Water Research 205 (2021) 117658

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Water Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/watres

Review

Organic pollutants in deep sea: Occurrence, fate, and

ecological implications
Edmond Sanganyado a, b, *, Kudakwashe E. Chingono c, Willis Gwenzi e, Nhamo Chaukura d,
Wenhua Liu a, b
a
Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, Guangdong 515063, China
b
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou 511458, China
c
School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK
d
Department of Physical and Earth Sciences, Sol Plaatje University, Kimberley, South Africa
e
Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering, Biosystems and Environmental Engineering Research Group, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The deep sea - an oceanic layer below 200 m depths – has important global biogeochemical and nutrient cycling
Deep sea functions. It also receives organic pollutants from anthropogenic sources, which threatens the ecological function
Persistent organic pollutants of the deep sea. In this Review, critically examined data on the distribution of organic pollutants in the deep sea
Biological pump
to outline the role of biogeochemical and geophysical factors on the global distribution and regional chemo­
Marine pollution
Polychlorinated biphenyls
dynamics of organic pollutants in the deep sea. We found that the contribution of deep water formation to the
Organochlorine pesticides influx of perfluorinated compounds reached a maximum, following peak emission, faster in young deep waters
(< 10 years) compared to older deep waters (> 100 years). For example, perfluorinated compounds had low
concentrations (< 10 pg L− 1) and vertical variations in the South Pacific Ocean where the ocean currents are old
(< 1000 years). Steep geomorphologies of submarine canyons, ridges, and valleys facilitated the transport of
sediments and associated organic pollutants by oceanic currents from the continental shelf to remote deep seas.
In addition, we found that, even though an estimated 1.2–4.2 million metric tons of plastic debris enter the ocean
through riverine discharge annually, the role of microplastics as vectors of organic pollutants (e.g., plastic
monomers, additives, and attached organic pollutants) in the deep sea is often overlooked. Finally, we recom­
mend assessing the biological effects of organic pollutants in deep sea biota, large-scale monitoring of organic
pollutants, reconstructing historical emissions using sediment cores, and assessing the impact of deep-sea mining
on the ecosystem.

1. Introduction water circulation, CO2 exchange, biological control, in situ primary

Deep sea (layers below 200 m depth) ecosystems are currently
threatened by multiple anthropogenic disturbances such as chemical
pollution, overfishing, resource extraction, and climate change (Rogers,
2015). It is the largest ecosystem on Earth and is characterized by a 1.2
billion km3 volume, 434 million km2 seafloor, and a 4.2 km average
depth (Rogers, 2015). Deep sea ecosystems play a crucial role in main­
taining planetary health and function through supporting unique
biodiversity essential for the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients,
metals, carbon, and nitrogen. They control nutrient and energy flux
across environmental compartments and ecosystem services such as
production, climate regulation, carbon sequestration, and waste detox­
ification (Da Ros et al., 2019). However, information on the structure,
function, and composition of the deep sea ecosystem remain scant
despite its vast size, partly due to the putative high costs of exploring
such ecosystems (Danovaro et al., 2020). Since less than 0.0001% of the
ocean floor has been explored, it is difficult to predict the ecological
effects of anthropogenic disturbances in the deep sea (Rogers, 2015).
Deep sea ecosystems were previously considered pristine and free
from anthropogenic disturbances due to their remoteness. However,
organic pollutants enter the deep sea through atmospheric deposition,
oceanic transport, and sometimes sea-based anthropogenic activities (e.

* Corresponding author at: Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Marine Science, Shantou University, Shantou, Guangdong
515063, China
E-mail address: esang001@ucr.edu (E. Sanganyado).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.117658
Received 2 June 2021; Received in revised form 4 September 2021; Accepted 7 September 2021
Available online 11 September 2021
0043-1354/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Sanganyado et al.
g., seabed mining, fishing, ship traffic, and accidental spillage) (Kal­
lenborn, 2006). Several studies detected organic pollutants such as
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs),
and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in seawater, sediments,
and biota from the deep sea (Dasgupta et al., 2018; Lohmann et al.,
2006). Out of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals set by the United
Nations as targets for 2030, eight are directly or indirectly impacted by
deep sea pollution (Fig. 1). For example, the presence of organic pol­
lutants in the deep sea poses great harm to the ecosystem; thus,
threatening the conservation and sustainable use of the ocean resources
for sustainable development as required by SDG 14. Although deep sea
ecosystems are protected from pollution by global conventions (e.g.,
Convention for the International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,
and Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of
Wastes and Other Matter) and regional conventions (e.g., Protection of
the Marine Environment in the North-East Atlantic, Convention on the
Protection of the Marine Environment in the Baltic Sea, Convention for
the Protection of Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the
Mediterranean, Convention for the Protection of the Black Sea), organic
pollutants are continually discharged into the environment, and subse­
quently reach the deep sea directly or indirectly (Tornero and Hanke,
2016). Monitoring and characterizing anthropogenic disturbances and
their effect on key species are essential for a robust assessment of the
health of the deep sea ecosystem. This review seeks to examine the
literature on the distribution, fate, transport, and trophic transfer of
organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystems to determine their sources and
transport mechanisms. The key factors influencing the accumulation
and transport of organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystems will be dis­
cussed. Such knowledge is essential for assessing the environmental risk
of organic pollutants and developing conservation and management
strategies for deep sea ecosystems.
Fig. 1.. The impact of deep sea pollution by organic pollutants on the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Icons used with permission from the United
Nations (https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment).
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Water Research 205 (2021) 117658
2. Occurrence of organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystems
Rapid industrialization and urbanization compounded by increased
demand for food security and quality life have contributed to the rise in
environmental emissions of organic pollutants (Table 1). Before their
ban or their production restrictions were effected by the Stockholm
Convention, it is estimated 2.79 million metric tons of DDT and 1.51
million metric tons of PCBs were produced globally (Fiedler et al.,
2019). About 96,000 tons of chemicals based on perfluorooctane sul­
fonate (PFOS) were produced globally between 1970 and 2002, while
between 1951 and 2015, up to 21,400 tons of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic
acids (PFCAs) were produced (Wang et al., 2014, 2013). In 2018, it was
estimated that about 400,000 and 100,000 tons of BDE209 (a PBDE
congener) were in use or disposed of in waste stocks, respectively
(Abbasi et al., 2019). About 30,000 tons of HBCDs are produced glob­
ally, with 238,000 tons estimated to be used in China before they are
phased out (Li et al., 2016). Due to their extensive application in con­
sumer and industrial products and a high potential for long-range at­
mospheric (oceanic) transport, organic pollutants are frequently
detected in deep sea ecosystems.
The presence of organic pollutants in the global oceans, especially
the deep sea, is linked to various sources, which can be classified as land-
based and sea-based activities (Fig. 2) (Sanganyado et al., 2020). Their
main routes of entry include inputs from coastal regions transported by
oceanic currents, atmospheric deposition of free or particle-associated
organic pollutants released from land-based activities, unintentional
shipping discharges (e.g., accidental oil spill and litter), and deep sea
resource extraction (e.g., seabed mining, fishing, and mariculture),
waste disposal (Tornero and Hanke, 2016). The entry route of the
organic pollutants influences their profile (i.e., concentration and type)
and the mechanism by which they transfer from the seawater column to
the seafloor. For example, semivolatile persistent organic pollutants
(POPs) are often transported to the deep sea by long-range atmospheric
transport (Wania and Mackay, 1996). The semivolatile organic
E. Sanganyado et al. Water Research 205 (2021) 117658

Table 1.
Examples of organic pollutants found in marine environments and their uses.
Class Compounds Uses
a b b b b b b
POPs Organochlorine Aldrin , chlordane , chlordecone, DDT , dicofol, dieldrin , endrin , heptachlor , Controlling pests in agriculture production
pesticides hexachlorobenzenes (α- and β-HCB)b, lindane, mirexb, pentachlorobenzene, and public health.
pentachlorophenols, endosulfan, toxapheneb
Brominated flame Decabromodiphenyl ether, hexabromobiphenyl, hexabromocyclododecane Flame retardant additives in sealants,
retardants (HBCDD), hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorobutadiene, tetrabromodiphenyl ether adhesives, textiles, paints, and upholstery.
Halogenated industrial Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs), perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and its Lubricants, plasticizers, adhesives, flame
chemicals salts, perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)b retardants
Unintentional Polychlorinated naphthalenes, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD)b, Byproducts of industrial processes
production polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF)b
Other organic Perfluorinated Perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) (e.g., perfluorobutanoate (PFBA), Water-, stain-, and soil-resistant coatings,
pollutants compounds perfluorohexanoate (PFHxA), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), perfluorononanoate insecticides, surfactants, lubricants, and
(PFNA), perfluorodecanoate (PFDA)), perfluoroalkylsulfonates (PFSAs) (e.g., flame retardants
perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS), perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS),
perfluorodecanesulfonate (PFDS))
Brominated flame Other polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), besides deca-BDE, Flame retardant additives in sealants,
retardants adhesives, textiles, paints, and upholstery.
Unintentionally Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) Byproducts of industrial processes or
produced compounds combustion
a
Refers to all the persistent organic pollutants listed in the Stockholm Convention for elimination, restriction, or reduction of unintentional release.
b
Represents legacy POPs that were initially listed under the Stockholm Convention; the remaining POPs were later listed and are referred to as emerging POPs.

Fig. 2.. Land- and sea-based sources of organic pollutants and their potential fate and transport pathways. From Sanganyado et al. (2020). Used with permission of
Taylor and Francis.

pollutants deposit on the ocean surface following changes in atmo­
spheric conditions. After a while, some of the organic pollutants are
revolatilized and carried further by atmospheric transport. This type of
long-range transport is called the grasshopper effect (Jurado and Dachs,
2008). A study in Levantine Basin found sediment PCB (12–190 ng g− 1)
and PAH (< 0.3–7.7 ng g− 1) concentrations were linked to nearby gas
well drilling and dumping sites for sediment dredge (Astrahan et al.,
2017). Tables S1 and 2 show the distribution of organic pollutants in
deep sea water and sediments, respectively.
Organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystems can also be of natural
origin. For example, several studies found that marine bacteria produced
organobromines such as hydroxylated PBDEs, methoxylated PBDEs,
polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins, and polybrominated pyrroles
(Agarwal et al., 2017). Agarwal et al. (2017) found that marine sponges,
an important biodiversity hotspot in deep sea ecosystems, produced
various PBDEs using metagenome-mining techniques. In the western
Pacific Ocean, the concentration of methoxylated PBDEs in extractable
organic matter from marine sponges (i.e., Haliclona sp. and Callyspongia

3
E. Sanganyado et al.
sp.) were 63,500 ng g− 1 and 36,500 ng g− 1, respectively (Haraguchi
et al., 2011). Four methoxylated PBDEs were detected in endemic am­
phipods collected from hadal trenches (6,000–11,000 m depth) in the
western Pacific Ocean (Cui et al., 2020). However, none were detected
in sediments or suspended particulate matter (Cui et al., 2020). Am­
phipods play an important role in regulating nutrient and energy flux in
marine environments; hence, their species density around marine
sponges is often high (Amsler et al., 2009). Gut analysis of nearshore
amphipods in the Antarctica Peninsula revealed that some amphipods
feed on marine sponges (Amsler et al., 2009). Besides amphipods,
organobromines can transfer indirectly to necrophagivore fish (e.g.,
Paraliparis bathybius, Notoliparis kermadecensis, Pachycara sp., and Bas­
sozetus sp.), which feed primarily on amphipods and directly to mega­
faunal croppers (e.g., Notacanthus chemnitzii, Barathrites parri, and
chimaerids) which feed on marine sponges (Drazen and Sutton, 2017). A
study in the western Pacific Ocean found methoxylated PBDEs in fish
samples (Haraguchi et al., 2011). Although studies on their distribution
and impact in deep sea ecosystems remain scarce due to sampling and
analytical challenges, previous studies have shown that naturally pro­
duced organohalogens can bioaccumulate and biomagnify in marine
mammals; thus, threatening the structure and function of the deep sea
ecosystems (Sanganyado et al., 2020; Weijs et al., 2009). A study in the
Sea of Japan and North Pacific Ocean found halogenated bipyrroles (up
to 4,900,000 ng kg− 1 wet weight) and methoxylated PBDEs (up to 190,
000 ng kg− 1 wet weight) concentrations were detected in cetaceans in
the order of killer whales > toothed whales > baleen whales demon­
strating the critical role of feeding ecology on natural organobromine
biomagnification (Fujii et al., 2018). Overall, although naturally pro­
duced organohalogens are often present at concentrations lower than
organic pollutants, biosynthesis needs to be seriously considered a key
source of potentially toxic organohalogens in deep sea ecosystems.
Fig. 3.. An overview of the major biophysical processes governing the fate and transport of organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystems.
4
Water Research 205 (2021) 117658
3. Factors influencing the transport of organic pollutants in the
deep sea
3.1. Biological pump
The transport of organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystems is often
regulated by a complex ensemble of biophysical processes involved in
transporting organic carbon from the ocean surface to the deep sea and
sediments (i.e., biological pump) (Fig. 3) (Galbán-Malagón et al., 2012).
The biological pump can be conceptualized as a biogeochemical system
comprising primary production, vertical transport, and sedimentation
(Lutz et al., 2007). Phytoplankton accumulate organic pollutants from
the surface waters during the primary production stage, driving
air-water disequilibrium in organic pollutant concentration. A previous
study found phytoplankton uptake and gravitational settling of biogenic
particles increased the air-water influx of PCBs (Galbán-Malagón et al.,
2012). Primary productivity is often governed by solar, physical
oceanographic, and climatic factors, and this often results in seasonal
and regional trends in the efficacy of the biological pump in seques­
trating the organic pollutants (Lutz et al., 2007).
Additionally, physicochemical properties of the organic pollutants
(e.g., aqueous solubility, hydrophobicity, volatility, and lipophilicity),
local environmental conditions in the deep-water (e.g., depth, oxygen
content, and temperature), settling particle characteristics (e.g., size,
density, and type), climate/geographical factors (e.g., latitude, ocean
currents), seafloor geomorphology (e.g., topographical features), and
biodiversity can further influence the organic pollutant sequestration
efficiency of the biological pump. Since phytoplankton readily uptake
more hydrophobic compounds, higher air-water influxes have been
observed for PCB congeners with higher octanol-water partition co­
efficients (log KOW) in high productivity regions such as the North
Atlantic, North Pacific and Arctic Oceans (Gioia et al., 2008). PCB
congeners with low log KOW are often more abundant in high latitude
oceans such as subtropical regions, where biological pump efficiencies
are often low (Sobek and Gustafsson, 2004). The air-water flux of
E. Sanganyado et al.
organic pollutants and changes in their export are critical determinants
of the vertical profile of dissolved organic pollutants. Hence, under­
standing the sequestration efficiencies and mechanisms of the biological
pump is imperative since these processes impact the ‘sink and source’
role of the deep sea.
3.2. Physical pump
Water masses originating from continental margins transport organic
pollutants to the deep ocean through lateral diffusion, eddy currents,
intrusion, and hyperpycnal flows/thermohaline currents (Puig et al.,
2014). A study in the continental margin of the Gulf of Mexico found a
positive correlation between particle-attached PAHs (0.9 and 7.0 ng
L− 1) and particulate organic carbon 4000–131,000 ng L− 1), although
both variables negatively correlated with salinity (Adhikari et al., 2019).
The results suggested riverine discharge was the primary source of PAHs
in the deep sea (Adhikari et al., 2019). In the South Atlantic, upper
Equatorial, and Indian Oceans, lateral ocean circulation accounted for
20–48% PCB influx (Wagner et al., 2019). At the same time, upwelling
contributed up to 10% in removing PCBs from the deep sea to the ocean
surface (Wagner et al., 2019). In the Fram Strait, a deep-water channel
that transports organic pollutants into the Arctic Ocean, the West
Spitsbergen and the East Greenland Currents contributed a total mass
flux for α-HCH of 29 tons y− 1 and 67 tons y− 1, respectively (Ma et al.,
2018). However, the ocean currents moved in the opposite direction.
The West Spitsbergen Current moved northwards from the Atlantic to
the Arctic Ocean and the East Greenland Currents moving southwards
along Greenland. In contrast, there was a net influx of PCBs (i.e., PCB 28,
101, 153, and 180) into the Arctic Ocean transported through the Fram
Strait between 1930 and 2015 (80 tons y− 1) (Ma et al., 2018). In the
Aegean Sea, cyclonic surface circulation and deep-water outflows from
the Cretan Strait were shown to be a crucial advective source of PAHs
and contributed to the accumulation of PAHs in sediments (Hatzianestis
et al., 2020). In stratified oceans, ocean currents and the seafloor
interact over short timescales lasting (< 5 years) through horizontal,
vertical, and eddy currents (i.e., internal solitary waves). By driving
processes such as sediment resuspension and transport in the seafloor,
internal solitary waves contribute to the outflow and inflow of organic
pollutants into the deep sea (Jia et al., 2019). Hence, the role of oceanic
currents in the total flux of organic pollutants in the deep sea is often in a
state of competition whereby the net flow may be influenced by
geophysical, seasonal, and climatic factors.
Global thermohaline currents driven by temperature and salinity
gradients have been shown to move surface water together with organic
pollutants to the deep sea in a process called deep water formation
(Lohmann et al., 2006). A study on the Norwegian, Ross, Weddell, and
Labrador Seas found deep water formation was a major route of entry of
PCBs to the deep sea (870 kg yr− 1) compared to particle settling (320 kg
yr− 1) (Lohmann et al., 2006). A study on the distribution of organic
pollutants in sediments from the Mediterranean Sea found that the
Western Mediterranean Deep Water formation increased the deposition
of POPs with a low air-water partition coefficient (log KAW) of -4.0 to
-2.0 such as lindane, tri-PCBs, tetra-PCBs, and methylphenanthrenes
(Salvadó et al., 2019). In contrast, there was a strong association be­
tween POPs with an intermediate log KAW (-2.0 to 0) and high
octanol-water partition coefficient (log KOW > 6) and sediment particles
suggesting horizontal transport in the continental shelf (Salvadó et al.,
2019). Perfluorinated compounds reached 3500 m depths in young deep
water masses (< 10 years) in the Labrador Sea (North Atlantic Ocean)
(Yamashita et al., 2008) but were not detected below the permanent
thermocline in old deep waters (> 450 years) in the Central Arctic Ocean
Basins (Yeung et al., 2017). The intrusion of perfluorinated compounds
to deep waters is often negligible in old deep waters such as those found
in the Central Arctic Ocean Basins (Yeung et al., 2017) and Fram Strait
(Joerss et al., 2020) because the estimated time for deep water forma­
tion in these regions is usually more than 100 years yet perfluorinated
5
Water Research 205 (2021) 117658
acids were first produced and used in the 1960s (Yamashita et al., 2008).
Hence, deep water formation can contribute to the depletion of per­
fluorinated compounds from the global ocean surface, particularly in the
North Atlantic and Southern Oceans (Lohmann et al., 2006). However,
PFAS contamination in the South Pacific Ocean was shown to be
negligible (below detection limit to < 10 pg L− 1) in ocean surface and
the deep water compared to other oceans (Yamashita et al., 2008). This
was probably because there was no direct discharge of PFAS in the South
Pacific Ocean since the water masses comprise of ~1000-years old ocean
currents and Antarctic circumpolar water masses. Previous mass flow
estimates showed that PFOS and PFOA flux in the deep water layer of the
Labrador Sea was four and ten times higher than PCB flux, respectively
(Lohmann et al., 2006; Yamashita et al., 2008). The results suggested
highly soluble and less volatile organic pollutants transferred from the
surface water to the deep water faster than the semi-volatile and rela­
tively more hydrophobic organic pollutants. Even though deep water
flux of PFAS in the Labrador Sea is relatively fast, transferring the PFOAs
(emitted globally to date) into global oceans requires at least 4500 years
(Yamashita et al., 2008). In the North Atlantic Ocean, PFOS concen­
trations were higher and more variable in the surface water (0–10 m)
compared to the subsurface water (365–510 m) and the water layer
around the permanent thermocline (985–1335 m) (Zhang et al., 2017).
The lag time between peak PFOS emission and peak concentrations in
subsurface and permanent thermocline layer water was 2–3 years and
more than 30 years, respectively. This was probably because vertical
mixing in the North Atlantic is intense during winters and can reach 600
m depths while subduction and ventilation of water in the surface mixed
layer to the permanent thermocline is slow (Zhang et al., 2017). For that
reason, the distribution of perfluorinated acids in oceans is often used as
chemical tracer to assess the transport of anthropogenic pollutants by
oceanic currents.
PFAS profiles and concentrations significantly vary between surface
and deep water oceans, except in seas that experience intense vertical
mixing (Wei et al., 2008; Yeung et al., 2017). A study on per­
fluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and per­
fluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS) in global oceans found distinct
stratification in the sources of the compounds; the North Atlantic Cur­
rent was the major source of the perfluorinated acids in the surface
waters, the Labrador current in the subsurface waters, and the Denmark
Strait Overflow Water in the deep layers (below 2000 m depth)
(Yamashita et al., 2008). In Western Mediterranean Sea, PFAs concen­
trations in the deep water (141 pg L− 1) were about two times lowers
than those in the surface water samples (357 pg L− 1) (Brumovský et al.,
2016). The Western Mediterranean deep water has short renewal cycles
since at least two intense dense shelf water cascading and open-sea
convection events were observed between 2004 and 2012. The verti­
cal profile of PFAS in the Mediterranean and Japan Seas substantially
differed even though both are semi-enclosed seas with deep waters
isolated from the open ocean (Yamazaki et al., 2019). Yamazaki et al.
(2019) found that the PFAS concentration in the Mediterranean Sea
were an order of magnitude higher than in the Japan Sea. The PFAS
concentrations steadily decreased with an increase in depth in the Japan
Sea, with only PFDA and PFHxS having a maximum concentration in the
mid-deep waters (1000–1500 m). In contrast, PFAS vertical profile was
highly variable in the Mediterranean Sea, although at some locations
higher concentrations of PFDA, PFNA, PFHxA, and PFHpA were detec­
ted in the deepest water columns sampled (2300–3600 m) (Yamazaki
et al., 2019). This is probably because PFNA, PFHxA, and PFHpA are
legacy PFAS that were extensively used in fluoropolymer products (Lin
et al., 2020). Overall, the PFAs profiles in young deep waters such as the
Mediterranean Sea are indicative of the PFAS profiles in surface
seawater of a decade earlier, while those of old deep waters are asso­
ciated with legacy PFAs. However, currently missing are data on PFAS
profiles in deep sea waters surrounded by low-income countries, where
several banned PFAs are likely to be still in use.
E. Sanganyado et al.
3.3. Settling particle characteristics
Biogenic, inorganic, and anthropogenic particles are important
vectors for the vertical transport of organic pollutants in oceans. As the
(non)biogenic particles sink, organic pollutants may be released to the
deep-water column via (bio)transformation or dissolution of particles.
However, the profile of organic pollutants transported can be influenced
by the nature of the settling particle. For example, a study in the Indian,
Pacific, and Atlantic Oceans found that the vertical flux of PFAS via
zooplankton fecal matter was one to two orders of magnitude higher
than that of PFAS associated with phytoplankton (González-Gaya et al.,
2019). Settling of large particles (> 50 μm) in deep marine ecosystems
contributes significantly to the vertical transport of pollutants through
the water column, while small particles are carried by water masses and
may also contribute to the advective transport of the organic pollutants
(Martí et al., 2001). The primary source of organic pollutants in small
particles is partitioning from water particles. In contrast, organic pol­
lutants in large biogenic particles come directly from the food chain
(Martí et al., 2001). A study in Mediterranean deep waters found that the
concentration of halogenated organic contaminants on the small parti­
cles (< 0.7 μm) decreased significantly with depth compared to large
particles (< 50 μm) (Martí et al., 2001). Hence, particle size can influ­
ence the accumulation rate of organic pollutants in the water column
and sediments.
Microplastics are complex particles comprising of a dynamic mixture
of monomers, additives, and processing agents (Galloway et al., 2017).
They often host microorganisms and bind organic pollutants and organic
material, which alters the microplastic density and surface charge
resulting in a change in bioavailability of the organic pollutants
(Galloway et al., 2017). An estimated 1.2–4.2 million metric tons of
plastic debris enter the ocean through riverine discharge, of which
14.4–236 thousand metric tons are floating in the global ocean (Jam­
beck et al., 2015; Weiss et al., 2021). Around 99.8% of the plastic debris
discharged into the oceans since the 1950s are estimated to be below the
ocean surface, in the subsurface, deep water layer, or seafloor (Koel­
mans et al., 2017). Plastic particles are transferred to the deep water and
seafloor through accumulation in biota following ingestion,
thermohaline-driven currents, and gravitational settling following loss
of buoyancy or incorporation into fecal matter (Kvale et al., 2020). A
recent study showed that Bathochordaeus stygius, one of the most
abundant zooplankton, effectively transported microplastics from the
ocean surface to the deep sea by ingesting and then excreting micro­
plastics as part of their fecal pellets (Katija et al., 2017). During physi­
cochemical and biological weathering of plastic debris to form
microplastics, plastic monomers, additives, and plastic attached organic
pollutants inadvertently leach to the surrounding water column; thus,
contributing to the flux of organic pollutants in the deep sea (Dasgupta
et al., 2021). This is greatly concerning since around 10,500 compounds
are used worldwide as plastic monomers, additives (e.g., antioxidants,
biocides, flame retardants, plasticizers, light stabilizers, and colorants),
and processing aids (e.g., heat stabilizer, crosslinking agent, lubricant,
solvent, and antistatic agent), of which 2486 are substances of potential
concern while no hazard data was available for 4100 substances (Wie­
singer et al., 2021). A previous study found polychlorinated biphenyl
(127–142 ng g− 1), organochlorine pesticides (4280–5350 ng g− 1), and
chlordane (1080–1260 ng g− 1) concentrations in microplastics and
plastic pellets found in the Xisha Trough in the South China Sea (Das­
gupta et al., 2021). The concentration of organochlorine pesticides in
Xisha Trough was higher than those found in coastal beaches (2.2–1970
ng g− 1) on the South China Sea, while PAH concentrations were an order
of magnitude lower than those found on the beach (11.2–7710 ng g− 1)
(Shi et al., 2020). Organochlorine pesticides such as DDT are more hy­
drophobic than PAHs and tend to have lower desorption and degrada­
tion rates during transport to the deep sea from coastal environments
(Bakir et al., 2014). However, long-term desorption of organic pollutants
from microplastics is highly influenced by the polymer-water partition
6
Water Research 205 (2021) 117658
coefficients of the compounds. For example, a previous study found light
PCB congeners desorbed faster (e.g., PCB-8 half-life = 14 days) than
heavier congeners (e.g., PCB-209 half-life = 210 years) (Endo et al.,
2013). Hence, it is expected that microplastic-associated PCBs in the
deep sea would be dominated by heavier congeners. However, the less
recalcitrant and more water-soluble tri-PCBs were the most dominant
PCB congeners (> 92%), and the composition was consistent with the
technical mixtures produced in China (Dasgupta et al., 2021). Low
molecular weight PCB congeners like tri-PCB have more extended at­
mospheric reach; they are sometimes generated during the microbial
transformation of high molecular weight PCBs and are preferentially
exchanged during ocean-air interactions due to their lightweight (Das­
gupta et al., 2021, 2018). In vitro digestive models have revealed
microplastic can act as a vector or cleaner (extracting organic pollutants
from the gut) in aquatic organisms (Mohamed Nor and Koelmans, 2019).
However, comprehensive data on the flux of organic pollutants into the
deep sea through microplastic transport are still lacking.
4. Factors influencing the accumulation of organic pollutants in
the deep sea
4.1. Microbial biotransformation
It is often assumed that the biotransformation mechanisms of organic
pollutants in the deep sea and surface water ecosystems are similar
despite the drastic differences in temperature and hydrostatic pressure
(Louvado et al., 2015). At low temperatures, the enzymatic activity of
organohalogen-degrading microorganisms often decreases, resulting in
low organic pollutant degradation efficiency. In contrast, high hydro­
static pressure in deep sea ecosystems was shown to decrease the fungal
degradation of poly-β-hydroxybutyric acid (Gonda et al., 2000). Previ­
ous studies showed that bacteria in deep sea ecosystems developed
phenotypical characteristics such as cell membrane with a higher
amount of unsaturated fatty acids and lack of genes involved in photo­
synthetic reactions, which enabled their adaptation to the
psychro-peizophilic conditions (Louvado et al., 2015). These phenotypic
adaptations may reduce the permeability of the deep sea microorgan­
isms, resulting in decreased organic pollutant uptake and intracellular
biotransformation. The low temperatures and high hydrostatic pressure
conditions can facilitate the role of deep sea ecosystems as the ultimate
sink of organic pollutants. However, organohalogen-degrading bacteria
may have adapted to the psychro-peizophilic conditions as they devel­
oped higher diversity in metabolic activity (Konstantinidis et al., 2009).
Since studies modeling the global fate and transport are often based on
the chemodynamics of the organic pollutants in surface water, they may
under- or overestimate the global distribution of organic pollutants,
considering the deep sea is probably the largest environmental
compartment organic pollutants partition.
Microbial transformation of freely dissolved- or particle-attached
organic pollutants contributes to removing organic pollutants in the
deep sea. Next-generation sequencing analysis of deep sea sediments
from the Great Australian Bight detected three genes (i.e., alkB, c23o,
and pmoA) associated with aerobic hydrocarbon degradation (van de
Kamp et al., 2019). Various studies have shown that bacteria isolated
from different deep sea geomorphologies such as hydrothermal vents
could degrade organohalogens. Bacteria isolated from hydrothermal
vents have been shown to readily degrade PAHs and n-alkanes since they
evolved to use hydrocarbons as their primary carbon source (Ma et al.,
2021). Gammaproteobacteria (i.e., FJ613315, Pseudomonas stutzeri strain
hyss62) and Actinobacteria (i.e., HM222653, Nocardioides sp. 0701C5–1)
that oxidize PCBs were previously isolated from deep sea sediments in
the Kongsfjorden (Papale et al., 2017). The removal efficiency of
P. stutzeri contained the bphA gene, and its removal efficiency was
10–69% at 4 ◦ C and 7.3–93% at 15 ◦ C (Papale et al., 2017). The di- and
tri-PCBs were more efficiently removed at both temperatures than
tetra-PCBs suggesting heavier congeners might be more recalcitrant
E. Sanganyado et al.
than lighter congeners in the deep sea sediments. The degradation of
organic pollutants by deep sea bacteria might follow pathways different
from those observed from coastal, soil, freshwater, and open ocean
bacteria. Deep sea bacteria adapted to lower oxygen, nutrient, and
temperature, and higher pressure conditions, which probably altered
how they use organic pollutants as food sources (Scoma et al., 2019).
Studies on the biotransformation of organic pollutants other than hy­
drocarbons in deep sea ecosystems remain scarce.
4.2. Bioavailability
Particle-associated organic pollutants often exhibit low bioavail­
ability, the extent to which depends on their hydrophobicity. The
bioavailability of organic pollutants often changes as the particle-
associated organic pollutants are transported to the deep water layer
due to changes in temperature, salinity, oxygenation, and particle
characteristics. This is partly because the physicochemical characteris­
tics of the organic pollutants (e.g., lipophilicity, dipole-moment, and
water solubility) may alter as the water chemistry changes between the
surface, subsurface, to deep water (Lyytikäinen et al., 2003). Interest­
ingly, previous studies have shown that the accumulation of PFAS in
biota was driven by phospholipid and protein interactions, processes
that are governed by the polarity and hydrophobicity of the compound
(Ng and Hungerbühler, 2014). Additionally, changes in sediment char­
acteristics (e.g., particle size, polarity, and organic carbon content) due
to changes in water chemistry with depth or microbial degradation may
alter the bioavailability of organic pollutants (Lyytikäinen et al., 2003).
For example, sediments in the Blanes Submarine Canyon had poly­
chlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF) concentrations (754 ng kg− 1)
strongly correlated with soot (r2 = 0.852, p = 0.008) but not organic
carbon content (Castro-Jiménez et al., 2013). This was probably because
PCDF strongly sorbs to soot and not to organic carbon as demonstrated
by the low fOC (KOW/ρOC)/fSC•KSCW ratio (0.2–1), where fOC represents
the mass fraction organic carbon, KOW the octanol-water partition co­
efficient, ρOC the octanol density (g L− 1), fSC the mass fraction of soot
content, and KSCW is soot-water partition coefficient (Castro-Jiménez
et al., 2013). The partitioning of PCDFs to soot in deep sea ecosystems
might reduce their bioavailability resulting in the sediments acting as an
ultimate sink. Furthermore, Hadal sediments are known to have very
low organic carbon content (< 0.22%), yet high concentrations of PCBs
(930–4200 ng kg− 1) and PBDEs (245–590 ng kg− 1) have been detected
in hadal sediments from the Marian Trench (Dasgupta et al., 2018). The
hadal sediments had high contents of clay minerals such as illite, cli­
nochlore, and nontronite, which are known to promote (i) steric effects
between bulky or nonplanar organic pollutants and the clay minerals
and (ii) the formation of complexes between weakly hydrated cations in
the clay minerals and the negatively charged moieties of the organic
pollutants (Liu et al., 2015). Hence, there is need for additional studies
on the role of sediment characteristics on the bioavailability of organic
pollutants in deep sea.
Compounds with low water solubility and high hydrophobicity often
preferentially partition to the rapidly sinking particles while those with
high water solubility preferentially remain in the water column. The
trend is probably not universal because a previous study found that there
was no significant correlation between PFAS flux to the deep water layer
and the hydrophobicity of the compounds (González-Gaya et al., 2019).
In fact, long chain PFCAs which had a relatively higher hydrophobicity
had low flux to the deep chlorophyll maximum (González-Gaya et al.,
2019). PFAS are probably transported from the surface to the deep water
through the biological pump since González-Gaya et al. (2019)
demonstrated that particle settling flux negatively correlated to the
dissolved phase concentration of PFAS in the deep chlorophyll
maximum. However, a previous study found that there was no signifi­
cant correlation between PFAS accumulation in phytoplankton and
PFAS hydrophobicity (Casal et al., 2017). Hence, the adsorption or
bioaccumulation of PFAS such as PFOA to sinking particles is not
7
Water Research 205 (2021) 117658
primarily dependent on compound hydrophobicity but other properties
such as polarity (Ng and Hungerbühler, 2014). There is a need for
further studies to assess the effect of organic pollutant bioavailability on
the efficacy of biological pumps in removing organic pollutants from the
sea surface.
4.3. Water column depth
Biogeochemical processes in the water column influence the occur­
rence, settling, and fate of organic pollutants in the ocean
(Galbán-Malagón et al., 2012). In the Arctic Ocean, PBDE concentrations
were an order of magnitude higher in the deep waters than in the polar
mixed layer suggesting a predominancy of vertical transport of the
PBDEs (Salvadó et al., 2016). The relative contribution of less bromi­
nated congeners (i.e., tri- to hepta-BDEs) increased with depth compared
to the heavier congeners (Salvadó et al., 2016). The increase with depth
of BDE-71, which are not found in technical mixtures, and other less
brominated congeners suggest heavier congeners transformed to lighter
congeners during vertical or oceanic transport (Salvadó et al., 2016).
Previous studies in the Central Arctic Ocean Basin (Carrizo et al., 2017)
and Fram Strait (Ma et al., 2018) found that transformation of DDTs to
DDEs contributed to the relative increase in DDEs with depth. In
contrast, the concentration of highly chlorinated PCBs increased with
depth, suggesting sorption to settling particles contributed to the verti­
cal transport of the PCBs (Ma et al., 2018). Passive sampling employed
by Ma et al. (2018) has shown to be a valuable tool for assessing the
vertical distribution of organophosphate esters (OPEs) and PBDEs in the
Fram Strait (McDonough et al., 2018) and PCBs, PAHs, and OCPs in the
Irminger Sea (Booij et al., 2014), although little vertical trends were
observed. In the Fram Strait, chlorinated OPEs were the most dominant
OPEs (34–100%) in the deep water mass compared to alkyl and aryl
OPEs (McDonough et al., 2018). The total concentration of the chlori­
nated OPEs (0.006–0.430 ng L− 1) was an order of magnitude higher than
that of the alkyl/aryl compounds (0.0001–0.066 ng L− 1) (McDonough
et al., 2018). Chlorinated OPEs are more persistent in the deep water
mass since they are less degradable via hydrolysis or indirect photolysis
than the alkyl/aryl OPEs. Particle, sediment, and water sampling chal­
lenges continue to limit our understanding of the role of particle size on
the mass influx of organic contaminants in the deep ocean ecosystem.
Passive samplers are more suitable for assessing the vertical and global
distribution of organic pollutants since they are cost-effective, easier to
handle, and have high analyte enrichment potential. As a result, a global
monitoring program for organic pollutants in global oceans, including
deep waters, called the Aquatic Global Passive Sampling (AQUA-GAPS)
network was established in 2017 (Lohmann et al., 2017).
Accumulation of organic pollutants in the deep sea can be influenced
by ocean stratification. Stratification in the St. Lawrence Maritime Es­
tuary and Gulf water column occurred due to cold and oxygen-rich
waters from the Labrador Current and warm and oxygen-deficient wa­
ters from the Atlantic Ocean isolated the surface waters and the deep
waters (Picard et al., 2021). The concentration ratios in subsurface to
deep water ratios were significantly higher for current-use PFAS (e.g.,
the ratio for PFBS was 6.1) than legacy PFAS (e.g., the PFOS and PFOA
ratios were 2.5 and 1.8, respectively) (Picard et al., 2021). Pharma­
ceuticals in the Gulf of Cadiz exhibited a similar trend, probably due to
the water column stratification caused by the presence of dense Medi­
terranean waters and less saline Atlantic Ocean waters (Biel-Maeso
et al., 2018). Since the water masses in stratified seas have different
physicochemical properties, it is expected that the (bio)transformation
of the organic pollutants and the settling particles will differ with depth.
However, there are few studies on the role of water mass characteristics
and the fate of organic pollutants.
4.4. Seafloor geomorphology
Recent advances in exploration and sampling technology revealed
E. Sanganyado et al.
deep sea ecosystems contain distinct geomorphological features such as
seamounts, submerged plateaus, submarine canyons, trenches, and hy­
drothermal vents (McClain and Rex, 2015). Besides being a hotspot of
faunal abundance, diversity, and sometimes endemism, deep sea
geomorphological features often alter oceanographic conditions
(Rogers, 2015). The interaction between ocean currents and a steep
geomorphological feature (e.g., valleys, ridges, and canyons) often
promotes the accumulation of organic matter and sediments that origi­
nate from the continental shelf zone (Astrahan et al., 2017). For
example, Castro-Jiménez et al. (2013) found that the total 2,3,7,
8-PCDD/Fs concentration of 17 congeners (102–680 ng kg− 1 d.w.)
were three to six times higher in sediments at the deepest locations of the
Blanes Submarine Canyon (1700 m depths) than at the shallow locations
(500 m depths) or the adjacent open slope. Ocean current circulations in
submarine canyons promote the flushing of sediment particles and their
associated organic pollutants down the slope resulting in the accumu­
lation of the sediments and organic pollutants in the deepest locations of
the canyon. These ocean currents are often initiated by coastal storms
and dense shelf water cascading (i.e., movement of water masses
following cooling, evaporation, or freezing of the ocean surface in the
shelf continent, resulting in dense water formation that sinks as warm
and saline water rises). A recent study in the Gulf of Cagliari revealed
submarines canyons were the primary physical pathway transporting
PAHs and PCBs from land to the deep sea (Tamburrino et al., 2019).
Astrahan et al. (2017) found that the highest amounts of organic matter
in bottom sediments corresponded with the locations of ridgelines and
canyons. The sediments with high organic carbon content had higher
concentrations of highly hydrophobic PCBs and PAHs (Astrahan et al.,
2017). In addition, seafloor geomorphology can also affect critical
ecosystem features such as population structure, composition, and
function, which drive biotransformation and bioaccumulation of POPs
in the deep sea (Costello and Chaudhary, 2017). A previous study found
seafloor morphologies such as troughs, sediment waves, and furrows
increased biodiversity in the deep sea, which in turn influenced
ecosystem processes (e.g., biological processes involved in the biological
pump mechanisms) at a regional scale (Zeppilli et al., 2016).
4.5. Ecological implications
The fate and transport behavior of organic pollutants in deep sea
ecosystems determine their magnitude and duration of exposure to deep
sea organisms. Hydrophobic organic pollutants such as DDTs, highly
chlorinated PCBs, and highly brominated PBDEs readily bioaccumulate
in deep sea organisms due to their high lipophilicity and recalcitrant
nature. However, biomagnification and bioaccumulation of organic
pollutants in deep sea ecosystems is influenced by the habitat niche (e.g.,
pelagic, benthic, and demersal), physicochemical properties, and
occurrence of the organic pollutants and metabolic capacity. For
example, hydrophobic organic pollutants such as PCBs, DDTs, and
PBDEs with log KOW of 6.0–8.0 were shown to significantly bio­
accumulate in carnivorous fish such as blackbelly lanternshark (Etmop­
terus lucifer), Kaup’s arrowtooth eel (Synaphobranchus kaupii),
snubnosed eel (Simenchelys parasitica), and eelpout (Lycodes hubbsi)
(Takahashi et al., 2010). This suggested that feeding habits contribute
significantly to the biomagnification of organic pollutants in deep sea
ecosystems. Organic pollutants with log KOW < 6.0 (e.g., HCHs, HCB,
and HBCDs) equilibrate relatively faster with the aqueous phase than
DDTs, PBDEs, and highly chlorinated PCBs. As a result, while trophic
magnification can be expected for highly hydrophobic organic pollut­
ants, concentrations of HCHs and HCB have smaller variations across
trophic levels (Takahashi et al., 2010). In addition, fish from the western
North Pacific Ocean and along the Oyashio Current had higher HCH
concentrations than those from warmer locations along the Kuroshio
Current. Due to their high vapor pressure, HCHs readily partition to the
atmosphere under warm conditions resulting in less HCH available for
bioaccumulation in fish (Takahashi et al., 2010).
8
Water Research 205 (2021) 117658
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of organic pollutants in deep
sea biota are influenced by an interplay between interspecies traits such
as habitat niche, vertical mobility, respiration rate, lipid composition,
metabolic capacity, and food web interconnectivity and oceanographic
factors such as ocean currents (Castro-Jiménez et al., 2013; Romero-R­
omero et al., 2017). For example, a study in the Avilés Submarine
Canyon found that PCBs and PBDEs biomagnified in the pelagic but not
in the benthic food web (Romero-Romero et al., 2017). PCB-108, 118,
138, 153, and 180 were the most dominant congeners in deep sea biota,
probably due to their abundance in technical mixtures. There was high
inter-specific variation in the distribution of the in the deep sea fish.
However, considering the limited sampling size of the study, additional
studies are required to assess intra-specific variations in organic
pollutant bioaccumulation. In the Blanes Submarine Canyon, the highest
PCDD/F concentrations were detected in nektobenthic crustaceans
(220–795 ng kg− 1 l.w.) and fish (110–300 ng kg− 1 l.w.) (Castro-Jiménez
et al., 2013). Since pelagic species have high vertical mobility, organic
pollutants bioaccumulation in pelagic species tends to be associated
with the concentration of organic pollutants in primary producers and
the surface water. In contrast, by inhabiting primarily on the seafloor,
benthic and nektobenthic species often have organic pollutants profiles
linked to deep sea sediments and waters as well as relatively highly
hydrophobic contaminants (Castro-Jiménez et al., 2013).
5. Future directions
Determining the mechanisms, pathways, and rates of fate and
transport of organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystems is challenging as it
is a multidisciplinary endeavor requiring skills in physical oceanog­
raphy, analytical chemistry, biogeochemistry, marine ecology, envi­
ronmental microbiology, and even hydrology. Traditional approaches
for sampling and detecting organic pollutants in environmental samples
based on oceanographic cruises are often time-consuming, labor-inten­
sive, complex, and impractical for long-term monitoring due to cost. The
depth, high hydrostatic pressure, and low temperatures prevalent in
deep sea ecosystems limit the applicability of traditional technologies
for collecting, storing, and manipulating samples; hence, the scarcity of
deep sea environmental samples (Cario et al., 2019). Since deep sea
conditions are difficult and expensive to replicate in the laboratory,
microcosm studies to investigate the (bio)transformation and sorption
behavior of organic pollutants is challenging. Hence, future studies
should answer the research questions described in Table 2 to better
understand the fate, transport, and impact of organic pollutants in deep
sea ecosystems. We discuss these critical research topics in the subse­
quent passages.
Traditional ocean monitoring approaches lack adequate spatial,
vertical, and temporal coverage required for a multiscale, multi-
compartment, and multidisciplinary assessment of complex biogeo­
chemical processes in the cast deep sea ecosystems. Biogeochemical
processes controlling the chemodynamics of organic pollutants vary
with space and time, hence the need for multi-dimensional coverage
(Kaiser and Barnes, 2008). While autonomous platforms such as floats,
underwater vehicles, and floats have been successfully used in
measuring physical oceanographic processes, gravitational settling of
particles, and mechanisms and efficiency of biological carbon pump,
very few studies used the platforms to understand the chemodynamics of
organic pollutants (Chai et al., 2020). Autonomous underwater vehicles
are often used to map seafloor geomorphologies, locate ocean dumping
sites, track contaminant plumes and thermocline, and collect environ­
mental samples (Jones et al., 2019). Tracking the thermocline can be a
powerful tool for assessing the role of deep-water formation or water
mass flux in the input of organic pollutants in the deep sea (Table 2).
Coupling autonomous underwater vehicles with photometry can offer a
detailed ephemeral view of the seafloor, and it has been previously used
to identify ocean dumping of DDT containers (Kivenson et al., 2019). A
previous study used a Sentry Precision Robotic Impeller Driven plankton
E. Sanganyado et al. Water Research 205 (2021) 117658

Table 2.
A summary of key research areas that require further study in understanding the impact of organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystems.
Research topic Research question Major challenges and limitations Research priorities Key Refs.

Biological Are the concentrations of organic
effects pollutants present harmful to the deep
sea ecosystems?
Continental shelf-deep How does continental shelf
sea exchange geomorphology influence the
accumulation and transport of organic
pollutants in the deep sea?
Air-sea exchange Does air-air-sea exchange influence
the profile of organic pollutants
accumulating or leaving deep sea
ecosystems?
Temporal trends in Does changing usage patterns due to
organic pollutants regulations influence the distribution
loading of organic pollutants in deep sea
ecosystems?
Physical vs biological Is water mass more important than the
pump biological pump, phytoplankton
uptake, and other biogeochemical
processes controlling the vertical
distribution of organic pollutants in
deep sea ecosystems?
Source apportionment What are the sources of POPs in
different deep sea ecosystems?
Bioaccumulation and What are the mechanisms and
biomagnification of pathways of the long-term biouptake
organic pollutants of organic pollutants in the deep sea
food web? How does it differ from
other ecosystems?
Emerging Are emerging contaminants and
contaminants and transformation products accumulating
transformation in deep sea ecosystems?
products
The effects of organic pollutants are
complex and species-specific. Most
studies focused on: (i) single compound
toxicity rather than mixture effects; (ii)
single species
Seafloor geomorphologies are an
interface between the continental shelf
and the deep waters. However, their
complex and spatially variable physical
attributes may govern the accumulation
and transport of organic pollutants.
Volatile and semivolatile organic
pollutants often enter the deep sea via
atmospheric deposition and pass
through the productive euphotic zone,
where the composition may be altered
by abiotic and biotic processes before
reaching the deep sea.
Although regulatory actions resulted in
decreased production and fresh
discharge of organic pollutants,
primarily discharge from stockpiles and
old equipment is ongoing. Organic
pollutants are also secondarily
discharged from electronic waste,
melting glaciers, and unintentional
production.
Tracking water mass origins and the
gravitational settling of particles in the
deep sea is challenging due to sampling
difficulties.
Organic pollutants from primary
sources often retain the composition of
the commercial mixture while those
from secondary sources are altered.
However, the organic pollutants in deep
sea ecosystems originate from multiple
sources.
Constructing deep sea food webs to
determine the long-term biouptake of
organic pollutants is challenging due to
sampling challenges. Biomagnification
across the food web is influenced by the
physicochemical properties of the
organic pollutants, the local
oceanographic conditions, and
ecological factors.
More than 1,600 emerging
contaminants have been identified as
priority pollutants in marine
environments.
Emerging contaminants enter the deep
sea through multiple input pathways.
Hence, investigating all emerging
contaminants is expensive, tedious, and
require highly sensitive and selective
analytical equipment.
Emerging contaminants transform in
the deep sea to form potentially more
toxic contaminants.
Employ integrated chemical and (Deleo et al., 2021;
bioanalytical analysis to understand McConville et al., 2018;
the biological effects at a molecular Theron et al., 2020)
and cellular level.
Identify the key characteristics of (Haalboom et al., 2021;
different geomorphologies (e.g., Romero-Romero et al.,
submarine canyon and trenches) that 2017; Salvadó et al.,
influence organic pollutants 2012)
accumulation and transport.
There is a need for large scale data on (Ge et al., 2021)
the distribution of organic pollutants
in multiple environmental
compartments such as air, ocean
surface, deep waters, and sediments.
Use dated sediment cores to (Combi et al., 2020)
reconstruct the historical inputs and
annual fluxes of organic pollutants s in
deep sea sediments.
Establish the effect of vertical depth on (Dachs et al., 2002; Sun
the biogeochemical processes et al., 2016)
controlling the fate of organic
pollutants.
Conduct large-scale studies on the role
of phytoplankton uptake on global
dynamics of organic pollutants.
Employ chiral signatures, congener (Jones, 2021)
ratios, and changes in ratios of parent
organic pollutants and their
metabolites to determine contaminant
sources.
Employ stable isotope ratios and (Cui et al., 2020;
opportunistic sampling to construct Webster et al., 2014)
deep sea food webs.
Prioritization of emerging (Azaroff et al., 2020)
contaminants based on QSAR and
usage patterns.
Identification of major inputs
pathways of emerging contaminants in
the deep sea.

sampler coupled with autonomous underwater vehicles successfully
collected plankton and larva from the Blake Ridge Seep (2160 m depth)
on the US Atlantic Margin (Billings et al., 2017). Therefore, autonomous
platforms are valuable for assessing the role of biological and physical
pumps in the global dynamics of organic pollutants in deep sea
ecosystems.
The difficulties in assessing biological responses following organic
pollutants exposure in biota at spatial or temporal scale could be alle­
viated by using an autonomous underwater vehicle for sampling deep
sea species, linking exposure to biological response using chemical
analysis combined with biomarker analysis, transcriptomics, lipidomics,
or metabolomics (Deleo et al., 2021), and paleo-ecotoxicology linking
historical contamination to deep sea fossils of different biological or­
ganisms or species diversity changes using environmental DNA (Korosi
et al., 2017). Understanding the biological effects of organic pollutants
in deep sea ecosystems is difficult due to the complexity of the mixture
effect as biota are exposed to multiple threats (Sanganyado et al., 2020).
Current ecotoxicological assays often disregard the potential mixture

9
E. Sanganyado et al.
effects caused by the interaction of the organic pollutants with natural
stressors such as salinity, cold temperature, and high hydrostatic pres­
sure prevalent in deep sea ecosystems (Mestre et al., 2014). In addition,
the bulk of the literature on organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystems
tend to report total concentrations, while data on bioaccessibility and
bioavailability which are more relevant for assessing impact of organic
pollutants on ecosystem health, are scarce. Future studies on the bio­
logical effects of organic pollutants should mimic the deep sea condi­
tions to ensure the ecotoxicological data generated for environmental
risk assessment is relevant and accurate.
There is a need for comprehensive studies exploring the impact of
sea-based activities such as deep sea mining on organic pollutants che­
modynamics and deep sea biogeochemical processes. The discharge of
dissolved substances and nutrients due to deep sea mining activities
alters the seafloor morphology, benthic geochemistry, deep water
chemistry, primary production, and food web structure, which may
change the biological and physical pump efficiencies (Levin et al.,
2020). Deep sea mining can cause habitat degradation, resulting in loss
of biodiversity and species connectivity; thus, altering the food web
structure. However, the lack of large-scale studies on the ecological
consequences of deep sea mining makes it difficult for regulators such as
the International Seabed Authority to develop toxicity thresholds that
are adequate for minimizing the adverse effects caused by deep sea
mining (Kaikkonen et al., 2018). Baseline studies on the biological,
chemical and physical condition of the deep seabed are required to
ensure future environmental monitoring programs for organic pollut­
ants can adequately determine the effect of exploration and exploitation
activities (Ginzky et al., 2020).
Large-scale monitoring of spatial and temporal changes in mass flow
of organic pollutants in deep sea ecosystem is essential for under­
standing the impact of human activities on the deep sea. While global
monitoring systems have been proposed for monitoring current trends in
the distribution of organic pollutants in oceans, historical emissions
have been widely estimated using historical usage patterns. Linking
historical emissions data to changes in deep sea ecosystems is difficult
due to uncertainties in estimating organic pollutant flux and linking
exposure to biological response. Recent studies demonstrated that
combining paleolimnology and ecotoxicology techniques by assessing
changes in contaminant profile and biological proxies (e.g., fossils and
environmental DNA) down a dated sediment core analysis could provide
critical data on historical emission and its associated ecological conse­
quences (Korosi et al., 2017). Deep sea sediment cores have been suc­
cessfully used to reconstruct past climatic and oceanographic changes
(Artemova et al., 2019; Toomey et al., 2013), evaluate recovery of
seafloor from bottom trawling (Paradis et al., 2021), assess changes in
microbial community structure with sediment depth (Wang et al.,
2010), and estimate historical flux of mercury in the Northwest Pacific
Ocean (Aksentov and Sattarova, 2020). Reconstructing past emissions of
organic pollutants particularly in oceans could help in assessing the
impact of chemical regulations on organic pollutant flux in deep seas.
Transformation products should not be overlooked when monitoring
the distribution of organic pollutants in deep water ecosystems. In the St.
Lawrence Maritime Estuary and Gulf, the concentration of metolachlor
ethanesulfonic acid, a metolachlor transformation product, was nearly
thirty times higher than that of the parent compound (Picard et al.,
2021). This is particularly concerning since metolachlor ethanesulfonic
acid was shown to be more toxic to zebrafish larvae than S-metolachlor
as they caused overexpression of genes involved in the regulation of the
thyroid system and cell cycle (Rozmánková et al., 2020). Additionally,
determination of transformation product and parent compound ratios
together with congener ratios and chiral signatures can be a useful tool
for source apportionment in deep seas (Shi et al., 2020). Source appor­
tionment can aid in the development of environmental regulations that
protect deep sea ecosystems.
10
Water Research 205 (2021) 117658
6. Conclusion
Although organic pollutants have been detected in deep sea envi­
ronments for the past 50 years, more data on biogeochemical,
geophysical, oceanographic, and sedimentological processes are
required to make meaningful predictions of the global fate of organic
pollutants in the deep sea. Such data can be obtained using passive
samplers as they have high analyte enrichment factor, low matrix in­
terferences, provide concentrations of the bioavailable phase, and can
provide time-weighted average concentrations. However, most in­
vestigations on the distribution of organic pollutants in deep sea envi­
ronments were conducted using active sampling techniques, while
passive sampling is rarely used. Therefore, future studies on the che­
modynamics of organic pollutants in the deep sea should employ passive
sampling.
There were significant variations in the vertical profiles of organic
pollutants in particular deep seas or between regions. The variations
could be attributed to the pollutants (e.g., physicochemical properties
such as log KOW, volatility, aqueous solubility, and use and production
patterns), oceanic currents (e.g., deep water formation and eddy diffu­
sion), and biogeochemical processes in the water column. Considering
much of the deep sea remains unexplored and targeted analysis was
predominantly used in these studies, the chemodynamics of several
organic pollutants in much of the unexplored ocean remains unknown.
To better understand the ecological risk posed by organic pollutants,
future studies should explore the factors influencing their bio­
accumulation and biomagnification in deep sea food webs. In addition,
since the toxicological effects of organic pollutants on much of the deep
sea biota remain poorly understood, there is a need for experimental and
in vitro models for understanding the toxicity mechanisms of organic
pollutants in various deep sea biota. Autonomous underwater vehicles
equipped to deploy passive samplers can help extend the region of deep
seas investigated, while suspect and non-target screening techniques
could help investigate the behavior of ‘known unknown’ and ‘unknown
unknown’ pollutants in the deep sea.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper. The content of this publication has not
been approved by the United Nations and does not reflect the views of
the United Nations or its officials or Member States.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support by the Key
Special Project for Introduced Talents Team of Southern Marine Science
and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou) (Grant No.
GML2019ZD0606), and Shantou University Research Start-Up Program
(Grant No. NTF20002), Li Ka Shing Foundation Interdisciplinary
Research Project (Grant No. 2020LKSFG04E).
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.watres.2021.117658.
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