Lab 13: Mendelian Laws and Patterns of Inheritance

Pre-lab Questions: Name____________________

1. Review the terminology listed in the table below:

Gene Dominant Genotype Autosomal Monohybrid

cross

Allele Recessive Phenotype Sex-linked Dihybrid cross

Homozygous Heterozygous Gamete Codominance Incomplete

Dominance

2. Assume that tall (T) is dominant to dwarf (t) in corn plants. Cross two heterozygous
corn plants.
• The genotype of the parents is _________________.
• The genotype of the tall offspring is ______________ or _____________.
• The genotype of the dwarf offspring is ______________________.

3. Assume that smooth (S) is dominant to wrinkled (s) in the trait seed shape.
What is the phenotype for a pea plant is the Ss genotype? _________
ss?__________

4. Which Mendelian law explains that paired unit factors (genes) must segregate
equally into gametes such that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting either
factor?________________________________________

5. Which Mendelian law states that genes do not influence each other with regard to
the sorting of alleles into gametes, and every possible combination of alleles for
every gene is equally likely to
occur._______________________________________________

6. Which patterns of inheritance are considered non-Mendelian?

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 1

Lab Objectives

• Explain the Mendelian inheritance patterns of genes that have dominant and recessive
alleles.
• Explain the non-Mendelian inheritance patterns of multiple alleles, codominance, and
sex-linked genes.
• Predict the ratio of offspring in various monohybrid or dihybrid crosses in both
Mendelian and non-Mendelian inheritance patterns.
• Demonstrate the use of a Punnett square to arrange gametes and predict offspring
ratios in various crosses.

Lab Introduction

In this lab, you will be using gamete pieces and mini-chromosomes to demonstrate five
different patterns of inheritance. You will be placing these pieces on laminated Punnett square
boards. The female gametes are large and round to represent an egg. Male gametes are
smaller than the female gametes and they have a small tail to represent a sperm. The gametes
are magnetized to show fusion of the sperm and egg to form the zygote.

The mini-chromosomes are unduplicated. Each mini-chromosomes contains a letter that

represents an allele for a particular gene. The capital letters represent the dominant allele and
the lower case letters represent the recessive allele. The letters are not in the same location on
different chromosomes. Alleles for the same gene will be in the same location on the opposite
chromosome. Alleles for a different gene will be at a different location. This is called the
gene’s locus (loci=plural).

Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

In Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance every gene has two possible alleles. One of the alleles
may be dominant which means that it will always mask or cover-up the expression of the
recessive allele when both versions of the alleles are present. The genotype describes the
combination of alleles in an individual for a specific gene. Every individual will always have two
alleles for every gene. One that they got from their mom and one that they got from their dad.
The phenotype is the observable trait that an organism expresses based on its genotype. Often,
the phenotype is what the organism looks like. Assume that Tall (T) is dominant to dwarf (t) in
corn plants. Below is a list of possible genotypes and phenotypes for the corn plant.
Genotype Phenotype
TT (homozygous dominant) Tall
Tt (heterozygous) Tall

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 2

 tt (homozygous recessive) Dwarf
Monohybrid Crosses In activities 1-3, you will be working with three different autosomal
genes that demonstrate Mendelian inheritance patterns. Autosomal refers to which
chromosomes the genes are located on. In humans, autosomes are chromosomes 1-22 and the
23rd pair of chromosomes is referred to as “sex chromosomes” since they help to determine
gender. Additionally, you will only be working with one gene or characteristic at a time and so
these are considered monohybrid crosses.

Activity #1- Freckles (Monohybrid Cross)

1. Obtain a monohybrid Punnett Square.

2. Take out the baggies that have the blue and pink gametes and mini-chromosomes for
freckles.
3. Consider a male who is homozygous dominant for freckles.
4. Write the male’s genotype here:_________________________
5. Take two mini-chromosomes out of the baggy that represent the male’s genotype.
6. Consider a female who is homozygous recessive for freckles.
7. Write the female’s genotype here: ________________________
8. Take two mini-chromosomes out of the baggy that represent the female’s genotype.
9. Recall that during meiosis each chromosome separates from its homologous partner
into a different cell creating a gamete. Mendel proposed that each version of a gene
(allele) segregates equally and that offspring have an equal chance of getting either
version of a particular gene. Mendel later declared this the
Law of _________________.
10. Separate the mini-chromosomes and imagine that each one is going into a separate cell.
11. Write the male’s gametes here: _____ _____
12. Write the female’s gametes here: _____ _____
13. Next, take the male gametes (sperm) out of the baggy and place them in the top two
outside squares of the Punnett square.
14. Write the letters of the male gametes on the top of the Punnett square on the next
page.
15. Take two more of the same male gametes out of the baggy and place them on top of
the matching male gametes on the Punnett square.
16. Take the female gametes (eggs) out of the baggy and place them in the outside squares
on the side of the Punnett square.
17. Write the letters of the female gametes on the top of the Punnett square next page.
18. Take two more of the same female gametes out of the baggy and place them on top of
the matching female gametes on the Punnett square.
19. Next, bring the father’s gametes on the top down so that you have one in each square.

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 3

 20. Bring the mother’s gametes over so that you have one in each square.
21. Align the sperm and eggs so that their magnets attract and connect the two gametes.
You have created a zygote. Fertilization!!
22. Fill in the Punnett square and answer the questions. Write the dominant letter (capital)
of each pair first.
MALE GAMETES

FEMALE
GAMETES

QUESTIONS:

Children’s genotypic ratio: ______________

Percentage of children with freckles _____________________

Percentage of children without freckles ___________________

Suppose that both parents were heterozygous for freckles. What is the ratio of their kids with
freckles to kids without freckles?

Put the gamete pieces and mini-chromosomes back in their original bags.

Activity #2- Cystic Fibrosis (Monohybrid Cross)

Repeat the process from Activity #1, using the green and yellow gametes and mini-
chromosomes for Cystic Fibrosis. (C = No cystic fibrosis gene, c = cystic fibrosis gene)

1. Consider a male who is heterozygous for cystic fibrosis.

2. Write the male’s genotype here:______
3. Consider a female who is heterozygous for cystic fibrosis.

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 4. Write the female’s genotype here: _____

Fill in the Punnett square and answer the questions. Remember to write the male gametes
on the top, and the female gametes on the left of the Punnett Square. Write the dominant
letter (capital) of each pair first.
MALE GAMETES

FEMALE
GAMETES

QUESTIONS:

Children’s genotypic ratio ______________

Percentage of children with cystic fibrosis _____________________

Percentage of children without cystic fibrosis ___________________

Why are the parents described as “carriers” for the disease?

Propose genotypes for the parents that would result in a 1:1 ratio of children with cystic
fibrosis.

Search the internet about the disease cystic fibrosis and describe below how it affects
individuals. Include the source of your information.

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Put the gamete pieces and mini-chromosomes back in their original bags.

Activity #3- Parkinson’s Disease (Monohybrid Cross)

Repeat the process from Activity #1, the fuchsia and orange gametes and mini-chromosomes
for Parkinson’s. (P = Parkinson’s gene, p = No Parkinson’s gene. Note that this gene is a
DOMINANT gene associated with the disease).

1. Consider a male who does not have Parkinson’s Disease.

2. Write the male’s genotype here:________
3. Consider a female who has Parkinson’s Disease.
4. Write the female’s genotype here: _____
(Note: There is more than one correct answer for the mother’s genotype. Choose one of
the genotypes to work with at this time.)

Fill in the Punnett square and answer the questions. Remember to write the male gametes
on the top, and the female gametes on the left of the Punnett Square. Write the dominant
letter (capital) of each pair first.

QUESTIONS:

Children’s genotype ratio ______________

Percentage of children with Parkinson’s _____________________

Percentage of children without Parkinson’s ___________________

Suggest an alternate genotype for the mother than the one that you originally listed.

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Besides molecular genetic testing, is there another way that you could determine the actual
genotype of the mother?

Search the internet about Parkinson’s disease and describe below how it affects individuals.

Put the gamete pieces and mini-chromosomes back in their original bags.

Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance

Mendel figured out the basic principles of genetics. However, there are some inheritance
patterns that cannot be totally explained by Mendel’s Laws. In this next section, we will
explore some of the “exceptions” to Mendel’s rules. These are inheritance patterns that do not
follow the simple dominant/recessive rule or they have slight variations from Mendel’s original
explanation.

Activity #4- ABO Blood Type- Multiple Alleles and Codominance

One type of human blood typing called ABO has two different non-Mendelian patterns of
inheritance. The first non-Mendelian pattern is multiple alleles. Many genes have just two
alleles. This is typical of Mendelian inheritance. ABO blood typing has three different alleles:
A, B, and O. The alleles refer to a type of glycoprotein that appears on the surface of the red
blood cells. People with type A blood have “A” glycoproteins on the surface of their red blood
cells (RBCs) and people with type B blood have “B” glycoproteins their RBCs and finally people
with type “O” blood have no glycoproteins on the surface of their RBCs.

The second non-Mendelian pattern of inheritance in blood typing is codominance. People who
have both an A allele and a B allele have type AB blood and both types of glycoproteins are
present on their red blood cells. Neither A nor B is dominant over the other. If a person has an
A allele and an O allele, then that person will have type A blood. Similarly, if a person has a B
allele and an O allele, then the person will have type B blood. In this way, blood typing does
appear to display some dominant/recessive trends.

Since blood typing has more than one inheritance pattern, the way that the genotypes are
written is different as well. A and B alleles are capital superscripts on a capital “I,” while the O
allele is designated as a lower case “I” since it is always recessive.

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 Genotype Phenotype
IA IA Type A Blood
IAi
IB IB Type B Blood
IBi
IA IB Type AB Blood

ii Type O blood

Repeat the process from Activity #1, using the baggies that have the red and white gametes and
mini-chromosomes for blood types (IA = Type A antigen allele, IB = Type B antigen allele which
are BOTH DOMINANT. i = No antigen which is RECESSIVE)

Obtain a monohybrid Punnett Square.

1. Consider a male who is heterozygous for the B blood type.

2. Write the male’s genotype here:_________
3. Consider a female who is heterozygous for A blood type.
4. Write the female’s genotype here: ______________

Fill in the Punnett square and answer the questions. Remember to write the male gametes
on the top, and the female gametes on the left of the Punnett Square. Write the dominant
letter (capital) of each pair first.

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QUESTIONS:

Children’s genotypic ratio ______________

Percentage of children with Type A blood ___________________

Percentage of children with Type B blood ___________________

Percentage of children with Type O blood ___________________

Percentage of children with Type AB blood __________________

Suppose both parents had the genotype IB IB, would it be possible for them to have a child with
type O blood? Why or why not?

Put the gamete pieces and mini-chromosomes back in their original bags.

Activity #5-Hemophilia Disease (Sex-linked Trait)

Another example of non-Mendelian inheritance is sex-linked traits. The 23rd pair of human
chromosomes are referred to as the sex chromosomes. This is because most of the genes
which help to determine gender are located on this pair of chromosomes. This is also the only
pair of homologous chromosomes which may not match in size and may not carry the same
genes depending on whether you are male or female. The “X” chromosome is the larger of the
two and carries different genes than the “Y” chromosome. The “Y” chromosome is smaller and
contains genes which direct the development of male genitalia and male secondary sex
characteristics. Females have two XX chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome.

Because of the difference in size of the X and Y chromosomes and because they do not carry
the same genes, males will only have one allele for a particular gene if the gene is carried on the
X chromosome. This becomes especially important when a disease or disorder is recessively
inherited. Males need only one recessive allele to inherit a disease which means that there is a
higher proportion of males over females who may inherit a particular disease.

Hemophilia is a recessively inherited disease located on the X chromosome. People with

hemophilia suffer from a blood condition where the blood does not clot properly. Even a slight
injury can cause hemophiliacs to bleed a lot.
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All sex-linked genes have a genotype that includes the X and Y chromosomes. The alleles for
the gene are listed as superscripts on the chromosome if they are located on that chromosome.
Look at the table below for examples of the sex-linked genotypes of hemophilia.

Genotype Phenotype
XHXh Female without
XHXH hemophilia
XhXh Female with hemophilia

XHY Male without hemophilia

XhY Male with hemophilia

Repeat the process from Activity #1, using the baggies that have the light green and beige
gametes and mini-chromosomes for blood types.

Note: The Y chromosome in this lab kit is the same size as the X chromosome. This is not the
case in real chromosomes. Imagine that the Y chromosome is about half the size of the X
chromosome.

1. Consider a male who has hemophilia.

2. Write the male’s genotype here:__________
3. Consider a female who is a carrier for hemophilia.
4. Write the female’s genotype here: ____________
5. Fill in the Punnett square and answer the questions.

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QUESTIONS:

Children’s genotypic ratio ______________

Percentage of male children with hemophilia ______________

Percentage of male children without hemophilia. ______________

Percentage of female children with hemophilia. ______________

Percentage of female children without hemophilia. ______________

Why is the female that was used in this example a “carrier” for hemophilia?

Put the gamete pieces and mini-chromosomes back in their original bags.

Activity #6-Chicken Feathers (Incomplete Dominance)

Some genes are expressed so that when they combine, neither dominates the other, and the
result is a brand new trait. Chickens with blue feathers are an example of Incomplete
Dominance. Chickens with black feathers are homozygous for black feathers (FBFB) and chickens
with white feathers are homozygous for white feathers (FWFW). However, when a chicken is
Heterozygous for these two alleles (FBFW), a new color is expressed: Blue feathers!

Genotype Phenotype
B B
F F Black Feathered Chicken
FWFW White Feathered Chicken
FBFW Blue Feathered Chicken

Repeat the process from Activity #1, using ONLY the Punnett Square on the next page (there
are no plastic gametes or chromosomes for this activity).

1. Consider a male blue feathered chicken.

2. Write the male’s genotype here:__________
3. Consider a female blue feathered chicken.
4. Write the female’s genotype here: ____________
5. Fill in the Punnett square and answer the questions.

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QUESTIONS:

Chicken’s genotypic ratio ______________

Percentage of chickens with black feathers ______________

Percentage of chickens with white feathers ______________

Percentage of chickens with blue feathers ______________

Research Incomplete Dominance and describe an example found in humans.

Dihybrid Cross: A dihybrid cross occurs when we cross two individuals with two separate genes
or characteristics instead of one. For example, in Mendel’s pea plants, if Mendel analyzed his
plants for both height and flower color, that would be an example of a dihybrid cross. A
dihybrid cross requires a Punnett square with 16 squares for the offspring instead of the four
that we used for a monohybrid cross in the previous activities. A dihybrid cross also requires
that the individual genotype shows four alleles (Ex. TtPp).

Activity #7-Pigment and Color Expression in Mice (Dihybrid Cross)

When more than one gene controls a trait, we call the pattern of inheritance polygenetic. For
example, in mice there are five different genes which control what mouse fur looks like.

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 12

 Figure 1: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fancy_mouse

In this activity, we will be looking at just two of the genes that control fur color in mice. The
first gene controls color expression. If the hair produces any pigment at all, it means that a
dominant allele (A) is present. If an individual has the homozygous recessive genotype (aa),
then the hair does not produce any pigment at all and the mouse will be albino.

The second gene that we will consider is the gene that causes the hair to produce either black
or brown pigment. If a dominant allele (B) is present in a mouse, that mouse will produce black
pigment and have black hair. If the mouse has both recessive alleles (b) then the hair will
produce brown pigment and the hair will be brown.

As you might imagine, the color expression gene has control over the pigment producing gene.
If the mouse does not have a dominant allele for color expression, there will be no fur color
regardless of what pigment producing alleles the mouse has. For example, a mouse with the
genotype aaBb will be an albino mouse even though they have the dominant allele for black
pigment. Without a dominant color expression allele, there will be no pigment produced.

Genes for Fur Color in Mice

Color A= color is present a= albino
Expression
Color of B= black b= brown
Pigment

Question: For each genotype listed below determine what color its fur will be:

• AaBB ___________________
• aaBb ____________________
• AAbb____________________

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 13

1. Obtain a dihybrid Punnett Square.
2. Take out the baggies that have the silver and gold gametes and mini-chromosomes for
mouse fur color expression and pigment production.
3. Consider a male mouse that is heterozygous for both traits (color expression and color
of pigment).
4. Write the male’s genotype here:_______
5. Take four mini-chromosomes out of the baggy that represent the male’s genotype.
6. During meiosis, when the chromosomes above are separated into gametes, there will be
four possible combinations for the distribution of genes and chromosomes. Using the
other mini-chromosomes in the baggy, arrange the chromosomes to show all the
different possible combinations of how the genes/chromosomes could be arranged.
Hint: There are four different combinations.
7. Write the four different combinations as alleles.

8. When sorting the chromosomes, every possible combination of chromosomes has an

equal chance of occurring. There is no gene or chromosome that controls the other and
therefore has a greater chance of showing up in a gamete. Mendel called this the Law
of _______________________ _____________________.
9. During which phase of meiosis does this “random” sorting of chromosomes occur?
______________________
10. Consider a female mouse that is heterozygous for both traits (color expression and color
of pigment).
11. Write the female’s genotype here:______
12. Take four mini-chromosomes out of the baggy that represent the female’s genotype.
13. Similar to what was done for the male chromosomes in questions #7, use other mini-
chromosomes in the baggy to arrange the chromosomes to show all the different
possible combinations of how the genes/chromosomes could be arranged for the
female. Hint: There are four different combinations.
14. Write the four different combinations as alleles below.

15. Next, take the male gametes (sperm) out of the baggy and place them in the top four
outside squares of the Punnett square.
16. Write the letters of the male gametes on the top of the Punnett square on the next
page.
17. Take three more of the same male gametes out of the baggy and place them on top of
the matching male gametes on the Punnett square.

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 14

 18. Take the female gametes (eggs) out of the baggy and place them in the outside squares
on the side of the Punnett square.
19. Write the letters of the female gametes on the top of the Punnett square next page.
20. Take three more of the same female gametes out of the baggy and place them on top of
the matching female gametes on the Punnett square.
21. Next, bring the father’s gametes on the top down so that you have one in each square.
22. Bring the mother’s gametes over so that you have one in each square.
23. Align the sperm and eggs so that their magnets attract and connect the two gametes.
You have created a zygote. Fertilization!!
24. Fill in the Punnett square and answer the questions. Write the dominant letter (capital)
of each pair first. Keep the same letter pairs together. (Ex. AaBb)

QUESTIONS:

List the offspring genotypes and the ratio or percentage of each.

List the offspring phenotypes and the ratio or percentage of each.

Put the gamete pieces and mini-chromosomes back in their original bags.

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 15

Lab 13 Review Questions Name_____________________

1. In pea plants, seed shape demonstrates Mendelian inheritance patterns. Smooth peas
(S) are dominate over wrinkled peas (s). Using a Punnett square, cross a wrinkled pea
with a heterozygous smooth pea.

Write the offspring genotypes____________________ and phenotypes____________________

2. In pea plants, pod shape and color demonstrate Mendelian inheritance patterns.
Inflated pea pods (I) are dominate over constricted pea pods (i) and green pods (G) are
dominate over yellow pods (g). Cross a pea plant that is heterozygous for pod shape
and has yellow pods with a pea plant that is homozygous dominate for pod color and
has constricted pods. Use a Punnett square to show your work.

What are the parent genotypes? ______ ______ What are the parent gametes? _____ _____

List the genotypes and phenotype percentages of the offspring.

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 16

 3. Two people without type O blood have a baby with type O blood. Propose a cross that
would demonstrate this. Use a Punnett square to show your work. Note: There is more
than one correct answer.

What are the parent genotypes? ______ ______ What are the parent gametes? _____ _____

List the genotypes and phenotype percentages of the offspring.

Would the parents that you proposed in question 3 be able to donate blood to their child? Why
or why not?

Why is Type O blood considered the universal donor?

4. Color-blindness is a sex-linked recessive disorder. Cross a female carrier with

colorblindness with a color blind male. Use a Punnett square to show your work.

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 17

What are the parent genotypes? ______ ______ What are the parent gametes? _____ _____

List the genotypes and phenotype percentages of the offspring.

In the human population, explain why there is a higher number of colorblind males than
females?

5. DIHYBRID CROSS: A man without freckles and with type O blood marries a woman who
is heterozygous for freckles and has Type A blood. The woman’s mother had type O
blood and her father had type A blood.
a. What are the genotypes for the man and woman? __________ ____________
b. Fill in the Punnett square below and predict the various genotypes for their
offspring.
c. What are the genotypic percentages for the offspring?

d. What are the phenotypic percentages for the offspring?

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 18

Name______________________

Optional Practice Genetics Problems

1. For each genotype, indicate if the genotype is heterozygous (He) or homozygous (Ho).

aa______ Yy______ HH ______ Oo ______

Tt ______ GG ______ Hh ______ Bb______

BB ______ Gg ______ UU ______ ww ______

2. For each genotype listed, determine the phenotype.

Purple Flowers (P) are dominant to yellow (p) flowers.

PP __________________
Pp __________________
pp __________________

In humans, tongue rolling (T) is dominant to non-tongue rolling (t).

tt ___________________
TT ___________________
Tt ___________________

3. For each phenotype, list the genotype.

Mid-digit hair is dominant to no mid-digit hair.
__________ Digit hair
__________ Digit hair
__________ No digit hair

4. Answer the questions and complete the Punnett square for this cross.
In humans, widow’s peak (W) is dominant to straight (w) hairline.
• Cross two individuals heterozygous for a widow’s peak.

What are the genotypes of the parents?

________ ________

What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring?

_____________________
What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?
______________________

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 19

 5. Answer the questions and complete the Punnett square for this cross.
In humans, widow’s peak (W) is dominant to straight (w) hairline.
• The father has a widow’s peak. The mother has a straight hairline. Of their four
children, two have widow’s peaks and two have a straight hairline.

What are the genotypes of the parents?

________ ________

What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring?

_____________________

What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?

______________________

6. In humans, hair curliness is an example of incomplete dominance. Capital letters are

used for both alleles. H1 is the allele for curly hair and H2 is the allele for straight hair.
The heterozygous genotypes results in wavy hair.
a. What is the genotype of a person with curly hair? ________
b. What is the genotype of a person with straight hair? _______
c. What is the genotype of a person with wavy hair? _________

Set up the Punnett square for the cross below.

• A wavy haired man marries a curly haired woman.

What are the genotypes of the parents?

________ ________

What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring?

_____________________

What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?

______________________

Lab 13: Mendelian Laws & Patterns of Inheritance, Page 20

 7. Set up the Punnett square for the example below. Blood type in humans is an example
of multiple alleles and codominance.
• A woman with type AB blood marries a man with
type B blood. The man’s mother had Type O
blood!

What are the genotypes of the parents?

________ ________

What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring?

_____________________

What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?

______________________

8. Muscular dystrophy is a sex-linked disorder caused by a recessive allele on the X-

chromosome. In all sex-linked genetic problems, the chromosome letter (X or Y) must
be included in the individua’ls genotype. If an individual has the dominant (normal gene
for dystrophin), the genotype is written XD, if the individual has the recessive allele on
an X chromosome it is written Xd.
• A woman who is a carrier for muscular dystrophy marries a man who does not
have muscular dystrophy.

What are the genotypes of the parents?

________ ________

What is the genotypic ratio of the offspring?

_____________________

What is the phenotypic ratio of the offspring?

______________________

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