Also from Polity Social Enquiry, 2nd edition, Norman Blaikie (2007) sradigms in Action, Norman Blikie and Jan 017) Designing Social Research The Logic of Anticipation Third Edition Norman Blaikie and Jan Priest polityDesigning Social Reserch research is to produce generalized descriptions, i. to produce answers t0 what? research questions. This can be done in the context of a variety of ontological assumptions, 'No artempr is made in this edition to incoxporate these th h se three research para: igms. We believe that just concentrating here on the four logics of inquiry, and recognizing differences in ontological and epistemological assumptions, sufficient in the context of designing social research. 2 Preparing Research Designs 2.1 Chapter Summary |A research design is a private working document that is peepared by & researcher, or a research team, before a research project is undertaken. It should incorporate al the decisions that need to be made before the research commences, and p decisions include: © the selection of the research problem and a statement of the researches's motives and goals for in © the research question ‘ill address the problem and the purposes 2ss0- of logic of inquiry to investigate each research question and j fr these choices; © elaboration of the ontological and epistemological assumptions on which teach logic of inquiry depends; © an outline ofthe xeearch paradigm or paradigms within which the research will be conducted © an elaboration of relevant concepts and theory and how they relate to the research process © if relevant, a eratement of the hypothesis or hypotheses to be tested, or an claboration ofthe causal mechanisms to be investigated; © a discussion of data sources, types and forms; © a discussion of methods for selecting data fom these sources; and/or genera reduction ie problems thac might be encountered and che limitations ‘of the design in its ability to answer the research questions. In contrast, a research proposal is a public document that is used to obtain necessary approvals for the research to proceed, including fcoma an appropriate ethics committee, or for research funding applications. Ic addresses different16 Designing Social Reteerch audiences from a ceseasch design. While it includes many of the components inthe associated research design, some of these may be preseuted in a different form, 2.2 Introduction ‘The ultimace purpose in exploring the issues and processes covered in the fol- lowing chapters is to facilitate che planning of research and the preparation of applications for approvals needed before it proceeds. Both of these requirements ‘made before the research begins, and the later is presented to bodies whose task nw the research to be undertakes. While research desigas and research ‘overlap considerably in cheir seracrure and conte sequence to their development A research design is a technical document that is developed by one or more researchers and is used by them as @ guide or plan for carrying outa research project. Decisions that need to be made at the beginning, or soon after some fed, related and evaluated. the former informing the + make these decisions explics ‘spell owt why they have been made; cent with each others end research design is a working document that may be the outcome of courses in research methodolo dialogue beoween student and supervisor(siadvieer point of reference and guide chroughour the research. changes as the research proceeds, oF context of the intial set of research design achieve the came consistency between rosea ign cl Research proposals have diferent purposes and audi for: + making public presentations and receiving feedbacks; *+ obtaining offcial approval from appropriace universcy or other authorities, inclading endorsement of a research ethics committee; oF + applying for research grants. ‘While research designs involve making and report shat is co be studied and ow it will be studied, researc iphasis on why the research is to be conducted, Preparing Research Designs 17 arch proposals have 2 number of purposes they may need to be ferent versions. In addition, some information may be in a dif id, an application co a committee for approval of the project may be much and may emphasize the justification for che research and the more techai- bbudger, and justification for the various categories of expenditure, as well a¢ reporting and accountability arrangements. Before proceeding to outline the requirements for research designs and, to lessex extent, research proposals, we must point out that the intention is not to be pre Rather, we offer two frameworks that will no doubt need o be adapted ‘planning social research. ‘The fest concerss the commonly include the formulation ofthe probl the development of measuring inserumens (e.g. an attirade scale or a question naire), the selection of a sample, the collection of the data, the analysis of the dara, and the preparation of the report (see eg. Bailey 1994; Bouma and Ling In shore, 2 complex process is required to make and companble. We have tried to represent th figures in the book. ‘The second point is concemed with the view char, idealy, all research design decisions need 0 be made before the research begins in eamest. Every effort18 Designing Socal Research cestary to recognize that research designs differ inthe extent 0 finalize all the de In some research, what determine what will be done ac che next and and studies concerned with theory generat character. So is imporeant to strive for the ideal of a fully worked out research design before serious research begin, the re Tris ine that the time needed to prepare a research des vary; some esearch topics are just more complex than others, or may involve venturing into relatively uncharted territory. Hence, the time and effort is usually much greater when a researcher starts a study fom serateh, rather thaa joining an existing research ream or continuing zesearch conducted by others. 2.3 Research Designs A research design is an integrated statement of, and justification for, the techni- ‘al decisions involved in planning a research project. As aleady indicated, ideally, signing socal research i the process of making and recording all decisions related tw the research project before they are carried out. This involves anticipating ll aspects of the research, then planning for them to oceur in an integrated manner. Designing research inthis way means that contol of the process can be achieved anticipation dreced coward bringing an expected station under consol .. If before we conduct an inquiry, we anscipate each sesearch probe and devide what to do beforeshand, chen we increase our chances for contcllng the research poet use. (Ackof 1953, 5) the design are requized. Des This book is about how to achieve this, ‘A research design can be orgat is presented as an example of whi like. (Examples of four different seructure ofa research design might ch designs are presented in chapter Tide ‘The tile or topic needs to be both concise and informative. Ie should capture the essence of what the study will be about and where and with whom it will be Proborng Research Designs Research problem ‘A research problem i¢ an intelleetal puzzle that the researcher wants to inves- ‘ill need to be made. ‘opmental process chat benefits from having 2 cle as with the ie, thi ‘may only become clear towards the end of che procest. In addition, ie may be nec- ‘essary 10 make changes to che statement ofthe problem asthe research proceeds (See chapter 3, ‘Getting Started’) Motives ond gools ‘The cesearch design isthe place where a researcher's personal motives and goals, for undertaking the research can be stated. Academic researchers, including post- graduate swodents, will have personal reasons for choosing 4 particlac topic. ‘These might include satisfying curiosity, solving a personal problem, achieving a credential or pursuing career goals. In addition, a researcher may have other 020 Designing Soci! Research more public or altristic reasons, such at making a contribution to knowledge in a discipline, solving some social problem, dng tothe welfare of some organization or a sector of society jirement, making these ‘motives and goals explicit isa useful exercise and is often quite revealing. Research questions ond purposes ‘Research questions constitute the most important element of any research design, I other aspocts of zesearch design fll ‘ways the formation of research question ration of a research dsien Research questions need co be stated clearly and conc reduced to three main types: ‘what, why” and ‘how que to distinguish between these oo research purposes. In general, wh seek explanations or understand interventions to bring about change. ‘While stating aims or objectives may be helpful, cesearch questions provide a bbenes way of expressing what research project f tying to achieve, Ho alms and objectives have bee included inthe guidelines fr research pro as stating them is usefol way of communicating to various audiences wh real starting-point in the prepa They should be ‘how’ questions are concer ‘change’, ‘aspecr(s) of the phenomenon under invest cleat directions, Review of te literature AA research design should include a bref literature review. Thie has ewo primary functions: to link the proposed research to the current state of relevent know! 1nd to serve as & possible sousce of explanatory ideas or theories. This should indicate clearly what is known from previous research about each theory. Inthe case of research fora thesis, produced and will probably become a chapter. Work on this will usually continue throughout the daration of che esearch. However, only a summary is normaly included here. The research questions provi be relevant. Using this device can save endless hours of directionless activity in libraries or oaline Preparing Research Designs 2 ‘consulting previous research and relevant theory may have inspired he fist place, or it may need to he cansulted to define the cesearch im and develop the research questions, In addition, the language used to discuss che problem, and the key concepts employed, are likely to be mm some theoretical perspective, the work of a particular theorist or a rogramme. ., a major purpose of the literature review is to find possible answers ow of the lteraeare will ns are already available he research i, therefore, unnecessary. Another topic will then have to ‘guides on preparing irerarace reviews soe Lacey, Jeseon Booth, Pepaioannow and Sureon (2 books on writing cheses/dissereatio: ) and the Literature Revi a set of procedures for answering research ques- © and “why” questions, As the socialsciences have devel- wd, a number waye of doing this have emerged. ‘The choice of a logic of inquiry, or a combination of them, co ‘most important research dos answering what” questions by in its capacity to answer ‘why’ questions ver ‘what’ questions bu the theory, the cheory must be either modified or rejected. Further testing of other candidate theories can then be undertaken. Therefore, according to this logic of2 Designing Socal Reseorch inguiry, tentative new knowled, twial and error proces. Retroductive logic also starts with an observed regul 2 different type of explanation. In this logic, expla ing the real underlying seracen the social world is advanced by means of & ty but ie seeks achieved by may be necessary to search for evidence of the consequences of their exist ence; should they exis, certain eveats can be expected t0 occur. Retroduection imagination and analogy to work back fom data to 2 causal Abductive logic is very differ lifeworld of the social actors being way of conceptualizing and giving meaning to their social w knowledge. This can only be discovered from observing ther act he other three. The starting-point is ch that have been selected, and a justification for the selection in appropriateness for the tack of answering the research question Gand 9.) Perales and assumptions have emerged and developed. In the first edition of this book, and in Approaches t0 Social Enquiry referred to ie 19932), these xaditions were ‘approaches’. Here (2007) for detailed reviews and critiques. In Blaikie and have een reduced to three research paradigms, which idet have been, and sill are, dominant inthe socal sciences, and tl relevance fo the conduct of sociel research. ‘What needs to be addressed under paradigms are the ontological and episte- ological assumptions to be adapted in conjunction with the chosen lopies(s) of inquiry Preparing Research Designs 23, Concepts, theories, hypotheses and models Awmewhere in 2 research design a discussion of concepss and theory is likely to esearch uses technical concepts; they form the special language of ical concepts are required at the ourser of the research re the topic, the research problem and research questions. the way they eneer into the research process differs, depending jc of inguiry that is adopted. A research design may set out with some key concepts, perhaps even with 2 conceptual framework, and hese concepts wil e variable through the specification of procedases for theis measurement, ‘other research, only sensitizing concepts (see chapter 7) will be used at the ing them end their rel to avoid using theory in research, Even descrip with just a few concepts, cannot escape theory a baggage with chem. theory eaters into social research in many ways. It may be @ source of concepts, of general theoret produce a new theory; chat is, whether they are concecned tor theory generation, On the one hand, research a theory belore the ree toat lease do some work om this theory atthe stated, ie origins and relevance explained and, if appro fromit, Hypotheses are tentative ansive Dedivctive logic. They are frequently telationship beeween two concepts. Testing them may invel ated variables have the same relationship as that predicred in the hypothesis. Hypotheses have no place in answering ‘what’ questions, and they can play quite different role when the concern is with theory development. In the processPreparing Research Designs records for a vatiety of purposes, and chese may be o ‘They may come out of narural sertings, or be about activ ‘Unless a researcher ie testing an existing hypor hypotheses requizes great deal of theoretic should, therefore, be avoided in good-quality make very litle contribution co the advancement of knowledge beca resting of hypotheses is only appropeiate when Deduetive logic is used. ‘As with theory, the role of models in social reseacch is a complex issue on which there isa diversity of ideas and practices. "Model" can refe co a conceptual framework, a hypothesized set of relationships berween concepts, 2 hypothetical 2 sources are contingent on @ he design stage to obtain the and ‘model’ are often used in Jn the phrase ‘theoretical model’. Add the notion of ‘mod another range of activities and products to confuse a new Deductive and Retroductive logic may require mo set. With Inductive logic, models may be used at th the type of data needed and the form iyo be the mor dificult o complete. involve a aumber of related decisions although these wil not neeesecly be cof concepts, theories hypotheses and models ic in which they are discussed here ‘knowledge of range of theories (se chapter). Pes of data can be used in socal researc primary, secondary ire collected by a researcher, secondary data have been. leet by someone ele and ate Wed in thee rar form, and teary data ar he sm secondary dat that have also been analysed by somone cee, lence, Dato sources, ypes and forms Icis necessary to give consideration to the context or setting from which data will be collected or generated. Data can be collected or generated from four main eople can be studied in the context in which the activities of interest to the researcher occur, where people are going about cheir everyday lives in theit astural oor summary form, home, or jn a church, mosque or temple. The sizeof the social Depending on the nature of the research topic and the sunitssadied in ‘can range from individuals and small groups, through a researcher may have ltele or no choice about the type of data that can be ‘organizations and communities. These are referred t0 a8 natural social cetings. ‘and comextual distance of a Second, 2 great deal of research studies people in seminctural setings, when her from the source of data. The further a researcher is cemoved from the to judge the quality of the dacs and to ce for the projec. These matters need to be made in eaw form, for example as scripts, oF they may have already been analysed and ot are not particularly abour a socal serting a values andlor behaviour of individuals. ion should also be given to the form or forme in which the data data in aumbers and data ge of data that do not usually referred to as social a ‘They are the viduals and groups leave behind them, directly or ind may be transformed from one to the other at later stages. Data may st ties in their natural setings. People in groups produce statistice and documents words, and be manipulated soon alter into numbers: or they may be analysed6 Designing Social Research ported in numbers, and then interpreted lout as words, and then be recocded, 2 io ~ should be specified for each of the variables ave a bearing on the types of analyses that are to give consideration to sources, types and forms of data at che research design scage isto ensure that the methods for tion of the population of such peo collect data from a population; oth favalable and these can also be used singly or in combination (see ‘Populations and Samples) with cheory genera ton eather than represencativenes Regardless of whether probability or non-probability sampling methode are to the choice of method|s) che procedures shoul slo be ed snd jnied ace caper 8, ‘Selection of Dats’) Dota collection endlor generation Data collection andlor generation and analysis are frequent regarded asthe core research, Novice researchers have a tendency fo want to launch into data collection = constructing a questionnaire or doing interviews ~ a8 soon ving, ranging from highly structured to unstroctared oF in-depth i, and inclading both individual and group incerviews; including pen and paper, and electronic forms; and f secondary sources of many kinds. needs to specify clearly the method or meth whether the study is cross-sectional or longitudinal, rerospectve or prospective, cocical. Experimental research also involves the collecion of data at differ: Dota reduction and enolysis ‘The final core element of a research design isthe epecifcation of, and juifia ton for, the methods to be used to reduce and analyse the data. Mechods of data may involve transforming qualitative data into quantitative data by come form of numerical coding, e-coding existing numerical dara into different categories, or combining and/or reordering categories. Coding may also be used to organize and simplify quantitative data; for example, by the creation of indexes, scales, factors Preparing Research Designs 2728 Designing Seca Research or clusters. Alternatively, when qualitative data are collected, the processes of reduction and analysis may be integrated with data collec into a continuous, and evolving process of theory generation. This will iavolve establishing catego- ies and doing various kinds of coding, ‘There is another importanc stage between data reduction and an Data have to be organized im such a way into a database design decisio Significant time and expense can be inv rocess. With quantitative data, itis usually a case of keying in sesponses to a questionaire or structured few. With some kinds of qual may be necessary t0 tran- of in-depth interviews and then format these for entry into can be expensive ‘mated that an experienced clear recordings, will take at least three hours to do one hour iy, we come to the choice of methods for analysing che data. design decisions have been made carefully and consistently, the the method of analysis should be straightforward. A varity of methods may need 1 be used, depending on the type of research questions, whether or aot bypoth- descriptions, for fons and, poss beeween variables. They ean also be used for making produced from a probability sample to the population from which the sample ‘was drawn, Fos es aspects of quantitative analysis an acray of tats vailable, Just which one is appropriate wil of measurement used to collect the data, and perhaps the size Blaikie 2003). Qualitative methods of analysis can also be used for description at various levels of abstraction {in words rather than numbers) and, mote part ‘theory generation. A number of techniques are now available fr the later sis. When data are in the form of wext, the methods generally deal with creating categories, indexing or coding docu cing these theories, ‘the data are to be prepared 1) be undertaken to relate the ich method of dara reduction and analysi briefly described and its use justified. The impor ‘methods of analysis needs to be made in conjunct design decisions, and before the research commences. It can be fatal t0 wait until after the data have been collected. Not only do the methods of analysis need to Preparing Research Designs 29 te for the research questions, and for hypotheses match the type of data. Hence, 1ey between the type and form, 2 ofthe data, ther selection, and the methods of collection or genera’ sis, The possible combination of choices here ean be n very choice of methods must make it possible to answer the research questions (see ). robles and ftatons ortant sep inthe preparation of a reearch design isco sand back and fe Fin, is eel to ate what problems are likely to be encountered they wl be handled. These wil ache both peaccl and theoret- problems, suchas geting the co-operation of respondents or paricpants, Knowing what further casestudies wl be required afer the fst one, The Heme lied here should only be those that cannot be resolved a the ds i. However, ging pemision ro use alist of names and adresse, orgeaing cess to the research ste, are maters that cannot be lf to chance after the assessment of the particular the research design. Research projects usually have as their ess secure and uncertain require farther development «5 sd. If this assessment is done conscien- they aise cme recerchere sera tobe reliant to expote the weakest ofthc esearch 2.4 Research Proposals While research designs are usually seen by only a few people close to a researcher, ‘ch proposals are public documents and may be presented in various con: ements of the discipline and/or the institution in which i will be under- should communicate clearly and concisely: + whats to be stadieds This will normally require less decal chan goes into a research design. However, these desils ae likely to receive close scrutiny. Inthe case of university esearch,therefore normal practice for the ethical to be made explicit, together with the proceduses to be used to deal with ther. esearch organiza- commitee. Professional international, now bers of such associations ras of a research propo: nurpose and local requirements, no arempr r each type, Rather, we shall simply identify the A research proposal Titletopic Staternent ofthe research problem Justification for underting the research ‘Aims and significance Research plan and methods Budget Justification for budge items Timetable ond milestones Communicating the findings A well-prepared research design will provide many of che ingredients that need 0 go into a research proposal Preparg Research Designs 31 2.5 Conclusion vic have discussed research designs at produc that incorporses ll the jons a researcher needs to make, if possible, before the research com ‘of elements that have a logical ord the preparation of a research design wil process involved in producing a research design use the elements axe can have an impact o sn have repercussions for deci- oUt that access cannot then the design may have 2.6 Further Reading ). Research Proposcls:A Practica! Gude.Four Reseerch Design Tesks 33 3.2 Introduction 3 Four Research Design Tasks 3.1 Chapter Summary may be very difclt to achieve. For exan ich as parccipant obser cwelop and where they fe maximum control ee . 1¢ methods of data collection and/or gen + The reseatch methods liverarure abounds with ideas on what cot «all sspects of a study. This chapser © are not comparal *+ Designing research involves giving consideration to a range of core elements, ‘each with a number of choices, combinations of which lead to s wide of possible esearch designs. «sets the scene for what will follow in later chapezrss * critically evalnates the common views and classifications of research design in 0 achieve maximum control over will vary according tothe navure design, careful planni to evaluate the suitai hat need to be mades cessful oureome, *+ The preparation of a research design can start with differen elements and “The eubsequent chapters deal with the major esearch design decisions in detail, proceed in a variety of sequences + While sarements of the topic and research problem need to be produced, they wrllne doubr be reviewed and possibly modifed as the research design evolves 3.3 Common Views of Research Design and the research itself proceeds + An impor esearchers is how to regard thet relationship wi 3 ‘evearch design’ has a range of meanings, from narrow to broad, controlled experiment, linear sages of measuring concepts co estab- ; various stances are possible, each with ontological and epistemological baggage. al to maintain consisteacy between the stance adopted and the the choices made about the seseacch design elements, ‘of inquiry and che sources snd mechods for date collection oF genecation. ‘question, such thatthe effect of an independent variable, wi ‘can be assumed to be responsible forthe observed chang able, the outcome. The design is intended to rule out the possibilty that some ng developmenial proces. We naprow extreme is the experiment, che type of design against which34 Designing Soci Research ch the eequire- other oft experi tion can confound the independent ve sae here i thatthe approsch co research 3 selection of experimental and coat his type of research design spat and representativeness. Spat control, temporal control, analysis of chay and temporal controls are achieved ive the experimental treatment hws sore assurance of a successful outcome rughly equal in composition 3.4 Common Classifications of Research Designs espontes in the pre-e ‘han the overall or average change forthe group. Represent ‘way that allows the findings to be sarch methods and research design have discussed a wide ign, often devocing a chapter or significant section to each them. population. Subjects may just be volunteers; in university research they are fre- (quendly students, ‘A broader and very conventional view of research design invelves specifying the relationships berween a set of concepts ~ including hypothesized relationships — (ceeasured) to produ See, for example, Denzin 1970; Labovitz and Hagedom 1976; Smich 19815 sy 1994; Hakim 2000; ced at the beginning. jnive homing devices. re concerned with scope and range of information than repre: able. (Lincoln and Gi ‘These three views of research design are frequent! social surveys and ethnographic or feld research. How: 2x ypes: experimental, panel, retrospet and Gubs have suggested. Four Reseorch Design Tasks 3536 Designing Socal Research 3.5 An Alternative View ‘The concept of research design used in these classifications is very limited and at the categories are no: din comparative research th control over producing and analysing data than those ask the marty choices that need 10 be consideved in preparing a good-quality research design, Fundamental Requirements A research design contains many elements (te Figure 3.1), and alm« involve a choice from among alternatives. While some combinat ‘may be common, and others may not be legicimate, ther variety of possibilities. The of designs that cannot eas wwe do not follow the con ‘Adopting this approach avoids a adherence co recipe-book soi- tions. Asa first step in ths direction, we will examine in brosd outline what any esearch design should achieve, In general, a research design needs to answer three basic questions. The lase question can be broken down into five further questions. WHAT logic of inquiry will be used? WHAT ontological and epistemological assumptions will be adopted? WHERE will the data come from? Four Research Design Tosis 37 however, to answer these eight ques- ot possible to be dogmatic about all the details to be con- sarch design, Nevertheless, some components are relevant co most dlevigns: Four Tasks and Core Elemenes rex 2.we discussed major clements of a research design. These elemems are ted further in cis chapcer. They have also been grouped into four primary sing, Framing, Selecting and Distilling (se Figure 3.1), hh design tas38 Designing Soca Research ‘The Focusing tack includes decisions about the: tax ia which the research will he undertaken, 2 topic that will be used to identify the study, ted ke the problem researchable; and * purposes that chese questions will serve ‘Tae Framing task includes decisions shou the: + logics) of inquiry to be used to anower the rescasch questions; + ontological and epistemological assumptions that will be adopted; and * paradigms) associated with these assumptions and from which theoretical ideas may be derived. ‘The Selecting cast includes decisions about the: * concepts, sheores, hypotheses and modele that might be requited to answer parti rch questions; i) be required; * sources from which daca will be obtained; and * methods for making selections from data sources ‘The Distilling task includes decisions about: data collection andlor gener thods to be used for data reduction and a process of designing research is ive in nature eather than being s set of linear steps. As th decisions are explored, lesign decisions can be achieved, ative and cyclical nature of the research chapters are also organized to reflece these tasks 2 ‘elements in each one are elaborated at appropriate poinssthroughox The Ideal and the Practical been argued eat lecisions that are concerned with the design of 4 research project should, if possible, be made before any substantial work. hse Four Research Design Tosks 39 jucred on topics that have alveady cause the nature of the proposed logic of inquiry and methods developmental process be adopted. The latter involves making sginaing of each stage ofthe research, based on what was learned, il be eegarded ae elevidene. Other veh ze of choices by simply adopting those methods with and comforable, and design the research project 0 tecuch methods : eiueis (aking che choices necessary to desig a research projet requites carefl con- sider of many factor, om andar phlvophicl and valoe potions The enc of pars log of research method, The cht ofa parla seth of ata ons of dats analy and 00 dign goes may cen lend 10 Soon woe 3 Tiscovered tet sco to the required ane aad address raw tandem sungle sd cova esponden decision sequence a few times in order to deal with the obstacles and limitations that are encountered.40 Designing Seco Research 3.6 Getting Started Having defined the fundamencal requirements of research desiga, andl range of tasks and elements that need to be considered, we are now in a pos begin preparing a research design. However, we need to reiterate point ma the end of chapter 2, hat des rch itself, berween ‘logic in use’ and ‘reconstructed logic’, which were noted atthe beginning of chapter 1 Research Topic and Problem ‘The starting-point fe or sociological. A socal for example a socal ecient tory and in need lem is a puzzle that a social xs needs to be solved; that is, explained or berer anderstood ? lenge, but it may need to be ‘will follow a specific pach; the terrirary to be explored. Here are some examples of ‘throughout the book and as illustrations in chapter 12 {see Appendix It for ‘examples of other research problems and topics) Environmental Worldviews and Behaviour among Studente and Residents A Text of Competing Hypo countered in defining and labelling the topic in the ealy seages. The focus should be on the prabler de very ite dsction forthe design of is required, This is achieved mainly by stating one or more research questions (see chaprer 5). Four Reserch Design Tasks 41 ravironment, research is conducted for personal, academic and e chapter 2, “Mocives ond goal) 1 of the motives behind the four sample research topics stated to illostrate how personal, academic and soci Ibe combined. The fist of the research Hehaviowr, was motivated by a person: 1 rather confused findings in previous ‘esearch on gender and enviroamen- talism. Are women more enviroo- rmenraly conscious than men, and, if £0, whacare the nature and origins of these differences? Again, the re "Funding bodies rattle considerations not? However, this puzzle is also42 Desiring Sociol Research dizected towards solving « s0cio- olution of sacal problems. to articulate their m uundercaking a Mferene motives may require different research design decisions. This arculation will an individual's motives, er(s) and ‘other stakeholders. Ic is sensible to resolve these differences before the research The literature source of influence on the nature and choice of a research topic, particu in basic or theory-oriented researc, isthe relevant body of literature in both earcher’s and related disciplines. A research project can be stimalated by the results of previous research and by problems posed by theorist. Even ifthe topic ‘originates elsewhere, one or other of theze bodies of literatur shape the way the topic and the problem are formulated. Hovwev see in due course, ‘the literature’ plays other roles in esearch, Restltions A number of factors can place restrictions on the choice of topic, including: 4 range of possible a holders the researcher has to, ot wishes to, take into consideration; the political resticions by authorities suc shat funding bodies are willing to support ability v0 get access to desired research sites, possesses. ‘Audiences or stakeholders include: clients on ‘conducted (whether or not they are paying fe research; colleagues; scientific communities, ‘employers; and potential future sources of fundi ing 1994). OF course, cach audience may have different expectations of, and degrees of influence om, the design and executi me what it might find. This the case of applied research as, in contrast to basic ave much les freedom in defining the problem and ranking other research design decisions. This can certainly occur if the sponsors, the fence and the major benefactors coincide ly funded basi research there are usually Funding bodies not only have expectations jects are legitimate or imp also likely to have prejudices about what data collection andlor generation and analys 108 behalf te research is being ors who are funding che In order to obtain reseacch funds, Four Research Desgn Tasks 43 rescarchers need to take these expectations into account in designing 1 well prepared to defend less popular methods. Basic and Applied Research for undertaking research are associated withthe type of research; applied strategic and applied specific), but the basicfapplied ate for present purposes. producing knowledge for the former with theorei he social worlds in particular, . esearch is concerned with practical outcomes, problem, with helping practitioners accom comparison suggests. In 1 be necessary to achieve sample, critical the ts = can produce bi For an example of basic research, we draw on a research project conducted in the 1960s (Blaikie 1968, 1969, 1972). The curiosity was about inthe Int 19700 developer wihed eo bad houses on cure port He engaged afm of architect and plaer 0 ng reguenong deemed how cos hoe con be ba to ed wih the ruwaye, Ths reston was etabled i eas ofur Research Design Tasks 48 44 Desiring SclReserch eee " ings used by the social ators snd was shown as line on a map down each side of % 5 aaa Rall Meares pet was concerned about his ability to sell hou Se wean kore ancrvrtehen ‘were built close to the flight path. Would purchasers be willing Wat thee 2 Henot, hove close would they be willing fm ‘ofarchtecws and planners wanted answers o these questions, The suidy wae dene diferent interval fom an adjoining were builc under it Before the aizpor ‘map bu, since per fe noise were very varied, this was not possible. 0 put up with aircraft noi responses to living lose to Some people appear ana lft some oper space adjoining the planning ine Ta the soil sciences, research soften a mbsture of basic and a stages ofa project may have a base favour, while ahr itager ey ke ene axplied For example, a researcher may be commissioned to sat te mance {sof en orgcinton in changing the organizations eesze Ate wader cue ceed a ce research to describe the existing coleaze, the researcher may then procecd.oreioe ee sional change. Only wien steed that is that researcher "ean the ing hi to this parcular organization wil the researches reeccd ning ual he Phere ede iapesnaton bony of action research tat help se members I in which he oa actos can soe hemi ade deed by management, the nacure of the social seting, to describe what happens there and research projects are exclusively concerned with advanc ing knowledge for ite own sake the practical ben: 3.7 Researcher’s Stance ‘Aa important choice thar all social researchers have to make is what stance to take towards che research process and participants, determiniag what relation, ship there will be berween the researcher and the researched. Blaikie (20 ‘A Bish position is associated with critical theory. The researcher is viewed as ivity ofthe research and, hence, the value of the resales, a reflect detachment is 2 requirement for producing reliable knowledge, This postion is sail widely advocated in spite of the many crieisms that have bees raised ‘The second position, that of the empathetic observer, sill aims to achieve Kind of objectivity but insises that itis necessaey for re Place themselves in the social actors’ position. Only by grasping the subjective nd of texpreted by the participants as ese meanings can change over46 Designing Sociol Reseorch sme. Therefore, the process of understanding this socially constructed seait is “dislogic allows individuals to communicate their experiences Within a sh framework of the process in the narural sciences ical manipulation by 2 researcher of some aspect her is a ‘disengaged observer’, who stands in 2 the subjoct mater. Inthe former, the cesearcher “ partes’ whose relationship is that of subject to co-partcipant ikie 2007: 135-6 her version of this fifth positon is associated with feminist research and conscious partiality. Again, the concern is with emancipation, ‘women. Much more than empathy is involved here. A esearcher in women’s struggles bur is also expected to be ‘The fourth and fifth positions have now culminated in a sixth, postmodern, view of the role ofa researcher. Jn this case, a researcher is regarded as anothet actor in the so investigated. Rather than being the ‘expert, as in the detached pos the postmodern re guoges, reflective inquiry and the thee research paradigms idea by Blais snd ast G01), However, before we leave sion, there isa related concept that needs to integral to the ethnomethodologist’s views on jons and their social world meaningful co them selves and others. Giddens incorporated this idea into his structaracion theory cof everyday social practices, then ‘Wherever new knowledge is generated through a proces the researcher and the researched, a social researcher will social actors use to malke their activites intelligible (Giddens 1976: is can be unaffected by social processes and personal characteristics ers and Atkinson 2007: 15), Mason (2002) regarded active reflexivity as one of che essential ‘of qualitative research; researchers noed co be active and reflexive in the sof generating data cather than being neutral data collectors. seacerch shoud involve cxticalselfcrutny bythe sescscher, or cctive lexi. This means thatthe researcher should constany take stock of their processes, However, Hammer imply sense of serving particular poli 1 adopting a partular stance is something that ocurt independent ofthe research design. Of course, itis possible that an ideological commit ‘an influence on the research topics that ai design decisions, Having said this, reflexivity is not Feur Research Design Tasks 4748 Designing Succ Research really a matter of choice. All social researchers should be reflexive, regardless of the stance they adopt, and reflexivity a the process of designing social research as much as 10 3.8 Conclusion This book adopes a diferent approach to rese in research methods texts. In some ofthese, adi example, the degree to which they ate expec cal surveys, ethnography and in this chapter, when a mixture of categories like this is use are invariably not mutually exclusive; for example, surveys and ethnographic methods can both be used in case stadies, ‘Our approach avoids such labels and focuses on cwo fundamentals: the primary research design tasks; and the clements within these rasks about which decisions have to be made. By concenteating an these decisions, we are able to avoid the problem of finding a suitable ser of research design categories, and con ‘centrate instead on the important core elements of a design. These includes the problem ro be investigated; the quest able; the logic(s) of inquiry co be used to answer the research questions; methods for making selections from data sources; how to collect or generate data; and how to analyse data to produce the answers, Just what combination of these decisions turns out to be relevant co a particu Jar research problem and set of research questions can vary considerably. Some nations of decisions may be more common than others, and some tay be ‘unusual compared to a disiplne’s traditions dries all these other decisions is the stance thet a researcher adopes towards the research process and the participants. Careful consideration needs to be given to choosing 2 stance that ie consistent with the other research design decisions. ‘Afrer considering resoa research design and prac questions and the parpos 3.9 Further Reading 4 Vaus, DA. (2001). Reseorch Design in Scie Ressrch, Adopts very different approach 0 eesearch design tothe one preseated hese de Vaus, D. A. (ed. 2006). Reeaarch Derign prehensive st of articles ou many aspects of research design fromm a wide varity postions, (2007). Designing Qualitative Reseach publishing of postgraduate qualrative Four Reseorch Design Tasks 49