Second Order Filters Considering RLC Elements: Passive Devices Laboratory

Physics Department
Faculty Of Exact Natural Sciences And Education
PASSIVE DEVICES LABORATORY
agosto 2, 2022 Colombia
Second order filters considering RLC elements

Phy. E. Fabian Andres Portilla Rosero, Phy. E. Luis Eduardo Vega Romero, Phy. E. Tatiana Alejandra
Ibarra Samboni, Phy. E. Diana Carolina Bejarano
fabianportilla@unicauca.edu.co
Physics department – Faculty of Exact Natural Sciences and Education
University of Cauca
Abstract
During this laboratory the efficiency of a RLC circuit to constitute a filter is proved, in a theoretical way the
filter showed an ideal behavior to filter the signals between two cut frequencies; the data obtained in the
laboratory was not useful and the behavior of the data corresponds to a random error impossible to be
predictable with the function obtained, on the other hand, the data given by the Professor adjust in a predictable
way with a net error between 0 and 20% in the maximum point , with a systematic error that can be reduced, on
the other the importance of the impedance is analyzed to prove that the impedance plays an important role and it
is different from the reactance, finally, it is proved that a second order filter improves the response to filter a
signal when it is used in a circuit.
1. Introduction
According to (Feynman, Leighton, and Sands 1998;
The filters are special constructions used as its name Shankar 2014) the order of the filter is related with
tells select a certain range of frequencies in this case the number of elements capable to store energy in
according to (Adel S. Sedra 2015); inside of circuits form of vector fields, and corresponds with the
is obtained two huge domains, first one is the order of the differential equation driving the system,
domain of the time, when alternating sources are the filters improve their features according to the
connected to elements with the capacity to store number of the order present in the circuit,
energy in forms of vectors fields, these fields will commonly, the real behavior of the curve for a filter
be time dependent and the solution of the circuits as consider a range in which the frequency decreases
well, nevertheless, due to the mathematical from the peak of it until the point in which this
operations is possible to apply the Laplace frequency technically disappears, the same filters
transform and convert the solution of the equations can be obtained, nevertheless, when the order of the
in the domain of the frequency; obviously a new filter increases then the range in which the
term is introduce to compensate the change from frequency exists is smaller compared to last order.
one to other domain and this terms is known as
impedance according to (Dorf 1993). According to (J. David Irwin 2011) the number of
elements not only get better the response of the
circuit but that increases the difficulty of the
Hacia una Universidad comprometida con la paz territorial

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Physics Department
solution to the equations, during this laboratory The letter Z is the impedance that has a complex
these concepts will be tested and one of the most behavior, complex in the sense of a mathematical
important applications of the RLC circuits will be set according to (Mark Zemansky, Francis Sears,
proved for the case of a band-width filter. Young 2012) the physical behavior is the same but
the mathematical foundation is difference;
2. Theoretical framework nonetheless, the impedance is composed by the sum
of the resistance with the reactance of an element,
Time-dependent sources but the resistance is considered as zero and the
impedance collapses in the reactance.
According to (Tong 2015) an alternating voltage
source is that whose response depends on time, and Capacitors.
generally the response is modeled by a function that
is periodic in time as sin or cosine, the reason of this Capacitor are passive devices that are able to store
behavior is simple the time-dependent sources energy in form of electric field, compared to the
depends on the frequency of oscillation of the inductor the important field here is the electric field,
signal. again the solution of this equation in terms of time
is given by a differential relation in terms of the
Inductors voltage in the capacitor
(Staelin 2011) tells us that an inductor is a device dV

I =C
capable to store energy in form of magnetic field dt
per unit volume, technically and inductor is a set of Equation 3 Time voltage capacitor
loops of wire that can be rolled up around a metallic
core or in the simple air, the leading equation for an If the voltage wants to be stated in terms of the
inductor in the domain of time can be given by the frequency domain, then the Laplace transformed
following equation can be applied to find the answer in terms of the
frequency.
dI
∆ V =L 1
dt ∆ V =Z∗I Z=−J
Equation 1 Voltage in an inductor ωC
Equation 4 Impedance of the capacitor
Nevertheless, according to (Moharg 1947) when the
Laplace transform is applied to the differential The impedance is obtained in a similar way than the
equation, this result can be state in a different way impedance of the inductor and the considerations
that follows the Ohm’s law structure, in the for reactance vs impedance are exactly the same,
inductors not necessarily the resistance is zero and nevertheless, here the minus sign appears and the
the real inductor differs from the ideal inductors. reason of this is a purely mathematical deduction
and always is present, compared to the inductors in
∆ V =Z∗I Z=JωL the capacitor the resistance can be neglected due to
Equation 2 Voltage in the inductor in terms of the construction of the capacitor itself.
impedance

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R
RLC circuits
V out = V
ZT ¿
Equation 6 Model for transfer function
According to (Shankar 2014) a RLC circuit is a
circuit that contains resistors, inductor and In the upstairs survives the resistance of the
capacitors connected in series, although it can be element, technically, it is the impedance of the
connected in parallel by convention the distribution resistor that is the same resistance, in the downstairs
is in series the total impedance of the circuit is obtained, this
last term will be developed
ZT =Z R + Z C + Z L
Equation 7 Total impedance
The total impedance is the sum of impedance of

each element in the circuit the index tells what is the
element, now it is possible to establish what the
impedance
Figure 1 RLC circuit

ZT =R+ JωL−J
1
ωC
=R+ J
ω 2 LC−1
ωC ( )
Equation 8 Total impedance
According to (Dorf 1993) filters are produced when
an output signal is taken from one of the elements R
of the circuit and again the transfer function can be H ( ωj )=
( )
2
obtained from this circuit, the transfer function
ω LC−1
R+ J
appears from the relation between the output ωC
voltage and the input voltage and depends on the Equation 9 Transfer function
frequency domain.
Nevertheless, the function is not so interesting for
V out us, hence, the modulus of the function is taking and
H ( ωj )= making some operations is possible to remove the
V¿ resistance of the upstairs and obtain a function that
Equation 5 Transfer function will be more useful, remind that the critical
frequency is obtained when the modulus of the
For this opportunity the time domain will be not
function corresponds with the value of one divided
worked due to the complexity of the differential
by the square root of 2
equations produced in the analysis, however, this
solution can be stated applying the Faradays’ law to
1
the circuit or the Kirchhoff’s voltage law; in the |H ( ωj )|=
√ ( )
2 2
domain of the frequency is possible to relate the ω LC −1
voltage of the output with the input through a 1+
ωRC
voltage divisor.
Equation 10 Modulus of the function

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Now, note that is not completely necessary to even software will be used together the experimental
this function to one divided by the square root of 2 data.
because the numerator is equal, it is necessary only
that the expression that contains the variables must
be equal to 1.
( )
2
ω2 LC−1
=1
ωRC
Equation 11 First equality
2
ω LC+ ωRC−1=0 Figure 2 Circuit used in the laboratory
Equation 12 Characteristic equation
The oscilloscope will be connected in the resistance
This last equation is known as the characteristic to obtain a band-width filter, and the cut frequencies
equation and this model appears when the will be computed based on the equation 14, be
differential equation is obtained. careful the signal of the generator of function must
be tested first to ensure that the output is the
2 R 1 corresponding according to the parameters
ω+ ω− =0
L LC
Equation 13 Characteristic equation II
This characteristic polynomial and it can be solved

using the quadratic equation except that a small
change is made in this equation respect to the
original model of the equation
√( )
2
R 4 R
+ ±
L LC L
ω=
2
Figure 3 Testing the signal
Equation 14 Cut frequency
Now, the output is fixed as a variable frequency and
The term is change because the first is always
the voltage is 5Vpp, it is important to note that the
higher than the second term and negative
frequency will be changing between 0.1KHz up to
frequencies has no physical sense.
25KHz, in each step is written down the frequency
of the voltage source and the voltage reached by the
3. Methodology output that in this case corresponds to output in the
resistor
The laboratory commences establishing the circuit
and the values for the passive elements and the
corresponding circuit for this practice proteus

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Figure 4 Circuit assembled in the laboratory
During this laboratory inconsistences were present

during the experiment hence special considerations
must be made respect to the theoretical data, in this
case the experimental data will carry out a
systematical error.
4. Results and data
Pass-band filters
Frequency kHz 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 1.5 1.8 2 3.56 7 10 13 25
Voltage Vpp 0.18 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.2 1.8 2.8 3.6 4.2 3.6 1.5 1 0.8 0.
4
Cut frequencies 1.8KHz - 3.56KHz
Table 1 Data obtained with the software proteus
Figure 5 Plot of Bode function in a first approximation
Pass-band filter Laboratory

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Frequncy kHz 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 1.5 2 3 3.5 7 10 13 25

6
Voltage V 1.5 2.5 3.5 5 5 5 4.7 3.6 2.4 2 1.5 1 0.8 0.4
Table 2 Data obtained in the laboratory (Portilla, 2022)
Figure 6 Graph of the data obtained in the laboratory
Pass-band filter Lina Jaller

Frequncy kHz 0.1 0.62 0.8 1.2 1.4 1. 2 2.5 4.5 8. 11 15. 20 25
5 2 8 3 4
Voltage V 0.2 0.8 1.1 1.8 2.2 2. 3.1 3.6 3.6 1. 1. 0.8 0.7 0.
3 6 2 4
Table 3 Data obtained in the laboratory (Diaz, 2022)

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Figure 7 Graph obtained from the laboratory (Diaz, 2022)
5. Analysis of the results
To commence analyzing the data obtained in the

laboratory is necessary to obtain the cut frequencies,
these values are obtained using the equation showed
in the theoretical framework, and the values of each
variable can be obtained from the circuit showed for
the laboratory
ω 1=10.9 krad /s f 1=1.8 kHz

Relation 1 Low cut frequency
Figure 8 Bode diagram generated by MATLAB
ω 2=22.4 krad /s f 2=3.56 kHz
Relation 2 High cut frequency First the simulation of the Bode diagram is obtained
using the corresponding tool, note that the behavior
In these calculations is important to consider that of this graph is similar to a bell in which a certain
the formula gives back a result in rad/s, hence, the range of angular frequencies are allowed to pass
frequency is not directly the value obtained in the from one value to the other, using the graph
equation must be divided by two pi factors, the obtained and MATLAB is possible to find what is
analysis of this data will be made based on the point in which the -3dB are reached these values
results obtained in the graphs later the confirms our results obtained from the equation
corresponding Bode diagram will be obtained using obtained in the theoretical framework
the function System Control of MATLAB.
ω 1=9.9 krad / s f 1=1.6 kHz

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Relation 3 Low cut frequency
ω 2=24.4 krad /s f 2=3.88 kHz

Relation 4 High cut frequency
Note that the frequencies are so close each other,

and the error from it is due to the precision in the
moment of obtaining the value from the graph, on
the other hand due to the graph is possible to
analyze how the signal is changing respect to the
input in terms of the phase angle.
The phase angle behaves similar to the output in

terms of the phase, note that when the frequency is
so close to the cut frequencies the signal is similar
to the input as can be observed in the below figure,
this is due to the phase angle that appears when the
differential equation is solved near to the maximum
value reached by the Bode diagram the not only the
amplitude corresponds with the input but the phase
angle is the same, in a theoretical way the
impedance is playing an important role.
Figure 9 Phase of the signals near to the cut

frequency

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Graphs obtained in the laboratory The prediction of the error can be incorporated
through MATLAB as well, the prediction is fixed
MATLAB allows to obtain a perfect graph based on around 80% of the precision of the value in each
the features of the resistor, inductor, and capacitor, point or 20% of error in each interval
nevertheless, these values must be confirmed from
the experimental data obtained in the laboratory or
in any simulation, finally the transfer function is not
rather than the relation between the output and the
input, note that the plots given in the results
represents or behaves according to the expected
pass-band filter.
Figure 11 Error bars
The above graph shows that the data obtained by

(Diaz, 2022) in the laboratory approaches in a
symmetric way, the lack of precision can be
attributed to the difficulty for reading the values
from the images taken with a best lecture it can be
incorporated and the error can be reduced, on the
other hand, the error, respect to the data obtained by
the experimental practice is so huge enough to
Figure 10 Superposition of the graphs
consider that the data is not useful to make
Note that there exists consistence between the data predictions respect to the behavior of the filter.
obtained by the software and the data obtained by
(Diaz, 2022), both graphs are similar far from the Importance of the impedance
cut frequencies and this relation approaches to the
data obtained in the laboratory nevertheless, far This practice arose errors that were not present
from the cut frequencies it is not so important the during the analysis of a RC circuit a possible reason
behavior because the error is susceptible to be to this phenomenon is given by the impedance of
present close to the cut frequencies, in the edges of the inductor and the difference of the inductance
the graphs the relation between the output and the respect to the reactance, consider the following
input collapses in a so huge value, and the relation.
logarithmic function tends to minus infinity as a
response. Z=R+ jω L
Equation 15 Impedance of a passive device

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The reactance is the complex term in the above

equation note that the combination of the reactance
with the resistance arises in the impedance, for
elements such as the capacitor the impedance is
only the reactance, and the resistance has no
reactance because the element does not store energy
in form of vector field.
When this elements are modeled in the software it

in fact assumes that there is not resistance in the
inductor, nevertheless, in the real life the history is a
little different because and inductor is a set of loops
of wire made of copper, generally this wire is so
small in the cross sectional are such that the
resistance collapses two zero, but the length of the Figure 12 Comparison between the results
wire is so huge and it does not necessarily goes to
For this comparison only one side of the RC circuit
zero it means that in the practice the first term of
is emulated note that in the infinity both collapse to
resistance can not be cancel so fast as it is made
a best result, nevertheless in the beginning the first
with the capacitor.
order filter commences decaying faster than the
second order filter, it means that second order filter
As a consequence, a more precise method that
conserves the frequency in a better way than the
analyzes how the resistance in an inductor behaves
first order filter.
must be taken into account, and not just the
inductance must be considered but the total
impedance, note that the result showed in the Figure 6. Conclusion
10Figure 10 is congruent with a pass-band filter in
the sense that the shape is phase out from the
expected shape and the reason by which it can be
varying can be that; note that the behavior of the
data obtained by (Diaz, 2022), is similar but is not
exactly the same because the inductance is the same
the impedance do not necessarily to be the same and
neither the response.
Decay factor according to the graphs
Although, the data was not useful the behavior of it

can be used to analyze the decaying factor respect a
first order filter and note if include a second passive Bibliography
element has some sense or if it is the same.

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List of tables
Table 1 Data obtained with the software proteus 5
Table 2 Data obtained in the laboratory (Portilla, 2022) 6
Table 3 Data obtained in the laboratory (Diaz, 2022) 6
List of equations
Equation 1 Voltage in an inductor....................2
Equation 2 Voltage in the inductor in terms of impedance 2
Equation 3 Time voltage capacitor...................2
Equation 4 Impedance of the capacitor.............2
Equation 5 Transfer function............................3
Equation 6 Model for transfer function............3
Equation 7 Total impedance.............................3
Equation 8 Total impedance.............................3
Equation 9 Transfer function............................3
Equation 10 Modulus of the function...............3
Equation 11 First equality.................................4
Equation 12 Characteristic equation.................4
Equation 13 Characteristic equation II.............4
Equation 14 Cut frequency...............................4
Equation 15 Impedance of a passive device.....8
List of figures
Figure 1 RLC circuit.........................................3
Figure 2 Circuit used in the laboratory.............4
Figure 3 Testing the signal................................4
Figure 4 Circuit assembled in the laboratory....5
Figure 5 Plot of Bode function in a first approximation 5
Figure 6 Graph of the data obtained in the laboratory 6
Figure 7 Graph obtained from the laboratory (Diaz, 2022) 6
Figure 8 Bode diagram generated by MATLAB7
Figure 9 Phase of the signals near to the cut frequency 7
Figure 10 Superposition of the graphs..............8
Figure 11 Error bars..........................................8

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Figure 12 Comparison between the results.......9
List of relations
Relation 1 Low cut frequency...........................7
Relation 2 High cut frequency..........................7
Relation 3 Low cut frequency...........................7
Relation 4 High cut frequency..........................7
Bibliographic References
Diaz, P. L. (2022). Popayan Cauca.
Portilla, F. (2022). Universidad Del Cauca.
Adel S. Sedra. 2015. Microelectronic Circuits.

Vol. 7.
Dorf, R. C. 1993. Introduction to Electric
Circuits. Vol. 18.
Feynman, Richard P., Robert B. Leighton, and
Matthew Sands. 1998. “Física. Volumen I:
Mecánica, Radiación y Calor.” (2):752.
J. David Irwin, R. Mark Nelms. 2011. Basic
Engineering Circuit Analysis.
Mark Zemansky, Francis Sears, Young,
Freedman. 2012. University Physics. 13th
ed. Jim Smith.
Moharg, Elizabeth A. 1947. A Differential
Equation. Vols. s1-22.
Shankar, R. 2014. Fundamentals of Physics.
Vol. 16.
Staelin, David H. 2011. “Electromagnetics and
Applications.”
Tong, David. 2015. “Electromagnetism.” 212.

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Physics Department

Faculty Of Exact Natural Sciences And Education

PASSIVE DEVICES LABORATORY

agosto 2, 2022 Colombia