146 CHAPTER 6 MOMENTUM

omentum and impulse are important concepts in describing and understand-

M ing the motion of objects and the related effects on those objects. The law of
conservation of momentum is an important law of physics; it helps us analyze
how two objects interact with each other when they are in contact with each other
and when they collide.

6.1 Momentum and Impulse

We know that it is much more difficult to stop a large truck than a small car traveling at the
same speed. The truck has more inertia and is more difficult to bring to a stop or to begin
moving than the car. The truck has more inertia because it has a greater mass than the small
car. In a head-on collision, common sense tells us that the small car will be damaged far
more than the truck. However, if the car is travelling at a higher rate of speed, the damage it
could cause in a collision might be greater. Momentum is the concept that describes the
combined effect of inertia and motion. An an illustration, compare the effects of a tennis
ball being rolled or even thrown at an array of pins to the effects of a heavy bowling ball.
Clearly the bowling ball has more momentum. Momentum, however, is not just a function
of greater mass or inertia. A bullet fired from a rifle has great momentum because, although
its mass and inertia are small, its high velocity gives it a large momentum.
Momentum is a measure of the amount of inertia and motion an object has or of the diffi-
culty in bringing a moving object to rest. Since momentum is partially determined by velocity,
it, like velocity, is a relative physical quantity. It must have a frame of reference. For example,
a canoe being paddled upstream at the same rate at which the current is flowing downstream
has a velocity of zero and zero momentum relative to the shore. Expressing these concepts in
mathematical terms, we have momentum equals the product of the mass times the velocity of
an object.

p  mv

where p  momentum
m  mass
v  velocity
The momentum of a train makes it impossible to stop within a short distance, and this ex-
plains why it cannot stop at a railroad crossing when the engineer sees someone stopped or
stalled at it.
The units of momentum are kg m/s in the metric system and slug ft/s in the U.S. sys-
tem. Momentum is a vector quantity whose direction is the same as the velocity.

EXAMPLE 1 Find the momentum of an auto with mass 1350 kg traveling 75.0 km/h.
Data:
m  1350 kg
km 1000 m 1h
v  75.0    20.8 m/s
h 1 km 3600 s
p?
Basic Equation:
p  mv
Working Equation: Same
Substitution:
p  (1350 kg)(20.8 m/s)
 28,100 kg m/s
 http://www.prenhall.com/ewen 147

Find the momentum of an auto with mass 105 slugs traveling 60.0 mi/h. EXAMPLE 2
Data:
m  105 slugs
v  60.0 mi/h  88.0 ft/s
p?
Basic Equation:
p  mv
Working Equation: Same
Substitution:
p  (105 slugs)(88.0 ft/s)
 9240 slugs ft/s

Find the velocity that a bullet of mass 1.00  102 kg would have to have so that it has the EXAMPLE 3
same momentum as a lighter bullet of mass 1.80  103 kg and velocity 325 m/s.
Sketch:
m1 = 1.00  10–2 kg m2 = 1.80  10–3 kg

v1 = ? v2 = 325 m/s

Data:
Heavier Bullet Lighter Bullet

m1  1.00  102 kg m2  1.80  103 kg

v1  ? v2  325 m/s
p1  ? p2  ?

Basic Equations:
p1  m1v1
p2  m2v2
We want
p1  p2
or
m1v1  m2v2
Working Equation:
m2v2
v1 
m1
Substitution:
(1.80  103 kg)(325 m/s)
v1 
1.00  102 kg
 58.5 m/s
148 CHAPTER 6 MOMENTUM

When a truck accelerates or stops, its momentum changes. If the momentum of any
object changes, either its mass or its velocity changes. Usually the mass (for example, the
truck) does not change, so any change in momentum is a result of its velocity changing. Its
velocity changes because a force acts on an object for an interval of time. A stalled truck
does not move unless a force or push is applied to it. How fast and how far it moves are also
determined by how long the force is applied to it. Both force and time determine the
change in momentum.
Decreasing momentum can be as important as increasing momentum. Bringing a
moving truck to a stop reduces its momentum to zero. Brakes are used to apply a retarding
force to the truck. Common experience tells us that the longer the retarding force is ap-
plied, the more the truck is slowed. Impulse—the force applied and the length of time it is
applied—determines stopping distance. Everyday examples of impulse include jumping
off a deck or dropping a glass. If you do not bend your knees when you land so as to
increase the time of impact, you risk breaking bones. Similarly, a glass dropped on a hard-
wood floor will probably shatter, whereas the same glass dropped on a pile rug may not.
The rug has more “give,” which means that the pile of the rug provides a longer time of
contact during the impact. Both are examples of impulse.
The impulse on an object is the product of the force applied and the time interval dur-
ing which the force acts on the object. That is,

impulse  Ft

where F  force
t  time interval during which the force acts
How are impulse and momentum related? Recall that
vf  vi
a
t
If we substitute this equation into Newton’s second law of motion, we have
F  ma
vf  vi
Fma b
t
mvf  mvi
F Remove parentheses.
t
Ft  mvf  mvi Multiply both sides by t.
Note that mvf is the final momentum and mvi is the initial momentum. That is,

impulse  ¢p (change in momentum)  Ft  mvf  mvi

Note: The Greek letter ¢ (“delta”) is used to designate “change in.”

Impulse is the measure of the change in momentum of an object in response to an ex-
erted force over an interval of time. The amount of force and the length of time the force
is applied will determine the change in momentum. A common example that illustrates
this relationship is a golf club hitting a golf ball (Fig. 6.1). When a golf ball is on the tee,
it has zero momentum because its velocity is zero. To give it or change its momentum
(impulse), you apply a force for a given period of time. During the time that the club and
ball are in contact, the force of the swinging club is transferring most of its momentum to
the ball. The impulse given to the ball is the product of the force with which the ball is hit
and the length of time that the club and ball are in direct contact. You can increase its mo-
mentum by increasing the force (by swinging the golf club faster) or increasing the time
(by keeping the golf club in contact with the ball longer, which shows the importance of
“followthrough”).
 http://www.prenhall.com/ewen 149

Figure 6.1 When a person hits a golf ball with a golf club, the club applies a force F during
the time t that the club is in contact with the ball. The impulse (change in momentum) is
Ft = mvf - mvi = mvf because vi = 0.

Marks Inc., Stephen © Getty Images

Mike Powell/Taxi/Getty Images

Inc. - Image Bank
mvf

(a) (b)

A 17.5-g bullet is fired at a muzzle velocity of 582 m/s from a gun with a mass of 8.00 kg EXAMPLE 4
and a barrel length of 75.0 cm. (a) How long is the bullet in the barrel? (b) What is the
force on the bullet while it is in the barrel? (c) Find the impulse exerted on the bullet while
it is in the barrel. (d) Find the bullet’s momentum as it leaves the barrel.

Sketch: 75.0 cm
582 m/s

(a) Data:
s  75.0 cm  0.750 m
vf  582 m/s
vi  0 m/s
vf  vi 582 m/s  0 m/s
vavg    291 m/s
2 2
t?

Basic Equation:
s  vavgt

Working Equation:
s
t
vavg

Substitution:
0.750 m
t
291 m/s
 0.00258 s

Note: This is the length of time that the force is applied to the bullet.
150 CHAPTER 6 MOMENTUM

(b) Data:
t  0.00258 s
m  17.5 g  0.0175 kg
vf  582 m/s
vi  0 m/s
F?
Basic Equation:
Ft  mvf  mvi

Working Equation:
mvf  mvi
F
t
Substitution:
(0.0175 kg)(582 m/s)  (0.0175 kg)(0 m/s)
F
0.00258 s
 3950 kg m/s2
 3950 N (1 N  1 kg m/s2 )
(c) Data:
t  0.00258 s
F  3950 N
impulse  ?
Basic Equation:
impulse  Ft
Working Equation: Same
Substitution:
impulse  (3950 N)(0.00258 s)
 10.2 N s
 10.2 (kg m/s2 )(s) (1 N  1 kg m/s2 )
 10.2 kg m/s
(d) Data:
m  17.5 g  0.0175 kg
v  582 m/s
p?
Basic Equation:
p  mv
Working Equation: Same
Substitution:
p  (0.0175 kg)(582 m/s)
 10.2 kg m/s
Note: The impulse equals the change in momentum.
 http://www.prenhall.com/ewen 151

T R Y T H I S A C T I V I T Y
Scrambled Eggs
Drop a raw egg from a height of a few feet onto a Figure 6.2
surface that can be cleaned. Observe the motion of
the egg as it hits the surface and note the time the
egg takes to come to rest. Drop another raw egg
from the same height into a suspended bed sheet.
Again observe the motion of the egg as it hits the
bed sheet and note the time the egg takes to come
to rest (Fig. 6.2). Explain the connection between
what happened to these eggs and how airbags in
automobiles work.

One of the most important laws of physics, the law of conservation of momentum, is
the following:

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

When no outside forces are acting on a system of moving objects, the total momentum of the system remains constant.

For example, consider a 35-kg boy and a 75-kg man standing next to each other on ice
skates on “frictionless” ice (Fig. 6.3). The man pushes on the boy, which gives the boy a ve-
locity of 0.40 m/s. What happens to the man? Initially, the total momentum was zero be-
cause the initial velocity of each was zero. According to the law of conservation of
momentum, the total momentum must still be zero. That is,
mboyvboy  mmanvman  0
(35 kg)(0.40 m/s)  (75 kg)vman  0
vman  0.19 m/s
Note: The minus sign indicates that the man’s velocity and the boy’s velocity are in op-
posite directions.

Figure 6.3 Momentum is conserved by the lighter boy moving faster than the
heavier man.
vboy = 0.40 m/s vman = 0.19 m/s

(a) (b)
152 CHAPTER 6 MOMENTUM
Wernher von Braun (1912–1977),
engineer and rocket expert, was
born in Germany. He was chiefly
responsible for the manufacture
and launching of the first American
artificial earth satellite, Explorer I,
in 1958. As director of the Marshall
Space Flight Center from 1960 to
1970, he developed the Saturn
rocket for the Apollo 8 moon land-
ing in 1969.
IMPULSE–MOMENTUM THEOREM
EXAMPLE 5
Rocket propulsion is another illustration of conservation of momentum. Wernher von
Braun was a pioneering rocket scientist. As in the example of the skaters, the total mo-
mentum of a rocket on the launch pad is zero. When the rocket engines are fired, hot ex-
haust gases (actually gas molecules) are expelled downward through the rocket nozzle at
tremendous speeds. As the rocket takes off, the sum of the total momentums of the rocket
and the gas particles must remain zero. The total momentum of the gas particles is the sum
of the products of each mass and its corresponding velocity and is directed down. The mo-
mentum of the rocket is the product of its mass and its velocity and is directed up.
When the rocket is in space, its propulsion works in the same manner. The conserva-
tion of momentum is still valid except that when the rocket engines are fired, the total mo-
mentum is a nonzero constant. This is because the rocket has velocity.
Actually, repair work is more difficult in space than it is on the earth because of the con-
servation of momentum and the “weightlessness” of objects in orbit. On the earth, when a
hammer is swung, the person is coupled to the earth by frictional forces, so that the person’s
mass includes that of the earth. In space orbit, because the person is weightless, there is no
friction to couple him or her to the spaceship. A person in space has roughly the same problem
driving a nail as a person on the earth would have wearing a pair of “frictionless” roller skates.
A change in momentum takes force and time because
change in momentum  impulse  Ft
As we noted earlier in this section, it is more difficult to stop a large truck than a small car trav-
eling at the same speed and impossible to stop a rapidly moving train within a short distance.
These events can be explained in terms of the impulse–momentum theorem as follows.
If the mass of an object is constant, then a change in its velocity results in a change in
its momentum. That is,
¢p  m¢v
The impulse of an object equals its change in momentum. That is,
F¢t  ¢p
Then,
F¢t  ¢p  m¢v  mvf  mvi
What force is required to slow a 1450-kg car traveling 115 km/h to 45.0 km/h within 3.00 s?
How far does the car travel during its deceleration?
Data:
m  1450 kg
km 1h 1000 m
vf  45    12.5 m/s
h 3600 s 1 km
km 1h 1000 m
vi  115    31.9 m/s
h 3600 s 1 km
¢t  3.00 s
F?
Basic Equation:
F¢t  mvf  mvi
 http://www.prenhall.com/ewen 153

Working Equation:
mvf  mvi
F
¢t

Substitution:
(1450 kg)(12.5 m/s)  (1450 kg)(31.9 m/s)
F
3.00 s
 9380 kg m/s  9380 N
2

Note: The negative sign indicates a deceleration force.

Basic Equation:
s  12 (vf  vi )t

Working Equation: Same

Substitution:
s  12 (12.5 m/s  31.9 m/s)(3.00 s)
 66.6 m

P H Y S I C S C O N N E C T I O N S
Airbags
During an automobile front-end collision, pas- Figure 6.4 An airbag increases the time it takes to bring a
sengers will continue to travel forward until the passenger to a stop in a collision by reducing the force of the
dashboard, seat belt, or airbag applies a force impact applied to the passenger.
on them to stop them. Airbags are designed to
provide a cushion-like effect to gradually bring
passengers to rest. Airbags increase the time it
takes to bring passengers to a stop and reduce
the force of the impact (Fig. 6.4). Airbags used
in conjunction with seat belts help prevent
death and serious injury.
Airbags expand from the steering wheel or
dashboard when a sudden impulse or a change
in momentum of the vehicle triggers a sensor
that is connected to a heating element. The
heating element causes a chemical reaction
with a propellant that fills the airbag with nitro-
1
gen gas within 20 s. This short inflation time
gives the airbag enough time to inflate before
Photo Courtesy of Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. Reprinted with permission.
the passenger strikes it. Within 12 s, the collision
is completed and the airbag deflates.
Airbags are designed to strike the average seat-belted man in the midsection of the body. An airbag,
which expands at a rate of 150 mi/h, can be quite dangerous if the bag strikes short individuals in the
face. Injuries to women and children caused by airbags are a serious problem. Efforts are being made to
automatically adjust airbag deployment to make airbags safer for all passengers. Airbags are also used for
side-impact collisions.
 154 CHAPTER 6 MOMENTUM

PROBLEMS 6.1
PROBLEM SOLVING
SKETCH Find the momentum of each object.
12 cm 2
w 1. m  2.00 kg, v  40.0 m/s 2. m  5.00 kg, v  90.0 m/s
3. m  17.0 slugs, v  45.0 ft/s 4. m  38.0 kg, v  97.0 m/s
4.0 cm
5. m  3.8  10 kg, v  2.5  10 m/s
5 3
6. m  3.84 kg, v  1.6  105 m/s
DATA
7. Fw  1.50  10 N, v  4.50  10 m/s
5 4
A = 12 cm2, l = 4.0 cm, w = ?
8. Fw  3200 lb, v  60 mi/h (change to ft/s)
BASIC EQUATION 9. (a) Find the momentum of a heavy automobile of mass 180 slugs traveling 70.0 ft/s.
A = lw (b) Find the velocity of a light auto of mass 80.0 slugs so that it has the same
WORKING EQUATION momentum as the auto in part (a). (c) Find the weight (in lb) of each auto in parts (a)
A and (b).
w
l 10. (a) Find the momentum of a bullet of mass 1.00  103 slug traveling 700 ft/s.
(b) Find the velocity of a bullet of mass 5.00  104 slug so that it has the same mo-
SUBSTITUTION
mentum as the bullet in part (a).
12 cm2
w  3.0 cm 11. (a) Find the momentum of an automobile of mass 2630 kg traveling 21.0 m/s.
4.0 cm
(b) Find the velocity (in km/h) of a light auto of mass 1170 kg so that it has the same
momentum as the auto in part (a).
12. A ball of mass 0.50 kg is thrown straight up at 6.0 m/s. (a) What is the initial momen-
tum of the ball? (b) What is the momentum of the ball at its peak? (c) What is the
momentum of the ball as it hits the ground?
13. A bullet with mass 60.0 g is fired with an initial velocity of 575 m/s from a gun with
mass 4.50 kg. What is the speed of the recoil of the gun?
14. A cannon is mounted on a railroad car. The cannon shoots a 1.75-kg ball with a muzzle
velocity of 300 m/s. The cannon and the railroad car together have a mass of 4500 kg.
If the ball, cannon, and railroad car are initially at rest, what is the recoil velocity of
the car and cannon?
15. A 125-kg pile driver falls from a height of 10.0 m to hit a piling. (a) What is its speed
as it hits the piling? (b) With what momentum does it hit the piling?
16. A person is traveling 75.0 km/h in an automobile and throws a bottle of mass 0.500 kg
out the window. (a) With what momentum does the bottle hit a roadway sign?
(b) With what momentum does the bottle hit an oncoming automobile traveling
85.0 km/h in the opposite direction? (c) With what momentum does the bottle hit an
automobile passing and traveling 85.0 km/h in the same direction?
17. A 75.0-g bullet is fired with a muzzle velocity of 460 m/s from a gun with mass
3.75 kg and barrel length of 66.0 cm. (a) How long is the bullet in the barrel?
(b) What is the force on the bullet while it is in the barrel? (c) Find the impulse
exerted on the bullet while it is in the barrel. (d) Find the bullet’s momentum as it
leaves the barrel.
18. A 60.0-g bullet is fired at a muzzle velocity of 525 m/s from a gun with mass
4.50 kg and a barrel length of 55.0 cm. (a) How long is the bullet in the barrel?
(b) What is the force on the bullet while it is in the barrel? (c) Find the impulse
exerted on the bullet while it is in the barrel. (d) Find the bullet’s momentum as it
leaves the barrel.
19. (a) What force is required to stop a 1250-kg car traveling 95.0 km/h within 4.00 s?
(b) How far does the car travel during its deceleration?
20. (a) What force is required to slow a 1350-kg car traveling 90.0 km/h to 25.0 km/h
within 4.00 s? (b) How far does the car travel during its deceleration? (c) How
long does it take for the car to come to a complete stop at this same rate of
deceleration?
21. What force is required to stop a 3000-kg truck going 35.0 km/h within 5.00 s?
22. What force is needed to stop a piece of heavy equipment moving 10.0 km/h in 6.00 s
if its mass is 5000 kg?
Solved Example Problems for Work

Example 4.1

A box is pulled with a force of 25 N to produce a displacement of 15 m. If the angle between the force
and displacement is 30o, find the work done by the force.

Solution
Force, F = 25 N

Displacement, dr = 15 m

Angle between F and dr, θ = 30o

Work done, W = Fdr cosθ

Solved Example Problems for Work done by a constant force

Example 4.2

An object of mass 2 kg falls from a height of 5 m to the ground. What is the work done by the
gravitational force on the object? (Neglect air resistance; Take g = 10 m s-2)
Solution

In this case the force acting on the object is downward gravitational force . This is a constant
force.

Work done by gravitational force is

The object also moves downward which is in the direction of gravitational force ( ) as shown
in figure. Hence, the angle between them is θ = 0° cos0° = 1 and the
displacement, (rf - r1) = 5m

The work done by the gravitational force on the object is positive.

Example 4.3

An object of mass m=1 kg is sliding from top to bottom in the frictionless inclined plane of inclination
angle θ = 30o and the length of inclined plane is 10 m as shown in the figure. Calculate the work done
by gravitational force and normal force on the object. Assume acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 m s-2

Solution

We calculated in the previous chapter that the acceleration experienced by the object in the inclined
plane as g sinθ .

According to Newton’s second law, the force acting on the mass along the inclined plane F = mg sinθ.
Note that this force is constant throughout the motion of the mass.

The work done by the parallel component of gravitational force ( mg sinθ ) is given by

where ϕ is the angle between the force (mg sin θ) and the direction of motion (dr). In this case, force
(mg sin θ) and the displacement ( ) are in the same direction. Hence ϕ = o and cos ϕ = 1
Example 4.4
If an object of mass 2 kg is thrown up from the ground reaches a height of 5 m and falls back to the
Earth (neglect the air resistance). Calculate

a) The work done by gravity when the object reaches 5 m height

b) The work done by gravity when the object comes back to Earth
c) Total work done by gravity both in upward and downward motion and mention the physical
significance of the result.

Solution
When the object goes up, the displacement points in the upward direction whereas the gravitational
force acting on the object points in downward direction. Therefore, the angle between gravitational
force and displacement of the object is 180°.

a. The work done by gravitational force in the upward motion.

Given that ∆r =5 m and F mg

b. When the object falls back, both the gravitational force and displacement of the object are in the
same direction. This implies that the angle between gravitational force and displacement of the object
is 0°.

c. The total work done by gravity in the entire trip (upward and downward motion)

It implies that the gravity does not transfer any energy to the object. When the object is thrown
upwards, the energy is transferred to the object by the external agency, which means that the object
gains some energy. As soon as it comes back and hits the Earth, the energy gained by the object is
transferred to the surface of the Earth (i.e., dissipated to the Earth).

Solved Example Problems for Work done by a variable force

Example 4.6

A variable force F = kx2 acts on a particle which is initially at rest. Calculate the work done by the force
during the displacement of the particle from x = 0 m to x = 4 m. (Assume the constant k =1 N m -2)

Solution

Work done,
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

INTRODUCTION

The term work is used in diverse contexts in daily life.

• It refers to both physical as well as mental work. In fact, any activity can generally be called as
work.
• But in Physics, the term work is treated as a physical quantity with a precise definition.
• Work is said to be done by the force when the force applied on a body displaces it. To do work,
energy is required.
• In simple words, energy is defined as the ability to do work.
• Hence, work and energy are equivalents and have same dimension.
• Energy, in Physics exists in different forms such as mechanical, electrical, thermal, nuclear and so
on. Many machines consume one form of energy and deliver energy in a different form. In this
chapter we deal mainly with mechanical energy and its two types namely kinetic energy and
potential energy.

The next quantity in this sequence of discussion is the rate of work done or the rate of energy
delivered. The rate of work done is called power. A powerful strike in cricket refers to a hit on the
ball at a fast rate. This chapter aims at developing a good understanding of these three physical
quantities namely work, energy and power and their physical significance.

ENERGY

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. In other words, work done is the manifestation of energy.
That is why work and energy have the same dimension (ML2T-2)

The important aspect of energy is that for an isolated system, the sum of all forms of energy i.e., the
total energy remains the same in any process irrespective of whatever internal changes may take
place. This means that the energy disappearing in one form reappears in another form. This is known as
the law of conservation of energy. In this chapter we shall take up only the mechanical energy for
discussion.

In a broader sense, mechanical energy is classified into two types

i. Kinetic energy

ii. Potential energy

The energy possessed by a body due to its motion is called kinetic energy. The energy possessed by
the body by virtue of its position is called potential energy.

The SI unit of energy is the same as that of work done i.e., N m (or) joule.

The dimension of energy is also the same as that of work done. It is

given by [ML2T-2]. The other units of energy and their SI equivalent
values are given in Table 4.2.
Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion. All moving objects have kinetic
energy. A body that is in motion has the ability to do work. For example a hammer kept at rest on a nail
does not push the nail into the wood. Whereas the same hammer when it strikes the nail, draws the nail
into the wood as shown in Figure 4.7. Kinetic energy is measured by the amount of work that the body
can perform before it comes to rest. The amount of work done by a moving body depends both on the
mass of the body and the magnitude of its velocity. A body which is not in motion does not have kinetic
energy.

Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem

Work and energy are equivalents. This is true in the case of kinetic energy also. To prove this, let us
consider a body of mass m at rest on a frictionless horizontal surface.
The work (W) done by the constant force (F) for a displacement (s) in the same direction is,

The constant force is given by the equation,

The third equation of motion (refer section 2.10.3) can be written as,

The expression for kinetic energy:

The term ½ mv2 in the above equation is the kinetic energy of the body of mass (m) moving with
velocity (v).

Kinetic energy of the body is always positive. From equations (4.10) and (4.11)

The expression on the right-hand side (RHS) of equation (4.12) is the change in kinetic energy (∆KE) of
the body.
This implies that the work done by the force on the body changes the kinetic energy of the body. This is
called work-kinetic energy theorem.

The work-kinetic energy theorem implies the following.

i. If the work done by the force on the body is positive then its kinetic energy increases.
ii. If the work done by the force on the body is negative then its kinetic energy decreases.
iii. If there is no work done by the force on the body then there is no change in its kinetic
energy, which means that the body has moved at constant speed provided its mass
remains constant.

Relation between Momentum and Kinetic Energy

Consider an object of mass m moving with a velocity . Then its linear momentum is
and its kinetic energy, KE = ½ mv2 .

Multiplying both the numerator and denominator of equation (4.13) by mass, m

Where is the magnitude of the momentum. The magnitude of the linear momentum can be
obtained by

Note that if kinetic energy and mass are given, only the magnitude of the momentum can be
calculated but not the direction of momentum. It is because the kinetic energy and mass are scalars.
Potential Energy

The potential energy of a body is associated with its position and configuration with respect to its
surroundings. This is because the various forces acting on the body also depends on position and
configuration.

“Potential energy of an object at a point P is defined as the amount of work done by an external force
in moving the object at constant velocity from the point O (initial location) to the point P (final location).
At initial point O potential energy can be taken as zero.

where the limit of integration ranges from initial location point O to final location point P.

We have various types of potential energies. Each type is associated with a particular force. For example,

(i) The energy possessed by the body due to gravitational force gives rise to gravitational potential
energy.

(ii) The energy due to spring force and other similar forces give rise to elastic potential energy.

(iii) The energy due to electrostatic force on charges gives rise to electrostatic potential energy.

We will learn more about conservative forces in the section 4.2.7. Now, we continue to discuss more
about gravitational potential energy and elastic potential energy.

Potential energy near the surface of the Earth

The gravitational potential energy (U) at some height h is equal to the amount of work required to take
the object from ground to that height h with constant velocity.

Let us consider a body of mass m being moved from ground to the height h against the gravitational
force as shown in Figure 4.8.

The gravitational force g acting on the body is, g = - mg jˆ (as the force is in y direction, unit vector ˆj is
used). Here, negative sign implies that the force is acting vertically downwards. In order to move the
body without acceleration (or with constant velocity), an external applied force a equal in magnitude
but opposite to that of gravitational force g has to be applied on the body i.e., a = - g . This implies
that a = + mg jˆ. The positive sign implies that the applied force is in vertically upward direction.
Hence, when the body is lifted up its velocity remains unchanged and thus its kinetic energy also
remains constant.

The gravitational potential energy (U) at some height h is equal to the amount of work required to take
the object from the ground to that height h.
Since the displacement and the applied force are in the same upward direction, the angle between

them, θ=0o. Hence, cos00 =1 and | a | = mg and |d | = dr .

Note that the potential energy stored in the object is defined through work done by the external force
which is positive. Physically this implies that the agency which is applying the external force is transferring
the energy to the object which is then stored as potential energy. If the object is allowed to fall from a
height h then the stored potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.

https://www.brainkart.com/article/Energy_34545/
Momentum and Impulse

Momentum
- is a measure of the amount of inertia and motion an object has or of the difficulty in bringing a
moving object to rest.
- Since momentum is partially determined by velocity, it, like velocity, is a relative physical quantity.
It must have a frame of reference.

For example, a canoe being paddled upstream at the same rate at which the current is flowing
downstream has a velocity of zero and zero momentum relative to the shore. Expressing these
concepts in mathematical terms, we have momentum equals the product of the mass times the
velocity of an object.

p = mv

where:
p = momentum
m = mass
v = velocity

The units of momentum are kg m/s in the metric system and slug ft/s in the U.S. system.
Momentum is a vector quantity whose direction is the same as the velocity.

Example Problem: