., the top or
bottom surface most distant from the neutral axis) is c.
Bending stress varies with location (depth) within the beam. It is zero at the neutral axis, and
increases linearly with distance from the neutral axis, as predicted by Equation,
My
b
I
In the above equation, I is the centroidal area moment of inertia of the beam. The negative sign
in the equation, required by the convention that compression is negative, is commonly omitted.
Since the maximum stress will govern the design, y can be set equal to c to obtain the extreme
fiber stress.
Mc
b,max
I
This equation shows that the maximum bending stress will occur at the section where the
moment is maximum. For standard structural shapes, I and c are fixed. Therefore, for design, the
elastic section modulus S, is often used.
I
S
c
M
b
S
For a rectangular b x h section, the centroidal moment of inertia and section modulus are
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bh3 bh 2
I Srec tan gular
12 6
Also, the strain in any fiber varies directly with its location y from the neutral axis and can be
found by the equation
y b y
b Or,
R E R
The transverse sections which are plane and normal before bending remain plane and
normal to the longitudinal fibres after bending (Bernoulli’s Assumption).
Material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hook’s Law and limits of eccentricity are not
exceeded.
Every layer is free to expand or contract.
Modulus of elasticity has same value for tension and compression.
The beam is subjected to pure bending and therefore bends in an arc of a circle.
Points to remember:
Neutral Layer: The layer which does not undergo any change in length (N.A.)
Neutral axis: Line of intersection of Neutral Layer with plane of cross section. It passes through
C.G. of cross section. At this axis the strain changes its sign.
M/I=/y=E/R
Section Modulus ( I/c): It represents the strength of the section. Greater the value of ‘ ’,
stronger will be the section.
The shear stresses in a vertical section of a beam consist of both horizontal and transverse
(vertical) shear stresses.
The exact value of shear stress is dependent on the location, y, within the depth of the beam. The
shear stress distribution is given by equation shown below. The shear stress is zero at the top
and bottom surfaces of the beam. For a regular shaped beam, the shear stress is maximum at the
neutral axis
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QV
xy
Ib
In the above equation, I is the area moment of inertia, and b is the width or thickness of the beam
at the depth y within the beam where the shear stress is to be found. The first (or statical)
moment of the area of the beam with respect to the neutral axis, Q, is defined by,
c
Q ydA
y1
For rectangular beams, dA bdy. Then, the moment of the area A’ above 1ayer y is equa1 to the
product of the area and the distance from the centroidal axis to the centroid of the area.
Q y ' A'
For a rectangular beam, the equation for max, can be simplified. The maximum shear stress is 50
percent higher than the average shear stress.
3V 3V
max, rec tan gular 1.5 avg
2A 2bh
For a beam with a circular cross section, the maximum shear stress is
4V 4V 4
max,circular avg
3A 3r 2
3
For a steel beam with web thickness tweb and depth d, the web shear stress is approximated by
V V
avg
Aweb dtweb
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A composite structure is one in which two or more different materials are used. Each material
carries part of the applied load. Examples of composite structure include steel-reinforced
concrete and timber beams with bolted-on steel plates.
Most simple composite structures can be analyzed using the method of consistent deformations,
also known as the transformation method. This method assumes that the strains are the same in
both materials at the interface between them. Although the strains are the same, the stresses in
the two adjacent materials are not equal, since stresses are proportional to the modulus of
elasticity.
The transformation method starts by determining the modulus of elasticity for each (usually two
in number) of the materials in the composite beam and then calculating the modular ratio, n.
Eweaker is the smaller modulus of elasticity.
E
n
E wea ker
The area of the stronger material is increased by a factor of n. The transformed area is used to
calculate the transformed composite area, Ac,t , or transformed moment of inertia, Ic,t. For
compression and tension members, the stresses in the weaker and stronger materials are
F
wea ker
Ac,t
nF
stronger
Ac,t
For beams in bending, the bending stresses in the weaker and stronger materials are
Mcwea ker
wea ker
I c ,t
nMcstronger
stronger
I c,t
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The curvature of a beam caused by a bending moment is given by Eq. (1), where is the radius
of curvature, c is the largest distance from the neutral axis of the beam, and max is the maximum
longitudinal normal strain in the beam.
1 max M d 2 y d
2 ------- (1)
c EI dx dx
c ------- (2)
max
Using the preceding relationships, the deflection and slope of a loaded beam are related to the
moment M(x), shear V(x), and load w(x) by Eqs. (3) through (7).
dy
y' slope ------- (4)
dx
d 2 y Mx
y'' ------- (5)
dx2 EI
d 3 y Vx
y''' ------- (6)
dx3 EI
d 4 y wx
y'''' ------- (7)
dx 4 EI
If the moment function, M(x), is known for a section of the beam, the deflection at any point on
that section can be found from Eq. (8). The constants of integration are determined from the
beam boundary conditions in the table shown below.
Simple Support 0 0
Built-in Support 0 0
Free end 0 0 0
Hinge 0
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When multiple loads act simultaneously on a beam, all of the loads contribute to deflection. The
principle of superposition permits the deflections at a point to be calculated as the sum of the
deflections from each individual load acting individually. Superposition can also be used to
calculate the shear and moment at a point and to draw the shear and moment diagrams. This
principle is valid as long as the normal stress and strain are related by the modulus of elasticity,
E. Generally this is true when the deflections are not excessive and all stresses are kept below
the yield point of the beam material.
Points to be remembered
Theorem 1: The angle between tangents drawn at any two points on the deflected curve is equal
to the area of M / EI diagram between the two points.
∫ / / . A = area of B.M.D.
Theorem 2: The intercept on a vertical line made by two tangents drawn at the two points on the
deflected curve, is equal to the moment of M / EI diagram between the two points about the
vertical line.
= distance of C.G. of B.M.D.
e.g,: (Suitable for cantilevers) – from objective point of view.
A L B
x xL , x xLx
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Consider cantilever beam AB. Let ‘C’ be an intermediate point. Then the deflection at ‘C’ due to a
point load ‘P’ at B say , is equal to deflection at ‘B’ due to a point load ‘P’ at C i.e.,
A C B
∴
W
B
A
Slope
Maximum Deflection
W
a b
C B
A
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Slope
Maximum Deflection (3 )
w/unit run
B
A
Slope
Maximum Deflection
SL No. 4 Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load up to a certain length from fixed end
w/unit run
C B
A
-
a
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Slope ( ) where W =
Maximum Deflection * ( )+ * , ( -+
SL No. 5 Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load up to a certain length from free end
w/unit run
a ( )
B
A
Slope ( )
Maximum Deflection * (3 4 )+
B
A
Slope
Maximum Deflection
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/ run
B
A
Slope
Maximum Deflection
/ /
C
A B
Slope
Maximum Deflection ( )
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
C
A B
( )
Slope
( )
/
( )
Maximum Deflection
√
. √ /
w/unit run
B
A
Slope ( )
( )
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Maximum Deflection * +
w/unit run
A B
C
Slope
Maximum Deflection
( at x 0 519 from A )
w/unit run
A B
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Slope
Maximum Deflection ( )
Counter- clockwise
Deflection : upwards
Downward
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Part3.5: Torsion
3.5.1 Torsion
If moment is applied in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam (or) shaft, it
will be subjected to Torsion.
e.g.:
Torsion formula:
R = Radius of shaft
L = Length of shaft
( )
= for Hollow circular shaft
Assumptions:
Note:
The stress setup at any point in a cross section is one of pure shear or simple shear.
The longitudinal axis is neutral axis.
The shear stress will vary linearly from zero at the centre to maximum at the outer surface
(any point on periphery)
( )
For a hollow circular shaft,
Angle of Twist,
Composite Shafts: When two dissimilar shafts are connected together to form one shaft, the shaft
is known as composite shaft.
Shafts in Series: If the driving torque is applied at one end, and the resisting torque at the other
end, the shafts are said to have been connected in series.
( )
T ( )
Shafts in Parallel:
OR
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
If the Torque ‘T’ is applied at the junction of two shafts and resisting Torque at their remote
ends, the shafts are said to be connected in parallel.
For such a case,
;
T=
. .,
If both the shafts are of same material
.
( )
Let a shaft be subjected to a bending moment of ‘M’ and twisting moment ‘T’ at a sector.
Shear stress,
16
√( /4) ( √ )
2
16
√( /4) ( √ )
2
2 16
2 √
2
Equivalent Torque: It is the twisting moment, which acting along produce the maximum shear
stress due to combined bending and Torsion.
Equivalent Bending Moment: The bending moment to produce the maximum bending stress
equal to greater principle stress ‘ ’.
1
( √ )
2
( ) /
/ .
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Assumptions:
Stresses at a section of a rod: A section of a rod is subjected to direct shear force (W) and a
Torque (T = WR)
,1 - …… (1)
16
∴
If m is small, then maximum shear stress can be calculated by A.M. Wahl’s formulae that takes
account for initial curvature of the spring wire:
.
Max. ( )
Twist 64 / , deflection
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Mohr's circle gives us a graphic tool by which, we can compare the different stress
transformation states of a stress cube to a circle. Each different stress combination is described
by a point around the circumference of the circle.
Compare the stress cube to a circle created using the circle offset
2
x y x y
a ave and R xy
2
2y 2
σy
τyx
σy
-τ y 2
x y
xy
2
R
B 2
(σx , -τxy )
σ
x y
(σx , τxy ) 2
A
σave
xy
+τ R
x
Notes:
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
If the plane contain only shear and no normal stress (pure shear), then origin and centre of
the circle will coincide and maximum and minimum principal stress equal and opposite.
σ1 τ , σ2 -τ
The summation of normal stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes remains
constant.
σx σy σ1 σ2
Cylindrical shells:
Longitudinal stress =
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
( )
2 8
Spherical shells:
σ pd
τ
2 8t
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Strain energy, also known as internal energy per unit volume stored in a deformed material. The
strain energy is equivalent to the work done by the applied force. Simple work is calculated as
the product of a force moving through a distance.
For an axially loaded member below the proportionality limit, the total strain energy is given by,
1 P2 L
U P
2 2 AE
U 2
u
AL 2E
3.7.2 Elastic Strain Energy in Flexural Loading
In the beam shown in the figure consider a differential element isolated by two transverse
sections at a distance dx apart. Treating this element as an axially loaded bar, where P = dA =
(My/I)dA, the energy stored in it is
N.A.
y
P
dx
d y dA
M dx
∫
2EI
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For a circular bar of constant cross section, the strain energy stored in the body is equal to the
product of average torque and the angular deformation; that is
U = 1/2 T = T ( )
When the torque varies the result may be applied over a segment of length dx and integrated
over the length of the bar to obtain
T dx
∫
2GJ
It states that the deflection caused by any external force is equal to the partial derivative of the
strain energy with respect to that force.
Interpretation: The partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to one of the external
loads equals the displacement of the point of application of load in the direction of that load.
The problem of impact is analogous to that of a falling body stopped by spring. Let us consider a
free falling body of mass ‘m’ from a height h that produces a deflection in the spring.
Relationship between dynamic and static deflection can be obtained by equating the resultant
work done to the zero change in kinetic energy.
The ratio of the maximum dynamic deformation to the static deformation st can be given by
the equation
2h
1 √1
Also the stress due to gradually applied load may be applied by the impact factor to obtain the
maximum stress:
σ σ (1 √1 )
For sudden loading, free fall ‘h’ does not exist i.e., h 0. i.e., a suddenly applied load (dynamic
condition), produced a deflection which is twice as great as that obtained when the load is
applied gradually.
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Definitions:
Short Column: Short columns, called piers or pedestals, will fail by compression of the material.
These columns fail essentially by direct crushing at ultimate load.
Long columns: Long columns will buckle in the transverse direction that has the smallest radius
of gyration. Buckling failure is sudden, often without significant warning. If the material is wood
or concrete, the material will usually fracture (because the yield stress is low); however, if the
column is made of steel, the column will usually fail by local buckling, followed later by twisting
and general yielding failure. Intermediate length columns will usually fail by a combination of
crushing and buckling.
As slenderness ratio increases, permissible stress or critical stress reduces, consequently, load
carrying capacity also reduces.
X X
Y
For a given area, Tubular section will have maximum radius of gyration.
H-Section is more efficient than I-Section.
Equilibrium of a column: A column is said to have buckled or failed when it reaches “Neutral
Equilibrium”.
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Critical load: The load at which a long column fails is known as the critical load or Euler load. The
Euler load is the theoretical maximum load that an initially straight column can support without
transverse buckling. For column with frictionless or pinned ends, this load is given by Euler’s
formula shown below.
2 EI
Pcr 2 --------- (1)
L
The corresponding column stress is given by the equation shown below. This stress cannot
exceed the yield strength of the column material.
Pcr 2 E
cr [ ] --------- (2)
A L 2
r
L is the longest unbraced column length. If a column is braced against buckling at some point
between its two ends, the column is known as a braced column, and L will be less than the full
column height.
The quantity L/r is known as the slenderness ratio. Long columns have high slenderness ratios.
The smallest slenderness ratio for which Eq. (2) is valid is the critical slenderness ratio, which
can be calculated from the material’s yield strength and modulus of elasticity. Typical
slenderness ratios range from 80 to 120. The critical slenderness ratio becomes smaller as the
compressive yield strength increases.
Most columns have two radii of gyration, rx and ry, and therefore, have two slenderness ratios.
The largest slenderness ratio will govern the design.
The smallest force at which a buckled shape is possible. Prior to this load the column remains
straight. The columns buckle in the plane of the major axis of the cross section as shown below.
X X
X
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
Assumptions:
Effective length and critical loads for various boundary conditions compared to a column whose
both ends are hinged.
L/2 4 EI/L
2. Both ends fixed
L
L/√2 2 EI/L
3. One end fixed and
other hinged
L
2L EI/4L
4. One end fixed and
other end free
L
L EI/L
5. One end fixed, at
other end only lateral
L
displacement and no
rotation
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
2L EI/4L
6. One end pinned, at
other only lateral
L
displacement no
rotation
1.5L EI/2.5L
7. One end fixed, at
other end lateral
L
displacement and
partial rotation.
As and E are constant for a particular material, Euler’s formula is valid for a particular range of
slenderness ratio, for e.g. for mild steel whose = 3300 Kg/cm and E = 2.1 × 10 Kg/cm
Euler formula is not valid for slenderness ratio less than 80.
Euler’s formula is valid only up to proportional limit i.e., in inelastic zone, the formulae are not
valid
Note:
It is empirical formula
Takes into account both direct crushing (Pc) load and Euler critical load (P ).
1 1 1
i. e. ,
P P P
P .P
∴ P
P P
Basic Formula:
.
P ( / )
Where α Rankine’s constant
L = eff. Length
σ yield stress.
Rankine’s Co-efficient: is independent of geometry and end conditions, can be modified to
incorporate imperfections
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Quick Refresher Guide Strength of Material
σ
α
E
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
Part – 4: Thermodynamics
Part 4.1: Basic Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic system is a quantity of matter or region in space considered for the analysis of a
problem.
Boundary
System
Surroundings
Classification of system:
Open system: Both energy and mass can transfer across the boundary e.g., Steam turbine,
centrifugal pump.
Energy in
Mass out
Mass in
Energy out
Closed system: Energy transfer occurs across the boundary. No mass transfer across the
boundary
Energy out
Energy in
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
Cylinder
W
Gas
Piston
Q Thermal conductor
Isolated system: Neither mass nor energy transfers across the boundary e.g. Universe
Mass Transfer
X
Energy
Transfer
X
Thermodynamic property: Any characteristic of a system by which its physical condition can be
described, eg. Pressure, temperature, volume, etc.
Change of state: Any operation in which one or more of the properties of the system changes.
Path of change of state: The succession of states passed through during a change of state.
Process: When path is completely specified, the change of state is called process.
a) Mechanical equilibrium
b) Thermal equilibrium.
c) Chemical equilibrium
Quasi – static process: The departure of the state of the system from the thermodynamic
equilibrium is infinitely small.
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
All are in
1
thermodynamic
equilibrium
P
1 2
P P=C
W = ∫p v
V
b) Constant volume process or Isochoric process :
P
V=C
1
V
1 T=C
P
2
W=∫
P constant
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
P P =C
P const
n – index of expansion
P P =C
V
( ⁄ )
n=
( ⁄ )
P C
=C .
V=c =C
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
- Definition: When a body A is in thermal equilibrium with a body B, and also separately with
a body C, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
- ZLTD is the basis for temperature measurement
- A reference body used for quantitave measurement of temperature is called thermometer
- A certain physical characteristic of thermometer which changes with change in temperature
is called thermometer property.
If t t t t
Then t t
W= work done
U- internal Energy
- As per FLTD, heat (Q) and work (W) are mutually convertible
00kJ of ‘ ’ 00 kJ of ‘ ’
00kJ of ‘ ’ 00kJ of ‘ ’
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
+ve
ve
ve
+ve
Perpetual motion machine of first kind (PMM1)is a fictitious machine which gives continuous
output without any input. It violates FLTD
Q=0
PMM1
P
2
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
(3)
̇ , ̇ ,
(4)
Control Surface
Fig. SFEE
ṁ =
ṁ =
Energy balance:
[ otal Energy ] [ otal Energy ]
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
datum
̇ + ṁ * + + + + ̇ + ṁ * + + + +
̇ ̇ ṁ * + + + + + + +
̇ ̇ ṁ[ + ( )+ - - - - - SFEE
q̇ ẇ ṁ[ + ( )+ - - - - - SFEE
̇
Where q ̇
and
̇
w ̇
Applications of SFEE
HPS( )
HPW( )
Boiler
q h h
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
LPS(
LPW ( )
Condenser
q h h
=0
C C
(ii) Turbine/Compressor
Turbine
Compressor
LPF( )
HPF( )
LPF( )
HPF( )
q 0
C C
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
(1)
h C
(2)
(1)
(1)
(2)
h h h h
C C C C
q 0
w 0
FEE
h h 0
h h
Throttling process is also called is isenthalpic process.
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
(2) (2)
(1) (1)
q 0
C C
h h
= g(
i.e. work input = increase in P.E
FEE h h 0
Increase in enthalpy of cold fluid = decrease in enthalpy of heat fluid
̇
̇
∆h ∆h
ṁ C t t =m C ̇
ṁ ̇ mass flow rates of hot and cold fluids respectively
C C spacific heats
t t temperatures
Kelvin Planck Statement: It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work in a complete
cycle if it exchanges heat only with bodies at a single fixed temperature.
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
Impossible
Heat Engine
HE W
i.e. (W<
o heat engine (HE) is 100% efficient
PMM 2 – fictitious heat engine with 100% efficiency
Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device, which operating in a cycle, will
produce no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body
Impossible HP/K+1
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
A substance that is homogeneous and invariable in chemical composition in all of its three
phases (solid, liquid and gases) is called pure substance.
Phase diagrams:
(f)
CP
(e)
T (d)
(c) 4
2
1 (a)
3 (b)
V
Critical point: Water changes its phase directly to vapour with no distinction between liquid and
vapour phases.
- At critical point, change in enthalpy, change in specific volume etc. are zero
- At critical point (for water) pressure, p 0. ar
Temperature, 3 . ℃
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Triple point: the state at which all three phases solid, liquid and gas exist in equilibrium is called
triple point.
Mollier Diagram:
.
s
h – enthalpy (kJ/kg)
s – entropy (kJ/kg K )
– specific Volume(m kg
a) Pressure entry
b) Temperature entry
a) Wet steam:
(iii)
specific volume of dry saturated steam (directly available from steam tables )
ryness fractio
(iv) h= h + xh
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where
h h h
s s s
b) Superheated steam ( )
V=
h = h +C
s = s + C ln * +
where
superheated steam temperature, Kelvin
saturated steam temperature, Kelvin
C specific heat of steam kJ/kg k
Note: internal energy, u = (h –PV) kJ/kg
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} reversi le process
s
} irreversi le process
s–
0 0 irreversi le process
0 reversi le process
Irreversibility: (I)
Maximum work that can be obtained from the given heat source.
AE=Q* +
T
(A E)
T0
(U E)
S
AE=Q* +
UE = ∆ .
Anergy: Minimum heat losses that are to be suffered during energy conversion process.
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PV = mRT
(c) Regnaut’s Law
C C are constant for a given gas
C – specific heat at constant pressure
C – specific heat at constant volume
T u h
PV = mRT - - - - - - - - (1)
Where R = characteristic gas constant. Its value changes from gas to gas.
⃗ - - - - - - - - - (2)
PV = nR
⃖⃗ = universe gas constant. Its value is constant for all the gases.
Where R
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⃗R .3 kJ kg mol K
C=
kJ kJ
Units: ⁄kg K or ⁄kg ℃
For solids – only one specific heat
For liquids – only one specific heat
For gases – two specific heats
1. C (specific heat at constant pressure)
2. C ( specific heat at constant volume)
C | and C |
∆ H = mC ) ∆U mC
- Relation between C C
C C R
C
C
– adiabatic index
C C
. for diatomic gases
= 1.67 for monoatomic gases
= 1.33 for triatomic gases.
[ ] [ ] [ ]
II. Z<1
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̅ ̅
Inter molecular forces attractive
In general 0.95 .05
a) Vander waal’s equation
* + + [̅ ̅
] R
a is a constant. It is called forces of cohesion.
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Work done, W = ∫ p = p (
Change in internal energy ∆u mC (
As per FLTD,
P=C
1 2
P
W = ∫p v
V
∆U +
= mC +p
Q = mC ) * +
2
V=C
P
1
V
W =∫p v 0
∆U = mC
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∆U+
= mC
1 T=C
P
2
W=∫
W =∫p mR ln ( )
= mRT ln ( )
∆U = mC 0
Q = mRT ln ( ⁄ )
P constant
P P =C
V
W =∫p
For an isentropic process
0
0
∴∆ Q–W=
⁄
[ ] [ ]
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P P =C
2
( ⁄ ) V
n=
( ⁄ )
W=∫
∆U = mC
∆U + mC +
[ ] [ ]
0 in polytropic process.
4.4.2 Heat Engine
A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which there is net heat transfer to the system
and a net work transfer from the system. The system which executes a heat engine cycle is called
a heat engine.
The function of a heat engine cycle is to produce work continuously at the expense of heat input
to the system. So the net work done W and heat input Q are of primary interest.
The efficiency of a heat engine is defined as
et ork Output of the cycle
otal heat input to the system
Carnot Cycle:
1
1 2
P 2 T
4 4 3
3
V S
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√
Important note Always convert temperature to “Kelvin” units.
4.4.3 Entropy
- It is outcome of SLTD
- The entropy of the universe always increases and it represents the degree of irreversibility
associated with the process.
- Entropy of the system increases upon heating and decreases upon cooling.
- Clasius theorem: When closed system undergoes a cyclic process.
∮ 0 R Reversi le
i.e, ∮ 0 for unit mass
s ⇒ q . s
=∫ s
For closed system
1
2
T
s
Process change in entropy
a) V = C s s C log
b) P = C s s C log
c) T = C s s R log
d) Adiabatic s s 0
e) Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) s s =0
- Clasius inequality: It states that when a closed system undergoes a cyclic process,
a) ∮ 0 for irreversi le cycle
b) ∮ 0 impossi le
c) ∮ 0 reversible
- Principle of increase of entropy
∮ 0
∮
s 0
q 0 for the universe
[∆s] 0
i.e. 0 irreversi le process
0 reversi le process
impossi le process
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The science which investigates the thermal properties of moist air, considers the measurement
and control of the moisture content of air, and studies the affects of atmospheric moisture on
material an human comfort may properly e terme ‘ sychrometrics’.
Suppose a mixture of air-water vapour which is not saturated is cooled at constant pressure
the partial pressure of water vapour remains constant till it is equal to the saturation
pressure of water. With continued cooling, the water vapour begins to condense. The
constant pressure cooling of a mixture is represented on a T-S diagram in Fig.
P = constant
Specific Humidity: Specific humidity (SH) or humidity ratio is defined as the ratio of mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air in the mixture.
̇ ̇ 0. 0.
P = Total pressure.
Relative Humidity: Relative humidity (RH) is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of the
water vapour in the mixture to the saturation pressure (p ) of water at the mixture temperature.
0.
Adiabatic Saturation: Consider the steady flow of an unsaturated air-water vapour mixture
through an insulated device as shown in fig. called adiabatic saturator. Assume the equilibrium
is attained between the water and air-water vapour mixture in the device and hence saturated
air-water vapour leaves the device.
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Liquid water
Consider the device as control volume and apply material and energy balances to get
h h + h h
Where,
ṁ = mass flow rate of dry air; ṁ = mass flow rate of water vapour / water
h = specific enthalpy of dry air; h = specific enthalpy of water vapour / water
Subscripts 1, 2, 3 denote the conditions at the points shown in fig. If air is treated as an ideal gas,
we can write (h h C . Assume that liquid water enters the device at the same
temperature as the air leaving the device. That is .
Then, h h h h h an h h h h
Thus,
C + h
The specific humidity and relative humidity of an air-water vapour mixture can be measured
with an adiabatic saturator.
For all practical purposes, the adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) does not depend upon
the temperature at which liquid water enters the device
The adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) does not depend upon the temperature at which
liquid water enters the device
The adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) depends only on the conditions (T1, SH1) of the
entering air.
Psychrometric Chart:
water vapour.
In the psychrometric chart, the enthalpies of air and water vapour are measured with
reference to 0℃. ome psychrometric charts use 0℉ as reference state for air an 3 ℉ as
reference state for water vapour.
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The field of air conditioning uses various processes such as heating, cooling, humidification and
adiabatic mixing of air-water vapour mixtures. These processes can be easily analysed with the
help of a psychrometric chart.
Adiabatic Mixing of Streams: Consider the steady flow of steams 1 and 2 into the adiabatic mixer
shown in Fig. The mixture leaves the device as stream 3. Considering the device as a control
volume, one can write the following material and energy balance equations
̇
̇
1
̇
Adiabatic
̇ mixer ̇
Control
volume
RH
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Dehumidified
Humid air
air 1 2 Heating unit 4
Cooling unit
Condensed
water 3
Dehumidification of air-water vapour mixture can be achieved by cooling the mixture below
its dew point temperature, allowing some water to condense, and then reheating the mixture
to the desired temperature
For cooling the mixture, chilled water can be sprayed into the mixture or the mixture can be
made to pass over cooling coils through which a cold refrigerant is circulated.
The dehumidification process is represented on a psychrometric chart in Fig. below.
*h
O/kg
h kJ kg ry air
Specific Humidity(SH) kg
h
R
dry air
*h R
2 4
23 41
Dry bulb emp. C
Humidification with Cooling: If an unsaturated air-water vapour mixture is made to flow through
porous pads soaked in water, the mixture gets saturated. Since the process occurs without any
energy exchange as heat with the surroundings, it is adiabatic. The energy required for the
evaporation of water comes from air-water vapour mixture resulting in a decrease in its
temperature.
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where, and denote the specific humidity of air-water vapour mixture at the inlet and
outlet of the cooler, respectively.
Dry air
Cool and humid
air;
̇
Porous pad
Dry bulb .
Degree of Saturation: The water vapour exists at the dry bulb temperature T of the mixture and
partial pressure . Consider now that more water vapour is added in this Control volume V at
temperature T itself. The partial pressure will go on increasing with the addition of of water
vapour until it reaches a value p corresponding to state 2, after which it cannot increase further
as p is the saturation pressure or maximum possible pressure of water at temperature T. The
thermodynamic state of water vapour is now saturated at point 2. The air containing moisture in
such a state is called saturated air.
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2
3 1
T
Saturated water
Vapour in saturated Super heated water vapour
Air in unsaturated Air
In this state the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour (the specific humidity being
, corresponding to the partial pressure p ) at temperature T of the mixture. The maximum
possible specific humidity, at temperature T is thus
s 0. [ / (p p )]
he ratio of the actual specific humi ity to the specific humi ity of saturated air at
temperature is terme as the egree of saturation enote y the sym ol μ. hus
[ ]
Relative Humidity: Relative humidity denoted by the symbol or RH is defined as the ratio of the
mass of water vapour m in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature mass of water
vapour m in the same volume of saturated air at the same temperature. Thus if and are
the specific volumes of water vapour in the actual moist air and saturated air respectively at
temperate T and in volume V, at points 1 and 2 respectively
v v or
We have
0. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
0. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
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[ ]
Enthalpy of Moist Air: The enthalpy of moist air h is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of dry air
and associated water vapour, i.e (h = h + h ) per kg of dry air, where h is the enthalpy of the
dry air part and h is the enthalpy of the water vapour part. h C t .005 t kJ/kg
C A
B
Reference state
S
Again taking the reference state enthalpy as zero for saturate liqui at 0℃ the enthalpy of the
water vapour part, at point A is expressed as
h h C t + h +C t t kJ kg
Taking the specific heat of liquid water as 4.1868 kJ/kg K) and that of water vapour as 1.88
kJ kg K in the range 0 to 0℃ we have
h . t + h + . t t
Accordingly, enthalpy of water vapour at A, at DPT of t and DBT of t, can be determined more
conveniently by the following two methods:
i) h h h ii) h h h 0℃ + C t 0
Thus, employing the second expression an taking the latent heat of vaporization of water at 0℃
as 2501 kJ/kg, we obtain the following empirical expression for the enthalpy of the water vapour
part
h 50 + . t kJ kg
500 + .
.005 + . .
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+ + ( )0℃
+ ( ) 0℃
where +
.005 + . kJ kg .a. K
umi specific heat is the specific heat of moist air + kg per kg of ry air. he term
C t governs the change in enthalpy of moist air with temperature at constant specific
humi ity an the term h 0℃ governs the change in enthalpy with the change in
specific humidity, i.e. due to the addition or removal of water vapour in air.
ince the secon term . is very small compare to the first term 1.005, an
approximated value of C of 1.0216 kJ/kg d.a.) (K) may be taken for all practical
purposes in air-conditioning calculations.
For any state of unsaturated moist air, there exists a temperature t* at which the air
becomes adiabatically saturated by the evaporation of water into air, at exactly the same
temperature t*
The leaving air is saturated at temperature t*. The specific humidity is correspondingly
increase to *. The enthalpy is increased from a given initial value h to the value h*.
he weight of water a e per kg of ry air is * - which a s energy to the moist air
of amount equal to *- h , where h * is the specific enthalpy of the injected water at t*.
Adiabatic
Enclosure
h t* h*
* Feed Water
Let us compare the expressions for the wet ul temperature t’ an the temperature of
adiabatic saturation t*, i.e.
It follows that if k f C
Or f k C L D
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Mixing with Condensation: When large quantity of cold air mixes with a quantity of warmer air at
a high
1𝛚
1
Adiabatic Mixer 4
relative humidity, there is a possibility of condensation of water vapour, the mixture will then
consist of saturated air and the condensate.
𝛚
4
𝛚
3 𝛚
𝛚
2
It the DB of the mixture falls elow 0℃ the con ensate may eventually freeze.
If may be noted that due to condensation, the specific humidity of the mixture , will be
reduced to below . Correspondingly, the temperature of the air would be increased to t from
t due to the release of the latent heat of the condensate. Now, if represents the mass of the
condensate per unit mass of the mixture, we have by moisture and energy balance
or [ ṁ + ṁ ṁ + ṁ ]
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and ṁ h + ṁ h ṁ h
or h [ ṁ h + ṁ h ṁ + ṁ ] h
Where h is the enthalpy of the condensate at temperature t of the mixture. The two variables
to be solved are t and . By assuming different values of t and substituting for , h and h ,
the two equations can be solved by trial and error to obtain he final state after mixing.
m h h
.005 + .
where C is the humid specific heat. This heat, denoted by the subscript S, is called the sensible
heat. If a building to be air conditioned r receives or loses heat due to transmission or other
reasons, it is supposed to have sensible heat load.
m denotes the mass flow rate of dry air. Generally the flow rate of dry air is measured in
terms of cubic meters of air per minute (cmm). Then the mass flow rate of dry air can be
calculated from
m
where is the volume flow rate of air. Expressing this in cmm, we have
m cmm 0 kg . a. s
For the purpose of calculation stan ar air is taken at 0℃ an 50 percent R . he ensity
of standard air is approximated to 1.2 kg/m d.a. The value of humid specific heat is taken as
1.0216 kJ/ (kg d.a.) K. we obtain
[ cmm . .0 0] ∆t 0.0 0 cmm ∆t k
When the state of air is altered along the t = constant line, such as BC moisture in the form of
vapour has to be transferred to change the humidity ratio of the air.
This transfer of moisture is given by )
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Because of this change in the humidity ratio, there is also a Change in enthalpy of the air
given by (h h ). In air-conditioning practice this change in enthalpy due to the change in
the Humidity ratio is considered to cause a latent-heat transfer
Given by m h h
C
𝛚
B 𝛚 𝛚
( + ) +
500
If the building gains or loses moisture, it is supposed to have a latent-heat load. A gain of
moisture will require the condensation of moisture for the dehumidification of air in the
conditioning apparatus, and hence a cooling load. On the other hand, a loss of moisture will
necessitate the evaporation of water for the humidification of air in the apparatus and hence
a heating load.
[ cmm . 50 0] ∆
50 ∆
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Sensible Heat Factor (SHF): The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the total heat transfer is
termed as the sensible heat factor. Thus SHF +
SHF [ h h h h + h h ] h h h h
[0.0 0 ∆ 0.0 0 ∆ + 50 ∆ ] 0.0 0 ∆ 0.0 ∆
The process line AC is called the sensible heat factor line or process or condition line.
A zero SHF line is vertical on the psychrometric chart and implies no sensible heat transfer. An
SHF of 0.75 to 0.8 is quite common in air conditioning practice in a normal dry climate. A lower
value of SHF, such as 0.65, implies a high latent head load, which is quite common
+ 5 ∆ ∆ + tan
here tan θ ∆ ∆t 5 [ F – 1]
e see tan θ is the slope of the F line AC on the sychrometric chart which is purely a
function of SHF
∆h
(1 – SHF)
C
SHF
∆𝛚
∆t
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A steam nozzle may be defined as a passage of varying cross – section, through which heat
energy of steam is converted to kinetic energy. Its major function is to produce a steam jet with
high velocity to drive steam turbine. A turbine nozzle performs two functions:
(i) It transforms a portion of energy of steam (obtained from steam generating unit) into
kinetic energy.
(ii) In the impulse turbine it directs the steam jet of high velocity against blades, which are
free to move in order to convert kinetic energy into shaft work. In reaction turbines the
nozzles discharge high velocity steam. The reactive force of the steam against the nozzle
produces motion and work is obtained.
Convergent
part
Divergent
part
Entry Exit
Throat
Fig. Convergent – divergent nozzle.
The cross – section of a nozzle at first tapers to a smaller section (to allow for changes which
occur due to changes in velocity, specific volume and dryness fraction as the steam expands); the
smallest section being known as throat, and then it diverges to a large diameter. The nozzle
which converges to throat and diverges afterwards is known as convergent – divergent nozzle.
In convergent nozzle there is no divergence after the throat.
In a convergent – divergent nozzle, because of the higher expansion ratio, addition of divergent
portion produces steam at higher velocities as compared to a convergent nozzle.
Velocity of steam at the exit of nozzle, C = 44.2 √h
where h = heat drop during expansion of steam.
Discharge through the Nozzle and Conditions for its Maximum Value:
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m A√n ( ) ( )
1. The steam turbine is a prime mover in which the potential energy of the steam is
transformed into kinetic energy, and latter in its turn is transformed into the mechanical
energy of rotation of the turbine shaft.
2. The most important classification of steam turbines is as follows:
(i) Impulse turbines
(ii) Reaction turbines
(iii) Combination of impulse and reaction turbines.
3. The main difference between Impulse and Reaction turbines lies in the way in which
steam is expanded while its moves through them. In the former type, steam expands in
the nozzle and its pressure does not change as it moves over the blades while in the
latter type the steam expands continuously as it passes over the blades and thus there is
a gradual fall in pressure during expansion.
4. The different methods of compounding are:
(i) Velocity compounding
(ii) Pressure compounding
(iii) Pressure velocity compounding
(iv)Reaction turbine.
5. Force (tangential) on the wheel
= ṁ ( + ) Nm
̇ ( )
Power per wheel = k
1. Impulse turbine.
2. Reaction turbine.
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Impulse Turbines
𝛂 𝛉
𝛟 β
The steam jet issuing from the nozzle at a velocity C impinges on the la e at an angle .
The tangential component of this jet (C ) performs work on the blade, the axial
compontent (C ) however does not work but causes the steam to flow through the turbine.
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As the blades move with tangential velocity of (C ), the entering steam jet has a relative
velocity C with respect to la e which makes an angle θ with the wheel tangent. he
steam then glides over the blade without any shock and discharges at a relative velocity of C
at an angle ϕ with the tangent of the blades. The relative velocity at the inlet (C ) is the
same as the relative velocity at the C if there is no frictional loss at the blade. The absolute
velocity C of leaving steam makes an angle β to the tangent at the wheel.
To have convenience in solving the problems on turbines it is a common practice to combine
the two vector velocity diagrams on a common base which represents the blade velocity
C as shown in Fig. This diagram has been obtained by superimposing the inlet velocity
diagram on the outlet diagram in order that the blade velocity lines C coincide.
M L
P Q
𝛉 𝛟 𝛒
N
S
Fig. 6.3
Important Formulae:
( )
1. Blade or diagram efficiency,
( )
2. Stage efficiency,
3. The axial thrust on the wheel due to difference between the velocities of flow at entrance
and outlet :
Axial force on the wheel = ṁ (C C )
4. Energy converted to heat by blade friction
= loss of kinetic energy during flow over blades
= ṁ ( )
5. Optimum value of ratio of blade speed to steam is,
6. The blade efficiency for two stage turbine will be maximum when,
In general optimum blade speed ratio for maximum blade efficiency or maximum work
done is given by
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
HPV
(1)
ST
B
(2) LPV
(4)
HPL
(3)
LPL
(1)
(4) (1)
P (4)
P T
(2)
(3) (2) (3)
V
S
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
boiler pressure
- Con enser pressure
Rankine cycle contains
2 – isentropic processes(expansion & pumping )
2 – isobaric processes (boiling & condensation)
1-2 isentropic expansion in steam turbine work developed per kg of steam,
h h
3 isobaric condensation. Heat rejected by the steam, q h h
3 – 4 isentropic pumping
Work supplied per kg of steam,
h h
Isobaric heat adition
Heat supplied per kg of steam in the boiler
q =h h
- Net work done = q q
= 00
In general
∴
- Work ratio,
- 0.95< 0.9
- Specific steam consumption (KJ/KWh): The amount of steam consumed by the steam power
plant per unit power output
̇
- SSC =
Where ṁ mass flow rate of steam, kg/h
P = net power output k
SSC =
SSC = ( )
- Effects of Reheating
1. Net work output increases
2. Efficiency of the plant increases
3. Life of steam turbine blades increases
- Purpose of regeneration: To increase the efficiency of the plant by increasing the mean
temperature of heat addition.
- Regeneration: some amount of steam is extracted from the turbine and is used to increase
the temperature of fee water. his process is calle ‘ lee ing’.
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
M kg/s
ST
Boiler
m kg/s (M –m) kg/s
M kg/s Condenser
Regenerator
M-m
M kg/s
(1)
(7) M
T (6) (2)
(5) m
(4) (M – m) (3)
S
M = total mass flow rate of steam
= mass flow rate of bled steam
Effects of Regeneration:
- Efficiency increases
- Work output decreases
Rankine cycle with Reheating:
HP LPT
T
⁄
Reheated steam
Condenser
Pump
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- Purpose of reheating: To avoid blade erosion by increasing the dryness fraction of the steam
at the end of expansion process in steam turbine.
- To avoid blade erosion , dryness fraction should be greater than or equal to 0.88
x 0.
- Reheating involves partial expansion of steam in HPT and then extract this steam for
reheating in to the boiler, feed the reheated steam to LPT for further expansion (refer Fig. )
(1)
(3)
T
(2)
(6)
(5)
(4)
s
1-2 : expansion in HPT
2-3 : Reheating Process
3-4 : Expansion in LPT
b
3
Condenser
4 d
Pump
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
4
T
2
3 a
Steam
d
b
c
3 3
2
2
P T 4
4 1
1
V S
- Basic cycle for gas turbine plant and jet propulsion systems.
- Cycle contains – 2 isentropic and 2 constant pressure processes.
- Pressure ratio (r =
⁄
Compression ratio (r) = r
C KJ/Kg
(r )
work input to the compressor
q C KJ/Kg
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C KJ Kg
q C KJ/Kg
q q
Work ratio :
. .
r r
r * +
r . * +
r . √ r
C [√ √ ] KJ Kg
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4.7.1 Refrigerator
= source temperature
W W
HP/K+1 = sink temperature HP/K+1
W = work input
Sink Sink
CO = CO
CO CO +
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Figure shows a simple vapor compression refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram for different
compression processes. The cycle works between temperatures and representing the
condenser and evaporator temperatures respectively. The various processes of the cycle A-B-C-
D (A-B’-C’-D and A-B”-C”-D) are as given below:
i) Process B-C B’-C’ or B”-C” Isentropic compression of the vapor from state B to C. If
vapor state is saturate B or superheate B” the compression is calle ry
compression. If initial state is wet B’ the compression is calle wet compression as
represente y B’-C’.
ii) Process C-D C’-D or C”-D): Heat rejection in condenser at constant pressure.
iii) Process D-A: An irreversible adiabatic expansion of vapor through the expansion value.
The pressure and temperature of the liquid are reduced. The process is accompanied by
partial evaporation of some liquid. The process is shown by dotted line.
iv) Process A-B (A-B’ or A-B” eat a sorption in evaporator at constant pressure. he
final state epen s on the quantity of heat a sor e an same may e wet B’ ry B or
superheate B” .
Heat extracted at low temperature = Heat transfer during the process A-B = refrigerating effect.
o CO { }
Let the specific volume of the vapor at B i.e at suction of the compressor be, v and let the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor be , then piston displacement required per min.
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Work of compression
m , - KJ⁄min ton
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COP of Refrigerator:
Practically, the reversed Carnot cycle cannot be used for refrigeration purpose as the isentropic
process requires very high speed operation, whereas the isothermal process requires very low
speed operation.
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The working of air-refrigeration cycle is represented on p-v and T-s diagrams in Fig. (b) and (c).
Process 1-2 represents the suction of air into the compressor. Process 2-3 represents the
isentropic compression of air by the compressor. Process 3-5 represents the discharge of high
pressure air from the compressor into the heat exchanger. The reduction in volume of air from
v to v is due to the cooling of air in the heat exchanger.
Process 5-6 represents the isentropic expansion of air in the expander. Process 6-2 represents
the absorption of heat from the evaporator at constant pressure.
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
Engine Components: The I.C. Engine Figure below showing its various components.
Cylinder head
Suction Valve Exhaust Valve
Intake of suction manifold S
Exhaust manifold
S S
S S
Clearance volume, Vc
Top dead center T.D.C
S
S Piston
Stroke volume Vs Cylinder volume ‘ V ’
Gudgeon of wrist pin
S S
Bottom deadScenter BDC S
Cylinder
S Connecting rod
S
Crank case Crank Pin S
CrankSShaft Crank
S
S
Engine’s erminology
Piston Swept Volume (Vs): The nominal volume generated by the piston when travelling
from one dead centre to the next one.
Vs = A L
Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the
piston at top dead centre
Cylinder Volume (V) : The sum of piston swept volume and clearance volume
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V = Vc + Vs
Compression Ratio (r): It is ratio of cylinder volume to clearance volume.
r = V/Vc
I.C. Engine classification:
On the basis of the number of stroke engine can be four-stroke engine or can be two – stroke
engine.
On the basis of the working cycle it can be spark ignition (otto cycle) engine or it can be
compression ignition engine (diesel cycle).
Intake valve
Intake valve
open
open
Compressio
Compressio
Power
Power
n
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Ignition Rotation
occurs
T.D.C
Expansion
Compression
Exhaust port
Exhaust port closes
closes Inlet port
Inlet port closes
B.D.C
closes
Inlet port open
Exhaust port open
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Performance parameter:
Indicated thermal efficiency ( ): It is a ratio of energy in the indicated horse power to the
fuel energy.
I. P. = Indicated power
mf = Mass of fuel
Brake thermal efficiency ( ): Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake
power to the fuel energy.
. .
=
b. p. = break power.
f. p. = i. p. – b. p.
f. p. = friction power
f.p. is usually assumed constant. At part loads b.p. is changed, thus from b.p. & f.p., ip. can be
calculated.
Volumentric efficiency ( ): It is defined as the ratio of the air actually induced at ambient
conditions to the swept volume of engine.
Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio: It is defined as ratio of thermal efficiency of the actual
cycle to that of the ideal cycle.
Specific fuel consumption (sfc): It is expressed in grams per horsepower-hour or per kWh.
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bsfc = . .
kg/kWh
isfc = . .
kg/kWh
Fuel-Air Ratio: It is relative proportion of the fuel and air in the engine.
‘ ’ – r.p.m.
n= for 4s
n = N for 2s
k = No. of cylinders
Equivalent ratio:
= 1 chemically correct
NOTE:
In line engines : all cylinders are arranged linearly and transmit power to a single crankshaft
Radial engines: air cooled aircraft engines, odd cylinders are employed for balancing, pistons
of all cylinders are coupled to same crankshaft.
The working medium is a perfect gas throughout, i.e., it follows the law pV= mRT.
The working medium has constant specific heats.
The working medium does not undergo any chemical change throughout the cycle.
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The kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid are neglected.
The operation of the engine is frictionless.
All the process are reversible.
The constant volume or Otto cycle:
P 3
T
W.D. in expansion Constant
3
3-4 = area 3-4-6-5-3
2 4
2 4
1
Constant
1
S
5 6 V
Process Remark
1–2 Adiabatic and reversible compression
2–3 Combustion
3–4 Adiabatic and reversible expansion
4–1 Exhaust stroke
Thermal efficiency, =
Work done = heat added – heat rejected = cv(T3 – T2) – cv(T4 – T1)
=1
=1
Thus the efficiency of otto cycle depends only on compression ratio (r), and the efficiency
increases with increasing compression ratio and . The efficiency at compression ratio 5 is
47.5% and at compression ratio 10 is 60.2%
Monoatamic gas
= 1.67
Air
= 1.4
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
mep =
( )
=
3
Isothermal T
P
Reversible
adiabatic
2
4
0
5 6 S
1 5
𝛒
=1 * +
= ,r=
= . =
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The efficiency of the diesel cycle is different from that of the Otto cycle only by the bracketed
term, which is always greater that unity.
mep =
[ ]
=
The efficiency decreases as cut off ratio increases. If cut off ratio is greater than 10% of stroke,
smoking occurs in an actual engine because there is no sufficient time for the combustion
process to be completed before the exhaust valve opens.
The name dual combustion is derived from the fact that it incorporates the features of both
otto and diesel cycles.
High speed diesel engine is based on this.
3 4 v = constant (otto )
T
4
v = constant
2
P P = constant (Diesel)
2 5
5
1
f g s
V
=1 * +
= , =
If = 1 in above equation it becomes otto cycle and when = 1, it becomes diesel cycle.
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mep
[ ]
For same compression ratio and same heat input: The heat rejected in the Otto cycle is less
than that in the diesel cycle and dual combustion cycle thus the efficiency of the Otto cycle
is more than the diesel and the dual combustion cycle for same compression ratio and same
heat input.
T
3
4
1
5 6 S
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Quick Refresher Guide Thermodynamics
Constant pressure 3
T
1
Constant volume
6 S
For same maximum pressure and temperature
> >
T
Constant 3
pressure
4
2
1 Constant
volume
6 S
5
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Quick Refresher Guide Theory of Machines
Kinematic Pair: Two links or elements connected with a joint that allows the relative motion
between the links.
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Based on Degrees of Freedom: A kinematic pair allows few degrees of freedom and constraints
some of them. When two bodies are joined together one of the body (base) has all the DOF,
whereas the other body looses some DOF and has few DOF relative to the base body. Depending
on the allowed degrees of freedom and constrained degrees of freedom they are classified into
Class I, Class II ….. Class V incase of spatial kinematic pairs and class I and class II in planar
kinematic pairs.
Class-n kinematic pair allows n degrees of freedom for the pair and constrains 6-n (3-n) degrees
of freedom. A pair that constrains all the degrees of freedom of the second link relative to the
first link is not considered as a kinematic pair. It is a rigid joint.
Based on Nature of relative motion: Based on the relative motion that exists between the two
links the pairs can be classified as Rotary/ Revolute pairs, Sliding/ Prismatic pairs, Cylindrical
pairs, special pairs and so on.
Based on Nature of contact: Based on the nature of contact between the two links the kinematic
pairs are classified as lower pairs and higher pairs. When the two bodies have surface to surface
contact they are referred as lower pairs. When the contact between the bodies is a point or line
contact they are referred as higher pairs.
Based on type of closure: Closure means the way the two bodies are held together to have
continuous contact. Two types of joint closures exists they are form closure and force closure.
Form Closure: The two links are held together by the shape of the links and they cannot
be detached easily.
Force Closure: The contact is maintained by an external force either the gravity force or
spring force and the two bodies can be separated easily.
Kinematic chain:
A kinematic chain is formed by connecting number of links with kinematic pairs so that there
exists definite relation between the motion of various links. They can be of two types closed
kinematic chains and open kinematic chains.
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Quick Refresher Guide Theory of Machines
Degrees of Freedom of a Mechanism: As one link is fixed in a kinematic chain to get a mechanism.
Grublers equation for the DOF of a mechanism is as follows for spatial mechanism
( ) .
( )
Note: A mechanism has six (three) degrees of freedom less compared to that of the kinematic
chain from which it is obtained.
Four bar chain/quadric cycle chain: It is the basic chain that consists of four links and four
turning pairs. It is the basic chain from which many one DOF mechanism can be derived. The
necessary condition to form a four bar chain based on their length is l s p q.
When l is the length of the longest link, s is that of the shortest link and p, q are the lengths of the
remaining two links. Though a chain is formed by satisfying the above condition it may not
result in useful mechanism, if one barely satisfy the condition.
Grashoff’s Condition: Grashoff’s condition checks the link proportions and classifies the chains
mechanism
If l s p q Grashoffs or Class –I
If l s p q Non grashoffs or Class-II
If l s p q Special Grashoffs or Class-III
Inversion: By fixing one link in a kinematic chain a mechanism is obtained. By fixing different
links, different mechanisms are obtained. Inversion is the process of obtaining different
mechanism by fixing different links in a kinematic chain.
C
B
A D
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A four bar mechanism is as shown in figure; AD, the link 1 is known as the fixed link. AB, the link
2 acts as input link. The link 3 BC is the coupler and the link 4 CD is the output link. The input
and output links can be interchanged. If the input/output link can have complete rotation about
its centre it is known as crank. If it has only a partial revolution it is known as a rocker or an
oscillatory link. Based on this the mechanisms can be classified as C-C, C-R, R-C, R- R
mechanisms.
Inversions of Grashoff’s 4-bar chain (l s p q): The mechanisms obtained from the
Grashoff’s kinematic chain are based on the positions of the shortest link
In parallelogram connection both long links and short links are opposite to each other. In deltoid
connection both long links and short links are side by side.
Equivalent linkage: By replacing any pair in a kinematic chain with its equivalent (from the same
class). An equivalent chain can be obtained, by replacing any turning pair in a four bar chain
with a sliding pair a slider crank chain can be obtained. By replacing any two turning pairs with
sliding pairs a double slider crank chain can be obtained.
III inversion: Crank and slotted level type quick return motion mechanism and oscillating
cylinder engine
III inversion: Oldham’s Coupling. Useful for connecting two parallel shafts with little offset.
∴ Mechanical advantage =
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Quick Refresher Guide Theory of Machines
B
𝛃 0 ODC
IDC
Fig. 5.1.2.1
Figure shows a slider crank mechanism in which the crank OA rotates in the clockwise direction.
r are the lengths of the connecting rod & the crank respectively.
Velocity of Piston:
V r *sin +
√
If n is large compared to sin ,
V r *sin +
If is neglected if ‘n’ is quite large
V r sin
Acceleration of Piston:
a r *cos +
If n is very very large
a r cos as in case of SHM
When i.e. at IDC, a r * +
i.e. at ODC, a r * +
t , when direction of motion is reversed
a r * +
.
√
sin *( )
+
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The –ve sign indicates that the sense of angular acceleration of the rod is such that it tends to
reduce the angle . Thus, in the given case, the angular acceleration of the connecting rod is
clockwise.
An engine is acted upon by various forces such as weight of reciprocating masses and connecting
rod, gas forces, forces due to friction & inertia forces due to acceleration & retardation of engine
elements, the least being dynamic in nature. The effect of the weight & the inertia effect of the
connecting rod is neglected.
A
+𝛃 ( +𝛃 )
𝛃
B
F 𝛃
Fig. 5.1.2.2
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Quick Refresher Guide Theory of Machines
3. Crank Effort:
Force is exerted on the crankpin as a result of the force on the piston. Crank effort is the net
effort (force) applied at the crank pin perpendicular to the crank which gives the required
turning moment on the crank shaft.
Let = crank effort
As t r r sin( )
sin( )
sin( )
⊥ AB
b
B C
a, d
⊥ DC
D c
A
⊥ BC
Fig. 5.1.3.1
Construction procedure for velocity polygon: A and D are fixed points having zero velocity mark,
a, d at a convenient location and they act as reference for the velocity polygon. Velocity of B
relative to A will be l perpendicular to AB in the direction of so draw ab ⊥ to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ with a
length l . Velocity of C relative to will be ⊥ to C but sense is not known hence draw a line ⊥
to C passing through b. Velocity of C relative to D will be ⊥’lr to DC sense is not known. So draw
a line ⊥lr to DC through d. hese two lines will intersect at C that completes the velocity polygon.
In the velocity diagram the vector bc indicates the velocity of C relative to B and l = bc gives
. Similarly dc = l from which can be obtained.
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Capital letters deals with the configuration diagram is AB, CD are respective link positions, lower
case letters indicate the points on the velocity diagram
Cases:
1. When the link AB and BC are parallel to each other
Velocity of polygon will be a straight line
Velocity of B is equal to the velocity of C.
∴l =l and =0
If both AB and DC are on the same side of AB both have the angular velocity in the same
sense. If they are on opposite side i.e. BC crosses AD; AB and DC will have velocities in the
opposite sense
I34
3
I23
4
2
I24
I12 1 I14
Fig. 5.1.3.2
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Coriolis Acceleration: To illustrate this let us take an example of crank and slotted lever
mechanisms.
P P1
2 B1 B2
Q
B on link 3 d
3 A1
A on link 2
d 2
Fig. 5.1.3.3
Assume link 2 having constant angular velocity 2, in its motions from OP to OP1 in a small
interval of time t. During this time slider 3 moves outwards from position B to B2. Assume this
motion also to have constant velocity VB/A. Consider the motion of slider from B to B2 in 3 stages.
Arc B1B2 = OQ d - AO d
= A1B1 d
= VB/A 2(dt)2
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The tangential component of velocity is r to the link and is given by Vt = r. In this case has
been assumed constant and the slider is moving on the link with constant velocity. Therefore,
tangential velocity of any point B on the slider 3 will result in uniform increase in tangential
velocity. The equation Vt = r remain same but r increases uniformly i.e. there is a constant
acceleration r to rod.
= ½ f (dt)2
The direction of coriolis component is the direction of relative velocity vector for the two
coincident points rotated at 90o in the direction of angular velocity of rotation of the link.
fcr
2
2
2
fcr
(a) Rotation CW slider moving up (b) Rotation CW slider moving down
fcr
2 2
fcr
(c) Rotation CCW slider moving up (d) Rotation CCW slider moving down
Fig. 5.1.3.4
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Gear Classification: Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of
revolution.
Gears for connecting parallel shafts:
1. Spur gears: They are common types of gears with straight teeth.
2. Helical gears: The teeths on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the gear. Because
of the angle of the teeth on helical gears, they create a thrust load on the gear when they
mesh.
3. Double helical gears (Herringbone gears): Herringbone gear is a special type of gear which
is a side to side (not face to face) combination of two helical gears of opposite hands. Their
advantage over the simple helical gear is that the side-thrust of one half is counter-balanced
by that of the other half.
4. Rack and Pinion: Racks are straight gears that are used to convert rotational motion to
translational motion by means of a gear mesh.
Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.
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Arc of Action: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the beginning and the end of the engagement of a
given pair of teeth.
Arc of Approach: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the first point of contact of the gear teeth and
the Pitch Point.
Arc of Recession: That arc of the Pitch Circle between the Pitch Point and the last point of contact of
the gear teeth.
Base Circle: The base circle of an involute gear is the circle from which involute teeth profiles are
derived.
Chordal Addendum: The distance between a chord, passing through the points where the Pitch
Circle crosses the tooth profile, and the tooth top.
Chordal Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along a chord passing through the points
where the Pitch Circle crosses the tooth profile.
Circular Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along an arc following the Pitch Circle
Clearance: The distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the space into which it fits on
the meshing gear.
Contact Ratio: The ratio of the length of the Arc of Action to the Circular Pitch.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the bottom of the tooth to pitch circle.
Face: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the top of the
tooth.
Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.
Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the bottom of
the teeth
Gear: The larger of two meshed gears. If both gears are of the same size, they are both called "gears".
Line of Action: That line along which the point of contact between gear teeth travels, between the
first point of contact and the last.
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Pitch Circle: The circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from the center of the gear to the
pitch point.
Pitch Point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of two meshing gears, where the Line of
Centers crosses the pitch circles.
Pressure Angle: Angle between the Line of Action and a line perpendicular to the Line of Centers.
Profile Shift: An increase in the Outer Diameter and Root Diameter of a gear, introduced to lower the
practical tooth number or acheive a non-standard Center Distance.
Root Circle: The circle that passes through the bottom of the tooth spaces.
Working Depth: The depth to which a tooth extends into the space between teeth on the mating
gear.
Path of contact: The length of path of contact is the length of common normal cut-off by the
addendum circles of the wheel and the pinion.
= Pressure angle.
Arc of contact: Arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to
the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth.
Lenght of path of approach
Length of arc of approach
cos
Length of arc of recess Lenght of path of recess
cos
Length of arc contact Length of path of contact
cos
Contact Ratio (or Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact): The contact ratio or the number of pairs of
teeth in contact is defined as the ratio of the length of the arc of contact to the circular pitch.
Length of the arc of contact
Contatratio
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Mathematically,
PC Circular pitch m
Where: and m = Module.
The combination of gear wheels by means of which motion is transmitted from one shaft to
another shaft is called a gear train. The gear trains are of the following types:
Simple Gear Trains: The typical spur gears are shown in diagram. The direction of rotation is
reversed from one gear to another. It has no affect on the gear ratio. The teeth on the gears must
all be of the same size so if gear A advances one tooth, so does B and C.
The velocity v of any point on the circle must be the same for all the gears, otherwise they would be
slipping. DA DB DC
v A B C
2 2 2
A DA B DB C DC
A m t A B m t B C m tC
A t A B t B C tC
or in terms of rev / min
N A t A N B t B N C tC
If A is the driving wheel and C is driven wheel, then
Velocity Ratio =
In an ideal gear box, the input and output powers are the same so;
2 N1 T1 2 N 2 T2
P
60 60
T2 N1
N1 T1 N 2 T2 GR
T1 N 2
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It follows that if the speed is reduced, the torque is increased and vice versa. In a real gear box,
power is lost through friction and the power output is smaller than the power input. The
efficiency is defined as:
Power out 2 N 2 T2 60 N 2 T2
Power In 2 N1 T1 60 N1 T1
Because the torque in and out is different, a gear box has to be clamped in order to stop the case
or body rotating. A holding torque T3 must be applied to the body through the clamps.
T1 + T2 + T3 = 0
If we use a convention that anti-clockwise is positive and clockwise is negative we can determine
the holding torque. The direction of rotation of the output shaft depends on the design of the
gear box.
RA + RB = RC + RD and tA + tB = tC + tD
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Epicyclic Gear Train: Epicyclic means one gear revolving upon and around another. The design
involves planet and sun gears as one orbits the other like a planet around the sun.
The diagram shows a gear B on the end of an arm. Gear B meshes with gear C and revolves
around it when the arm is rotated. B is called the planet gear and C the sun.
Suppose gear C is fixed and the arm A makes one revolution. Determine how many revolutions
the planet gear B makes.
Step Action A B C
tC
2 Revolve C by –1 revolution, keeping the arm fixed 0 -1
tB
tC
1
3 Add 1 tB 0
Step 2 identify that C should be fixed and rotate it backwards one revolution keeping the arm
fixed as it should only do one revolution in total. Work out the revolutions of B.
Step 3 is simply add them up and we find the total revs of C is zero and for the arm is 1.
tC
The number of revolutions made by B is 1
t B
tC
Note: that if C revolves -1, then the direction of B is opposite so .
tB
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k
Torque
e f h j e f
p
𝛑
crank angle, 𝛉
FIG. 5.3.1.1
It can be observed from Fig. 5.3.1.1 that during the outstroke ( ) the turning moment is
maximum when the crank angle is little less than 9 (π 2) zero when the crank angle is zero
(π). Similar turning moment diagram is obtained during the instroke ( ).
Note that the area of the turning-moment diagram is proportional to the work done per
revolution as the work is the product of turning-moment & the angle turned.
The mean torque against which the engine works is given by where is the
mean torque and is the mean height of the turning-moment diagram.
When the crank turns from angle to (Fig. 5.3.1.1), the work done by the engine is
represented by area . But the work done against the resisting torque is represented by the
area . Thus, the engine has done more work than what has been taken from it. The excess
work is represented by the area . This excess work increases the speed of the engine and is
stored in the flywheel.
During the crank travel from or the work needed for the external resistance is
proportional to , whereas the work produced by the engine is represented by the area under
. Thus, during this period, more work has been taken from the engine that is produced. The
loss is made up by the flywheel which gives up some of its energy & the speed decreases during
this period.
Similarly, during the period of crank travel from to , excess work is again developed and is
stored in the flywheel and the speed of the engine increases. During the crank travel from to
, the loss of work is made up by flywheel and the speed again decreases.
The area , , & represent fluctuations of energy of the fly wheel. When the crank is
at b, the flywheel has absorbed energy while the crank has moved from a to b and thereby, the
speed of the engine is maximum. At c, the flywheel has given out energy while the crank has
moved from b to c and thus, the engine has a minimum speed. Similarly, the engine speed is
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again maximum at d & minimum at a. Thus, there are two maximum & two minimum speeds for
the turning-moment diagram.
The difference between the greatest & the least speeds of the engine over one revolution is
known as the fluctuation of speed
Turning Moment Diagram for Single-cylinder Four stroke Engine:
Turning moment
p
0
Fig.5. 3.1.2
In case of a four-stroke IC engine, the diagram repeats itself after every two revolutions instead
of one revolution as for a steam engine. It can be seen from the diagram (Fig. 5.3.1.2) that for the
majority of the suction stroke, turning moment is –ve but becomes ve after point ‘p’. During the
compression stroke, it is totally –ve. It is ve throughout the expansion stroke & again –ve for
most of the exhaust stroke.
Turning Moment Diagram for Multi-cylinder Engine:
Mean
Torque
b c d e
0 f
Fig. 3.1.3
As observed in the foregoing paragraphs, the turning-moment diagram for a single cylinder
engine varies considerably & a greater variation of the same is observed in case of four stroke,
single-cylinder engine. For engines with more than one cylinder, the total crank shaft torque at
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any instant is given by the sum of the torques developed by each cylinder at the instant. For
example, if an engine has two cylinders with cranks at 90°, the resultant turning moment
diagram has a less variation than that for a single cylinder. In a three-cylinder engine having its
cranks at 120°, the variation is still less.
Fig. 5.3.1.3 shows the turning moment diagrams for a multi-cylinder engine. The mean torque
line ab intersects the turning moment curve at a, b, c, d & e. The area under the wavy curve is
equal to the area . As discussed earlier, the speed of the engine will be maximum when the
crank positions correspond to b, d & minimum corresponding to a, c, e.
Fluctuation of Energy:
Let , be the areas in work units of the portions above the mean torque ae of the turning
moment diagram (Fig. 5.3.1.3) these areas represent quantities of energies added to the
flywheel. Parallely areas , below ae represents quantities of energies taken from the
flywheel.
The energies of the flywheel corresponding to positions of the crank are as follows.
c E+
d E+
e E+
The greatest of these energies is the maximum kinetic energy of the flywheel & for the
corresponding crank position, the speed is maximum.
The least of these energies is the least kinetic Energy of the fly wheel & for the corresponding
crank position, the speed is minimum.
The difference between the maximum & minimum kinetic energies of the fly wheel is known as
the maximum fluctuation of energy.
Whereas the ratio of this maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle is defined as
the co-efficient of fluctuation of energy.
The difference between the greatest speed & the least speed is known as the maximum
fluctuation of speed & the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is the co-
efficient of fluctuation of speed.
There are two types of flywheels: disc type & arm type. In the arm type of flywheel, the weight of
the flywheel is mainly located in the rim & the arms & boss do not contribute much in storing the
energy.
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The whole weight of the flywheel is assumed to be concentrated in the rim of the flywheel,
therefore it is usual practice to neglect the weight of the arms and the boss in the design of the
flywheel.
Hoop stress,
If b & d be the respective width and diameter of the flywheel & t its thickness, then
. . .
where,
. .
where, mean torque ,
mean speed =
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Vibration refers to oscillations about an equilibrium point. A system vibrates when, it is possible
for energy to be converted from one form to another and back again. There are three types of
vibrations viz. Free Vibrations, Damped Vibrations & Forced Vibrations
A free vibration is one that dies away with time due to energy dissipation. Usually there is some
initial disturbance. Following this initial disturbance the system vibrates without any further
input. This is called the transient vibration or free vibration. Consider the motion of the
spring/mass system when it is initially disturbed and then allowed to vibrate freely. The
displacement of the mass with time, x(t), is measured from the static equilibrium position, i.e.
the rest position.
If at some time t the mass is displaced an amount x(t) in the positive direction as shown.
Then there will be a force on the mass from the spring of –kx(t).
hus from Newton’s second law of motion using a free – body diagram,
m ̈ + kx(t) = 0 . . .5.4.1.1
Equilibrium
position
x(t)
Equation (5.4.1.1) is called the equation of motion. The equation is unchanged if gravity effects
are included. The solution of the equation of motion gives,
̇( )
x(t) = x(0) cos +
where x(0) is the initial displacement from the equilibrium position; ̇ (0) is the initial velocity.
The frequency n is called the undamped natural frequency and is given by
√
Thus for an initial displacement but with no initial velocity the motion is sinusoidal with an
amplitude x(0) and frequency n,
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The undamped natural frequency does not depend on the initial conditions or the amplitude of
motion. It only depends on the mass and stiffness.
Real vibration systems have a source of energy dissipation and it is convenient to represent this
by a massless viscous damper as shown. This produces a drag force opposing the motion which
depends on the velocity of the mass.
Thus the damping coefficient c, of the damper, results in an additional force ̇ ( ) on the mass.
hus from Newton’s second law of motion using a free body diagram, the equation of motion is,
m ̈+ ̇ ( ) + kx(t) = 0 . . . 5.4.2.1
Equilibrium
position x(t)
The solution of equation (5.4.2.2) has different forms depending on the value of ξ.
If the initial conditions are x(0) and ̇ (0) then for
ξ
[ ̇( ) ( )] √
x(t) = [ ( ) √ ]
√
x(t) = [ ( ) [ ̇( ) ( )] ]
[ ̇( ) ( )] √
x(t) = [ ( ) √ ]
√
Logarithmic decrement: or damping ratio ξ < 1.0 then vibration will occur and the motion is
defined by
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[ ̇( ) ( )] √
x(t) = [ ( ) √ , ]
√
t t
It can be shown that, if the amplitudes on any two successive peaks are measured, the ratio of
these amplitudes is constant. For any value of m, the log decrement will be
δ ln[x( ) ( )] = 2 √
This equation can be rearranged to give,
√
or small values of δ,
5.4.3 Forced vibration
A forced vibration is usually defined as being one that is kept going by an external excitation. We
now come to look at the vibration of a one degree of freedom system when there is an externally
applied force. The system will respond to the force. The response will depend on the particular
forcing function. We will look at a forcing function that illustrate most of the main effects
resulting from external forces.
It is a sinusoidally varying force that has a particular frequency which is popularly known as
harmonic excitation.
k c
x(t) F sin t
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The mathematical solution of the equation of motion may be achieved in various ways. It will be
found that after an initial transient (depending on initial conditions and start up effects from
applying the sinusoidally varying force) the motion becomes a steady sinusoidal displacement.
This situation is known as the steady state.
The steady state solution for x(t) can be shown to be
x(t) X sin ( t ϕ) . . .5. 4.3.2
Where x = [( ) ( ) ]
and tan ϕ = ( )
X is the displacement amplitude and ϕ is the phase angle between displacement and force.
It is common to non-dimensionalize these equations so that
…5. 4.3.3
[[ * + ] * + ]
Where √ ξ and
√
5 𝛏 = 0.1
4
3
2
1
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
M.F 1 as
M.F 0 as
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Notes:
The response curve has a resonance. The resonance is at a frequency √ 2
There is thus no resonance (i.e. no peak in the response) when ξ √2
t resonance the response peak equals 2ξ for small ξ. he value of ξ may be determined from
the response curve for small ξ. he phase ϕ varies from 0 to – 180 degrees, i.e. the displacement
lags the force.
Resonance:
Resonance
5
4
3
𝛏 = 0.1
2
1
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Resonant frequency
Resonance occurs, i.e. X/ is a maximum, when (X/X ) /dt is zero. This can be shown to be
when
√( 2ξ )
However note that there is no real solution for when ξ > 1/√2, i.e the response continuously
falls with frequency. The final point of interest is the response amplitude at resonance, X/X
For small values of ξ, X/X is equal to 1/(2 ξ).
Vibration Isolation: Vibration forces generated by machines and other causes are often
unavoidable; however, their effects on a dynamical system can be minimized by proper isolator
design. An isolation system reduces the excessive vibration transmission to the delicate objects
from its supporting structure.
The force to be isolated is transmitted through spring and damper. Its equation is
The ratio of transmitted force to that of disturbing force is known as Transmissibility ratio (TR).
Mathematically, it is
( )
| | √ . . . 5.4.3.6
[ * + ] * +
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The strength of machine members is based upon the mechanical properties of the materials
used. Since these properties are usually determined from simple tension or compression tests,
predicting failure in members subjected to uniaxial stress is both simple and straight-forward.
But the problem of predicting the failure stresses for members subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial
stresses is much more complicated, that a large number of different theories have been
formulated. The principle theories of failure for a member subjected to tri-axial stress are as
follows:
1. Maximum principle (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory).
2. Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
3. Maximum principle (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory).
4. Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory).
5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
6. Octahedral Shearing Stress theory.
Ductile materials have identifiable yield strength that is often same in compression as in tension
(Syt = Syc = Sy ).
Brittle materials, do not exhibit identifiable yield strength, and are typically classified by
ultimate tensile and compressive strengths, Sut and Suc, respectively (where Suc is given as a
positive quantity)
Maximum principle or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory) for Brittle materials
The elastic failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principle or
normal stress reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple tension test irrespective
of the value of other two principle stresses, i.e., when
Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield point stress and for brittle materials is
ultimate stress, the maximum principle or normal stress ( ) is given by
Ultimate stress
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Since this theory ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, it is not used for ductile
materials.
However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension or
compression, this theory is generally used.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory) for ductile materials.
The elastic failure occurs when the greatest shear stress reaches a value equal to the shear stress
at elastic limit in a simple tension test.
( ) or
( )
, ( )-
Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami’s or Haigh’s Theory) for ductile materials
The failure or yielding occurs when the strain energy per unit volume in a strained material
reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e. strain energy at the yield point ) per unit volume as
determined from simple tension test.
According to this theory, the maximum energy which a body can store without deforming
plastically is constant for that material irrespective of the manner of loading.
, ( )-
, ( )-
This theory breaks down for a case when,
√ ( )
But in fact with this type of loading (i.e.,) when there is uniform pressure all round (hydrostatic
pressure), no failure occurs.
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Shear Strain energy or Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises Theory)
The failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion strain energy (also
called shear strain energy) per unit volume in the stressed material reaches the limiting
distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined from a
simple tension test. Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
expressed as
( ) ( ) ( )
Fig. 6.1.1 The distortion-energy (DE) theory for plane stress states
This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.
Note: The maximum distortion energy is the difference between the total strain energy and the
strain energy due to uniform stress.
According to this theory, the critical quantity is the shearing stress on the octahedral plane. The
plane which is equally inclined to all the three principle axes is called the octahedral plane.
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,( ) ( ) ( ) -
Where,
√
Failure is said to occur when
This theory is supported quite well by experimental evidences and is identical to Von Mises
theory.
Mode of failure of a ductile material differs from that of brittle material. It depends on a large
number of factors like
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If the loading conditions are suitably altered, a brittle material may be made to yield before
failure. Hence, design of a member requires the determination of the mode of failure (yielding
or fracture), and the factor (such as stress, strain and energy) associated with it. Full scale tests
simulating all conditions would be ideal but not practicable.
In practice, in complex loading conditions, the factor associated with failure has to be identified
and precautions taken to ensure that this factor does not exceed maximum allowable value
determined on the basis of suitable tests (uniform tension or torsion) on the material in the
laboratory.
Results of many laboratory tests on ductile material shows shear stress from torsion tests varies
between 0.55 and 0.6 of the yield strength determined from tension tests. This result agrees
with shear strain energy theory and octahedral shear stress theory. The maximum shear stress
theory predicts that the shear yield value is 0.5 times the tensile yield value, which is about 15%
less than the value predicted by the other two theories.
The maximum shear stress theory gives design values on the safe side and is widely used in
design with ductile materials.
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Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the simple stress
distribution no longer holds good and the neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different. This
irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration.
It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways, splines,
surface roughness or scratches etc.
Fig. 6.2.1
In the above member with different cross-section under a tensile load, the nominal stress in the
right and left hand sides will be uniform but in the region where the cross-section is changing, a
re-distribution of the force within the member must take place. The maximum stress occurs at
some point on the fillet and is directed parallel to the boundary at that point.
The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress
to the nominal stress at the same section based upon net area.
Maximum stress
Nominal stress
The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the part.
Consider a plate with transverse elliptical hole and subjected to a tensile load as shown in the
figure.
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From the stress-distribution, the stress at the point away from the hole is practically uniform
and the maximum stress is induced at the edge of the hole. The maximum stress is given by
( )
( )
When a/b is large (a), the ellipse approaches a crack transverse to the load and the value of Kt
becomes very large. When a/b is small (b), the ellipse approaches a longitudinal slit and the
increase in stress is small. When the hole is circular (c), then a/b = 1 and the maximum stress is
three times the nominal value.
The stress concentration in the notched tension member, is influenced by the depth a of the
notch and radius r at the bottom of the notch. The maximum stress, which applies to members
having notches that are small in comparison with the width of the plate, may be obtained by the
following equation,
( )
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The stress concentration effects of a press fit may be reduced by making more gradual
transition from the rigid to the more flexible shaft
The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the same nature,
(i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses.
Fig. 6.2.4
The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called repeated
stresses.
Fig. 6.2.5
The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite
nature (i.e. from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a
minimum tensile to a maximum compressive) are called alternating stresses.
Fig. 6.2.6
The variable stress, in general, may be considered as a combination of steady (or mean or
average) stress and a completely reversed stress component.
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Note: For repeated loading, the stress varies from maximum to zero (i.e. = 0) in each cycle.
3. Stress ratio,
Where,
Stress ratio.
6.2.3 Fatigue
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point
stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.
The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of static and
fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.
Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue crack will typically initiate at
a discontinuity in the material where the cyclic stress is a maximum.
Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes, etc. where stress
concentrations occur
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Elements that roll and/or slide against each other (bearings, gears, cams, etc.) under
high contact pressure, developing concentrated subsurface contact stresses that can
cause surface pitting or spalling after many cycles of the load.
Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool marks, scratches, and burrs; poor joint
design; improper assembly; and other fabrication faults.
Composition of the material itself as processed by rolling, forging, casting, extrusion,
drawing, heat treatment, etc. Microscopic and submicroscopic surface and subsurface
discontinuities arise, such as inclusions of foreign material, alloy segregation, voids, hard
precipitated particles, and crystal discontinuities.
Conditions that accelerate crack initiation:
residual tensile stresses
elevated temperatures
temperature cycling
corrosive environment
high-frequency cycling
Fatigue-Life Methods
Stress-life method
Strain-life method
Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
These methods attempt to predict the life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific level of
loading.
N ≤ 103 - low-cycle fatigue
N > 103 - high-cycle fatigue
Stress-life method:
Based on stress levels only
Least accurate approach, especially for low-cycle applications.
Easiest to implement for a wide range of design applications,
Has ample supporting data, and
Represents high-cycle applications adequately.
Strain-life method:
More detailed analysis of the plastic deformation at localized regions where the stresses
and strains are considered for life estimate
Good Method for low-cycle fatigue applications
In applying this method, several idealizations must be compounded, and so some
uncertainties will exist in the results.
Fracture mechanics method:
Assumes a crack is already present and detected. It is then employed to predict crack
growth with respect to stress intensity.
Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction with computer codes and
a periodic inspection program.
Fatigue Strength and the Endurance Limit:
The strength-life (S-N) diagram provides the fatigue strength Sf versus cycle life N of a material.
The results are generated from tests using a simple loading (R. R.Moore high-speed rotating-
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beam machine) of standard laboratory controlled specimens. The loading often is that of
sinusoidally reversing pure bending. The laboratory-controlled specimens are polished without
geometric stress concentration at the region of minimum area.
Fig. 6.2.7 Test-specimen geometry for the R.R. Moore rotating beam machine.
Fig. 6.2.8 S-N diagram for steel, normalized; Sut = 116 kpsi; maximum Sut = 125 kpsi.
Fig. 6.2.9 S-N bands for representative aluminum alloys, excluding wrought alloys with Sut < 38
kpsi
For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at some point. The strength at this point
is called the endurance limit [maximum value of the completely reversed bending stress which a
polished standard specimen can withstand without failure for infinite number of cycles (usually
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107 cycles)]. S′e and occurs somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles. For non-ferrous materials
that do not exhibit an endurance limit, a fatigue strength at a specific number of cycles, S′f , may
be given. The strength data are based on many controlled conditions that will not be the same as
that for an actual machine part. What follows are practices used to account for the differences
between the loading and physical conditions of the specimen and the actual machine part.
The term endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for other types of loading, the
term endurance strength may be used when referring the fatigue strength of the material. It may
be defined as the safe maximum stress which can be applied to the machine part working under
actual conditions.
Modifying factors are defined and used to account for differences between the specimen and the
actual machine part with regard to surface conditions, size, loading, temperature, reliability, and
miscellaneous factors.
When a component is subjected to fatigue loading, the endurance limit is the criterion for failure.
Therefore, the factor of safety should be based on endurance limit. Mathematically,
For Steel,
. .
Where,
When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fatigue loading, the value of fatigue stress
concentration factor shall be applied instead of theoretical stress concentration factor. Since the
determination of fatigue stress concentration factor is not an easy task, therefore from
experimental tests it is defined as
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≤ ≤
The mean stress can have a significant effect on the failure due to fatigue and must be
considered in combination with the alternating stress.. (Under normal fatigue loading conditions
the mean stress is small compared to the alternating stress.)
A number of interaction criteria are used to quantify the combined stress and the relevant
design factors of safety. These are plotted together below
Soderberg Line
Gerber Line
Stress Amplitude
Goodman Line
Mean Stress
The Mean Stress is plotted on the horizontal axis and the alternating stress is plotted
on the vertical axis.
Soderberg Line
If the point of the combined stress is below the Soderberg line then the component will not fail.
This is a very conservative criteria based on the material yield point S
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If the point of the combined stress is below the relevant Goodman line then the component will
not fail. This is a less conservative criteria based on the material Ultimate strength yield point
S
Gerber Line
If the point of the combined stress is below the Gerber line then the component will not fail. This
is a less conservative criteria based on the material Ultimate strength S
( )
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Strength of a riveted joint is evaluated taking all possible failure paths in the joint into account.
Since rivets are arranged in a periodic manner, the strength of joint is usually calculated
considering one pitch length of the plate. There are four possible ways a single rivet joint may
fail.
a) Tearing of the plate: If the force is too large, the plate may fail in tension along the row (see
figure 6.3.1.2). The maximum force allowed in this case is
P s (p d)t
p = pitch
b) Shearing of the rivet: The rivet may shear as shown in Figure 6.3.1.3 . The maximum force
withstood by the joint to prevent this failure is
P s . d / for lap joint, single strap butt joint
s . d / for double strap butt joint
where s = allowable shear stress of the rivet material.
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c) Crushing of rivet: If the bearing stress on the rivet is too large the contact surface between
the rivet and the plate may get damaged. (see Figure 6.3.1.4). With a simple assumption of
uniform contact stress the maximum force allowed is
P s dt
where s = allowable bearing stress between the rivet and plate material.
d) Tearing of the plate at edge: If the margin is too small, the plate may fail as shown in figure
6.3.1.5. To prevent the failure a minimum margin of m = 1.5d is usually provided.
Efficiency:
Efficiency of the single riveted joint can be obtained as ratio between the maximum of P , P and
P and the load carried by a solid plate which is
s pt. Thus
( )
efficiency (η)
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In a double or triple riveted joint the failure mechanisms may be more than those discussed
above. The failure of plate along the outer row may occur in the same way as above. However, in
addition the inner rows may fail. For example, in a double riveted joint, the plate may fail along
the second row. But in order to do that the rivets in the first row must fail either by shear or by
crushing. Thus the maximum allowable load such that the plate does not tear in the second row
is
P s (p d)t min*P P +
The efficiency should be calculated taking all possible failure mechanism into consideration.
Diameter of the hole (d): When thickness of the plate (t) is more than 8 mm Unwin’s formula is
used,
√t mm.
Otherwise d is obtained by equating crushing strength to the shear strength of the joint. In a
double riveted zigzag joint, this implies
s t d s (valid for t 8 )
However, d should not be less than t, in any case. The standard size of d is tabulated in code IS:
1928-1961.
Pitch (p): Pitch is designed by equating the tearing strength of the plate to the shear strength of
the rivets. In a double riveted lap joint, this takes the following form.
s (p d)t s . d /
In order to design boiler joints, a designer must also comply with Indian Boiler Regulations
(I.B.R.).
1. Design of a butt joint: The main failure mechanism of welded butt joint is tensile failure.
Therefore the strength of a butt joint is
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For a square butt joint t is equal to the thickness of the plates. In general, this need not be so
(see figure 6.3.2.1).
2. Design of transverse fillet joint: Consider a single transverse joint as shown in figure 6.3.2.2.
The general stress distribution in the weld metal is very complicated. In design, a simple
procedure is used assuming that entire load P acts as shear force on the throat area, which is
the smallest area of the cross section in a fillet weld. If the fillet weld has equal base and
height, (h, say), then the cross section of the throat is easily seen to be . With the above
√
consideration the permissible load carried by a transverse fillet weld is
P=s
= throat area.
For a double transverse fillet joint the allowable load is twice that of the single fillet joint.
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3. Design of parallel fillet joint: Consider a parallel fillet weld as shown in figure 6.3.2.3. Each
weld carries a load P⁄ . It is easy to see from the strength of material approach that the
maximum shear occurs along the throat area (try to prove it). The allowable load carried by
each of the joint is s where the throat area . The total allowable load is
√
P s .
In designing a weld joint the design variables are h and l. They can be selected based on the
above design criteria. When a combination of transverse and parallel fillet joint is required
(see figure-6.3.2.4) the allowable load is
P s s ′
4. Design of circular fillet weld subjected to torsion: Consider a circular shaft connected to a
plate by means of a fillet joint as shown in figure-6.3.2.5. If the shaft is subjected to a torque,
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shear stress develops in the weld in a similar way as in parallel fillet joint. Assuming that the
weld thickness is very small compared to the diameter of the shaft, the maximum shear
stress occurs in the throat area. Thus, for a given torque the maximum shear stress in the
weld is
( )
t = throat thickness
= ,(d t ) d -
When, t d
The throat dimension and hence weld dimension can be selected from the equation
Shaft is a common and important machine element. It is a rotating member, in general, has a
circular cross-section and is used to transmit power. The shaft may be hollow or solid. The shaft
is supported on bearings and it rotates a set of gears or pulleys for the purpose of power
transmission. The shaft is generally acted upon by bending moment, torsion and axial force.
Design of shaft primarily involves in determining stresses at critical point in the shaft that is
arising due to mentioned loading.
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The stress at any point on the shaft depends on the nature of load acting on it. The stresses
which may be present are as follows.
Bending stress
( )
Where,
k: Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft ( k = 0 for a solid shaft because inner
diameter is zero )
Axial Stress
( )
Where,
The term α has been introduced in the equation. This is known as column action factor. What is a
column action factor? This arises due the phenomenon of buckling of long slender members
which are acted upon by axial compressive loads.
Where,
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( )
Where,
Both bending and axial stresses are normal stresses, hence the net normal stress is given by,
0 ( ) ( )
1
The net normal stress can be either positive or negative. Normally, shear stress due to torsion is
only considered in a shaft and shear stress due to load on the shaft is neglected.
Design of the shaft mostly uses maximum shear stress theory. It states that a machine member
fails when the maximum shear stress at a point exceeds the maximum allowable shear stress for
the shaft material. Therefore,
√. /
Substituting the values of and in the above equation, the final form is,
( )
√2C M 3 (C T)
( )
Therefore, the shaft diameter can be calculated in terms of external loads and material
properties. However, the above equation is further standarized for steel shafting in terms of
allowable design stress and load factors in ASME design code for shaft.
Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a shaft. They
transmit the load from a rotating member to a stationary member known as frame or housing.
They permit relative motion of two members in one or two directions with minimum friction,
and also prevent the motion in the direction of the applied load.
The bearings are classified broadly into two categories based on the type of contact they have
between the rotating and the stationary member
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a. Sliding contact
b. Rolling contact
The sliding contact bearings have surface contact and come under lower kinematic pair.
Among the sliding contact bearings radial bearings find wide applications in industries and
hence these bearings are dealt in more detail here.
The radial bearings are also called journal or sleeve bearings. The portion of the shaft inside the
bearing is called the journal and this portion needs better finish and specific property.
Depending on the extent to which the bearing envelops the journal, these bearings are classified
as full, partial and fitted bearings. As shown in Fig. 6.3.4.1
Petroff’s Equation:
The relation between bearing friction and viscosity of the lubricant in a circular journal bearing
which is running truly concentric is given by,
f= . .
µ = viscosity,
N = rev/min or rev/sec,
p = pressure and
In the above relation the parameter is called the bearing characteristic or the bearing
modulus. This a very important dimensionless parameter.
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Hydrodynamic lubrication:
If a lubricant film is enclosed in a wedge or tapered gap between the stationary and moving
members, the oil film is drawn into the wedge shape generating a pressure that can support a
load.
It has been shown experimentally that the coefficient of friction varies as shown in Figure
6.3.4.2. In which a curve of f versus is plotted. It is found that the operation of a bearing to the
left of point B, the lubrication is not stable and is known as boundary lubrication.
A
C
f
B
µN/P
Figure 6.3.4.2
However, if we are operating in the region BC, the lubrication is stable and is known as thick film
or hydrodynamic lubrication.
When a journal starts rotating in a bearing as shown in Figure 6.3.4.3, below the lubricant is
forced into a wedge shaped (strictly a curved wedge) space by a pumping type of action and the
pressure built up in the wedge supports the load on the journal.
Journal
e O′
O
h
β
c = radial clearance
Figure 6.3.4.3
As a result of the lubricant pressure, a minimum film thickness h occurs, not at the bottom of
the journal, but displaced in the direction of rotation, as shown in the Figure 6.3.4.3. This is
because the lubricant pressure in converging gap reaches maximum at a point to the left of the
bearing centre.
c is the radial clearance and is the difference in the radii of the bearing and the journal.
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e is the eccentricity and is the distance between the centers O and O′ of the journal and
bearing respectively.
h is the minimum film thickness and it occurs on the line of centres. (The film thickness
at any other point is normally designated as h)
β shown in Figure is the angular length of a partial bearing if it is not a full circle.
A bearing in which the radii of the bearing and the journal are equal, is known as a fitted bearing.
where is the millions of revolutions that 90% of a group of bearings (which are apparently
identical) will complete before any of them develops evidence of fatigue.
When a bearing is installed there is no way of knowing whether it is one of the 90 per cent that
are good or one of the 10 per cent that will not attain the rating life. In other words, one can have
but 90 per cent confidence that the bearing will achieve or exceed its rating life, usually
designated .
6.3.5 Brakes
Types of Brakes: Different types of brakes are used in different applications. Based on the
working principle used, brakes can be classified as mechanical brakes, hydraulic brakes,
electrical (eddy current) magnetic and electro-magnetic types.
Mechanical Brakes: Mechanical brakes are invariably used based on the frictional resistance
principles.
In mechanical brakes artificial resistances are created using frictional contact between the
moving member and a stationary member, to retard or stop the motion of the moving member.
Basic mechanism of braking: The illustration below explains the working of mechanical brakes.
An element dA of the stationary member is shown with the braked body moving past at velocity
v. When the brake is actuated contact is established between the stationary and moving member
and a normal pressure is developed in the contact region. The elemental normal force dN is
equal to the product of contact pressure p and area of contact dA. As one member is stationary
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and the other is in relative motion, a frictional force dF is developed between the members. The
magnitude of the frictional force is equal to the co-efficient of friction times the normal force dN
The moment of the frictional force relative to the point of motion contributes to the retardation
of motion and braking. The basic mechanism of braking is illustrated above.
Design and Analysis: To design, select or analyze the performance of these devices knowledge on
the following are required.
There are two major classes of brakes, namely drum brakes and disc brakes. Design and analysis
of drum brakes will be considered in detail in following sections, the discussion that follow on
disc or plate clutches will form the basis for design of disc type of brakes.
Drum brakes basically consists of a rotating body called drum whose motion is braked together
with a shoe mounted on a lever which can swing freely about a fixed hinge H. A lining is attached
to the shoe and contacts the braked body. The actuation force P applied to the shoe gives rise to
a normal contact pressure distributed over the contact area between the lining and the braked
body. A corresponding friction force is developed between the stationary shoe and the rotating
body which manifest as retarding torque about the axis of the braked body.
Brakes Classification: Various geometric configuration of drum brakes are illustrated below:
Figure 6.3.5.1
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Drum Brakes are classified based on the shoe geometry. Shoes are classified as being either
short or long. A short shoe is one whose lining dimension in the direction of motion is so small
that contact pressure variation is negligible, i.e. the pressure is uniform everywhere.
When the area of contact becomes larger, the contact may no longer be with a uniform pressure,
in which case the shoe is termed as long shoe. The shoes are either rigid or pivoted, pivoted
shoes are also some times known as hinged shoes. The shoe is termed rigid because the shoes
with attached linings are rigidly connected to the pivoted posts. In a hinged shoe brake – the
shoes are not rigidly fixed by hinged or pivoted to the posts. The hinged shoe is connected to the
actuating post by the hinge, G, which introduces another degree of freedom.
Preliminary Analysis: The figure shows a brake shoe mounted on a lever, hinged at O, having an
actuating force F , applied at the end of the lever. On the application of an actuating force, a
normal force F is created when the shoe contacts the rotating drum. And a frictional force F of
magnitude f. F , f being the coefficient of friction, develops between the shoe and the drum.
Moment of this frictional force about the drum center constitutes the braking torque.
Figure 6.3.5.2
For a short shoe we assume that the pressure is uniformly distributed over the contact area.
Consequently the equivalent normal force F p. , where = p is the contact pressure and A is
the surface area of the shoe. Consequently the friction force Ff = f.Fn where f is the co-efficient of
friction between the shoe lining material and the drum material.
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T = f Fn. r = f.p.A.r
pplying the equilibrium condition by taking moment about the pivot ‘O’ we can write
M F a F b fF c
F F (b fc) a
The reaction forces on the hinged pin (pivot) are found from a summation of forces,
i.e.
F R fp
F R p F
Self – energizing:
With the shown direction of the drum rotation (CCW), the moment of the frictional force f. F c
adds to the moment of the actuating force F . As a consequence, the required actuation force
needed to create a known contact pressure p is much smaller than that if this effect is not
present. This phenomenon of frictional force aiding the brake actuation is referred to as self –
energization.
For a given direction of rotation the shoe in which self energization is present is known
as the leading shoe
When the direction of rotation is changed, the moment of frictional force now will be
opposing the actuation force and hence greater magnitude of force is needed to create
the same contact pressure. The shoe on which this is prevailing is known as a trailing
shoe
Self Locking: At certain critical value of f.c. the term (b-fc) becomes zero. i.e no actuation force
need to be applied for braking. This is the condition for self-locking. Self-locking will not occur
unless it is specifically desired.
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6.3.6 Clutch
A Clutch is a machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven shaft, so that the
driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. A clutch thus
provides an interruptible connection between two rotating shafts
To design analyze the performance of these devices, a knowledge on the following are required.
Friction Clutches: As in brakes a wide range of clutches are in use wherein they vary in their are
in use their working principle as well the method of actuation and application of normal forces.
The discussion here will be limited to mechanical type friction clutches or more specifically to
the plate or disc clutches also known as axial clutches.
Frictional Contact axial or Disc Clutches: An axial clutch is one in which the mating frictional
members are moved in a direction parallel to the shaft. A typical clutch is illustrated in the figure
below. It consist of a driving disc connected to the drive shaft and a driven disc connected to the
driven shaft. A friction plate is attached to one of the members. Actuating spring keeps both the
members in contact and power/motion is transmitted from one member to the other. When the
power of motion is to be interrupted the driven disc is moved axially creating a gap between the
members as shown in the figure.
Figure 6.3.6.2
The applied force can keep the members together with a uniform pressure all over its contact
area and the consequent analysis is based on uniform pressure condition. However as the time
progresses some wear takes place between the contacting members and this may alter or vary
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the contact pressure appropriately and uniform pressure condition may no longer prevail.
Hence the analysis here is based on uniform wear condition
Uniform pressure condition: Assuming uniform pressure and considering an elemental area dA
d Π.r dr
dN .r.dr.p
dF f. .r.dr.p
Now the torque that can be transmitted by this elemental area is equal to the frictional force
times the moment arm about the axis that is the radius ‘r’
f. p. . . r. dr . r
The total torque that could be transmitted is obtained by integrating this equation between the
limits of inner radius r to the outer radius r
T ∫ pfr dr pf(r r )
Integrating the normal force between the same limits we get the actuating force that need to be
applied to transmit this torque.
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F ∫ prdr
F (r r ). p
Equation 1 and 2 can be combined together to give equation for the torque
(r r )
T fF .
(r r )
According to some established theories the wear in a mechanical system is proportional to the
‘PV’ factor where P refers to the contact pressure and V to the sliding velocity. Based on this for
the case of a plate clutch we can state
R pV constant
And the velocity at any point on the face of the clutch is V r.ω
pr = constant = K
p r
p p
In the previous equations substituting this value for the pressure term p and integrating
between the limits as done earlier we get the equation for the torque transmitted and the
actuating force to be applied.
r
F ∫ prdr ∫ .p / rdr p r (r r)
r
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T ∫f p r rdr f p r (r r )
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Small fly wheels are solid discs of hollow circular cross section. As the energy requirements and
size of the flywheel increases the geometry changes to disc of central hub and peripheral rim
connected by webs and to hollow wheels with multiple arms.
Figure 6.3.7.1
I (r r )t
g
Where is material’s weight density
The equation is better solved by geometric proportions i.e by assuming inside to outside radius
ratio and radius to thickness ratio.
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Stresses in Flywheel
Flywheel being a rotating disc, centrifugal stresses acts upon its distributed mass and attempts
to pull it apart. Its effect is similar to those caused by an internally pressurized cylinder
v v
ω ( ) (r r r )
g 8 v
v r r
ω ( ) 4r r r 5
g 8 r
material weight density ω angular velocity in rad sec. v Poisson’s ratio is the radius to
a point of interest, r and r are inside and outside radii of the solid disc flywheel.
Figure 6.3.7.3
The point of most interest is the inside radius where the stress is a maximum. What causes
failure in a flywheel is typically the tangential stress at that point from where fracture originated
and upon fracture fragments can explode resulting extremely dangerous consequences, Since
the forces causing the stresses are a function of the rotational speed also, instead of checking for
stresses, the maximum speed at which the stresses reach the critical value can be determined
and safe operating speed can be calculated or specified based on a safety factor. Consequently
ω
F. O. S (N) N
ω
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7.1.1 Fluids
It is defined as a substance which deforms continuously even with a small amount of shear force
exerts on it, whereas a solid offers resistance to the force because very strong intermolecular
attraction exists in it.
i) Liquid: has definite volume but no shape for all practical purposes incompressible
ii) Gas: has no shape and volume highly compressible
iii) Vapour: A gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near to the liquid
phase e.g.: Steam
Mass Density : It is defined as mass per unit volume. Unit: kg / m3, Dimension: M / L3
As pressure increases mass density increases. (As large number of molecules are forced into a
given volume)
Units: m3/kg
Specific gravity, G =
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Since the density of fluid varies with temperature, specific gravity must be determined and
specified at a particular temperature.
Viscosity: A measure of its resistance to shear or angular deformation. A property by virtue of
which it offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over the adjacent layer. It is due
to Intermolecular cohesion and Transfer of molecular momentum between layers.
Dynamic Viscosity :
Dimensions: M T or F T
It is independent of pressure. For Liquids dynamic viscosity decreases with temperature
because molecular momentum increases and cohesion is negligible in gases.
Kinematic Viscosity
Dimensions: L2T
Kinematic viscosity depends on both pressure and Temperature
Cavitation: Occurs in a flow system, dissolved gases (vapour bubbles) carried into a region of
high pressure and their subsequent collapse gives rise to high pressure, which leads to noise,
vibrations and erosion. Cavitation occurs in
1. Turbine runners 2. Pump impellers
3. Hydraulic structures like spillways and sluice gates 4. Ship propellers.
Compressibility: Change in volume (or density) due to change in pressure. Compressibility is
inversely proportional to Bulk Modulus K.
(negative sign indicates a decrease in volume with increase in pressure)
Coefficient of compressibility
Surface tension:
Cohesion: Force of attraction between the molecules of the same liquid.
Adhesion: force of attraction between the molecules of different liquids (or) between the liquid
molecules and solid boundary containing the liquid.
A liquid forms an interface with a second liquid or gas. This liquid – air interface behaves like a
membrane under tension. The surface energy per unit area of interface is called Surface Tension.
It can also be expressed as a line surface: Force per unit length.
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Capillarity: The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface relative to the adjacent general
level of liquid in small diameter tubes. The rise of liquid surface is designated as capillary rise
and lowering is called capillary depression. It happens due to both cohesion and adhesion.
Water
Figure. 7.1.2
Units: cm or mm of liquids
For e.g., Mercury depressive with convex upwards is capillary rise or fall
. . . (7.1.1)
h
mercury
Figure. 7.1.3
ς surface tension
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For tube dia. > 12mm capillary effects are negligible. Hence the dia. of glass tubes used for
measuring pressure (manometers, piezometer etc.) should be large enough.
7. .3 Newton’s aw of Viscosity:
moving plate
U
F
Gap filled
with fluid
dθ
Stationary plate
Figure. 7.1.4
∝
Where F is the Force required to move the surface Area ‘A’
∝ or τ μ u y
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Newtonian Fluids:
Which obeys Newton’s aw of Viscosity
Newtonian fluids have constant viscosity (Viscosity is independent of shear stress)
There will be linear relationship between shear stress and resulting rate of deformation. e.g.:
air, water, light oils and gasoline
τ
Q Bingham plastic
Thixotropic
D
E G
P
Newtonian
Dilatant
C Pseudoplastic
B
Ideal fluid
Figure. 7.1.5 du / dy
velocity gradient is ( )
Where A and B are constants depend upon the type of fluid and conditions imposed on
flow. Based on power index ‘n’ and constant B Non – Newtonian fluids are
i) B = 0 and n > 1
(represented by OE in Figure 7.1.5)
Dilatant Fluids, e.g.: Butter, quick sand
ii) B = 0 and n < 1
(represented by OC in Figure 7.1.5) Pseudoplastic
e.g.: Blood, Paper Pulp, Polymeric solutions such as rubber, suspension paints.
iii) (represented by PD in the Figure 7.1.5)
Bingham plastic Eg: Sewage sludge drilling mud require minimum shear stress τ known as
yield stress before they start flowing.
iv) Thixotropic Fluids: Printers ink, lipstick
Time dependent fluid i.e., viscosity depends upon both shear stress and duration of
application.
Viscosity increases or decreases with time.
e.g.: Paints and enamels, when subjected to high shear by the brush during application of
paints, the apparent viscosity is reduced the paint covers the surface smoothly and brush
marks disappears subsequently.
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Pascal’s aw: Intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is same in all the directions.
i) Viscosity of fluid has no effect on fluids at rest, therefore ideal and real fluids behave in a
similar manner.
ii) If the fluid is in motion, shear stresses occur and normal stresses are no longer same in all
directions at a point of a real fluid.
iii) If the fluid is in motion and fluids is ideal (frictionless) then no shear stresses, hence the
pressure at any point is same in all the directions.
W F
piston
P
P
Figure 7.2.1
Assumption: Pressure variation due to height neglected and friction force is neglected.
A = area of plunger
Wt. ‘W’ lifted
W = (F/a) × A
Where A = Area of piston.
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The linear variation of pressure with depth below the free surface is known as hydrostatic
pressure distribution.
a) Piezometer: It consists of a glass tube, open at one end to the atmosphere and another end
inserted in the wall of a pipe or a vessel. The height upto which the liquid rises in the tube is
called pressure head and the pressure .
Suitable for measuring moderate gauge pressures of liquids. Not suitable for high pressures,
suction pressures and pressures of gases.
b) Manometer: Pressure measuring device based on the principle of balancing the column of a
liquid (whose pressure is to be found) by the same or another column of liquid.
i) U – Tube Manometer: Consists of a U – shaped bend unit whose one end is attached to
the gauge point and other is open to the atmosphere. Can measure both positive as well
as negative pressures. Contains liquid of specific gravity greater than that of the fluid of
which the pressure is to be measured.
ii) Inverted U – Tube Manometer: Consists of an inverted U – Tube containing a light liquid.
- This is used only to measure the difference of low pressures between two points
where better accuracy is required. It generally consists of an air cock at top.
iii) Differential Manometer: A U – Tube manometric liquid heavier than the liquid for which
the pressure difference is to be measured, and is not immiscible with it (generally
mercury).
iv) Micro Manometer: Modified form of a simple manometer whose one limb is made of
large cross sectional area.
- Measurement of very small pr. differences with very high precision is made possible.
c) Mechanical Gauges: Generally used for measuring high pressures where high precision is not
required. Eg. Bourdon pressure gauge measures gauge pressures.
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M N F = γ.A.
F = γ.A.
MN → Plane surface to paper F = γ.A.
Figure 7.2.2
Note:
i) Force F always acts normal to the plane surface.
ii) The value of F is independent of the angle of inclination of the plane as long as the depth of
centroid is unchanged.
iii) Total Force F = Area × Pressure at the centroid = . ̅
iv) Pressure Prism Concept:
i) Total force F = volume of pressure prism
= area of pressure diagram X width of plane
ii) Force F acts at the C.G. of the pressure prism.
v) Centre of pressure (C.P): The point of application of resultant force (F).
̅ ̅ ̅
= M.I. of the section about an axis parallel o X passing through C.G. of the area.
v) C.P is always below the C.G as the depth of immersion is increased, the C.P. approaches the
C.G
Figure 7.2.3
NOTE:
i) CP always lies below CG.
ii) As the depth of immersion is more, CP comes closer to CG.
iii) From eq. it is evident that the position of CP is independent of θ i.e. θ may be varied by
rotating the surface provided h remains unchanged.
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E D
Total Force = F =
h
= Horizontal component
C
A Force on vertical Projection of the given area
H
L = vertical component
F = wt. of liquid prism vertically above it.
B
= wt. of liquid prism represented by ABCDE
Figure 7.2.5
7.2.3 Buoyancy
The resultant force exerted on a submerged or floating body in a static liquid is called ‘Buoyancy
Force F ’.
(i) The Buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
ii The Buoyancy force acts through the CG of the displaced volume called ‘Centre of Buoyancy
(C ’.
CB
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(iii) A floating body displaces a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the weight of the body.
G = center of gravity
B = center of buoyancy
Stable Equilibrium:
A slight rotational displacement generates forces which oppose the change of position and tend
Unstable Equilibrium:
(i) When CG lies above CB.
(ii) The over turning couple produced due to a slight disturbance will cause the body to move
away from its original position.
M
G
BM > BG
B
Neutral Equilibrium:
(i) When CG coincides with CB.
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(ii) Buoyancy Force (F ) is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body and acts
through the CG of the displaced liquid.
(iii) The body is in stable equilibrium if the meta centre lies above its CG. *i.e., BM > BG)
(iv) Meta Centre
c
a
M
0
G
B’ b
d W
Figure 7.2.6
B = Centre of Buoyancy (CB)
‘B’ is the shift in CB due a tilt through small angle ‘θ’.
The new CB (B cuts the vertical axis of the body (line cd) vertically at a point ‘M’ Meta
centre).
dA
Figure 7.2.7
Where I = second moment of area of water plane (m4) about an axis passing through centre
of area and perpendicular to the axis of tilted longitudinal axis = ∫
V = volume of liquid displaced by the body (m3).
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Classification of Flow:
(a) (i) Steady Flow: At any point of the flowing fluid, various characteristics such as velocity,
pressure density temperature etc., do not change with time.
Mathematically, ( ) 0 . . ( ) ( ) 0
( ) 0( ) 0( ) 0
e.g.: Flow of fluid through a pipe at constant rate of discharge.
(ii) Unsteady Flow: Flow parameters at any point change with time.
i.e., ( ) ( ) 0( ) 0 0
e.g.: Flow in which the quantity of liquid per second is not constant.
(b) (i) Uniform Flow: When the velocity of flow of fluid does not change both in magnitude and
direction from point to point in the flowing fluid, at any given instant of
time.
i.e., ( 0
e.g.: Flow of liquids under pressure through long pipe lines of constant diameter.
(ii) Non Uniform Flow: If the velocity of flow of fluid changes from point to point in the flowing
fluid at any instant of time.
Flow Pattern:
(a) Stream Line: An imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such away that the tangent
to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow at that point. Also called as flow
line, since flow is along the stream lines.
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Y
V
V
X
0
Figure 7.3.1
Stream lines indicate tracing of motion of a group of particles.
There can be no fluid flow across a stream line.
For steady flow, stream line pattern remains same at different times. For unsteady flow it
varies from time to time and hence instantaneous.
(b) Stream Tube: An imaginary tube formed by a group of stream lines passing through a small
closed curve.
There can be no flow across a stream tube.
Only in a steady flow, a stream tube is fixed in space.
(c) Path Line: The line traced by a single fluid particles as it moves over a period of time.
(d) Streak Line: A line traced by a fluid particle passing through a fixed point in a flow field.
e.g.: The trail of a colour dye injected at a point.
In steady flow a streak line, stream line and a path line are all identical.
(c) Convective Acceleration: Terms that represent the rate of increase of velocity due to
particle’s change of position.
In uniform flow convective acceleration is zero.
Note: In steady flow the local acceleration is zero, but the convective acceleration is not
necessarily zero and hence total or substantial acceleration is not necessarily zero. However if
flow is uniform also, convective acceleration is zero and therefore total acceleration is zero.
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Unlike velocity vector, the acceleration vector has no specific orientation with respect to
stream line i.e., it need not always be tangential to stream line. Therefore, at any point it may
have acceleration components both tangential and normal.
Tangential Acceleration is developed when the magnitude of velocity changes with respect to
space and time.
Normal Acceleration is developed when a fluid particle moves in a curved path i.e., simply due to
change in direction of velocity of fluid particle, regardless of whether the magnitude of the
velocity is changing (or) not. For steady flow .A. zero ‘O’ ∴ a V.
Tangential Acceleration,
a ( ) .
Normal Acceleration,
a ( )
Where
r = radius of curvature of stream line
V = tangential component of velocity
V = normal component of velocity
= local tangential acceleration
= local normal acceleration
. = convective tangential acceleration
. = convective normal acceleration
For steady flow, a V.
a V r
Basis: Principle of conservation of mass – mass can neither be created nor destroyed
(a) Differential form (in Cartesian co – ordinates):
(i) For compressible fluids, ( 0,
(ii) For incompressible fluids, ( u/ ( ) ( ) 0 vertically the divergence of
velocity vector .V=0
Assumptions:
(1) Flow is steady. (2) Flow is incompressible. (3) Velocity is uniform over a cross section.
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Q=∫ . ∫ .
(b) Irrotational Flow: If the liquid particles while moving in the direction of flow do not rotate
about their centers.
Mathematically in irrotational flow curl of velocity vector ∇ V 0.
True irrotational flow exists only in ideal fluids.
If at every point in the flowing fluid, the rotation components , and are equal to
zero, then the flow is known as irrotational.
For 0 [ ∂w dy ∂v ∂z ] 0 ∴ ∂w ∂y ∂y ∂z
For 0 [ ∂u dx ∂w ∂x ] 0 ∴ ∂u ∂z ∂w ∂x
For 2-dimension irrotational flow
w 0 ( ) *( ) ( )+ 0 ∴ ( ) ( )
For fluids or flows of large viscosity, flow is invariably rotational.
For fluids such as air and water having small viscosity, the flow in the region away from
boundary may be treated as irrotational.
In the case of rapidly converging or accelerating flows, flow may be treated as irrotational.
(b) Vorticity ξ : The limiting value of circulation divided by the area of closed contour, as the
area tends to zero.
Vorticity = circulation / area
[ ∂v ∂x ∂u ∂y ]
Note: Vorticity = 2 × rotation component W . i.e. ξ . (zeta)
Stream Function (𝛙): It is a scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative with
respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles (in counter clockwise
direction) to this direction.
i.e. ∂ψ ∂x v and ∂ψ y =
Laplace Equation for ‘ψ’:
For an irrotational flow, ∂ ψ ∂x ∂ ψ ∂y 0
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Also ( ∂y) ( ∂x) This will be true if ‘ψ’ is a continuous function and its second
derivative exists)
∴ Any function ‘ψ’ which is continuous is a possible case of fluid flow.
It is constant along a stream line.
The difference of stream functions for two stream lines is equal to the flow rate between them.
Potential Function (𝛟): A scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction.
( ) v ( ) w ( ).
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Dynamics of fluid flow is defined as that branch of science which deals with the study of fluids in
motion considering the forces which cause the flow.
a) Body or Volume forces: These are proportional to the volume of body. Ex: weight,
centrifugal force etc.
b) Surface forces: These are proportional to the surface area. Ex: Pressure force, shear or
tangential force, turbulence force, force of compressibility etc.
c) Linear Forces: Proportional to length. Ex: surface tension
Forces acting on a fluid in motion: The various forces that may influence are due to gravity,
pressure, viscosity, turbulence, surface tension and compressibility.
Only pressure and gravity forces (self weight which is a body force) are considered. The
equations are,
– . . . .
– . . . .
– . . . .
Note: In derivation of above equations, no assumption has been made that the mass density is
constant. Hence these equations are applicable to compressible or incompressible, non-viscous
fluids in steady or unsteady state of flow.
Integration of Euler’s equation of motion: Integration of Euler’s equation yields the Energy
equation under the following assumptions.
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a) There exists a force potential () which is defined as that whose negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the component of body force per unit mass in that
direction.
∴X ∂ ∂x Y ∂ ∂y Z ∂ ∂z
b) The flow is irrotational, i.e., the velocity potential exists (or) the flow may be rotational,
but is steady.
7.4.3 Bernoulli’s Equation:
a) Integration of Euler’s equation for steady incompressible and frictionless flow yields the
Bernoulli’s equation.
constant → This is for ideal fluids.
i.e., total energy of a particle remains constant.
Note: It is applicable to all points in the flow field i.e., for all the stream lines, the value of
constant is same.
Assumption made are:
1. Flow is steady
2. Flow is irrotational
3. Flow is incompressible
4. Flow is non-viscous i.e., density is constant
5. Flow is continuous
6. Velocity is uniform over a cross section
7. Fluid is ideal.
b) For real fluids there will be some loss of energy between two points.
∴( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (energy equation)
Here h = energy loss
In the above equation each term represents “Energy per unit weight”.
c) When the flow is steady but may not be irrotational i.e., rotational flow: In this case,
Bernoulli’s equation is applicable only to particular stream line that is the value of constant
is different for different stream lines.
d) Basis for Bernoulli’s equation is ‘ aw of conservation of Energy’. Therefore it is also called
‘Energy equation’.
Energies in fluid motion:
a) Datum head: A liquid particle ‘Z’ metres above a reference datum is same said to possess
a potential head or datum head ‘Z’.
b) Pressure head: P/W in metres. (It is due to energy possessed by a body).
c) Velocity head: V /2g (It is due to kinetic energy).
d) Piezometric head: (P/W) + Z.
Kinetic energy correction factor ∝ : In one dimensional method of analysis, the average velocity
‘V’ is used to represent the velocity at a cross section. The actual velocity distribution in the
cross section may be non-uniform. Hence the kinetic energy calculated by using ‘V’ must be
multiplied by a correction factor, to obtain kinetic energy at the cross section due to non-
uniform velocity distribution.
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Figure 7.4.1
Stagnation pressure head Static pressure head ‘h ’ Dynamic pressure head ‘h’
= h + h (h = difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure)
We have, h = V g. ∴ V =√
Actual velocity V = c√ , Where c = pitot tube constant
With U – tube manometer reading ‘x’ h x [ S s ]
Note:
1. A pitot measures stagnation pressure head (or the total head) at dipped end.
2. A pitot tube measures both static pressure and stagnation pressures.
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Converging cone
Diverging cone
Figure 7.4.2
i) An inlet section (U – tube)
ii) Converging cone
iii) Throat
iv) Divergent cone
Pressure taps are provided at the inlet section and throat.
c) Orifice meter: It consists of a plate having a sharp edged circular hole known as orifice which
is fixed inside the pipe whose discharge is required.
area ‘a0’
area ‘a’
Figure 7.4.3
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Stream lined
Figure Convergent nozzle
7.4.4
L
Figure 7.4.5
Since the pressure head is zero at every point, the sum of velocity and datum head is
constant.
b) Vortex Motion: A rotating of fluid is known as ‘Vortex’ and the motion of rotating mass of
fluid is known as ‘Vortex motion’. Different types of Vortex motion are described below :
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i) Free Vortex motion: Is that in which the fluid mass rotates without any external force
being impressed and the expenditure of energy from any external source takes place.
2) A wash basin (or) bath tub draining water through an outlet at a bottom.
3) Flow of liquid in a centrifugal pump casing after it has left the impeller.
No external torque is required to be exerted on the fluid mass. Therefore, the rate of change
of angular momentum of the flow must be zero.
As r → 0 v → the point where the velocity ‘V’ becomes infinity is called singular point.
Flow field of a vortex motion is everywhere irrotational except at the axis and therefore it is
also called irrotational vortex motion or potential vortex motion.
The equation v.r = constant, is applicable only to the region farther away from the central
region of free vortex motion which occurs frequently is known as ‘Rankine Vortex motion’.
ii) Forced Vortex motion: Forced vortex motion occurs when a constant torque is applied to
a fluid mass. Ex: Cylinder rotated about its vertical axis at a constant angular velocity
Important points:
a) On any horizontal plane the fluid pressure increases with the square of the radial
distance from center of vortex motion.
b) Surfaces of constant pressure are paraboloids of revolution.
c) The free surface is a special surface of constant pressure and is also a paraboloid of
revolution.
d) Forced vortex is basically a rotational motion.
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When a solid body is immersed in a fluid, there is a narrow region of the fluid in the
neighborhood of the solid body, where the velocity of fluid varies from zero to free stream
velocity. This narrow region of fluid is called “Boundary ayer”.
In this region velocity gradient ‘du dy’ exists and hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall
in the direction of motion given by
. .
Note: Outside the boundary layer velocity is constant and therefore velocity gradient and shear
stress are zero.
Laminar Boundary Layer: The boundary layer is called laminar boundary layer if the flow in the
boundary layer exhibits all the characteristics of a laminar flow, irrespective of whether the
incoming flow is laminar or turbulent.
Reynolds number is less than 5 × … for flow over flat plate.
Reynolds number is less than 2 × … for flow over sphere.
For flow over flat plates Re = Vx /
Where V = free stream velocity
x = distance from leading edge.
= kinematic viscosity of fluid.
Turbulent Boundary Layer:
Reynolds number is more than 5 × for flat plates
Reynolds number is more than 2 × for sphere
Factors affecting boundary layer thickness along a smooth plate:
a) It increases as the distance from leading edge increases.
b) It decreases with the increase in the velocity in the direction of flow of the approaching
stream of fluid.
c) Greater is the kinematic viscosity of fluid, greater is the Boundary Layer thickness.
d) Boundary layer thickness is affected by pressure gradient in the direction of flow. If the
pressure gradient is negative (converging flow), it accelerates the retarded fluid in the
Boundary Layer and hence its growth is retarded. If pressure gradient is positive
(divergent flow), the fluid in the Boundary Layer is further decelerated and hence assists
in thickening of boundary layer. In the later case back flow and separation may be
caused.
Laminar Sub-layer ( ): If the plate is very smooth, even in the region of turbulent boundary
layer, there is a very thin layer adjacent to the boundary, in which flow is laminar. This layer is
known as “ aminar Sub-layer”.
.6 v V. . √
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∫
Momentum Thickness θ : The distance from the actual boundary such that the momentum flux
corresponding to the main stream velocity ‘V’ through this distance ‘θ’ is equal to the deficiency
or loss
∴ ∫
Energy Thickness : The distance from the actual boundary such that the energy flux
corresponding to the main stream velocity ‘V’ through this distance is equal to the deficiency
or loss in energy due to the boundary layer formation.
∴ ∫ ( )
U U
U=0.99 y 0.99 u
y
θ
Relative magnitudes of
Nominal & displacement , ,θ
thickness
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(ii) Total horizontal force (skin friction drag) on one side of plate
F ∫ τ B dx = C B ( )
Where B = width of plate
L = length of plate
.
Average drag coefficient (or) Total frictional drag coefficient C
√
Where R
(iii) The velocity Distribution is infact parabolic for laminar boundary layer. Being smaller
in thickness it can be assumed as linear distribution.
Relation between θ and for Laminar Boundary Layer
, , 3θ ⟶ for linear distribution velocity
Transition from Laminar Boundary Layer between R .3 0 to 4 0
Critical R 5 0
Transition from laminar Boundary Layer
If R lies between .3 0 to 4 0
Turbulent Boundary Layer:
Usually thicker than laminar ones.
.
(ii) Local drag coefficient C
.
Average drag coefficient C if 5 × 0 < Re < 0
.
As per schlitching, C * . + if 0 R 0
Separation of Boundary Layer: Boundary Layer separation takes place due to adverse or positive
pressure gradient. i.e., when dp/dx > 0 and 0. In fact separation starts when 0
Thus,
(i) ( ) 0 … condition for separation.
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A B C
D
P min
Effective pressure gradient on
boundary layer separation
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c) Euler number (R): V / √ . . It is derived from ratio of Inertia and pressure forces.
Significance: For compressible flows, high speed flows, motion of objects like aeroplane
and projectiles through air at super sonic speeds.
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Lift force occurs only when the axis of body is inclined to the direction of flow. If the axis of body
is parallel to the direction of flow, lift force is zero, only drag force acts. If fluid is assumed ideal
and body is symmetrical such as sphere or cylinder, both the drag and lift are zero.
Vo Lift
Resultant
P
Drag
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The flow in pipes will generally be under a pressure greater than atmospheric, whether a flow is
Laminar or Turbulent generally depends upon the Reynolds number, that is ratio of inertia force
to viscous force.
R or R
As fluid flows through a pipe certain resistance is offered to the flowing fluid, resulting in a loss
of energy. Broadly these are of two types.
The reason for the frictional resistance in the case of laminar flow being independent of the
nature of the surface in contact, is that when a fluid flows past a surface with velocity less than
critical velocity, a film of almost stationary fluid is formed over the surface, which prevents the
flowing fluid to come in contact with the boundary surface. Similarly in the case of laminar flow
the resistance is due to viscosity only and the viscosity of a fluid depends on its temperature.
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Major Loss of Head : The basic equation used is Darcy Weis Bach Equation.
The ratio “ S ” represents the energy slope which is equal to the hydraulic gradient in
uniform flow. In long pipe lines ‘h ’ forms a major part of the total loss.
The above equation is derived based on experiment of Froude, which revealed that
≈ 0.5
vena contracta
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An obstruction to flow [ ]
h
V
‘C ’ lies between 0.6 to a
0.666 A
Pipes In Series Or Compound Pipe: If a pipe line connecting two reservoirs is made up of several
pipes of different diameters D , D and D etc., and lengths , and etc… all connected end
to end, then the system is called pipes in series, in such a case.
i) The difference in liquid surface levels in the two reservoirs is equal to sum of the head
losses in all the sections.
Q Q Q
Figure 7.6.1
Equivalent Pipe: Often a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of varying diameters and
lengths is to be replaced by a pipe of uniform diameter, known as equivalent pipe. The uniform
diameter of equivalent pipe is known as equivalent diameter.
Pipes in Parallel: When a main pipe line divides into two or more parallel pipes which again join
together downstream side and continue as a main line, the pipes are said to be parallel.
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Note: The pipes are connected in parallel in order to increase the discharge passing through the
main.
a) Rate of discharge in main line is equal to sum of discharge in each of parallel pipes.
Q=Q Q …
b) Head loss is constant
i.e., h
Note: If there are ‘n’ pipes of same diameter laid in parallel in place of a single pipe then
diameter of each parallel pipe.
Hydraulic transmission of power: The pipes carrying water under pressure from one point to
other may be used to transmit hydraulic power.
0 ∴H 3h
i.e., loss of head should be 1/3 of total head to have maximum power transmitted.
Efficiency of power transmission η
The laminar flow of a fluid is one in which the fluid moves in layers (laminae), each layer sliding
over the adjacent one. The viscosity plays a dominant role on the fluid motion.
Critical Reynolds number: The Reynolds value below which the flow can be certainly considered
to be laminar is known as critical Reynolds number
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The basic equations which govern the motion of incompressible viscous fluid in laminar flow are
“Navier stoke’s equation”
For a two dimensional, steady uniform flow relation between shear and pressure gradients is:
∂P ∂X ∂τ ∂y
i.e., pressure gradient in the direction of flow is equal to the shear stress gradient in the normal
direction.
0.707R Linear
D
R
Figure 7.6.2
Mean velocity (V) occurs at a distance of 0.707 R from centre of pipe and is equal to half of
maximum velocity which occurs at centre.
.e., V =
* + [ ]
i.e. τ τ
i.e., τ ( )
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Head loss : The variation of head loss ‘h ’ due to uniform laminar flow in a length ‘ ’ of a pipe
of diameter ‘D’ is given by Hagen – Poiseuille equation
i.e., *because V ( D )+
Power (P): In laminar flow the power required to overcome frictional resistance i.e., h in a
pipe of length ‘ ’ and diameter ‘D’ carrying a discharge ‘A’ of a fluid of specific weight ‘r’ and
viscosity ‘ ’ is
P = γ Qh = =Q P P
Shear
Velocity Shear
Distribution Distribution
Figure 7.6.3
Head loss hf μV γB
V = *( ) ( )+ [Bγ γ ]
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The force resisting the motion of sphere (i.e., the drag on the sphere) was then obtained by
Stokes as
F 3πμ Vd
It has been experimentally found that the Stokes’ law expressed by Eq. is valid only if the
Reynolds number is less than 0.1. It is used to determine the fall of relatively small bodies
through fluids of relatively high viscosity such as the fall of dust particles, mist droplets in the
atmosphere and the settlement of silt in reservoirs.
A small solid particle falling through a fluid under its own weight will accelerate until the net
downward force on it is zero. In other words, when the submerged weight of the particle is equal
to force given by Eq. it will have reached the steady state of its motion. No further acceleration is
then possible and the particle is said to have reached its terminal velocity.
Thus, the submerged weight (weight of particle minus the buoyant force) = Resisting force
where γ and γ are the specific weights of the solid and the fluid respectively. The Eq. expresses
the Stokes’ law. It’s validity lies within the Reynolds number 0. .
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Figure 7.7.1
Jet Striking a Moving Vane Tangentially at One Tip
In order to obtain a higher efficiency it is always desirable that the relative velocity vector ‘V ’
strike the vane tangentially.
U = Velocity of curved vane
V = Absolute velocity of jet at inlet (A C )
u = Vane velocity at inlet (A B )
V = Relative velocity at inlet (B C )
V = Velocity of whirl at inlet (A D )
Component of ‘V ’ in the direction of blade motion i.e. along ‘u’
V = Velocity of flow at inlet (D C )
Normal component of ‘V ’ to the blade motion.
= Angle made by jet with direction of vane or blade motion ∠C A D
= Angle made by relative velocity vector at inlet in the direction of motion of vane at inlet.
∠C B D
The direction of fluid jet changes as if flows over the smooth surface of the vane, and at the
outlet tip it emerges with a relative velocity ‘V ’ inclined at angle ‘ ’ as shown in Fig. 7. .
Blade or vane angle at outlet. ∠A B C )
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Note: If is the change in the whirl velocity ‘V ’ between inlet and outlet sections that produces
the force on the vane and is responsible for doing work.
Force on vane: ‘V ’ denotes the fate of flow passing through control volume.
Forces on Vanes:
Case (a): If < 90°
Force on the vane ρQ [V V ] ρQ [V V ]
γQ g [V V ] W/g [V V ]
‘W’ Wt of fluid striking the vane sec γQ γ sp. weight of fluid
Case (b): If > 90°,
Force on the vane ρQ [V V ]
= W/g [V V ]
Workdone per second = Power (on the vane)
Workdone / second = Power = F.u
= W/g (V V ). u if < 90°
= W/g (V V ). u if > 90°
W γQ
Vane Efficiency:
. .
.
Note:- If blade friction is negligible, then the workdone by the jet = Change in kinetic energy.
∴ Vane Efficiency
( )
( )
Curved Vanes Mounted on a Wheel: For rotation of the wheel at constant angular speed ‘ ’ the
blade tip velocity will be
u w u w
‘r ’ and ‘r ’ being the radii at the inlet and outlet respectively.
Consider the flow through the runner of a turbo machine. Let the flow enter the runner blade
with an absolute velocity ‘V ’ at an angle ‘ ’ and leave it with absolute velocity ‘V ’ at an angle
.
It is preferred to draw velocity triangle on the blade tips. As shown in Fig. 7.7.2
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Vw1
Vw U1
1
V1 1 1 1
Inlet Vr1
Vr1 Vf1
INLET VELOCITY
TRIANGLE
outlet
Vw2
U2
r1
Vr2 Vf2
V2
Efficiency of pump
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Figure 7.7.4
Notations:
V = Velocity of jet at inlet = C √
(C = Co. eff. of velocity = 0.97 to 0.99 takes care of loss in nozzle)
V = Absolute velocity of jet leaving the bucket.
U = Absolute velocity of bucket considered along the direction tangential to the pitch circle.
V = (V U ) = Velocity of incoming jet relative to the bucket.
V = Velocity of jet leaving the bucket relative to the bucket.
V = K. V , K = blade friction coeff.
V = Velocity of whirl at the inlet tip of bucket.
V = Velocity of whirl at the outlet tip of bucket. = (V Cos u
Angle of blade at outlet tip
Angle made by absolute velocity with peripheral velocity at outlet
U = U = U πDN 60 D dia of wheel N speed of wheel in r.p.m.
Since the inlet and outlet tips of the bucket are at the same radial distance from the center of
shaft.
Outlet Velocity Triangles: At the outlet tip any of the three velocity triangle are possible
depending upon the magnitude of ‘U’ corresponding to which it is a slow medium or fast
runner.
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Vr1 V2 = Vf2 V2
Vf2 Vr2
V2
Vf2
2 2
2 2 2 2
Vw2
U2 = U Vw2 U2 = U U2 = U
Figure 7.7.5
;
90° V negative 90° V 0 > 90°, V is positive)
Torque = F.r., Power = F.r.w. = (Tw) = F.u.
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∴ Hydraulic Efficiency
(Hydraulic Efficiency represents the effectiveness of wheel in converting the Kinetic
Energy of the jet into mechanical energy of rotation).
v) Conditions for Maximum Efficiency:- outlet blade angle
0.54 * + metres.
G) Jet Ratio (m):- The ratio of pitch diameter ‘D’ of the Pelton Wheel to the diameter of the
jet (d).
i.e. m = (D/d). It is an important parameter in the design of Pelton Wheel. For maximum
efficiency jet ratio varies from 11 to 14 and is 12 for most cases.
H) Number of buckets for a Pelton Wheel Runner
5 5 0.5 m = jet ratio.
I) Number of Jets:- It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine by
the rate of flow of water through a single jet.
J) Important dimensions of a Pelton Wheel in terms of jet diameter ‘d’:
Axial Width B = 3d to 5d, radial length L = 2d to 3d
M . to . 5d 0° to 0°
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Reaction turbine means that the water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic energy as well
as pressure energy. As the water flows through the runner, a part of pressure energy goes on
changing into kinetic energy. Thus runner is completely enclosed in an air tight casing and the
runner is always full of water.
i) Spiral casing
ii) Stay Ring
iii) Guide Mechanism
iv) Runner
‘A’ and ‘B’ above are most efficient ‘C’ and ‘D’ have an advantage that they require lesser
excavation for their installation
Francis Turbine: It is a mixed flow type of reaction turbine. Water enters the runner radially at
its outer periphery and leaves axially at its centre.
Vr Vf = V
Figure 7.7.6
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ηh Vw U / Gh
* +
ρaV W g
W = Wt. of water striking per second.
Over all efficiency S.H.P WQH ⟶ in SI system S.H.P in W
S.H.P / (WQH/75 ⟶ S.H.P in H.P
∴ power ‘P’ developed by runner
Note: HP ≈ 746 W
P ηo. W.Q.H W Sp. wt. of water
The overall efficiency of Francis Turbine ranges from 80 to 90%
Working Proportions of Francis Turbine:
i) The ratio of width ‘B’ of the wheel to the diameter ‘D’ of the runner is represented by
‘n’ that is n B D. It varies from 0. to 0.45.
ii) Flow Ratio : The ratio of Velocity of flow V at inlet tip of the vane to the spouting
velocity √ is known as flow ratio ‘Ψ’.
∴ Flow ratio Ψ V / √ gH. It varies form 0.15 to 0.30.
iii) Speed ratio ‘’ U √ gH, varies from 0.60 to 0.90.
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six blades. Servometer is used for adjustment of runner blades. Eddy losses, which are inevitable
in Francis and Propeller turbines are almost eliminated in a Kaplan Turbine.
Working Proportions of a Kaplan turbine:
i) Ratio n = d / D
where ‘d’ Hub or Boss diameter D runner outside dia. It varies from 0.35 to 0.60.
ii) Discharge ‘Q’ through the runner is given by
[ ( ) ]
[ √ ] 4
Where flow ratio Ψ 0.70 for Kaplan Turbine.
iii) Velocity flow at inlet and outlet are equal i.e. Vf Vf .
iv) Area of flow at inlet Area of flow at outlet π D d )/4
7.7.5 Specific Speed and Performance of Turbines
Specific Speed: The speed of a homologous turbine developing unit power under unit head.
√
Where N = original speed of rotation of turbine runner
P = shaft horse power
H = net head
Note:
(i) In SI system if P power in KW ‘N’ speed of rotation in r.p.m ‘H’ in m ‘Ns’ has the
dimensional formula of M1/2 L-1/4 T-5/2
(ii) Homologous Turbine : A turbine which is geometrically and kinematically similar i.e.,
having similar stream lines (or) similar velocity triangles.
1. Significance of specific speed (Ns) : Defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in
shape, geometrical dimensions, blade angles, gate opening etc., with the actual turbine but of
such a size that it will develop unit horse power. When working under unit head.
It is useful in comparing the different types of turbines as every type of turbine has different
specific speed.
Mathematically, Ns
Note:
(1) If ‘P’ is in metric horse power the specific speed is obtained in M.K.S units.
(2) If ‘P’ is taken in Kilowatts the specific speed is obtained in S.I. units.
Significance:
(1) For selecting type of turbine.
Also performance of a turbine can be predicated.
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Note: Some of the authors report Ns as 35 to 50. The higher the specific speed, the smaller
the runner diameter as well as overall size of runner, due to which the weight and the cost of
runner are reduced.
3. Unit Quantities : In order to predict behaviors of a turbine working under varying conditions
of head, speed, output and grate opening, the results are expressed in terms of quantities
which may be obtained when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity. The conditions of
turbine under unit head are such that the efficiency of the turbine remains unaffected. The
important unit quantities are given below.
(A) Unit Speed : It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head. (ie., under
a head of 1 m). Denoted by ‘N ’.
We have N N√
Where N speed of turbine under a head ‘H’
H = head under which a turbine is working
U = tangential velocity.
√ √
4. Similitude in Turbines:
Scale models are often used in designing and other studies relating to turbines. Geometric
similarity is assured by having geometrically similar velocity vector diagram. It is usual to
neglect viscous effects in the model studies. The model and prototype characteristic
relationships are usually expressed in terms of the following relationship between the
variables:
√ √
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In reaction turbines the cavitation may occur at the runner exit or the inlet to the draft tube,
where the pressure is considerably reduced.
Due to cavitation the metal of the runner vanes and the draft tube is gradually eaten away in
these zones, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine. As such the turbine
components should be so designed that as far as possible cavitation is eliminated.
In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the turbine,
Where H is atmospheric pressure head, H is vapour pressure head, H is suction pressure head
(or height of runner outlet above tail race) and H is working head of turbine.
Complete similarity in respect of cavitation can be ensured if the value of ς is same in both the
model and the prototype. Moreover it has been found that ς depends on Ns of the turbine, and
for a turbine of particular Ns the factor ς can be reduced upto a certain value upto which its
efficiency dose not remains constant. A further decrease in the value of ς results in a sharp fall in
no. The value of ‘ς’ at this turning point is called critical cavitation factor ‘ςc’ The value of ‘ςc’ for
different turbines may be determined with the help of the following empirical relationship.
For Francis Turbines ς 0.6 5 N 444 -------------- (i)
For Kaplan turbines, values of obtained by equation (ii) should be increased by 10 percent.
If ‘ς’ for a turbine is greater than’ς ’ no cavitation.
Centrifugal Pumps are rotodynamic type of pumps in which the dynamic pressure developed
enables the lifting of liquids from a lower level to a higher level.
1. Classification of Centrifugal Pumps: The basis for classification of Centrifugal Pumps depends
upon the following characteristics features:
i) Working Head
ii) Type of Casing
iii) Relative direction of flow through impeller
iv) Number of impellers per shaft
v) Number of entrances to the impeller
vi) Type of Liquid Handled
vii) Disposition of Shaft
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√
viii) Specific Speed N
ix) Dimensionless Parameter K
a) Working Head: Based upon the head at which water is delivered the pumps are Classified
as
i) Low Lift Centrifgal Pumps:
- Heads upto 15m, - Impeller surrounded by volute.
- No guide vane, - Shaft generally horizontal.
- Entrance of water to the impeller from one side or both sides depending upon the
quantity of discharge.
ii) Medium lifts Centrifugal Pumps:
- Works against the head as high as 40 m
-They are provided with guide vanes.
iii) High lift Centrifugal Pumps:
-They deliver liquids at the heads of above 40 m
Classification based upon the direction of flow:
i) Radial Flow Pump: Almost all centrifugal pumps are manufacture with radial flow
impellers.
ii) Mixed Flow Pump: Used for irrigation purposes.
- arge Q at low ‘H’.
- Liquid flows in the impeller with a combination of radial and axial flow.
- These look like a screw and also called as screw impeller pumps.
iii) Axial Flow Pump: The flow through the impeller is in the axial direction only.
- Very large Q at low heads
- There is no centrifugal action.
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Q = Discharge m sec .
Delivery head (Total or manometric) in ‘m’.
Ns *Ns
Types of Impeller Q= /sec, H = 1m With Q = Litres/sec H = 1m
a) Slow speed radial flow runner 10-30 300-900 rpm
* Ns = 30 Ns
Work done by the impeller:
Liquid enters the impeller radially i.e., Abs. Velocity of liquid at inlet is in radial direction.
∴ 90 0 - For shock free entry of liquid.
The relative velocities V and V are parallel to the vane at the inlet and outlet tips.
(In case of diffusion pump, the direction of absolute velocity of liquid leaving the impeller
coincides with the tangent to the inlet tip).
U2
Vw2
Outlet velocity
2 2
triangle
V2 Vf2 Vr2
Tangent to impeller at
Outlet of vane
Figure 7.7.7
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= Change in K.E. + Centrifugal head + Static pr. Head (energy produced by impeller)
3. Head of pump:
a) Static Head:
H h h
h = Static suction lift
h = Static delivery lift
Static head is the net total vertical height through which the liquid is lifted by the pump.
b) Manometric head (or) Total Head (or) Gross Head (or) Effective head
“Total Head required to be produced by the pump to satisfy external requirements”.
H = Energy given to the liquid by the impeller - Losses of head in the pump.
.
- Losses of head in the pump
Also H h h h h V ( is neglected).
4. Efficiencies:
i) Manometric Efficiency
η ⁄
(or) η
.
( )
iii) Mechanical Efficiency η
. .
iv) Overall Efficiency η η Xη Xη
The efficiency of a pump decreases due to variation in design discharge and speed because of
loss of head due to shock at the inlet.
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( ) gH D 0.5 D
. √
D This equation is similar to for ∅ √3
Dia. of suction pipes:
.
V = velocity of flow in suction pipe.
√
Specific Speed : Ns = (Most commonly used) (Dimension formula)
√
* Also on power criteria. The uncommon expression for specific speed. Ns
“The speed in r.p.m. of a geometrically similar pump of such a size that under corresponding
conditions it would absorb 1 KW power when working against a head of 1 metre.
Non – Dimensional specific speed (or) Shape number of the pump:
√
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* For pumps discharging large quantities at low heads. Such as axial flow pumps the N will
have large value.
7. Multi Stage Pumps in series:
Head produced by a C.P. depends on the rim speed of the impeller, which can be increased by
increasing rotative speed or the dia. of the impeller or both, requiring large impellers.
A multi stage pump consists of two or more identical impellers mounted on a common shaft
and enclosed in the same casing.
All the impellers are connected in series.
Total head. H = n (H ) H = head gained in the impeller
= n (H H ) H = head gained in the guides
∴H H H ,Q=Q Q
8. Pumps in Parallel:
When a large quantity of liquid is required to be pumped against a relatively small head, two
or more pumps are connected in parallel.
Pumps in parallel are so arranged that early pump works separately lifting liquid from a
common sump and delivering it to a common collecting pipe.
… ….
. If
H = constant.
9. Priming of Pump:
Pressure developed is ∝ specific weight of the liquid in contact. If air is in contact, pressure
developed is for air and cannot pump the liquid.
∴ Priming i.e. filling the liquid in suction pipe impeller casing and in delivery pipe upto
delivery valve with the liquid to be pumped is essential.
- Gain in pressure head between the outlet of the impeller and the outlet of the pump is given
by
K(V /2g), K = 0.4 for volute casing
K = 0.7 for turbine pump or diffusion casing.
When pumps are installed above the level of sump. Pressure at inlet < P .
Applying Bernoulli’s eq. at pump inlet and the liquid level in sump, the absolute pressure
head.
V = vel. In suction pipe.
ht. of inlet above the sump.
[ ]
h = head loss in strainer
It is not possible to create at the pump inlet, an absolute pressure lower than the vapour
pressure. If P = vapour pressure of liquid in Abs, units then P P P in limiting case.
∴
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Suction lift in no case shall be greater than the above value otherwise vaporizations of liquid
due to reduction in pressure takes place leading to cavitation.
* Usually h = 6 to 8 m for water at 10° 20° C
h 0m for water at 65℃
Positive pressure shall be provided at pump inlet if water is at 65℃. i.e. the pump to be
installed below sump water level.
NPSH = Abs. Pr. Head at pump inlet – vapour pr. Of liquid to be pumped – vel. Head in the
suction pipe.
K [ h h ]
∴ NPSH h h
If the pressure at the suction side of the pump drops below the vapour pressure of the liquid
then cavitation may occur.
Cavitation in a centrifugal pump results in sudden drop of head and efficiency.
Thomas’s cavitation factor
Critical τ 0. 03 ( )
“When hot liquids are to be pumped the pumps have to be installed at liquid surface or even
below the liquid surface”
In first case h = 0, in second case h 0 indicating that there is ve pr. at pump inlet.
Suction specific speed S=N √
Range of ‘S’ for cavitation free operation of C.P. and propeller pumps.
S = 4700 to 6700
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For 1-D steady state heat conduction through homogeneous material without heat generation is given
by
Q = – K A (dt/dx) ⇒ q = Q/A = - K (dt/dx)
Thermal resistance:
( )
Electric current (I), Heat flow rate (Q),Voltage (V), Temp. difference (dt), Resistance – dx/KA –
called thermal resistance (Rt)
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α = K/ρc called thermal diffusivity and is a physical property of the material. It is more useful in
unsteady conduction situations.
For one dimensional, steady state with
Liquids have low “K” and high “ρc” and so low “α”
Solids have high “K” and low “ρc” and so high “α”
α indicates rate at which heat is distributed in a material
The relative magnitude of thermal diffusivity is a measure of rapidity with which the material
responds to sudden temp changes.
In insulators the heat conduction takes place due to vibration of atoms about their mean positions
In metals besides atomic vibrations, there are large no of free electrons which also participate in
the process of heat conduction.
8.1.3 Steady state conduction
Conduction through a plane wall:
Let δ = isotropic wall thickness
K = Constant thermal conductivity
A = Constant C.S. area
K A
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Assume one dimensional heat conduction through homogeneous material and wall is insulated on its
lateral faces but different constant temperatures T1 and T2 are maintained at boundary surfaces.
The general heat conduction equation of one – dimensional, steady state without heat generation is
on integration and substituting the B.C‟s, the temp distribution equation becomes
dt/dx = ( δ
From temp distribution equation it is seen that it is linear across the wall and it is independent of the
material because it does not involve thermal conductivity. From H.T. equation it can be written as
Under steady state conditions heat flow does not vary across the wall i.e., it is same for every layer.
Therefore
δ δ δ
Heat flow through a multi – layer composite wall can be calculated based on the assumption that
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hall
𝛅
For steady state unidirectional with no internal heat generation the equation becomes
on integration and substituting the B.C‟s we get the temp distribution equation as
Q=( where
Where is the logarithmic mean area = (A2 – A1) / log (A2 / A1)
Steady state, one dimensional with no heat generation equation in spherical co-ordinates is
( )
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on integration and substituting the B.C‟s we get the temp distribution equation as
* +
* +
Q = (KA ∆ T / δ) = {(K Am ∆ T) / ( )}
Where Am = 4 =4
Where rm = √
Shape factor : In general all the factors relating to geometry of the section are grouped together into a
single constant called the shape factor. Shape factors for different sections are
The unit of shape factor is length units. From the above it is seen that for a prescribed temp difference
( ), bodies with the same shape factor will allow heat transfer proportional to material “K”
0.15 X dx
A complete rectangular furnace has 6 walls, 12 edges and 8 corners. The shape factor for complete
furnace is
dx = wall thickness
if not √
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Note: For same inside capacity and same amount of fabrication material, same temp and same material
the heat loss is lowest in cylindrical furnace because of lowest shape factor. The ratio of R.T or S.F are
cubical : spherical : cylindrical is 1 : 0.71 : 0.439
β = constant
X
𝛅
The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum is called critical radius and
corresponding thickness of insulation is critical thickness.
Critical thickness =
When the effect of wall thickness dominates the overall thermal resistance
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Generally H.T from a surface is calculated based on Q = hA (T – Ta), from this it is seen that H.T. can
be increased by increasing h or A or (T – Ta) or combination, but h depends on geometry, fluid
properties, flow rate so we cannot increase much amount of “h” and also (T – Ta) is difficult to
increase
So the only way is to increase the surface area of H.T. This can be done by providing extensions to the
surfaces which are called extended surfaces or fins.
Ac = b.t
Perimeter = 2 (b + t)
Ac =
Perimeter = d
Assumptions
Take a small element of fin which has thickness dx and is located at a distance “x” from wall. Heat
conducted into the element at plane “x” = Heat Conducted out from fin at (x + dx) + heat convected
from the fin between plane x and (x + dx)
This is the general heat dissipation equation from the fin surface
T = To at x = 0 and θ = θo = To – Ta
T = Ta at x = ∝ and θ = 0
On substitution
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Q = - K Ac (dt/dx)x = 0
On simplification
Q = - K. Ac (- m θ) = K. Ac (m θ √ .θ
Generally tapered fin is preferred because it has more lateral area near the base where the difference in
temperature is high.
Θ = θo at x = 0
dt / dx = 0 at x = 1
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1. θ = θo at x = 0
2. heat conducted to the fin at x = L equals to the heat convected from the end of the fin to
surroundings.
√ θ
Fin performance:
Efficiency of Fin: It is the ratio of performance of an actual fin to that of an ideal or fully effective fin
Effectiveness of fin: It is the ratio of the H.T. with fin to H.T. without fin.
But from practice the fins on surfaces is justified only if the ratio PK / hAc > 5
Fins are generally made of Al (even though its thermal conductivity is less than that of copper)
because of its lower cost and weight
ρ/Ac increases, the ε also increases and to accommodate this we use thin fins at less pitch
Fins will always be used where the h.t.c is less. Suppose if there is fluid at one side and gas at the
other side, it is preferred to use fins in gas side. This is the reason for not using fins in steam
condenser tubes:
ε for fin insulated at tip.
Note: For calculating error in measurement of temp of gas with thermometric well
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Where
= Gas temperature
For steady state the main assumption is temp at both sides is constant over a period of time. But in
reality it is not possible to maintain constant temp and so is called unsteady state heat conduction, it is
of time dependent
Change in temperature during unsteady state may follow a periodic or non-periodic variation
In non-periodic the variation in temp is neither according to any definite pattern nor is in repeated
cycles.
Ex:- heating of ingot in a furnace
In periodic variation, temp changes in repeated cycles and the conditions get repeated after some
fixed time interval.
Ex : temperature variations in the cylinder of I.C engine
for ex:- quenching of small metal billet casting in bath. In this case convection is more predominant
than conduction. So conduction resistance is neglected.
K⟶α⟶ ⟶O
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Note:- The problems which comes under this type requires solids of large K, with areas that are large
in proportion to their volumes like thin metallic wires and plates
Heat treatment of metals by quenching, time response of thermocouples, thermometers etc can be
analyzed by this method.
The process in which << is called Newtonian heating or cooling
Biot Number (Bi): It gives an indication of internal conduction resistance to the external convection
resistance. A small value of Bi indicates the system has a small conduction resistance, so when the
conduction resistance is small, almost uniform temp exists within the system or solid body. The
convection resistance predominates and convection heat exchange controls the transient phenomenon.
So the requirement for lumped heat parameter is
Bi < 0.1
That is for plates or cylinders or spheres if Bi < 0.1, the body temperatures differs only by 5% at any
time.
It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through solid. For example if α/ is
small, a large time τ is required to obtain a significant change of temp.
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And on simplification
The important application of lumped heat parameter is thermocouple and thermometer. In general we
expect that the temp of measuring instrument should reach the temp of source as early as possible.
That is the response time should be as min as possible.
For rapid response the index τ ρ should be as large as possible to make the exponential
term reach zero faster.
The above can be reached by decrease wire dia, density and specific heat or by increasing the value of
h, therefore a thin wire should be used in thermocouples
τ/τ* = 1
The lower the value of τ*, the better the response of thermocouple
This needs graphs correlating (T – Ta) / (To – Ta) and l/Bi for different values of x/L or r/R etc
If temp distribution is given, Bi is found from graph and then we can calculate Fo, from Fo ⟶ τ can
be calculated and vice versa
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∝ τ
√ ∝
√τ ∝
√∝ τ
For using infinite solution to body of finite thickness subjected to one dimensional is
√∝ τ
Under similar conditions the temp at the center of cylinder or sphere of radius “R” is
∝τ
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Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a surface and a fluid moving over it.
The energy transfer in convection is mainly due to bulk motion of fluid particles.
If this motion is mainly due to density variations then it is called free or natural convection.
If this motion is produced by some super imposed velocity field then it is called forced
convection.
Let us take an arbitrary shape of area A at temp Ts, over which a fluid flows at a velocity V and at
temp the local heat flux according to Newton‟s law of cooling is
q=h(
Where ∫
The physical properties (μ,K,ρ,Cp) of a fluid are temp dependent. But there is no definite rule to take
properties at a particular temp. the accuracy will dependent upon the temp at which properties are
taken.
Reynolds Number (Re): It is the ratio of Inertia force to the viscous force. It is indicative of the
relative importance of inertial and viscous effects in a fluid motion. At low Reynolds number, the
viscous effects dominate and so the fluid motion is laminar. At high Reynolds number, the inertial
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effects lead to turbulent flow and the associated turbulence level dominates the momentum and energy
flux.
Grashof number (Gr): Indicates the relative strength of the buoyant to viscous force.
∆
∆ ∆
l = characteristic length
∆t = temp difference (
ρ = density
μ = fluid viscosity
Grashof number has a role in free convection similar to that played by Reynolds number in forced
convection.
Prandtl number (Pr): It is indicative of the relative ability of the fluid to diffuse momentum and
internal energy by molecular mechanisms.
μ ρ ρ α
The kinematic viscosity indicates the momentum transport by molecular friction and thermal
diffusivity represents the heat energy transport through conduction. So „Pr‟ provides a measure of
relative effectiveness of momentum and energy transport by diffusion.
„Pr‟ is a connecting link between velocity and thermal boundary layers respectively.
δ/δ
n = positive index
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δ <<<<< δ . . . . . . . . . oils
δ ≈ δ . . . . . . . . gases
Nusselt number (Nu): Establishes the relation between convective film coefficient h, thermal
conductivity K, and characteristic length l of the physical system
Stanton Number (St): It is the ratio of heat transfer coefficient to the flow of heat per unit
temperature rise due to the velocity of the fluid.
Then the ratio of H.T with one shield to without shield is ½ (half)
There will be two surface resistances for each radiation shield and one for each radiating
plane, if all “ε” are equal, all surface resistances are equal. If n shields are used then no. of
surface resistances is equal to (2n + 2), and the no. of space resistances are equal to (n + 1)
Presence of n – shields reduces the radiant heat transfer by a factor of (n + 1) i.e if configuration factor
is equal to “zero”
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The total radiant energy (Qo) comprising upon a body would be partially or totally absorbed by it
(Qa), reflected from its surface (Qr), or emitted through it (Qt) according to the characteristics of the
body. But by the conservation of energy principle the total sum must be equal to the incident radiation.
Qa + Qr + Qt = Qo
where
α = absorptivity
ρ = reflectivity
τ = transmissivity
A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is called specular body. Specular reflection
implies that angle between the reflected beam and normal equals to the angle made by incident
radiation with normal ex:- highly polished surfaces
In diffused reflection, the incident beam is reflected in all the directions that is directional
independence of reflected beam.
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Note: A small hole leading into a cavity thus acts very nearly as a black body because all the radiant
energy entering through it gets absorbed.
Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law: The total emissive power “E” of a surface is defined as the total radiant
energy emitted by the surface in all directions over the entire wavelength range per unit surface area
per unit time
According to Stephen – Boltzmann law the amount of radiant energy emitted per unit time from unit
area of black surface is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temp.
( )
( ) ε
( )
( )
Kirchoff’s Law: It can be stated as “the emissivity ε and absorptivity α of a real surface are equal for
radiation with identical temps and wave lengths. Therefore it states that a perfect absorber is also a
perfect radiator.
Gray Body: When the emissivity of non-black surface is constant at all temps and throughout the
entire range of wavelength, the surface is called a gray body.
For many materials the emissivity is different for the various wavelengths of the emitted energy. The
radiating bodies exhibiting this behaviors are called the selective emitters.
Emissivities of real bodies: Emissivity of a surface indicates its ability to emit radiation energy in
comparision with a black surface of the same temp level.
(i) Monochromatic emissivity: It is the ratio of the monochromatic emissive power of a surface
to the monochromatic emissive power of a black surface at the same wavelength and temp.
For a gray body the monochromatic emissivity is independent of the wavelength of the
emitted radiation.
(ii) Total emissivity: Ratio of the total emissive power of a surface to the total emissive power of
black surface at the same temp
(iii) Normal total emissivity: Ratio of normal component of the total emissive power of a surface
to the normal component of the total emissive power of a black body at the same temp.
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It is defined as “the fraction of radiative energy that is diffused from one surface element and strikes
the other surface directly with no intervening reflections. It is also called geometrical factor,
configuration factor or view factor, it is represented by means the shape factor form a surface to
another surface . Therefore is
(i) The value of shape factor depends only on the geometry and orientation of surfaces with
respect to each other.
(ii) Net heat exchange between surfaces A1, A2 is
Q12 = A1 F12 1 A2 F21 2
If both are black surfaces and are maintained at same temp i.e.
1 2 b and T1 = T2 = T
Q12 = 0 = A1 F12 A2 F21 2
So A1 F12 σ1 = A2 F21 σ2
A1 F12 = A2 F21 . . . . . . . . . called Reciprocity Theorem
(iii) The shape factor of convex surface 1 with respect to enclosure surface 2 i.e. F12 is unity.
Therefore
A1 F12 = A2 F21
Shape factor of convex surface with respect to itself is “0” i.e. F11 = 0
(iv) The shape factor for concave surface with respect to itself is not zero
F11 ≠ 0
(v) If the transmitting surface is subdivided the shape factor for that surface with respect to the
receiving surface is not equal to the sum of the individual shape factors.
A1 F12 = A3 F32 + A4 F42
A1 ≠ A3 ≠ A4 and F12 ≠ F32 + F42
But if it is reverse A2 F21 = A2 F23 + A2 F24 that if the receiving surface is F21 = F23 + F24
divided, then the sum is equal
(vi) Shape factor is the fraction of total radiation leaving the radiating surface and falling upon a
particular receiving surface.
F11 +F12 + F13 + F14 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . + F1n = 1
F21 + F22 + F23 + F24 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + F2n = 1
............................................
Fn1 + Fn2 + Fn3 + Fn4 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + Fnn = 1
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(C) Small gray bodies: The size of the bodies is very small when compared to distance between them.
That is the energy emitted by body 1 would be partly absorbed by body 2 and remaining is lost in
space and no reflections. Therefore the energy exchange between two bodies is
( )
= ( )
where F12 = 1 2 called equivalent emissivity or interchange factor
(D) Small body in a large enclosure:
=
where
8.3.5 Electrical network approach for radiation exchange
The radiation problems can be easily obtained by reducing the actual system to an equivalent electrical
network and then solving that network. Some of the terms in this technique are
(B) Radiant energy exchange between two infinite parallel gray planes
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1 2
(F) Heat exchange between two gray surfaces enclosed by an insulated surface
When third body is black
(G) Radiation H – E between 3 gray surfaces. The figure is same as above but Eb3 ≠ T3 and Q12
equation is same as above
Radiation shields: It is a thin shield placed between two planes that would neither remove nor
add any heat to the system but used to reduce heat transfer rate.
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The heat „transferred in the heat exchanger may be in the form of latent heat (ex: boilers and
condensers) or sensible heat (ex: heaters and coolers)
B) Relative direction of motion of fluids : According to flow of fluids, the H.E are classified into 3
categories
Parallel flow (co-current)
Counter flow (counter current)
Cross flow
C) Mechanical design of H.E. surface
Concentric tubes
Shell and tube
Multiple shell and tube passes
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During operation the tube surfaces get covered by deposits of ash, soot, dirt and scale etc causes rust
formation and deposition of fluid impurities is called fouling
Note:-
(i) The “U” depends upon flow rate and properties of fluid, material thickness, surface condition of
tubes and the geometrical configuration of the H.E.
(ii) When fluids with low values of K and h will give low value of U when flowing in one side
(iii) When highly conductive fluids passes on both sides will give high value of U
(iv) For efficient and effective design there should be no thermal resistance in the heat flow path
Fouling factor =
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Q=UAθ
In general θ θ and for same HT rate (As) counter < (As) parallel
If the variation in temp of the fluids are relatively small then the temp variation curves are
approximately straight lines and the accurate results can be obtained through arithmetic mean temp
difference (AMTD)
AMTD = (θ θ
Note:
The exchange of heat may rise the temp of the cold fluid to more nearly the temp of the hot
fluid
LMTD is higher and accordingly more heat can be transferred
The unknown exit temp of the cooling water may be found from an energy balance on two
fluids
For multi tube and multi-pass H.E. we should use a correction factor “F” which can be found out
through graphs which are plotted between P and Z
Where
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The concept of LMTD will not work when outlet temp of both the fluids are not known. Normally in
many mechanical applications we do not know exit temps of both the fluids. At this situations we use
NTU approach which is based on the concept of capacity ratio, effectiveness and number of transfer
units.
NTU: It is a measure of the size of H.E. It provides some indication of the size of the H.E
NTU = UA / Cmin
Effectiveness
Effectiveness
1. For boiling and condensation for one fluid change of temp is zero that means capacity rate
Cmax → ∝ Therefore C = Cmin / Cmax = 0
exp ( NTU) for both parallel and counter flow
2. In gas turbine, exhaust gases after expansion in the turbine are used to heat the compressed air
so both the fluids have same capacity rate
C = Cmin / Cmax = 1
For parallel flow HE ε = [1 – exp ( 2NTU)]/2 so max value of „ε‟ is 50%. For counter flow
HE, C⇒ 1, (1 – C) tends to zero
On substitution
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The properties of a material are intimately connected to its basic molecular structure. Some
knowledge of this structure is therefore essential for understanding the various macroscopic
properties exhibited by material.
The properties of a material are significantly dependent on the arrangement of atoms. In all
metals and in many non-metallic solids, the atoms are arranged in a well –ordered pattern. Such
solids are commonly called crystalline solids. In a crystal, we can identify the unit cell, the
repetition of which forms the whole crystal. The structure of a crystal is identified and described
by this unit cell.
The three commonly observed crystal structures in metals are Body centered cubic (BCC), Face
centered cubic (FCC) and Closed pack hexagonal (CPH). The FCC and CPH have the most dense
packing.
Crystal Imperfections: Crystals are rarely perfect, i.e, the lattices are not without imperfections.
These imperfections govern most of the mechanical properties of the crystalline solids. The
imperfections in a crystal lattice structure are classified as follows:
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X’ X
Y
X
Y
Surface Defect: When an imperfection extends over a surface, the imperfection is known as
surface defect. The most common type of surface defects is twins.
Twin planes
Displaced atoms
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A common means of distinguishing one material from another is by evaluating their physical
properties. These include characteristics such as density, melting point, optical properties etc.
More often however, the properties that describe how a material responds to applied loads
assume dominant position in material selection. These mechanical properties are usually
determined by subjecting prepared specimen to standard laboratory tests.
Isotropy: It is the faculty of having similar properties in all directions. If the properties are
different in different directions, the material is termed as anisotropic, e.g. wood.
Continuity: If the material grains in the body are properly bonded to adjacent grains and fill the
total volume, we consider it continuous.
Tensile Test/ Stress-Strain Diagrams: The uni-axial tension test is done to obtain different
strength related parameters for the engineering materials. The results and discussion of the test
are discussed as under:
c
g
d e
b
a
Stress 0
Strain, ∈
Ductile Materials: Fig 9.1.5 shows the stress-strain diagram for a ductile material such as mild
steel. The curve starts from the origin O showing thereby that there is no initial stress or strain
in the test specimen. Upto point ‘a’ Hooke’s law is obeyed and stress is proportional to strain.
Therefore, oa is a straight line and point a is called the limit of proportionality and the stress at
point a is called the proportional limit stress, . The portion of the diagram between ab is not a
straight line but upto point b, the material remains elastic, i.e. on removal of the load, no
permanent set is formed and the path is retraced.
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The point b is called the elastic limit point and the stress corresponding to that is called the
elastic limit stress, . In actual practice, the point a and b are so close to each other that it
becomes difficult to differentiate between them. Beyond the point b, the material goes to the
plastic stage until the upper yield point ‘c’ is reached. At this point there is a cross to a lower
value to point d, called the lower yield point. Corresponding to point c, the stress is known as
upper yield point stress, and corresponding to point d, the stress is known as lower yield
point stress, . At point d the specimen elongates by a considerable amount without any
increase in stress and upto point e. The portion de is called the yielding of the material at
constant stress. From point e onwards, the strain hardening phenomena becomes predominant
and the strength of the material increases thereby requiring more stress for deformation, until
point f is reached. Point f is called the ultimate point and the stress corresponding to this point is
called the ultimate stress, . It is the maximum stress to which the material can be subjected in
a simple tensile test. At point f the necking of the material begins and the cross-sectional area
starts decreasing at a rapid rate. Due to this local necking, the stress in the material goes on
decreasing inspite of the fact that the actual stress intensity goes on increasing.
Ultimately the specimen breaks at point g, known as the breaking point, and the corresponding
stress is called the nominal breaking stress based upon the original area of cross section.
Whereas the true stress at fracture is the ratio of the breaking load to the reduced area of cross-
section at the neck. The initial portions of the diagram are shown in Fig. 9.1.6 on exaggerated
scale.
b
a
b
a
Loading
Unloading
Loading
Unloading
(b)
0 ∈ 0 ∈ 0 ∈
0.2% ∈
(a) Residual Strain
(b)
Fig. 9.1.6 Loading and Unloading paths Fig. 9.1.7
Sometimes it is not possible to locate the yield point quite accurately in order to determine the
yield strength of the material. For such materials the yield point stress is defined at some
particular value of the permanent set. It has been observed that if load is removed in the plastic
range then the unloading path line is parallel to the straight portion of the stress-strain diagram
as shown in Fig. 9.1.6 (b). The commonly used value of permanent set for determining the value
of yield strength for mild steel is 0.2 per cent of the maximum strain as shown in Fig. 9.1.7.
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Anelasticity: This is often called delayed elasticity. Here the recovery is complete but not
instantaneous and takes some time.
Ductility: The amount of plasticity that a material can exhibit is a significant feature when
evaluating its suitability for certain manufacturing process. For metal deformation process, the
more plastic a material is, the more it can be deformed without rupture. The ability of a material
to change shape without fracture is known as ductility.
Toughness: Toughness or modulus of toughness is defined as the work per unit volume required
to fracture a material. The tensile test can provide one means of measuring toughness, since the
total area under stress-strain curve represent the desired value.
Hardness: Hardness is a very important but hard to define property of materials. It can be
defined as resistance to permanent deformations under static and dynamic loading.
Heat treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals for the purpose of altering their
properties and can perform without a concurrent change in product shape. Heat treatment can
alter mechanical properties of steels by changing the size and shape of the grains.
1. To improve machinability
3. Stress relieving
Annealing: Annealing is a heat treatment process in which the iron based alloys are heated above
the transformation range, held there for proper time and then cooled slowly (at the rate of 300C -
1500C per hour) in furnace. Annealing can be of various types:
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Hardening: Hardening is the heat treatment process in which steel is heated at 20 0C above the
transformation range, soaking at this temperature for a considerable period to ensure thorough
penetration of the temperature inside the component, followed by continuous cooling to room
temperature by quenching in water, oil or brine solution.
Tempering: Tempering is defined as the reheat process done at sub-critical temperatures. Such
reheating permits the trapped martensite to transform into troostite or sorbite depending upon
the tempering temperature and relieves the internal stress.
Case Hardening: Case hardening is type of heat treatment process which is supported by a tough
and shock resisting core. Below are some case hardening techniques:
Carburisation: In this process, the carbonaceous medium is a solid carburiser. The chief
carburiser for pack carburising is activated charcoal with grain size varying from 3.5 to
10 mm in diameter.
Nitriding: It is a process of saturation of surface of steel with Nitrogen by holding it for a
prolonged period (up to 100 hrs) at a temperature ranging from 4800C to 6500C in an
atmosphere of Ammonia.
Cyaniding: It is a process in which both carbon and nitrogen in the form of cyaniding salt
are added to the surface of low and medium carbon steel to increase its hardness and
wear resistance.
Induction Hardening: In process of induction hardening a high frequency current of
about 1000 to 10000 cycles per second is passed through a copper inductor block which
acts as a primary coil of the transformer. In this the heated part is cooled rapidly with
sprays of water delivered through the numerous small holes in the inductor block. This
helps in obtaining hard and wear resistance surface while having soft core.
Flame Hardening: This process is also same as Induction hardening with difference that
heating of the specimen is carried out by flame instead of induction effect. The heating is
generally accomplished by oxy-acetylene flame.
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Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold
where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.
o Pattern making
o Heat treatment
Casting Terms
Flask: This holds the sand mould intact. According to position:– Drag – lower moulding
flask; Cope – Upper moulding flask; Cheek – intermediate moulding flask used in the
three piece moulding. Made of metal for long term use
Pattern: It is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications.
Parting line: It is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the
sand mould.
Bottom board: Used when at the start of the mould making process, first the pattern is
kept on the bottom board and sand particles sprinkled on it and then the ramming is
done in the drag.
Pouring basin: Funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal
is poured. Reduces the eroding force of the liquid metal stream coming directly from the
furnace
Strainer: A ceramic strainer in the sprue removes dross.
Splash core: A ceramic splash core placed at the end of the sprue also reduces the
eroding force of the liquid metal stream
Skim bob: It is trap placed in a horizontal gate to prevent heavier and lighter impurities
from entering the mould.
Sprue: A Passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the
mould cavity.
Runner system: It has channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue to the mold
cavity.
Gate: It is an actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity
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Core: It is used for making hollow cavities or otherwise defines the interior surface of the
castings.
Chaplet: It is used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own weight
and overcome the metallostatic forces.
Chill: This is a metallic object which is placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of
castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow
back into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to
solidification.
9.2.2 Pattern
Pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The
size of pattern is slightly greater than the casting by an amount called allowances.
Pattern allowances:
Shrinkage allowance
Machining allowance or finishing allowance
Draft or Taper allowances
Distortion allowance
Shake or Rapping allowance
Classifications of Patterns: Various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job
the number of castings required and the moulding procedure adopted
Pattern materials: The selection of pattern material is based on the following factors.
Production Quantity
Molding process
Wood, Metals, Plastics and Polyurethane foam are generally used materials
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Pattern color Code: The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours such that the
mould maker would be able to understand the functions clearly.
Colour Code
Green Seats of and for loose pieces & loose core prints
Moulding sand
System sand
Rebounded sand
Facing sand
Parting sand
core sand
Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding material to withstand the high temperatures of
the molten metal so that it does not cause fusion.
Green Strength: The green sand should have enough strength so that the constructed mould
retains its shape. (Where Green refers moisture contained in the sand)
Dry Strength: It should retain the mould cavity and at the same time withstand the metallostatic
forces when the sand is at dry condition.
Hot Strength: At high temperature, the strength of sand that is required to hold the shape of the
mould cavity.
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Permeability: The ability of sand to allow the gas to pass through the mould. It depends on size
and shape of grains, moisture content and degree of compaction.
Cohesiveness: Ability of sand particles to stick to each other. Increases with increase in clay and
decreases with increase in grain size.
Mold hardness: It is the hardness of mold which is measured similar to Brinell hardness test.
Based on its origin: Natural sand, Synthetic sand & Special sands:
Based on initial condition: Green sand, Dry sand, Loam sand, Facing sand, and Parting sand.
Moulding sand composition: Main ingredients of moulding sand: Silica grains, clay, water and
additives
Silica grains forms the major portion of the moulding sand (96%) and rest being the other
oxides such as alumina, sodium (Na2O + K2O) and magnesium oxide (MgO + CaO)
Impurities (oxides) should be minimum because it affects the fusion point of the silica sands.
Clay:
Used as binding agents and this is mixed with the moulding sands to provide the strength,
because of their low cost and wider utility
Types of Clay:
Water:
Additives:
Coal dust:
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It widens the range of water that can be added to get proper green strength.
It reduces the expansion defects while improving the flowability of the moulding sand
Increase resistance to deformation, skin hardness and expansion defects such as scab.
Iron oxide:
Improves surface finish, decreases metal penetration, reduces burn-on, increases the chilling
effect of the mould
It decreases green strength and permeability while improving the hot strength.
It reduces collapsibility and makes the shake-out of the mould difficult.
Moisture content:
Method I:
To test the moisture of moulding sand a carefully weighed test sample of 50 g is dried at a
temperature of 105oC to 110oC for 2 hours at the time all the moisture in the sand would
have been evaporated.
Now weigh the sample
% of moisture – (weight difference in grams) x 2
Sand is dried by suspending the sample on a fine metallic screen and allowing hot air to flow
through the sample.
Time taken for removal of moisture in a matter of minutes compared to earlier method.
Measured amount of calcium carbide in a container along with a separate cap consisting of
measured quantity of moulding sand is kept in the moisture teller.
The apparatus is shaken vigorously such that the following reaction takes place.
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The amount (pressure) of acetylene generated is proportional to the moisture present in the
sample.
Clay Content:
The dried clay – free sand grains are placed on the top sieve of a sieve shaker which contains
a series of sieves one upon the other with gradually decreasing mesh sizes.
The sieves are shaken continuously for a period of 15 min.
Grain Fineness Number is a quantitative indication of the grain distribution
Grain fineness Number – amount retained on each sieve is multiplied by the respective
weightage factor, summed up, and then divided by the total mass of the sample.
MF
GFN
f
Where Mi – multiplying factor for the ith sieve;
fi – amount of sand retained on the ith sieve;
Permeability:
Permeability is expressed in terms of permeability number.
The standard permeability test is to measure time taken by a 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure
typically of 980 Pa, to pass through a standard sand specimen confined in a specimen tube.
The standard specimen size is 50.8 mm in diameter and a length of 50.8 mm.
V H
Permeability Number P =
p AT
Where V = Volume of air = 2000 cm3, H = Height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm, p = air
pressure, (g/cm2), A = cross – sectional area of sand specimen = 20.268 cm2, T = time in
minutes for the complete air to pass through.
501.28
Permeability Number P =
p T
Green Compression Strength:
Test is carried out on the universal sand strength testing machine.
It refers to the stress required to rupture the sand specimen under compressive loading.
The standard specimen put on the strength testing machine and the force required to cause
the compression failure is determined.
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Stress required to shear the specimen along the axis is then represented as the green shear
strength.
Dry Strength:
The standard specimen dried between 105 and for 2 hours which is used for testing.
Mould Hardness:
A spring loaded steel ball with a mass of 0.9 kg is indented into the standard specimen
prepared.
The depth of indentation can be directly measured on the scale which shows units 0 to 100.
When no penetration occurs – reading is 100 which means hardest mould
When it sinks completely – reading is 0 which means very soft mould.
Sand Preparation:
The preparation of sand is thorough mixing of its various ingredients. In the mixing process the
clay is uniformly enveloped around the sand grains and moisture is uniformly distributed which
is done by MULLER machine.
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Initially the green compression strength increases with increase in water content and then
after reaching the optimum value it starts decreasing.
Additional amount of water increases the plasticity and dry strength but reduces the green
strength.
The degree of ramming increases the bulk density or the mould hardness.
Increased ramming increases the strength
Permeability of green sand decreases with the degree of ramming.
Moulding machines: Used for production work involving large batches of the same type of
casting is to be produced. Eliminate arduous labor, offer high quality casting by improving the
application and distribution of forces, and manipulate the mold in a carefully controlled fashion.
Three methods used for ramming the sand into the moulding flasks
Jolting
Squeezing
Sand slinging
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The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in sand castings:
Gas defects: These defects are caused to a great extent by the lower gas passing tendency of the
mould which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of the mould or improper design
of the casting, lower permeability caused by finer grain size of the sand, higher clay, higher
moisture, or by excessive ramming of the moulds.
Spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside the casting (Blow holes) or
on the surface (Open blows)
Because of moisture left in mould is converted into steam by heat in the molten
metal, part of which entrapped in the casting ends up as blow hole or ends up as
open blow when it reaches the surface.
Causes – moisture in the mould, lower venting and lower permeability of the mould.
Air inclusions:
The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the furnace, in the
ladle, and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to escape, would be
trapped inside the casting and weaken it.
Reasons
Remedy – Choose the appropriate pouring temperature and improve gating practices
by reducing the turbulence
Caused by release of gases (Hydrogen) during pouring, consists of many small gas
cavities (small diameter & long pin hole) formed at or slightly below the surface of
the casting.
Reason – the high pouring temperature which increases the gas pick-up.
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Moulding material defects: These defects occur because the moulding materials are not of
requisite properties or due to improper ramming.
Reasons – caused by the erosion of moulding sand by the flowing molten metal at
high velocity.
Remedies – by the proper choice of moulding sand and using appropriate moulding
method for preventing the erosion of mould and by altering the gating design to
reduce the turbulence in the metal, by increasing the size of gates or by using
multiple ingates.
Metal penetration
When the molten metal enters the gap between the sand grains – rough casting.
Reasons – either the grain size of the sand is too coarse or no mould wash has been
applied to the mould cavity, and by higher pouring temperatures.
Remedy – choose appropriate grain size, together with a proper mould wash.
Fusion
Fusion of sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on
the casting surface.
Reasons – clay in the moulding sand have low refractoriness or high pouring
temperature.
Run out
Reasons – caused either due to faulty mould making or because of the faulty
moulding flask.
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Under the influence of the heat, the sand expands, thereby moving the mould wall
backwards and in the process when the wall gives away, the casting surface may
have this marked as a small line.
Reasons – moulding sand has got poor expansion properties and hot strength or the
heat in the pouring metal is too high facing sand applied does not provide the
necessary cushioning effect.
Remedy – proper choice of facing sand ingredients and the pouring temperature
Swell
Under the influence of the metallostatic forces, the mould wall may move back
causing a swell in the dimensions of the casting.
Drop
Dropping of loose moulding sand or lumps normally from the cope surface into the
mould cavity
Scabs
Sort of projection on the casting which occur when a portion of the mould face or
core lifts and the metal flows beneath in a thin layer.
Mis-runs
When the metal is unable to fill the cavity completely and thus leave unfilled
cavities.
Cold shuts:
When two metal streams while meeting in the mould cavity, do not fuse
together properly – discontinuity or weak spot in the casting.
by the lower fluidity of the molten metal or when the section thickness of the
casting is too small.
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When the heat removal capacity is increased such as in the case of green sand
moulds.
Remedy
Slag inclusions:
Slag (undesirable oxides and impurities) entering the mould cavity will be
weakening the casting and also spoil the surface of the casting.
Metallurgical defects
Hot tears:
Metal has low strength at higher temperatures; any unwanted cooling stress may
cause the rupture of the casting.
Reason – when the casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes take
place; no proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills are inappropriately
placed.
Hot spots
Shift
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the heat to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring
{ ( ) ( )}
H – total heat required to raise the temperature of the metal to the pouring temperature, J; –
density, g/cm3; Cs = weight specific heat for the solid metal, J/g-C; Tm = melting temperature of
the metal, C; To = starting temperature- usually ambient, 0C ; Hf = Heat of fusion, J/g; Cl=weight
specific heat of the liquid metal, J/g-C; Tp = pouring temperature, 0C and V= Volume of metal
being heated, cm3
Pouring – Introduction of molten metal into the mold, including its flow through the gating
system and into the cavity, is a critical step in the casting process.
Factors affecting the pouring operation include: pouring temperature, pouring rate and
turbulence
Pouring Temperature is the temperature of the molten metal as it is introduced into the mold.
the difference between the temperature at pouring and the temperature at which freezing
begins (the melting point for a pure metal or the liquidus temperature for an alloy)(Super
Heat)
Pouring rate refers to the volumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured into the mold.
If the rate is too slow – metal will chill and freeze before filling the cavity
If the rate is too high – turbulence will occur in the flow
Turbulence in the fluid flow is characterized by erratic variations in the magnitude and direction
of the velocity throughout the fluid.
Effects of Turbulence:
Tends to accelerate the formation of metal oxides that can be become entrapped during
solidification
Aggravates mold erosion, the gradual wearing away of the mold surfaces due to impact of
the flowing molten metal.
9.2.6 Gating design
The liquid metal that runs through the various channels in the mould obeys the Bernoulli’s
theorem which states that the total energy head remains constant at any section.
P V2
h constant
w 2g
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Law of continuity says that the volume of metal flowing at any section in the mould is constant.
Q A1V1 A2V2
Where Q – rate of flow, m3/s
A – Area of cross section, m2
V – Velocity of metal flows, m/s
Fluidity:
The molten metal flow characteristics are often described by the term fluidity, a measure
of the capability of a metal to flow into and fill the mold before freezing.
Spiral mold test – standard testing method to measure the fluidity of the molten metal.
Factors affecting fluidity – Pouring temperature relative to melting point, metal
composition, viscosity of the liquid metal, and heat transfer to the surroundings.
Higher pouring temperature relative to the freezing point - increases the fluidity of the
molten metal – which also causes some casting problems – oxide formation, gas porosity,
and penetration of liquid metal into the interstitial spaces between the grains of sand
forming the mold.
Metal Composition – w.r.t. the metal’s solidification mechanism – best fluidity is obtained
by metals that freeze at a constant temperature (pure metals and eutectic alloys).
The freezing mechanism, metal composition also determines heat of fusion – the amount
of heat required to solidify the metal from the liquid state.
Higher heat of fusion tends to increase the measured fluidity in casting.
Property Factors
Viscosity
Surface tension
Increase of
Freezing range
Fluidity
With increase in:
Heat content
Permeability
Pure Metals: - solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing point, which is the same
as its melting point.
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Solidification time
Local solidification time: - actual freezing takes time – during which the metal’s
latent heat of fusion is released into the surrounding mold.
Total solidification time – time taken between pouring and complete
solidification.
n
V
T Cm
A
- Rule indicates that a casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio will cool and
solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio.
To perform its function of feeding molten metal to the main cavity, the metal
in the riser must remain in the liquid phase longer than the casting, then only
effects of shrinkage are minimized.
Shrinkage:
(2) contraction during the phase change from liquid to solid – Solidification shrinkage
(3) thermal contraction of the solidified casting during cooling to room temperature
Solidification shrinkage occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a higher
density than the liquid phase.
Exception in the above category, Cast iron containing high carbon content, whose
solidification is complicated by a period of graphitization during the final stages of
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freezing, which causes expansion that tends to counteract the volumetric decrease
associated with the phase change.
Internal Chills are small metal parts placed inside the cavity before pouring so that the molten
metal will solidify first around these parts.
External Chills are metal inserts in the walls of the mold cavity that can remove heat from the
molten metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand in order to promote solidification.
( ) ( )
Figure (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the molten metal in a thin section of the
casting and (b) the likely result if the external chill were not used
Riser Design:
Riser is used in a sand-casting mold to feed liquid metal to the casting during freezing in
order to compensate for solidification shrinkage.
To function, the riser must remain molten until after the casting solidifies.
The riser represents waste metal that will be separated from the cast part and remelted
to make subsequent castings. It is desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to be
minimum. Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to maximize the V/A ratio,
this tends to reduce the riser volume as much as possible.
Side riser – attached to the side of the casting by means of a small channel
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Open riser – exposed to the outside at the top surface of the cope.-dis adv: allowing more
heat to escape, promoting faster solidification.
Design of riser is such that the time taken for solidification of liquid metal in the riser should
be more than the time taken for solidification of liquid metal in the cavity.
Caine’s Method
Modulus method
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( )
( ) ( )e ,
( ) ( )e ,
λ 2 √ tan √
The pressure at the neutral point can be determined from either of the above equations for
pressure. So, the value of λ corresponding to the neutral point (λ ) is obtained by equating the
right-hand sides of these equations. Thus,
λ 0 ln 2 . /3 λ1
For typical values of the parameters in a rolling operation, we find that the roll pressure p
increases continuously from the point of entry till the neutral point is reached and decreases
continuously thereafter.
Typical distributions of pressure p are shown in Fig. 9.3.2. The peak pressure at the neutral point
is normally called the friction hill. This peak pressure increases with increasing coefficient of
friction.
Exit Entry
Neutral
points
p (2k)
O
Fig. 9.3.2 Pressure distribution in rolling
Assuming that the width of the strip is unity, the total force F trying to separate the rolls can be
obtained by integrating the vertical component of the force acting at the roll-strip interface.
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Since the angle is normally very small, the contribution of the roll-strip interface friction force
is negligible in the vertical direction. Thus,
F = ∫ p cos d
≈∫ p d (since is small),
i.e., F = ∫ p d ∫ p d
The driving torque is required to overcome the torque exerted on the roll by the interfacial
friction force.
Figure 9.3.3 shows the deformation zone along with the forces acting on it, including an
equivalent horizontal force F which represents the net frictional interaction between each roll
and the strip (the reaction - F of F has to be overcome by the roll driving torque T). F can be
determined by considering the horizontal equilibrium of the system. Thus,
F *( t t) 2 ∫ p sin d +
≈ *( t t) 2∫ p d +
Accordingly,
T ≈F R = ( t t) ∫ p d
Once the driving torque T is determined, the driving power per roll P is obtained as
P T ,
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9.3.2 Forging
In this section, our analysis is mainly devoted to determining the maximum force required for
forging a strip and a disc between two parallel dies. Obviously, it is a case of open die forging.
Forging of strip:
Figure 9.3.4(a) shows a typical open die forging of a flat strip. To simplify our analysis, we shall
make the following assumptions:
(i) The forging force F attains its maximum value at the end of the operation.
(ii) The coefficient of friction µ between the work piece and the dies (platens) is
constant.
(iii) The thickness of the work piece is small as compared with its other dimensions,
and the variation of the stress field along the y-direction is negligible.
(iv) The length of the strip is much more than the width and the problem is one of
plane strain type.
(v) The entire work piece is in the plastic state during the process.
At the instant shown in Fig. 9.3.4(a), the thickness of the work piece is h and the width is 2l. Let
us consider an element of width dx at a distance x from the origin. [In our analysis, we take the
length of the work piece as
Workpiece
Moving
plate
Fixed
plate
unity (in the z-direction)]. Figure 9.3.4 b shows the same element with all the stresses acting on
it. Considering the equilibrium of the element in the x-direction, we get
hd 2 dx = 0,
where is the frictional stress. To make the analysis simpler, p and are considered as the
principle stresses. The problem being of a plane strain type, Thus,
Substituting d , we get
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dp = dx
Near the free ends, i.e., when x is small (and also at x ≈ 2l; the problem being symmetric about
the midplane, we are considering only one-half in our analysis, i.e., ≤ x ≤ l), a sliding between
the workpiece and the dies must take place to allow for the required expansion of the workpiece.
However, beyond a certain value of x (in the region ≤ x ≤ l), say, x , there is no sliding between
the workpiece and the dies. This is due to the increasing frictional stress which reaches the
maximum value, equal to the shear yield stress, at x = x and remains so in the rest of the zone,
x ≤ x ≤ l. Hence, for ≤ x ≤ x ,
µp
and, for x ≤ x ≤ l
K.
However, it should be noted that this assumption is incorrect as the shear stresses act on the
planes on which – p is acting (Fig. 9.3.4b).
∫ ∫ dx C ( ≤ x ≤ x ).
or ln p C
C ln 2K
or p = 2Ke ( ≤x≤x )
∫ dp ∫ dx C (x ≤ x ≤ l)
or p= C
p–p (x x ).
Also, p 2K exp(2 x h)
or p = 2K*exp(2 x h) (x x )+
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µ2K exp(2 x h) = K
or ln ( )
or x ln ( )
p = 2K * , ln ( )- +, x ≤x≤l
The total forging force per unit length of the workpiece is given as
F = 2*∫ p dx ∫ p dx+,
9.3.3 Drawing
In a drawing operation, in addition to the work load and power required, the maximum possible
reduction without any tearing failure of the workpiece is an important parameter. In the analysis
that we give here, we shall determine these quantities. Since the drawing operation is mostly
performed with rods and wires, we shall assume the workpiece to be cylindrical, as shown in
Fig. 9.3.5 A typical drawing die consists of four regions, viz.,
Die
Job
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interface. The degree of a drawing operation (D) is normally expressed in terms of the reduction
factor in the cross-sectional area. Thus,
D= ( )
when the true strain is
= ln ( ) ln ( ),
A and A being the initial and the final cross-sectional areas of the workpiece.
From the point of view of analysis, the process of deep drawing is very complex. In this process,
various types of forces operate simultaneously. The annular portion of the sheet metal
workpiece (See Fig. 9.3.6) between the blank holder and the die is subjected to a pure radial
drawing, whereas the portions of the workpiece around the corners of the punch and the die are
subjected to a bending operation. Further, the portion of the job between the punch and the die
walls undergoes a longitudinal drawing. Though in this operation varying amount of thickening
and thinning of the workpiece is unavoidable, we shall not take this into consideration in our
analysis.
The major objectives of our analysis are (i) to correlate the initial and final dimensions of the job
and (ii) to estimate the drawing force F. Figure 9.3.6 shows the drawing operation with the
important dimensions.
F Punch
c F
F
Blank
r
holder
r Job
t
r
r
t Die
r
The radii of the punch, the job, and the die are r , r and r , respectively. Obviously, without
taking the thickening and thinning into account, the clearance between the die and punch
(r r ) is equal to the job thickness t. The corners of the punch and the die are provided with
radii r and r respectively. A clearance (c) is maintained between the punch and the blank
holder.
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-Job axis
Z
(a) Stresses acting on element during drawing (b) Radial stress due to blank holding
pressure
Fig. 9.3.7 Analysis of deep drawing operation.
To start with, let us consider the portion of the job between the blank holder and the die. Figure
9.3.7(a) shows the stress acting on an element in this region. It should be noted that the
maximum thickening (due to the decreasing circumference of the job causing a compressive
hoop stress) takes place at the outer periphery, generating a line contact between the holder and
the job. As a result, the entire blank holder force F is assumed to act along the circumference
Fig. 9.3.7(b). Thus, the radial stress due to friction can also be represented by an equivalent
radial stress 2µF (2 r t) at the outer periphery.
Now, considering the radial equilibrium of the element shown in Fig. 9.3.7(a), we get
rd dr dr
As and are the principle stresses, the equation we obtain by using Tresca’s yield criterion
is
( ) = 2K
=0
Integrating, we obtain
C ln r
C= ln r
ln
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So, the radial stress at the beginning of the die corner (i.e., at r = r r t) is given by
| ln ( )
r r
J
Job axis
|r r
rd rd
O
Friction
Z
Fig. 9.3.8 Effect of friction at corners.
As the job slides along the die corner, the radial stress, increases to due to the frictional
forces, as shown in Fig. 9.3.8 This increment can be roughly estimated by using a belt-pulley
analogy.
Thus, e
|
where µ is the coefficient of friction between the workpiece and the die.
There is a further increase in the stress level around the punch corner due to bending. As a
result, the drawn cup normally tears around this region. However, to avoid this, an estimate of
the maximum permissible value of (r r ) can be obtained with equal to the maximum
allowable stress of material. Since r is the final outside diameter of the product, it is easy to
arrive at such an estimate. This estimate is based on the consideration of fracture of the material.
However, to avoid buckling (due to the compressive hoop stress in the flange region), (r r )
should not, for most materials, exceed 4t.
F r K,
where is between . 2 and . 8. An estimate of the drawing force F (neglecting the friction
between the job and the die wall) can easily be obtained,
F≈ 2 r t
9.3.5 Bending
In a bending operation, apart from the determination of work load, an estimate of the amount of
elastic recovery (spring back) is essential. When the final shape is prescribed, a suitable amount
of overbending is required to take care of this spring back. In this section, we shall work out
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these quantities and also illustrate how the stock size for a given job is computed. Figure 9.3.9
shows a bending operation with characteristic dimensions.
F
Punch
Job
Die
A radius r is provided at the nose of the punch and, accordingly, the die centre has a radius
(r t), where t is the job thickness. The portions of the die, in contact with the job during the
operation, are also provided with some radius, say r . The angle between the two faces of the
punch and the die is α. At the instant shown, the angle between the two bend surfaces of the job
is ( – 2 ). As we shall subsequently show, the bending force F is maximum at some
intermediate stage, depending on the frictional characteristics. The degree of a bending
operation is normally specified in terms of the strain in the outer fibre. The width of the job w
(in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper) is much larger as compared with t, and
hence a plane strain condition can be assumed. It is obvious that the stock length should be
calculated on the basis of the length of the neutral plane of the job. Since the radius of curvature
involved in a bending operation is normally small, the neutral plane shifts towards the centre of
curvature. Usually, a shift of 5-10% of the thickness is assumed for the calculation of strain and
stock length. Thus, the strain in the outer fibre of the bend is given as
( ) ( . )
ln [ ( . )
] ln [ . ( ) .
]
assuming a 5% shift of the neutral plane. Depending on the ductility of the job material, has
a limiting value beyond which a fracture takes place. The limiting value of ( ), we
can determine the smallest punch radius for a given job thickness.
Determination of Work Load: Since the job undergoes plastic bending, the stress distribution at
the cross section along the centre line (XX) is as shown in Fig. 9.3.10(a). This distribution is
obtained by neglecting all other effects of curvature except the shift of neutral line. It is obvious
that in the zone on either side of the neutral plane the strain level is within the elastic range.
When the strain (both in the tensile and the compressive zones) reaches the yield limit, plastic
deformation starts. Assuming the yield stress to be (same in both tension and compression)
and linear strain
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-
Neutral
Plastic compression
line - zone
Elastic zone
Plastic tension
zone
X
(a) Bending stress distribution
+ 0.45t
+1
-
Neural line
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hardening, the stress distribution will be as shown in the figure. The magnitude of and is
different due to the shift of the neutral plane. For the sake of simplicity, the stress distribution
for large plastic bending is idealized as shown in Fig. 9.3.10(b). When the strain hardening rate
is n, then
( . )
n ln [ .
]
n ln [ . ( )
]
The loading due to this stress distribution can be represented by a bending moment M and a
force P (per unit width of the job), shown in Fig. 9.3.10(c), Expressed as
M=( . t) ( ) ( . t) ( ),
P= [ . . . ]
Now, let us consider the right half of the job (of unit width) and the forces and moments acting
on it (see Fig. 9.3.11). Since P arises from the shift of the neutral plane which is very small, it can
be neglected in comparison
with the other forces. The normal and frictional forces exerted by the die and the punch at their
contact lines (since r is small as compared with the other dimensions, the finite contact
between the job and the punch can be idealized as a line) are N and µN, respectively. As t is
small, the moment due to µN is negligible. Hence M Nl cos . One-half of the bending force per
unit width is given as
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( sin 2 cos 2 )
tan
F [ cos(tan ) sin(tan )]
9.3.6 Extrusion
The basic nature of the deformation in extrusion is, to some extent, similar to that in drawing.
Here instead of applying a tensile load at the exit end, a compressive load is applied at the other
end. However, a number of complexities arise as the die is commonly flat-face (i.e., the
equivalent half-cone angle is very large unlike in the drawing die). Consequently, with the same
assumptions as in drawing, the results become highly inaccurate. In our analysis here, we shall
determine the work load and the frictional power loss for a simple forward extrusion with a flat-
face die. For doing this, we shall use two approaches; of these, one is in line with that used for
drawing, whereas the other is based on the energy consideration. Since both involve rather
drastic assumptions, we shall compare the results obtained from the two approaches.
O +d
d, = 2r,
2r
x x
dx
C
2(r, =
dr)
A B Dead zone
P
H P
(a)Details of extrusion process (b)Stresses on element
Fig. 9.3.12 Analysis of extrusion process
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The figure for drawing the similarity between extrusion and drawing is easily discernible. The
only change here is that is compressive. Therefore, following the same analysis as in drawing
equation can be rewritten as
( ) ( )
( ) [ ( ) ],
where = 0 and F A is nothing but the compressive stress at the section BB. Thus,
considering the compressive nature here, we have
| ( )
[( ) ],
Let us now consider the stresses acting on the boundaries of the region between the sections AA
and BB. The frictional stress at the container wall is assumed as the shear yield stress K, i.e., µp=
K. At the section BB, the value of p is given by p = | (considering von Mises’ yield
BB
criterion). Hence [taking K = √ ]
√
µ=
( | )
( )0( ) 1
It should be noted that equation was derived assuming that the half-cone angle α is small,
whereas here we have taken α . This introduces some inaccuracy in the analysis but the
solution becomes unwieldy without this assumption.
| |
which can be solved to obtain the value of µ. Considering the axial equilibrium of the region
(Fig. 9.3.13), we get
|AA d |BB d d lK
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F= d |BB dl
√
The total frictional power loss can be found by summing up the frictional power losses in the
conical and the cylindrical regions of the work material. The contribution from the second region
can be expressed as
P d lKV dV l
√
To determine the loss in the first region, we can use either of the two approaches followed in
computing the work load. According to the first of these approaches, the frictional power loss in
the conical region is given as
P ∫ √2 d p √2 V dr
where V = V ( )
( ) [( ) ]
P ∫ 2 V d [ {( ) }] dr
2 µ V d ∫ [ ( ) ]dr
Finally, P V d [ {( ) } ln ( )]
P P P
P P d V ln ( )
√
= dV * d ln ( )+
√
As we have already noted, the punching and blanking processes cannot, strictly speaking, be
grouped under the forming operations. In these processes, a finite volume from a sheet metal is
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removed in block by using a die and a punch. The shape and size of the portion removed are
determined by the geometry of the die and the punch. If the final product happens to be the
removed portion, then the operation is termed as blanking. On the other hand, if the pierced
sheet metal is the final product, then the operation is called punching. Since the basic mechanics
of material removal is the same in both the operations, we shall discuss these under a single
heading, namely punching.
Punch
Job holder
Job
Die
d
Clearance c
Figure 9.3.14 shows a simple punching operation. As in deep drawing, so here too the job is held
by job holders to prevent any distortion and to provide a support. It should be noted that the
punch and die corners are not provided with any radius (unlike in the deep drawing operation)
as the objective in this process is to cause a rupture of the material. A clearance c is provided
between the punch and the die. Hence, the die diameter d d 2c, where d is the diameter
of the punch.
Powder metallurgy is the name given to the process by which fine powdered materials are
blended, pressed into desired shape (compacted) and then heated (sintered) in a control
atmosphere to bond the contacting surfaces of the particles and establish desired properties.
This method is used for mass production of small, intricate parts of high precision, often
eliminating need of additional machining.
The powder metallurgy has four basic steps:
Powder manufacture
Mixing or Blending
Compacting
Sintering
Powder Manufacture: The properties of powder metallurgy are highly dependent on the
characteristics of metal or material powders that are used. Some important properties or
characteristics include chemistry and purity, particle size, size distribution, particle shape and
the surface texture of the particle. The commercial powder is produced by some form of melt
atomization where a liquid is fragmented into molten droplets which then solidify into particles.
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Powder Mixing and Blending: It is rare that a single powder will posses all of the characteristics
desired in a given process and product. Most likely, the starting material will be a mixture of
various grades and sizes of powder, with additions of lubricants or binders.
The final product chemistry is often obtained by combining pure metal or non metal powders
rather than using prealloyed material. Sufficient diffusion must occur during the sintering
operation to produce a uniform chemisty and structure in the final product.
Blending or mixing operations can be done either dry or wet, where water or other solvent is
used to improve mixing, reduce dusting and lessen explosion hazards.
Compacting: It is one of the most important process of powder metallurgy. Loose powder is
compressed and densified into a shape known as a green compact, usually at room temperature.
High product density and the uniformity of that density throughout the compact are generally
desired characteristics. In addition the compact should posses sufficient green strength for in-
process handling and transport to the sintering furnace.
Sintering: In the sintering operation, the pressed powder compacts are heated in a controlled
atmosphere to a temperature below the melting point but high enough to permit sold state
diffusion, and held for sufficient time to permit bonding of particles. Most metals are sintered at
temperatures of 70%-80% of melting temperature.
When product is composed of more than one material, the sintering temperature may even be
above the melting temperature of one or more components.
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( )
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material and d is the lattice spacing in the cleavage
plane. However, in a brittle solid, the failure takes place by the extension of the cracks already
present, and the bulk strength is much reduced from that given by above equation. In this case,
the bulk strength ( ) is expressed as
( ) ,
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contact area. An excessive oxide contamination is always harmful, resulting in a poor joint
efficiency.
A solid phase welding done at the room temperature does not allow recrystallization and gain
growth at the interface. This reduces the ductility of the joint to some extent. An increase in
working temperature not only increases the ductility but also eliminates some other defects. The
phenomenon of diffusion, though it has not been studied extensively, has an important bearing
on the performance of a solid phase weld. The shape and the size of the voids at the interface are
modified considerably depending on the amount of diffusion.
9.4.2 Principles of Fusion welding
In a fusion welding process, the material around the joint is melted in both the parts to be joined.
If necessary, a molten filler material is also added. Thus, a fusion welding process may be either
autogeneous or homogeneous. Metallurgically, there are three distinct zones in a welded part,
namely, (i) the fusion zone, (ii) the heat affected unmelted zone around the fusion zone, and (iii)
the unaffected original part. The most important factors governing a fusion welding process are
(i) the characteristics of the heat source,
(ii) the nature of deposition of the filler material in the fusion zone, known as the weld pool,
(iii) the heat flow characteristics in the joint,
(iv)the gas metal or slag metal reactions in the fusion zone, and
(v) the cooling of the fusion zone with the associated contraction, residual stresses, and
metallurgical changes.
Heat Source: A heat source, suitable for welding, should release the heat in a sharply defined,
isolated zone. Moreover, the heat should be produced at a high temperature and at a high rate.
The most common sources of heat include (i) the electric arc (as in various arc weldings), (ii)
the chemical flame (as in gas welding), (iii) an exothermic chemical reaction (as in thermit
welding), and (iv) an electric resistance heating (as in electroslag and other resistance welding
processes). The general characteristics of these heat sources are now discussed.
Emission and Ionization of Electric Arc: First of all, let us see how an electric arc is created and
maintained between two electrodes of opposite polarity. Figure 9.4.1 schematically shows an
electric circuit used for arc welding where the work is the positive electrode (called the anode)
and the electrode rod is the negative electrode (called the cathode). Initially, a good contact is
made between the electrode and the work. Thereafter, the electrode is withdrawn. As a result,
the metallic bridges start breaking, thus increasing the current density per bridge.
Electrode
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Finally, the current density rises to such a high value that the bridges start boiling. Under such
conditions, the electrons come out of both the surfaces by a process known as thermionic
emission. Obviously, the electrons (having the negative charge) coming out of the anode are
pulled back, whereas those coming out of the cathode are also attracted towards the anode.
The rate at which the electrons are emitted from a hot surface is given by
I=C exp( ),
ϕe (k )
Table 9.4.1 Ionization potential and thermionic work function of some common metals
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The potential drop across an arc is schematically shown in Fig. 9.4.2. The voltage drop shown in
this figure is for given spacing, current, and electrode materials. A change in the materials alters
all the values. However, a change in the spacing and the current essentially changes only then
drop in the arc column.
Anode
Anode space
Cathode
Arc column
Cathode space
Cathode
Potential
Fig. 9.4.2 Potential across arc space
It has been experimentally found that, for given spacing (and, of course, electrode materials), the
voltage reduces up to a current value of 50 amp (against the ohmic law of constant resistance)
and increases thereafter, as shown in Fig. 9.4.3. This can be explained as follows. Up to 50 amp of
current, the shape of the arc is almost cylindrical and the surface to volume ratio of a cylinder
decreases with increasing radius. Thus, a thick, high current arc loses less heat and essentially
burns hotter. This result in a higher conductivity (and consequently lower resistance) as
compared with a thin, low current, arc. However, beyond 50 amp of current, the arc bulges out
and the current path becomes more than the arc gap which again increases the resistance of the
arc. Due to these two opposite effects, i.e., higher temperature and longer current path, the
voltage drop remains constant over a wide range of the current values.
Voltage
0 50 100 500
Current (amp)
Fig. 9.4.3 Current-voltage characteristic of arc
As a first approximation, we can assume the conductivity of the arc column to be independent of
the arc length l. The electrode drops are also independent of the arc length. Hence, we can write
the voltage drop across the entire arc as
V = A + Bl,
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Heat flow characteristics: A study of heat flow characteristics can provide an estimate of the
minimum heat input rate required to form a weld of a given width. Moreover, a recognition of
the major variables controlling the thermal cycle (i.e., the heating and the cooling rate of the heat
affected zone) is essential for a successful fusion welding. In the fusion welding processes, the
heat source is moving, except in spot welding where the source is stationary. Once the steady
state is reached, even with a moving heat source, the temperature distribution relative to the
source becomes stationary. The most convenient way of analyzing such a problem with a moving
source is to assume the source as stationary and the workpiece to move with the same velocity
in the opposite direction. This speed is called the welding speed. Two different types of heat
sources can be considered. In most cases, the heat is liberated in a small zone which is idealized
as a point source, and the heat flow from the source is three-dimensional. In a few cases, e.g., in
butt welding of relatively thin plates, the heat is liberated along a line and heat source is
idealized as a line source. In such situations, the heat flow is two-dimensional The available
results include those of infinite, semi-infinite, and finite medium, each with point and line
sources. Of these results, the most useful is the one which gives the minimum heat input rate
necessary for maintaining a given width of the weld. For a three dimensional heat source, this is
given as
Q= wk ( ),
melting point of the work material above the initial temperature (℃),
Q = 8k h( ),
In arc welding with short circuit metal transfer, the heat input rate is easily seen to be
Q = CVI,
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where
The three important effects intimately connected with the cooling of a fusion weld are (i)
contraction, (ii) residual stress, and (iii) metallurgical phase transformation. All these effects
significantly control the quality of a weld.
(i) Contraction: During the freezing of the weld pool, a decrease in the volume takes place.
Moreover, the direction of freezing, and thus the effect of contraction, depends on the type of
joint.
(ii) Residual Stress: During the fusion welding of plates, as the weld pool contracts on cooling,
this contraction is resisted by the rest of the plates (which have not melted). As such, a
tensile stress is generated in the weld, and this is balanced by the compressive stress in the
parent metal. This residual stress may result in the cracking of a brittle material and is not
important as far as a ductile material is concerned.
(iii) Metallurgical Changes: These changes are due to the heating and subsequent cooling of
the weld and the heat affected zones of the parent materials. Such changes significantly
affect the quality of the weld. The wide variety of changes that may take place depend on
various factors, e.g.,
a) the nature of material, i.e., single-phase, two-phase,
b) the nature of the prior heat treatment, if any, and
c) the nature of the prior cold working.
Three different processes, namely, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding are grouped under
solid/liquid state welding. The physical phenomena associated with each of these processes are
essentially the same, and differ mainly in the metallurgical aspects. In these processes, the bulk
material is not melted. Also, a molten filler material is used to provide the joint.
The soldering and brazing processes are carried out by allowing a molten filler material to flow
in the gap between the parent bodies. Obviously, the filler material has to have a melting point
much lower than that of the parent bodies. When the filler material is a copper alloy (e.g.,
copper-zinc and copper-silver), the process is called brazing. A similar process with a lead-tin
alloy as the filler material is called soldering. The most common heat source for these processes
is electrical resistance heating.
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The material removal processes are family of shaping operations in which excess material is
removed from a starting work part so that what remains is the desired final geometry.
9.5.1 Machining
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material
to leave the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear
deformation of the work material to form a chip; as chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.
Advantages of Machining:
Limitations
Wasteful of material
Time consuming
The process of removing metal can be done by using two types of cutting tools.
o Ground type
o Tipped type
o Drill bit
o Milling cutter
MRR obtained from multipoint cutting tool is more than that from single point cutting tool
The life of multipoint cutting tool is more than single point cutting tool.
Single point cutting tools are fed axially at a uniform feed per revolution. But multipoint
cutting tools are fed perpendicularly to the cutter axis of rotation.
Method of machining
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When the zone under the cutting action is carefully examined, primary shear zone and secondary
shear zone are formed.
Primary shear zone: the uncut layer deforms into a chip after it goes through a severe plastic
deformation in the primary shear zone.
Secondary shear zone: after the chip formation, the chip flows over the rake surface of the
tool and the strong adhesion between the tool and the newly-formed chip surface results in
some sticking. Due to that, it undergoes a further plastic deformation at the interface
between tool and chip.
Major Factors
Cutting speed
Feed rate
Depth of cut
Minor factors
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Types of Chips:
Continuous chip
Continuous with built-up edge
Discontinuous chip
Non-homogeneous chip
According to ASA system, the single point cutting tool can be designated as
Notation Name of the angles Order of Reading
αb Back rake angle
Downward direction
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Z ,V
∝
X
s Y
ϕ
Y
X Z
Back rake angle (αb): It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of
the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side cutting edge.
Side rake angle (αs): It is the angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool
and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge.
End relief angle ( e): It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the
end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to
the end flank.
Side relief angle ( s): It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the
side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to
the side flank.
End cutting edge angle (φe): It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line normal to the
tool shank.
Side cutting edge angle (φs) or Lead angle: It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the
side of the tool shank.
Nose radius (r): Radius curvature of the tool tip. It provides strengthening of the tool nose and
better surface finish.
Purpose:
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Controls the directions of the resultant force on the tool and chip flows.
Rake angle influences the cutting forces, power and surface finish:
Effect on performance:
Strength of tool: Tool with large rake angle is weak and the tool point may break off readily and
on the contrary tools with negative rake angle are stronger.
shear
Heat conduction: Tool with large rake angle do not conduct heat readily whereas tools with
negative rake angles have better heat conductivity.
rake
rake
Heat Heat
Dissipation Dissipation
Cutting force: With decrease in rake angle the shear plane angle (φ) decreases and for the same
depth of cut, the extent of the shear plane increase and thereby the cutting force increases ( at
the tool-chip interface assumed to be constant) +ve
For same
depth of cut
l1>l2
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Power consumption: With large rake angle the cutting forces are less thereby the power required
for making the cut is also reduced.
The back rake angle controls the point of initial contact between the tool and the
workpiece and there by exercises a control over strength of tool point.
ve rake angle
subjected to impact
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Purpose: By providing a shearing action for chip removal, this angle enables the tool to cut more
freely.
Effect on performance:
Power consumption:
As the side rake angle increases, the amount of chip that bends decreases, and hence the
power required to part and bend the chip decrease as the side rake angle increases
Work
Piece ( +ve side rake
angle )
Heat Generation:
A fairly large part of the power required to part and bend the chip is transformed into
heat.
As the side rake angle decreases, the heat generation also increases (because power
consumption increases ) but the temperature at the tool point decreases because the
area of heat dissipation increases with decrease in side rake angle.
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Feed/rev:
The feed/rev increase, the chip thickness increases and consequently the power
expended to part the chip also increases resulting in higher amount of heat generated.
For a high feed/rev, the side rake angle should be decreased in order to increase the area
of heat dissipation.
Surface finish:
The side rake angle increases, the size of built up edge that adheres to the top face near
to the cutting edge becomes smaller and therefore, the resulting surface finish is smooth.
Side rake angle has a greater effect on the chips breakage than does the back rake angle
Purpose:
To avoid rubbing between the edge of the tool and the workpiece.
If a large part of the end cutting edge is in contact with work which increases the radial force
and this may lead to chatter and vibration.
Main function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent chatter and vibration
Too greater an angle leaves the tool pointy, which results in a tool which is not able to
conduct away the heat fast enough.
No relation with the power consumption but it affects the tool life.
On finishing tool, a small flat is ground on the front portion of the edge next to the nose
radius.
Tools like, cut off tools and necking tools often have no end cutting edge angle.
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The angle distributes the cutting stresses favourably at the start and at the end of a cut.
With γs the tool first contacts the workpiece some distance away from the tip and hence
Depth of cut
Edge
Edge Entering
Leaving
Gradually
Gradually
the starting load is better withstood and also γs allows the tool to enter and leave the workpiece
gradually, so there is no extra load comes into play and therefore tool life increases.
Chip produced will be thinner and wider which will distribute the cutting and heat produced
over more of the cutting edge.
A gentle back pressure is created against the tool by the introduction of side cutting edge
angle and thereby the chatter and vibration are reduced in the machine tool.
The back pressure keeps the cross slide tight against the lead screw which prevents any
backlash.
L
Depth of
L
cut (d)
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It has a significant influence on the life of the tool under normal conditions. Because by
producing a wider chip it distributes the cutting force and heat produced over larger cutting
edge.
No influence on the power consumed or on the total force necessary to cut the metal for a
given cut of feed.
Size of this angle influences chatter (ie) greater angles cause chatter
Helps to avoid the formation of a built up edge on the tool.
No side cutting edge angle is desirable when machining castings and forgings with hard and
scaly skins, because the least amount of tool edge should be exposed to the destructive
action of the skin.
Allows the tool cutting edge to penetrate into the metal and promotes free cutting by
preventing the side flank f the tool from rubbing against the work.
o Tool will rub against the work which promotes the formation of wear land and finish
on the work will be spoiled.
If it is too large the cutting edge will be very weak and obviously the tool life will be lowered.
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During turning cylindrical jobs the tool tip must coincide with centre line of job, if not the
effects are:
- If tool tip is above centre line, the tool will destroyed due to friction
- If tool tip is below centre line, the tool tip will dull rapidly
To reduce the above two effects the tool is filled at slightly inclined position, due to this the
back rake and end relief angles will get changed. The effective rake and relief angles can be
calculated as follows:
i) off set is taken as positive if the tip is above centre line and negative if the tip is below
centre line
The increase in nose radius avoids high heat concentration at a sharp point, improvement in
tool life and an improvement in surface finish is obtained.
Chatter will result if nose radius is too large; because a large nose radius thins the chip and
increases radial pressure.
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Depth of
Depth of
cut
cut
Feed marks are closer together when feed rate is reduced; a feed rate equal to the nose
radius gives a poor finish.
A cutting tool must have certain characteristics in order of produce good-quality and economical
parts.
Hot Hardness: The tool should be able to retain its hardness and strength even at elevated
temperatures encountered in cutting operations.
Wear resistance: The tool should give an acceptable tool life which is obtained before the tool is
resharpened or replaced.
Toughness: The tool should not fracture or fail due to the sudden impact load on tool which is
created in interrupted cutting operations.
Chemical stability or inertness: It should have less affinity towards the workpiece material, so
that any adverse reactions contributing to tool wear are avoided.
Friction coefficient: The friction coefficient should be low to enable the easy flow of chip during
the machining.
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Cost and method of manufacture: Cost should be low and method of manufacture should be easy
Tool materials:
Ceramics and sintered oxides: There are two principle families of ceramic cutting tool materials –
Alumina base ceramic and silicon-nitride (SiN) base ceramic
Cermets:
Cutting fluids: Cutting fluids are sometimes called cutting oil or coolant or lubricant.
Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and surface finish.
Reduce forces and energy consumption
Cool the cutting zone, thus reducing workpiece temperature and distortion.
Wash away the chips.
Protect the newly machined surfaces from environmental corrosion.
Water
Oils
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oSoluble Oil: It contains 80% water, soap and mineral oil. Soap helps as an emulsifying
agent.
o Straight Oil: It contains mineral oils, Kerosene and low viscosity petroleum products.
o Mixed Oil: It is a combination of straight, mineral and fatty oils.
emulsions, semi-synthetics, and synthetics
Tool failure: The useful life of a cutting tool may end in a variety of ways:
Fracture
Plastic deformation
Flank wear
Crater Wear
Tool life:
It can be defined as the time a newly sharpened tool will cut satisfactorily before it becomes
necessary to remove it and regrind or replace.
o Change in the magnitude of the cutting force resulting in changes in machine and
workpiece dimensions to change
The selection of the correct cutting speed has an important bearing on the economics of all
metal-cutting operations. To measure the tool life the Taylor tool life relationship is used
VT n C
Where V = Cutting speed, m/min
T = Tool life, minutes (it is time that it takes to develop a certain flank wear land)
C = a constant equal to the intercept of the curve and the ordinate or the cutting speed.
Actually it is the cutting speed for a tool life of one minute.
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logV1 logV2
n slope of the curve n tan
logT2 logT1
Cutting speed is the most significant process variable in tool life; however, depth of cut and feed
rate are also important. Thus tool life relation can be modified as follows.
VT n d x f y C
Process variables
Tool material
Tool geometry
Workpiece material
Cutting fluid
Economics of machining: Economics of machining is not but selection of cutting speed for
optimum conditions which can be done based on the following criteria:
The maximum production rate consideration will lead to higher tool cost, where as the minimum
cost consideration will lead to reduced production rate.
For minimum production cost: The total cost of a part can be written in the form
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
R – Total cost/piece
R1 – material cost/piece
R3 – Machining cost/piece
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f – Feed, mm/rev
Material cost R1: The material cost does not depend on the cutting conditions and remains as
constant (R1)
Set-up and idle time cost (R2): It is given by the product of the set-up and idle time and the
cost/unit time of labour and overheads. This is also independent of the cutting conditions f and v
R2 = y1Ts
Machining cost (R3): The machining cost/piece is given by the product of the machining
time/piece and the cost/unit time of labour and overheads.
πLD
R3 = y1Tm = y1
1000fV
Tm
Number of times the tool has to be changed =
T
1
Tm LD V n
Tool changing cost/piece = y1 x Tct x = y1 Tct
T 1000fV C
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1
LD V n
= y2
1000fV C
1 1
LD LD V n LD V n
Total Cost per piece R = R1 + y1Ts + y1 + y1 Tct + y 2
1000fV 1000fV C 1000fV C
dR
To obtain minimum total cost per piece, 0
dV
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. V, (In above equation the first two terms are constant)
n
ny1
Vopt C
1 - ny1Tct y2
1 y
Corresponding Tool-life T = 1 Tct 2
n y1
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Limits: The limits of size of a dimension of a part are two extreme permissible sizes, between
which the actual size of a dimension may lie. They are fixed with reference to the basic size of
that dimension. The high limit (upper limit) for that dimension is the largest size permitted and
the low limit is the smallest size permitted for that dimension.
Tolerance: The permissible variation in size or dimension is called tolerance. Thus, the word
tolerance indicates that a worker is not expected to produce the part to the exact size, but a
definite small size error is permitted. The difference between the upper limit and the lower limit
of a dimension represents the margin for variation in workmanship and is called a “Tolerance
zone”.
Tolerance can also be defined as the amount by which the job is allowed to go away from
accuracy and perfectness without causing any function trouble, when assembled with its mating
part.
Unilateral System: In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of
basic size i.e., tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below it.
Tolerance
Basic Size
Tolerance
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Bilateral System: In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides of
the basic size i.e., the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size; but may not be
necessarily equally disposed about it,
Tolerance
Tolerance
Basic Size
Work Tolerance
Fig. 9.6.3 Relation between Cost and Tolerance
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Fits: Fit may be defined as the degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts to
perform a definite function when they are assembled together.
Shaft: The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft but also to any external
dimension of a component.
Hole: The term hole refers not only to the diameter of circular hole but also to any internal
dimension of a component.
When an assembly is made of two parts, one is known as male-surface and the other mating part
as a female (enveloping) surface. The male surface is called as ‘Shaft’ and the female surface as
‘Hole’.
Basic or Nominal Size: It is the standard size of a part with reference to which the limits of
variation of a size are determined. It is referred to as a matter of convenience. The basic size is
the same for the hole and its shaft. It is the designed size obtained by calculations for strength.
Zero line: It is a straight line drawn horizontally to represent the basic size. In the graphical
representation of limits and fits, all the deviations are shown with respect to the zero line
(datum line). The positive deviations are shown above the zero line and negative deviations
below as shown in Fig. 9.6.4
Deviation: Deviation is the algebraic difference between the size (actual, maximum etc.) and the
corresponding basic size.
Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the upper (maximum) limit of size and
the corresponding basic size. It is a positive quantity when the maximum limit of size is greater
than the basic size and a negative quantity when the upper limit of size is less than the basic size
as shown in Fig. 9.6. It is denoted by ‘ES’ for hole and ‘es’ for a shaft.
Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the lower limit of size and the
corresponding basic size. It is a positive quantity when the lower limit of size is greater than the
basic size and negative quantity when the lower limit of size is less than the basic size.
For shaft
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i.e., es = ei + IT
For hole
IT = ES – EI
ES = EI + IT.
Fundamental Deviation. Fundamental deviation is that one of the two deviation (either the
upper or the lower) which is the nearest to the zero line for either hole or a shaft. It fixes the
position of the ‘Tolerance Zone’ in relation to the zero line as shown in Fig. 9.6.
Tolerance
Zone
Fundamental Tolerance
Deviation
(Lower Deviation)
Zero line
The fundamental deviation for the hole is denoted by capital letters A, B, C, …. 2 C and the same
for shaft is denoted by small letters a, b, c, …… zc etc. as explained later.
Fundamental Zero line
Deviation Tolerance Zone
(Upper Deviation)
Tolerance
Low High
limit limit
size size
From Fig. 9.6.5 it is clear that when the tolerance zone is above the zero line, lower deviation is
the fundamental deviation. While, when the tolerance zone is below the zero line, upper
deviation is the fundamental deviation.
Basic shaft: Basic shaft is the shaft whose upper deviation is zero. Thus the upper limit of the
basic shaft is the same as the basic size. It is denoted by letter ‘h’.
Basic Hole: Basic hole is the hole whose lower deviation is zero i.e., its low limit is the same as
the basic size. It is denoted by a letter ‘H’.
Tolerance Zone: It is the zone bounded by two limits of size of a part in the graphical
representation of tolerance. It is defined by its magnitude and by its position in relation to the
zero line as shown in Fig. 9.6.5
Tolerance grade: The tolerance grade is an indication of the degree of accuracy of manufacture
and it is designated by the letters ‘IT’ followed by a number, where ‘IT’ stands for “International
Tolerance grade”. Tolerance grades are IT , IT , IT , up to IT 6, the larger the number larger
will be the tolerance.
Standard Tolerance Unit: A unit which is a function of basic size and which is common to the
formula defining the different grades of tolerances. It is denoted by the letter ‘i’ and expressed in
terms of microns. It serves as a basis for determining the standard tolerance (IT) of the system.
Fit: Fit may be defined as a degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts to
perform a definite function when they are assembled together.
It is the relationship between the two mating parts with respect to the amount of loose or
tightness which is present when they are assembled together.
Accordingly, a fit may result either in a movable joint or a fixed joint. For example, a shaft
running in a bearing can move in relation to it and thus forms a movable joint, whereas, a pulley
mounted on the shaft forms a fixed joint.
Classification of Fits
On the basis of positive, zero and negative values of Clearance, there are three basic types of fits:
(1) Clearance Fit
(2) Transition Fit and,
(3) Interference Fit.
These are further classified in the following manner:
Fits
Transition Fit
Clearance Fit Interference Fit
(a) Push fit
(a) Slide Fit (a) Force Fit
(b) Wringing Fit
(b) Easy slide Fit (b) Tight Fit
(c) Running Fit (c) Shrink fit
(d) Slack running Fit
(e) Loose running Fit
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Clearance Fit: In this type of fit shaft is always smaller then the hole i.e., the largest permissible
shaft diameter is smaller than the diameter of the smallest hole. So that the shaft can rotate or
slide through with different degrees of freedom according to the purpose of mating part.
minimum clearance
Hole Tolerance
Clearance
Max.
Zero line
Shaft Tolerance
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Interference
Shaft
Hole
Elastic strains developed on the mating surfaces during the process of assembly prevent relative
movement of the mating parts. For example, steel tyres on railway car wheels, gears on
intermediate shafts of trucks, bearing in the gear of a lathe head stock, drill bush in jig plate,
cylinder liner in block, steel rings on a wooden bullock cart wheels etc.
1. Force Fit: Force fits are employed when the mating parts are not required to be
disassembled during their total service life. In this case the interference is quite appreciable
and, therefore, assembly is obtained only when high pressure is applied. This fit, thus, offers
a permanent type of assembly, e.g., gears on the shaft of a concrete mixture, forging machine
etc.
2. Tight Fit: It provides less interference than force fit. Tight fits are employed for mating parts
that may be replaced while overhauling of the machine, for example, stepped pulleys on the
drive shaft of a conveyor, cylindrical grinding machine etc.
3. Heavy force and Shrink Fit: It refers to maximum negative allowance. Hence considerable
force is necessary for the assembly. The fitting of the frame on the rim can also be obtained
first by heating the frame and then rapidly cooling it in its position.
Transition Fit: Transition fit lies mid way between clearance and interference fit. In this type the
size limits of mating parts (shaft and hole) are so selected that either clearance or indifference
may occur depending upon the actual sizes of the parts. Push fit and wringing fit are the
examples of this type of fit.
Shaft
Hole
Fig. 9.6.8 Transition fit
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In this type of fit the tolerance zones of the hole and shaft overlap completely or in part.
1. Wringing Fit: A wringing fit provides either zero interference or a clearance. These are used
where parts can be replaced without difficulty during minor repairs.
2. Push Fit: The fit provides small clearance. It is employed for parts that must be dis-
assembled during operation of a machine for example, change gears, slip bushing etc.
Allowance
Allowance is the prescribed difference between the dimensions of two mating parts for any type
of fit.
It is the intentional difference between the lower limit of hole and higher limit of the shaft.
The allowance may be positive or negative. The positive allowance is called clearance and the
negative allowance is called interference.
Allowance ( ve)
(Interference) Allowance ( )
(clearance)
Fig. 9.6.9
Tolerance Allowance
2. It is the difference between higher and It is the intentional difference between the
lower limits of a dimension of a part. lower limit of hole and higher limit of shaft.
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A limit and fit system is the system of series of standard allowances to suit specific range of basic
size. If these standard allowances are selected properly and assigned to mating parts ensures
specific classes of fit.
There are two systems of fit for obtaining clearance, interference or transition fit. These are:
Hole basis System. In the hole basis system the hole is kept constant and the shaft sizes are
varied to give the various types of fits.
In this system lower deviation of the hole is zero i.e., the low limit of hole is the same as basic
size. The high limit of hole and the two limits of size for the shaft are then varied to give the
desired type of fit, as shown in Fig. 9.6.10
Hole tolerance
Zero line
Shaft tolerance
Shaft basis System: In the shaft basis system the shaft is kept constant and the sizes of the hole
are varied to give various types of fits.
In this system the upper deviation (fundamental deviation) of shaft is zero i.e., the high limit of
shaft is the same as basic size and the various fits are obtained by varying the low limit of shaft
and both the limits of hole.
Hole Tolerance
Zero line
Shaft tolerance
The hole basis system is most commonly used because it is more convenient to make correct
holes of fixed sizes, since the standard drills, taps, reamors and broaches etc. are available for
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producing holes and their sizes are not adjustable. On the other hand size of shaft produced by
turning, grinding etc. can be very easily varied.
Shaft basis system is used when the ground bars or drawn bars are readily available. These bars
do not require further machining and fits are obtained by varying the sizes of hole.
1. Size of hole whose lower deviation is zero (H- Size of shaft whose upper deviation is zero (h-
hole) is assumed as the basic size. shaft) is assumed as assumed as basic size.
2. Limits on the hole are kept constant and those Limits on the shaft are kept constant and those on
of shaft are varied to obtain desired type of fit. the hole are varied to have necessary fit.
3. Hole basis system is preferred in mass This system is not suitable for mass production
production, because it is convenient and less because it is inconvenient, time consuming and
costly to make a hole of correct size due to costly to make a shaft of correct size.
availability of standard drills and reamers.
4. It is much more easy to vary the shaft sizes It is rather difficult to vary the hole size according
according to the fit required. to the fit required.
5. It requires less amount of capital and storage It needs large amounts of capital and storage
space for tools needed to produce shafts of space for large number of tools required to
different sizes. produce holes of different sizes.
6. Gauging of shafts can be easily and Being internal measurement, gauging of holes
conveniently done with adjustable gap cannot be easily and conveniently done.
gauges.
Gauges are easy to employ and can be used in many cases by unskilled operators. For checking
the component with a gauge it is not necessary to make any calculations or to determine the
actual dimension of the part, the time involved for checking/inspection is thus considerably
reduced. For these reasons they find wide application in engineering particularly for mass
production.
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(iii) They give quick results about the conformance or non-conformance of the part
with the specified tolerances.
Plain Gauges: Plain gauges are used for checking plain, that is, unthreaded holes and shafts. They
are classified in the following ways.
Standard Gauges: If a gauge is made as an exact copy of the mating part of the component to be
checked, it is called as standard gauge. For example, if a bushing is to be made which is to mate
with a shaft. Shaft is the mating part. Then, the bushing is checked by a gauge which is a copy of
the mating part in form of its surface and size. A standard gauge cannot be used to check an
interference fit. It has limited applications.
Limit Gauges: Limit gauges are very widely used in industries. As there are two permissible
limits of the dimension of a part, high and low, two gauges are needed to check each dimension
of the part, one corresponding the low limit of size and other to the high limit of size of that
dimension. These are known as GO and NO-GO gauges.
The difference between the sizes of these two gauges is equal to the tolerance on the workpiece.
GO gauges check the Maximum Metal Limit (MML) and NO-GO gauge checks the Minimum Metal
Limit (LML). In the case of a hole, maximum metal limit is when the hole is as small as possible,
that is, it is the low limit of size. In case of hole, therefore, GO gauge corresponds to the low limit
of size, while NO-GO gauge corresponds to high limit of size. For a shaft, the maximum metal
limit is when the shaft is on the high limit of size. Thus, in case of a shaft GO gauge corresponds
to the high limit of size and NO-GO gauge corresponds to the low limit size.
While checking, each of these two gauges is offered in turn to the work. A part is considered to
be good, if the GO gauge passes through or over the work and NO-GO gauge fails to pass under
the action of its own weight. This indicates that the actual dimension of the part is within the
specified tolerance. If both the gauges fail to pass, it indicates that hole is under size or shaft is
over size. If both the gauges pass, it means that the hole is over size or the shaft is under size.
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Tolerance
Tolerance
GO
NOT
√
HL
NO GO
HL
LL
LL
GO
√
HOLE
The material used for manufacturing the gauges must fulfil the following requirements, either by
virtue of its own properties, or by a heat treatment process.
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Now, the plug gauges are used to check the hole, therefore the size of the GO plug gauge should
correspond to the low limit of hole, while that of NO-GO plug gauge should corresponds to the
high limit of hole.
Max. Limit
Tolerance
Zone Tolerance
Max.
Zone
Limit
NO GO
GO NO GO
GO
Mini.
Limit
Fig. 9.6.13
Similarly, the ‘GO Snap gauge’ on the other hand corresponds to the high limit of shaft, while
‘NO-GO Snap’ gauge corresponds to the low limit of shaft.
The difference in size between the GO and NO GO plug gauges, as well as the difference in size
between GO and NO-GO Snap gauges is approximately equal to the tolerance of the tested hole or
shaft in case of standard gauges.
(2) ‘GO’ gauges should check all the related dimensions (roundness, size, location etc).
Simultaneously whereas ‘NO-GO’ gauge should check only one element of the dimension at a
time.
According to this rule, GO plug gauge should have a full circular section and be of full length of
the hole it has to check. This ensures that any lack of straightness, or roundness of the hole will
prevent the entry of full length GO plug gauge. If this condition is not full filled, the inspection of
the part with the gauge may give wrong results.
For example, suppose the bush to be inspected has a curved axis and a short ‘GO’ plug gauge is
used to check it. The short plug gauge will pass through all the curves of the bent busing. This
will lead to a wrong result that the workpiece (hole) is within the prescribed limits. Actually,
such a busing with a curved hole will not mate properly with its mating part and thus defective.
A GO plug gauge with adequate length will not pass through a curved busing and the error will
be detected. A long plug gauge will thus check the cylindrical surface not in one direction, but in
a number of sections simultaneously. The length of the ‘GO’ plug gauge should not be less than
1.5 times the diameter of the hole to be checked.
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Bush
GO
Plug Gauge
Fig. 9.6.14 Checking a bush with curved axis
Hole
Now suppose the hole to be checked has an oval shape. While checking it with the cylindrical
‘NO-GO’ gauge the hole under inspection will overlap (hatched portion) the plug and thus will
not enter the hole. This will again lead to wrong conclusion that the part is within the prescribed
limits. It will be therefore more appropriate to make the ‘NO-GO’ gauge in the form of a pin as
shown in Fig. 9.6.15
Wear Allowance
The measuring surfaces of GO gauges rub constantly against the surfaces of the work pieces
during checking. This results in wearing of the measuring surfaces of gauges. The GO gauge thus
looses its initial size. The size of the GO plug gauge is reduced due to wear and that of ring or
snap gauge is increased. Hence a wear allowance is provided to the gauges in the direction
opposite to that of the wear. In case of GO plug gauge wear allowance is added, while in ring or
snap gauge it is subtracted. For ‘NO-GO’ gauges wear allowance is not provided as they are not
subjected to much wear as GO gauges. Wear allowance is usually taken as 50% of work
tolerance. Wear allowance is applied to a normal GO gauge diameter before gauge tolerance is
applied.
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with the graduations of the scale. Linear measuring instruments are designed either for line
measurements or end measurements. In end measuring instruments, the measurement is taken
between two end surfaces as in micrometers, slip gauges etc.
(i) Graduated
(ii) Non-graduated.
The graduated instruments include rules, vernier callipers, vernier height gauges, vernier depth
gauges, micrometers, dial indicator etc. The non-graduated instruments include callipers,
trammels, telescopic gauges, surface gauges, straight edges, wire gauges, screw pitch gauges,
radius gauges, thickness gauges, slip gauges etc. They can also be classified as :
Steel Rule
Steel rule is a line measuring instrument. It is a part replica of the international prototype meter.
It compares an unknown length to be measured with the previously calibrated length. It is made
of hardened steel or stainless steel having series of equally spaced line engraved on it.
Steel rule is most commonly used in workshop for measuring components of limited accuracy.
The marks on a good class rule vary from 0.12 mm to 0.18 mm wide, so that we cannot expect to
obtain a degree of accuracy much closer than within 0.012 mm. The quickness and ease with
which it can be used and its low cost, makes it a popular and widely used measuring device.
Callipers
To measure the diameter of a circular part it is essential that the measurement is made along the
largest distance or true diameter. The steel rule alone is not a convenient method of measuring
directly the size of the circular part. A calliper is used to transfer the distance between the faces
of a component to a scale or micrometer. It thus converts an end measurement situation to the
line system of the rule.
The accurate use of callipers depends upon the sense of feel that can only be acquired by
practice. While using callipers the following rules should be followed:
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Surface plate
Surface plate forms the basis of measurement. They are extensively used in workshops and
metrological laboratories where inspection is carried out. They are used as:
Surface plates are massive and highly rigid in design. They have truly flat level planes. They are
generally made up of C.I. free from blow holes, inclusions and other surface defects and are heat
treated to relieve internal stresses.
Vernier Callipers
The vernier callipers consists of two scale: one is fixed and the other is movable. The fixed scale,
called main scale is calibrated on L-shaped frame and carries a fixed jaw. The movable scale,
called vernier scale slides over the main scale and carries a movable jaw. The movable jaw as
well as the fixed jaw carries measuring tip. When the two jaws are closed the zero of the venier
scale coincides with the zero of the main scale. For precise setting of the movable jaw an
adjustment screw is provided. Also, an arrangement is provided to lock the sliding scale on the
fixed main scale.
Least Count: Vernier instruments have two scales, main scale and the vernier scale. The main
scale is fixed and the vernier scale slides over the main scale. When zero on the main scale
coincides with the zero on the vernier scale, the vernier scale has one more division than that of
the main scale with which it coincides. So, the value of a division on vernier scale is slightly
smaller than the value of a division on the main scale. This difference is the least count.
Least count (L.C.) is the difference between the value of main scale division and vernier scale
division. Thus least count of a vernier instrument = Value of the smallest division on the main
scale – The value of the smallest division on the vernier scale.
Micrometer
The accuracy of the vernier calliper is 0.02 mm ; most engineering precision work has to be
measured to a much greater accuracy than this, especially to achieve interchangeability of
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component parts. To achieve this greater precision, measuring equipment of a greater accuracy
and sensitivity must be used. Micrometer is one of the most common and most popular forms of
measuring instrument for precise measurement with 0.01 mm accuracy. Micrometers with
0.001 mm accuracy are also available. Micrometers can be classified as :
Principle of Micrometer
Micrometers work on the principle of screw and nut. We know that when a screw is turned
through nut through one revolution, it advances by one pitch distance i.e., one rotation of screw
corresponds to a linear movement of a distance equal to pitch of the thread. If the circumference
of the screw is divided into number of equal parts say ‘n’, its rotation through one division will
cause the screw to advance through ( ) length. Thus, the minimum length that can be
measured by such arrangement will be ( ). By reducing the pitch of the screw thread or by
increasing the number of divisions on the circumference of screw, the length value of one
circumferential division can be reduced and accuracy of measurement can be increased
considerably.
Least count is the minimum distance which can be measured accurately by the instrument. The
micrometer has a screw of 0.5 mm pitch, with a spindle graduated in 50 divisions to provide a
.
direct reading of ( )= = 0.01 mm.
Least count of a micrometer is thus, the value of one division on a spindle, which is connected to
the screw.
There are many instruments which can be used for measuring the angles. The selection of an
instrument to be used for angular measurement depends upon the component and the accuracy
of measurement required. For example, the ordinary bevel protractor with Vernier scale can
read to 2 minutes accuracy and optical protractor is accurate to 2 minutes. These are usually
not adequate for metrological work and for high precision work to within a few seconds. To
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obtain these fine accuracies for high precision work, use is made of sine bar, angle gauges, and
optical instruments. The spirit level and the dividing head are also employed.
The following instruments are generally are generally used for angular measurements
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Product Design
Product design for which interactive computer aided design (CAD) system allows the drawing
and analysis tasks to be performed. These computer graphics systems are very useful to get data
out of designer’s mind into a presentable form and enable analysis in fraction of time required
otherwise and with greater accuracy. Design process is speeded up considerably.
Manufacturing Planning
Computer aided process planning helps to establish optimum manufacture routines and
processing steps, sequences and schedules so that the process is optimum.
Manufacturing
Remarkable flexibility for manufacturing diverse components in the same setup by easy and
quick manipulation of software.
High rates of production with consistent high quality
Uninterrupted production with negligible supervision.
Economical production even where product demand is only moderate in volume
Drastic reduction of lead times where drastic changes in design are called for.
Integrating and fine tuning of all factory functions
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NC part programming, tool fabrication, assembly, jig and fixture design, quality control and
testing.
Manufacture: With CAD/CAM system the complete NC part programming process can be carried
out interactively. Source programs in languages such as APT can be produced.
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10.1.1 Forecasting
The main purpose of forecasting is to estimate the occurrence, timing, or magnitude of future
events. Once, the reliable forecast for the demand is available, a good planning of activities is
needed to meet the future demand. Forecasting thus provides the input to the planning and
scheduling process.
Types of Forecasting:
Long range forecast consists of time period of more than 5 years. The long range forecasting
is useful in following areas:
o Capital planning
o Plant location
o Plant layout or expansion
o New product planning
Medium range forecast is generally from 1 to 5 years. The medium range forecasting is
useful in following areas:
o Sales planning
o Production planning
o Capital and cash planning
o Inventory planning
1. Extrapolation
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Extrapolation is one of the easiest ways to forecast. In this method, based on the past few
values of production capacity, next value may be extrapolated on a graph paper.
In this method, mean of only a specified number of consecutive data which are most recent
values in series.
( ) ∑
n
where:
In this method, more weightage is given to the relatively newer data. The forecast is the
weighted average of data.
Where:
and
It may be noted that when more weight is given to the recent values, the forecast is nearer to
likely trend. Weighted moving average is advantageous as compared to simple moving
average as it is able to give more importance to recent data.
4. Exponential smoothing
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Where:
Higher value of α gives more robust forecast and response more quickly to changes.
Higher value of α gives more weightage to past data as compared to smaller value.
Statistical Forecasting:
Statistical forecasting is based on the past data. We evaluate the expected error for the statistical
technique of forecasting. Some common regression functions are as follows:
Let:
t= time period
1. Linear Forecaster
Ft= a+bt
2. Cyclic Forecaster
4. Quadratic Forecaster
Ft=a +bt+ct2
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Accuracy of Forecast:
Many factors affect the trend in data therefore it is impossible to obtain an exact right forecast.
Below are the tools that are used to determine the error in the forecasted value.
This is calculated as the average of absolute value of difference between actual and
forecasted value.
∑ | |
n
Where:
The average of square of all errors in the forecast is termed as MSE. Its interpretation is
same as MAD.
∑ ( )
S
n
3. BIAS
BIAS is measure of the average of all errors in the forecast. Its intern. A positive bias
indicates underestimation while a negative BIAS indicates over-estimation
∑ ( )
S
n
Production planning and control is one of the most important areas of industrial management.
This aims at achieving the efficient utilization of resources in any organization through planning,
coordination and control of production activities.
Phases of PPC:
Preplanning
o Process design
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o Material
o Method
o Machine
o Men
Control
o Inspection
o Expedition
o Evaluation
o Dispatching
1. Routing
o Conduct the analysis to determine the material needed for the product.
2. Scheduling
Scheduling involves fixing the priorities for different jobs and deciding the starting and
finishing time of each job. Main purpose of scheduling is to prepare a time-table indicating
the time and rate of production, as indicated by starting and finishing time of each activity.
Scheduling will be discussed in detail in next section.
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3. Dispatching
Dispatching is the selection and sequencing of available jobs to be run at the individual
workstations and assignments of those jobs to workers. Functions of dispatching are as
under.
o Ensuring right material, tools, parts, jigs and fixtures are available.
4. Expediting
This is the final stage of production planning and control. It is used for ensuring that the
work is carried out as per plans and due dates are met. The main objective is to arrest
deviations from the plan. Another objective is to integrate different production activities to
meet the production target. The following activities are done ine expediting phase:
10.1.3 Scheduling
Scheduling is used to allocate resources over time to accomplish specific tasks. It should take
account of technical requirement of task, available capacity and forecasted demand. The output
plan should be translated into operations, timing and schedule on the shop floor. Detailed
scheduling encompasses the formation of starting and finishing time of all jobs at each
operational facility.
Scheduling Methods:
Gantt Chart
Gantt chart is a graphical tool for representing a production schedule. Normally, Gantt chart
consists of two axis. On X-axis, time is represented and on Y-axis various activities or tasks,
machine centres and facilities are represented.
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10.2.1 Inventory
Inventory may be defined as any resource that has certain value and which can be used at a later
time, when the demand of item will arise. Below are some functions of Inventory:
Inventory Costs:
In inventory models various cost elements are considered. Generally, these costs are dependent
upon the timing and quantity to order. The different types of costs relevant to inventory models
are explained under:
Unit cost of inventory is the price which is paid to the supplier for procuring one unit of the
inventory. For parts manufactured in house, cost of inventory is the direct manufacturing
cost.
Ordering cost is the cost associated with the placement of an order for the acquisition of
inventories. The expenses incurred in the purchase department are its main constituents.
Setup cost is used when inventory is made within the organization.
Holding costs are incurred due to maintaining an inventory level in the organization. It is due
to the interest on the held up capital in inventory, insurance cost, rent, obsolescence,
deterioration etc.
Shortage cost is the cost incurred due to a stock out situation. There may be lost in sales due
to customer dropping/ postponing the idea of purchase or customer may go to some other
producer.
In the sections to follow, we will discuss some of the commonly used inventory models. For
these models, following notations are used :
Q = Quantity ordered each time
= Optimum quantity of inventory ordered for minimum total cost
D = Annual demand of parts (in unit)
C = Cost of inventory per unit item
C = Carrying cost per unit of individual item, expressed as a percentage of unit cost
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This is one of the oldest developments in material management. Ford Harris developed it in
1915 and later R.H. Wilson in 1943, popularized it among researchers and practitioners.
Let us further assume that lead time is zero; which means that the inventory is delivered
instantaneously after the order is placed.
Total cost during the year is the sum of the inventory carrying cost during year and total
ordering cost.
Thus,
TC = (Ordering Cost) (Number or Orders placed in a year)
+ (Carrying cost per unit) (Average inventory level during year) ….. (i)
emand in a year
Number of orders to be placed in a year
uantity ordered each time
0
verage inventory carried during the year
2 2
This is because the inventory level is uniformly decreasing from Q to zero (Fig. 10.2.1).
Hence, from (i):
TC = C ( ) C ( ) …..(ii)
What level of inventory should be ordered (i.e., ), so that total cost will be minimum? To
answer this, equation (ii) is differentiated with respect to Q and equated to zero. Second
differential should be positive for cost minimization:
( ) ( / )
C …..(iii)
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or,
or, Q=√
( C) C ( ) (a positive quantity)
For total inventory cost minimization, we have defined Q as and we will call it as economic
order quantity (EOQ).
√
Q/2
t t t t
Fig. 10.2.1 EOQ model with uniform demand
Total Cost
(TC)
Lowest Carrying
Total Cost Cost ( )
Cost
Ordering
Cost ( )
0 (EOQ)
Quantity (Q)
Fig. 10.2.2 Economic Order Quantity
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2
1.5
1.25
1
[ ]
( )
=√ √
=√ √ √ √2C C . . . (iv)
= [ √ √ ]
= * +
If we increase or decrease the EOQ by twice, the increase in total cost is only 25% (Fig.10.2.3).
Thus, total cost is not very sensitive in the vicinity of EOQ. The physical significance of this
observation is quite important. If there is a slight error in deciding the EOQ, the total inventory
cost is insignificantly affected.
Now, let us summarize the concept of EOQ. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is that size of order
which is able to minimize the total cost of carrying inventory and cost of ordering for a given
period under the assumption of known and certain demand.
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=√
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Operations research, is a branch of industrial engineering that uses advanced analytical methods
such as mathematical modeling, statistical analysis, and mathematical optimization to arrive at
optimal or near-optimal solutions to complex decision-making problems. It is often concerned
with determining the maximum (of profit, performance, or yield) or minimum (of loss, risk, or
cost) of some real-world objective.
The operations research has many fields. Some of the important field will be covered in the
coming sections.
Linear programming is a technique based on mathematical theory for specifying ways to use the
limited resources or constraint of a system to obtain a particular objective such as highest profit,
least cost and least time. The linear programming problem can be solved using Graphical
method (max 2 variables) and Simplex method (any number of variables)
Below mentioned definitions are important for the linear programming problem.
Decision Variable
The decision variable means the variable whose quantitative values are required to be found
to maximize or minimize the objective function.
Objective Function
Constraint
The restrictions that are expressed in form of an equation or inequality are termed as
constraints.
Feasible Solution
A set of values of decision variables, which satisfies the constraint sets. There may be many
feasible solutions to the linear programming problem.
Optimal Solution
The optimal solution of linear programming problem is that set of feasible solution, which
satifies the objective of the problem (Maximizing or minimizing).
Problem:
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Z=∑ Cx
Subject to the constraints:
∑ a x (‘≤’ or ‘ ’ or ‘≥’) b : for all i; i = 1, 2, . . . . m
x ≥ 0; j = 1, 2, . . . n (non negativity constraints)
Here,
x = jth decision variable about which the decision maker is interested.
C = Unit contribution to the jth decision variable in the objective function.
a = Exchange coefficient of jth variable in the ith constraint set.
b = Requirement or availability of ith constraints.
i = Constraint number; i = 1, 2, . . . m.
j = decision variable number; j = 1, 2, . . . n.
(‘≤’ or ‘ ’ or ‘≥’) means that either of the three notations is required.
≤ is called as less than or equal to
≥ is called as greater than or equal to
= is called as equal to
Conversion of a maximization problem into minimization problem
The maximization objective function is equivalent to a minimization objective function
except with changed sign.
Thus,
Maximize Z = ∑ Cx
is equivalent to
Minimize Z = ∑ Cx
Similarly, a minimization problem may be transformed into a maximization problem by
changing the sign of the decision coefficients.
Thus,
Maximize =∑ Cx
is equivalent to
Minimize =∑ Cx
How to deal with equal to sign
he equal to ( ) sign in a constraint may be handled by adopting two constraint sets with ≥
and ≤ signs.
For Example:
x x = 24
Its equivalent is:
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x x ≥ 24
and, x x ≤ 24
The linear programming problem may be solved by two methods:
1. Graphical Method
2. Simplex Method
The graphical method to solve LPP is useful when there are only two decision variables. This
is because more than two coordinates are difficult to be represented on a graph paper.
Simplex technique can handle any number of variables.
Assignment Problem
Assignment problem pertains to problem of assigning n jobs on n machines. This problem can be
effectively used for any other problem in which n items (or persons) are to be assigned to other
n items, so that each one of the first group is assigned to one distinct item from the second
group.
Formulation of Assignment Problem
Let there be n jobs which are to be assigned to n operators so that one job is assigned to
only one operator.
i = Index for job, i = 1, 2, . . . n
j = Index for operators, j = 1, 2, . . . n
C Unit cost for assigning job ‘i’ to operator ‘j’
f job i is assigned to operator j
,
0 therwise
The objective is to minimize the total cost of assignment. If job 1 is assigned to operator 1,
the cost is (C ). Similarly, for job 1, operator 2 the cost is (C ). The objective
function is:
Minimize ∑ ∑ C . . . . (1)
Since one job (i) can be assigned to any one of the operators, we have following constraint
set:
∑ for all j j , 2, . . . n . . . . (2)
Similarly for each operator, there may be only one assignment of job. For this, the
constraint set is:
∑ for all i i , 2, . . . n . . . . (3)
The non – negativity constraint is:
≥0 . . . . (4)
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Minimize ∑ ∑
∑ for all , 2, . . . n
≥ 0 for all
Fig. 10.3.32 Mathematical Formulation and all . Problem
of Assignment
Solution of Assignment Problem
The assignment problem is solved in the following manner:
Start
Is the
Yes Find
solution
optimal? Assignment of row
with column of
matrix
No
Total cost of
Revise the solution assignment
Waiting lines are one of the important phenomenon in daily life. It affects people who need
service at different places. Some examples of waiting lines are railway reservation counters,
telephone booth, doctor’s clinic, ircraft landing at airports etc.
The most important issue in the waiting line problem is to decide the best level of service that an
organization should provide.
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The important aspect of the queuing problem is the arrival pattern. The arrival pattern is
generally governed by probabilistic distribution. The organizations have to come to a
compromise between a good service and less cost in running the service points.
Arrival Characteristics
o Size of input source: The size of the input source can be considered as limited or
infinite.
o Arrival Pattern at the system: The number of arrivals per unit time (rate of arrival) is
estimated by Poisson’s distribution. he probability distribution of inter-arrival
times, which is the time between two consecutive arrivals, may also be governed by a
probability distribution.
P(x) = For x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . . .
where:
P(t) = λe
Queue
o Size: The queue may be considered to be limited when its length cannot exceed a
certain number. It may be limited or infinite
o Queue discipline: Queue discipline is the rule by which customers waiting in queue
would receive service. Some examples are FIFO (First-In-First-Out), LIFO (Last-In-
First-Out) or SIRO (Service-In-Random-Order)
Service Facility
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Kendall Notations
Kendall (1951) proposed a set of notations for queuing models. This is widely used in
literature. The common pattern of notations of a queuing model is given by:
(a/b/c) : (d/e)
Where:
e: Queue discipline
Single-Line-Single-Server Model
Queuing models may be formulated on the basis of some fundamental assumptions related
to following five features:
Arrival process
Queue configuration
Queue discipline
Service discipline, and
Service facility.
Let us understand the M/M/1 model first. Following set of assumptions is needed:
1. Arrival Process: The arrival is through infinite population with no control or restriction.
Arrivals are random, independent and follow Poisson distribution. The arrival process is
stationary and in single unit (rather than batches).
2. Queue Configuration: The queue length is unrestricted and there is a single queue.
3. Queue Discipline: Customers are patient.
4. Service Discipline: First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS)
5. Service Facility: There is one server, whose service times are distributed as per
exponential distribution. Service is continuously provided without any prejudice or
breakdown, and all service parameters are state independent.
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Despite being simple, this model provides the basis for many other complicated situations. It
provides insight and helps in planning process. Waiting line for ticket window for a movie, line
near the tool crib for checking out tools, railway reservation window, etc., are some direct
applications of this model.
Operating Characteristics
It is the measure of performance of a waiting line application. How well the model performs,
may be known by evaluating the operating characteristics of the queue. We analyze the steady
state of the queue, when the queue has stabilized after initial transient stage. Similarly, we do
not consider the last or shutting down stage of the service.
here are two major parameters in waiting line: arrival rate (λ) and service rate (μ). hey follow
Poisson and exponential probability distribution, respectively. hen arrival rate (λ) is less than
service rate (μ), i.e., traffic density ( ) is less than one, we may have a real waiting line
situation, because otherwise there would be an infinitely long queue and steady state would
never be achieved.
= Traffic intensity
Following are the lists of operating characteristics, which may be derived for steady state
situation and for < :
( ) ( )
. . . (10.3.1)
( )
. . . (10.3.3)
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( )
. . . (10.3.13)
A project is a collection of some linked activities that are performed in an organized manner
with well known start and finish points, to achieve some specific results that fulfil the needs of
an organization. Project management is the domain that deals with planning, organizing,
staffing, controlling and directing a project for its effective execution. Critical Path Method
(CPM) and Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) are two tools for the project
management.
Assumptions of CPM
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Methodology of CPM
Critical path is the path on the network of project activities which takes longest time form
start to finish. The way by which we construct and analyze CPM or PERT network, the
analysis is called as critical path analysis (CPA). A general methodology for CPA is as follows:
Step 1: Break the project in terms of specific activities and/or events. Find the time of each
activity. In CPM, it is a deterministic estimate, while in PERT it is a probabilistic, three time
estimate.
Step 2: Establish the interdependence and sequence of specific activities (also called as
precedence relationship).
Step 3: Prepare the network of activities and/or events.
Step 4: Assign time-estimates and/or cost-estimates to all the activities of the network.
Step 5: Identify longest path (time-wise) on the network. It is the critical path of the network.
The project completion takes time equal to critical path time.
Step 6: Determine slack (or float) for each activity, not contained on the critical path.
Step 7: Use regular monitoring, evaluation and control of the progress of the project by
replanning, rescheduling and relocation of resources (Such as money, manpower, etc.).
We have seen in step 5 that the critical path determines the project completion time. It the
project time needs to be compressed, we have to focus on activities on critical path.
Similarly, if any activity of the critical path gets delayed by t time, then the total project will
be delayed by t time. Same is not true for activities, not lying on critical path. This is due to
slack (or float) associated with them. This offers flexibility in scheduling the resources. From
the to time, some resources from non-critical activities may be diverted to the critical
activity.
Terminology used in CPM/PERT
1. Activity: Distinct part of a project, involving some work, whose completion requires
some amount of time. Examples of activity are: drilling a hole, starting a bus, issuing the
work order, floating a tender, etc.
2. Activity Duration: It is the physical time required to complete an activity. In CPM, it is the
best estimate of the time to complete an activity. In PERT, it is the expected time or
average time to complete an activity.
3. Critical Activity: This activity has no room for schedule deviation. In case of deviation or
slips, the entire project completion will slip. An activity with zero slack is also same.
4. Critical Path: The sequence or chain of critical activities for the project constitutes critical
path. It is the longest duration path through the network.
5. CPM: Project management technique that is used when activity times are deterministic
(Critical Path Method).
6. Crashing: The process of reducing an activity time by adding fresh resources and hence
usually increasing cost. Crashing is needed for finishing the task before estimated time.
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7. Crash Cost: Cost associated with an activity when it is completed in the possible time
(Crash time), which is lesser than the expected or normal time.
8. Dummy Activity: An activity that consumes no time but shows precedence among
activities. It is useful for proper representation in the network.
9. Earliest Finish (EF) Time: The earliest time that an activity can finish, from the beginning
of the project.
10. Earliest Start (ES) Time: The earliest time that an activity can start, from the beginning of
the project.
11. Event: It is the beginning, completion point, or milestone accomplishment within the
project. An activity begins and ends with events. An event triggers an activity of the
project.
12. Expected Activity Time: The average activity time that is used in the project scheduling.
13. Free Slack (float): The length of time upto which an activity can be delayed for
channeling resources or re-adjustments, without affecting the starts of the succeeding
activities.
14. Immediate Predecessor: An activity, which should immediately precede the activity
under consideration.
15. Latest Finish (LF) Time: It is the latest time that an activity can finish, from the beginning
of the project, without causing a delay in the completion of the project.
16. Latest Start (LS) Time: It is the latest time that an activity can start, from the beginning of
the project, without causing a delay in the completion of the project.
17. Most Likely Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity that is the best estimate;
under the given conditions (used in PERT).
18. Normal Cost: Cost associated with an activity when it is completed in normal time.
19. Optimistic Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity if everything in the project
goes well (used in PERT).
20. Pessimistic Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity if everything in the project
goes wrong (used in PERT).
21. Predecessor Activity: An activity that must occur before another activity in the project
which is decided on precedence relationship.
22. Project: Set of activities which are interrelated with each other and are to be organized
for a common goal or objective during a specified time-frame.
23. Project Network: A visual representation of the interdependence between different
activities of a project which are normally associated with a time-wise sequencing.
24. PERT: It is the project management technique used when activity times are probabilistic.
(Program Evaluation and Review Technique).
25. Resource Allocation Methods: Allocation of resources to the activities so that project
completion time is as small as possible and resources are well utilized.
26. Slack: It is the amount of time that an activity or a group of activities can delay in getting
completed without causing a delay in the completion of the project. An activity having
slack cannot be critical activity.
27. Successor Activity: It is the activity that must occur after another activity (which is
predecessor).
28. Total Slack (Float): The time upto which an activity can be delayed without affecting the
start of the succeeding activities.
29. Updating: It involves some revision of the project schedule after partial completion with
revised information.
30. Variance: It is the measure of the deviation of the time distribution for an activity.
Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
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PERT incorporates probabilistic time estimates for each activity. It employs a beta-
distribution for the time estimates. The procedure for making the network and determining
the critical path is same as CPM. However, there is a specific calculation approach for finding
the most expected time for every activity and for finding the measure of certainity in
meeting this estimate.
Time estimate in PERT
PERT allows uncertainty in the estimates for time of each activity. there are three time
estimates in PERT. These are.
Optimistic time (t )
Pessimistic time (t )
Most likely time (t )
Optimistic time for an activity is that estimate for the completion of the activity which
happens when every best thing happens to facilitate the execution. Thus, when everything
goes well, the estimate is optimistic time. On the other extreme, when every thing goes
worst, the duration of time-estimate is the pessimistic time. Most likely time is in between
the optimistic and pessimistic times. Under normal circumstances, this is the probable time
in which an activity is completed.
In PERT, it is assumed that the three time estimates are random variables, distributed as
Beta-distribution. The probability of most likely time is four times that of either of the
remaining two. Mathematically, the expected time (t ) for an activity is related with the
three time estimates as follows.
Once, expected time (t ) is known from the three time estimates, the algorithm for network
calculations is similar to CPM approach.
The variance ( ) and standard deviation ( ) for the activity are:
v ( )
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Reference Books
Mathematics:
Engineering Mechanics:
Strength of Material:
Theory of Machine:
Machine Design:
Mechanical Design – Shigley
Machine Design – Sharma & Agarwal
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Heat Transfer:
Manufacturing Engineering:
Industrial Engineering:
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