UNIT III :COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES

• Stages of combustion
• Vapourisation of fuel droplets
• Spray formation
• Air motion
• Swirl measurement
• Knock and engine variables
• Features and design considerations of
combustion chambers
• Delay period correlations
• Heat release correlations
• Influence of injection system on combustion
• Direct and indirect injection systems.
KEY DESIGN, OPERATING AND COMBUSTION PARAMETERS
Air Fuel

Boost Pressure, Fuel Properties (Cetane number, Density,

Temperature, EGR Viscosity etc)

Inlet Port Design Injection System

Swirl Injection Pressure
Turbulence Rate, Timing, Duration

Combustion Chamber Design

(Bowl/Chamber Geometry)
Swirl Spray Formation, Drop Size Distribution,
Squish Cone Angle, Spray Penetration, Wall Jet,
Turbulence Fuel Evaporation

Fuel-Air Mixing

Combustion
Ignition Delay, Ignition, Pre-mixed and Diffusion
Combustion, Heat Release Rate
 DIESEL COMBUSTION PROCESS
• Liquid fuel injected into compressed charge.

• Fuel evaporates and mixes with hot air.

• Auto-ignition with rapid burning of fuel-air

that is premixed during the ignition delay
period.

• This is followed by diffusion burning as the

fuel and air mix.
 AUTO IGNITION PROCESS

PHYSICAL PROCESSES (Physical Delay)

• Drop atomisation

• Evaporation

• Fuel Vapour / air mixing

 AUTO IGNITION PROCESS (Cont’d)

CHEMICAL PROCESSES (Chemical Delay)

• Chain initiation

• Chain propagation

• Branching reactions
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIESEL
COMBUSTION

• Heterogeneous

• Turbulent

• Diffusion Flame
 SEQUENCE OF EVENTS IN CI COMBUSTION

• Fuel Spray and entrainment of surrounding

gas.

• Vapourisation of fuel.

• Mixing and premixed combustion.

• Diffusion combustion.
CI ENGINE COMBUSTION
 COMBUSTION PHOTOGRAPHY

1 cm
0.4 ms after ignition 3.2 ms after ignition

3.2 ms after ignition Late in combustion process

Photos taken in a RCM under CI engine conditions with swirl air flow 10
 COMBUSTION PHOTOGRAPHY

Direct Injection Direct Injection Direct Injection Indirect injection

quiescent chamber multi-hole nozzle single-hole nozzle swirl pre-chamber
swirl in chamber swirl in chamber
11
STEPS OF COMBUSTION PROCESS
PRESSURE – CRANK ANGLE DIAGRAM
EXTENDED VIEW OF IGNITION DELAY
HEAT RELEASE RATE DIAGRAM

-20 -10 TC 10 20 30

15
HEAT RELEASE RATE DIAGRAM
EEFCT OF VARYING FUEL INJECTION
QUANTITY ON P- θ DIAGRAM
 LAMINAR FLAME FRONT IN STAGNANT AIR WITH
TURBULENT FLAME FRONT AND ORDERED AIR
MOTION FOR DIFFUSION CONTROLLED COMBUSTION
 IN-CYLINDER PROCESSES

Direct injection CI engine

Start of injection
Start of combustion

End of injection
 STAGES OF COMBUSTION
IGNITION DELAY (ab)

Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder towards the end of the
compression stroke.
The liquid fuel atomises into small drops and penetrates into
the combustion chamber.
The fuel vapourises and mixes with the high-temperature high-
pressure air.

Start of End of
-20injection -10 injecction 10
TC 20 30
 IGNITION DELAY

• Ignition delay is defined as the time (or

crank angle interval) from when the fuel
injection starts to the onset of combustion.

• Both physical and chemical processes

must take place before a significant
fraction of the fuel chemical energy is
released.
 IGNITION DELAY (Contd.)
• Physical processes are fuel spray atomisation,
evaporation and mixing of fuel vapour with
cylinder air.

• Good atomisation requires high fuel pressure,

small injector hole diameter, optimum fuel
viscosity, high cylinder pressure (large
divergence angle).

• Rate of vapourisation of the fuel droplets

depends on droplet diameter, velocity, fuel
volatility, pressure and temperature of the air.
 IGNITION DELAY (Contd.)

• Chemical process is Autoignition phenomenon

in premixed fuel-air.

• Complex heterogeneous reactions (reactions

occurring on the liquid fuel drop surface) also
occur.
P-θ DIAGRAM SHOWING IGNITION
DELAY
 IGNITION DELAY (Cont’d)
The fuel which enters the cylinder must undergo:

• Atomisation

• Vapourisation

• Mixing with air

• Precombustion reactions prior to autoignition

 FACTORS INFLUENCING DELAY PERIOD

• CHARACTERISTICS OF FUEL.

• TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE OF

COMPRESSED AIR.

• DEGREE OF ATOMISATION OF FUEL.

• AIR MOTION / TURBULENCE INSIDE THE

COMBUSTION CHAMBER.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING DELAY PERIOD
(Cont’d)

• ENGINE SPEED.

• INJECTION TIMING.

• CHARACTERISTICS OF COMBUSTION
CHAMBER.

• INTAKE TEMPERATURE.
 FACTORS INFLUENCING DELAY PERIOD
(Cont’d)
• INJECTION PRESSURE.

• JACKET WATER TEMPERATURE.

• TURBO-CHARGING.

• COMPRESSION RATIO.

• AIR FUEL RATIO.

 EFFECT OF VARIABLES ON DELAY PERIOD
S. INCREASE IN EFFECT REASON
NO. VARIABLE ON DELAY
PERIOD

1 Cetane No. Reduces Reduces Self Ignition Temperature

2 Injection Reduces Greater Surface to Volume Ratio

Pressure
3 Injection Reduces Pressures and Temperatures Lower
Advance when Injection Begins
Angle
4 Compression Reduces Increases Air Temperature & Pressure
Ratio and Reduces Auto Ignition
Temperature
5 Intake Reduces Increases Air Temperature
Temperature
EFFECT OF VARIABLES ON DELAY PERIOD
S. INCREASE IN EFFECT REASON
NO. VARIABLE ON
DELAY
PERIOD

6 Jacket Water Reduces Increases wall & Hence Air

Temperature Temperature

7 Fuel Reduces Better Vapourisation & Increases

Temperature Chemical Reaction

8 Intake Pressure Reduces Increases in Density Reduces

(Supercharging) Auto Ignition Temperature

9 Speed Reduces Less Loss of Heat

10 Load Reduces Operating Temperature Increases

P- θ DIAGRAMS FOR DIFFERENT
IGNITION DELAY

Short Ignition Delay

Medium Ignition Delay

Long Ignition Delay

STAGES OF COMBUSTION (Contd.)
PREMIXED COMBUSTION PHASE (bc)

Combustion of the fuel which has mixed with the air to

within the flammability limits (air at high-temperature and
high-pressure) during the ignition delay period occurs
rapidly in a few crank angles.
STAGES OF COMBUSTION (Contd.)
MIXING CONTROLLED COMBUSTION PHASE (cd)

After premixed gas consumed, the burning rate is

controlled by the rate at which mixture becomes
available for burning.
The burning rate is controlled primarily by the fuel-air
mixing process.
STAGES OF COMBUSTION (Contd.)
LATE COMBUSTION PHASE (DE)

Heat release may proceed at a lower rate well into the

expansion stroke (no additional fuel injected during
this phase).
Combustion of any unburned liquid fuel and soot is
responsible for this.

Start of Endof
injection injecction

-20 -10 TC 10 20 30
EFFECT OF SPEED ON P- θ DIAGRAM
EFFECT OF SWIRL ON P- θ DIAGRAM
EFFECT OF COMPRESSION RATIO ON
P- θ DIAGRAM
EFFECT OF RICH MIXTURE ON P- θ
DIAGRAM
EFFECT OF LEAN MIXTURE ON P- θ
DIAGRAM
EFFECT OF INJECTION TIMING
ON P- θ DIAGRAM
EFFECT OF INITIAL AIR TEMPERATURE
ON HEAT RELEASE RATE
EFFECT OF INJECTION PRESSURE
ON HEAT RELEASE RATE
EFFECT OF SWIRL ON HEAT
RELEASE RATE
 CETANE NUMBER
Cetane number scale is defined by blends of
two pure hydrocarbon reference fuels.

•For high cetane fuels the ignition delay is

short and very little fuel is injected before
auto -ignition.

•The heat release rate is controlled by the

rate of fuel injection and fuel-air mixing –
smoother engine operation.
 CETANE NUMBER (Cont’d)
By definition, cetane (n-hexadecane, C16H34) has a
value of 100.

Ealier α-methylnaphtalene (C11H10) with a cetane

number of zero was used.

This has been replaced by heptamethylnonane,

(HMN) has a cetane number of 15, which is a more
stable compound.
 CETANE NUMBER (Cont’d)

The higher the CN the better the ignition quality i.e.,

shorter ignition delay.

Cetane number is given by:

CN = (% hexadecane) + 0.15 (% HMN)

 CETANE NUMBER VERSUS OCTANE NUMBER
The octane number and cetane number of a fuel are inversely correlated.

Octane-heptane

Alcohol-gasoline

Gasoline is a poor diesel fuel and vice versa.

 FUEL INJECTION

Fuel spray serves multiple purposes

in the Diesel combustion system

• Atomisation

• Fuel Distribution

• Fuel / Air Mixing

DIESEL INJECTION KEY FACTORS
FOR COMBUSTION
PINTLE AND HOLE TYPE FUEL
INJECTOR NOZZLE
OPERATION OF FUEL INJECTION
NOZZLE

Nozzle valve closed Nozzle valve open

CROSS SECTION OF A NOZZLE
LOW SAC VOLUME FUEL INJECTION
NOZZLE TIP
DIESEL FUEL INJECTION NOZZLES

Sac type VCO-type

Holes are drilled by Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) process

 NOZZLE FLOW

NOP – 100 bar ; Injection into air at 11 bar

 SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF
INTERNAL FLOW AND SPRAY PROPAGATION
NOZZLE FLOW
SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF
A FUEL JET
GEOMETRICAL FEATURES OF
FUEL SPRAY
 SCHEMATIC OF FUEL SPRAY
DEVELOPMENT IN QUIESCENT AIR
SCHEMATIC OF DIESEL
INJECTION SPRAY
FUEL SPRAY
INJECTED FUEL SPRAY
CHARACTERISTICS
FUEL SPRAY DEVELOPMENT WITH
AND WITHOUT COMBUSTION
 NOZZLE
Nozzle is a part of an injector through
which the fuel is sprayed into the
combustion chamber.

Various types of nozzles used are

A. Single hole nozzle.

B. multi-hole nozzle.
C. Pintle nozzle.
D. Pintaux nozzle.
 SINGLE HOLE NOZZLE
 Used in open combustion chamber. At the
center of the nozzle body there is a single
hole which is closed by the nozzle valve.

 Size of the hole is usually larger than

0.2mm.

 Hole may be drilled centrally or at an

angle to the centre line of the nozzle.

Main disadvantages are

 Single hole nozzle has tendency to

dribble.
 The spray angle is very narrow. This
does not facilitate good mixing unless
higher air velocities are provided.
 MULTI-HOLE NOZZLE
• In order to mix the fuel properly even
with the slow air movement available
with many open combustion chamber
,a Multi-hole nozzle is required.

• The number of holes varies from 4 to

18 and the size from 1.5mm to
0.35mm.

• Advantages
– Gives good atomization.
– Distribute fuel property even
with lower air motion available
in open combustion chamber.

• Disadvantages
– Dribbling between injection.
– Very high injection.
– Close tolerance in manufacture
& hence costly.
 PINTLE NOZZLE
• In order to avoid the weak injection &
dribbling the spindle is provided with a
projection called pintle , which
protrudes through the mouth of the
nozzle body. It either cylindrical or
conical in shape.
• The size & shape of the pintle can be
varied according to the requirement.

Advantages
• It is self cleaning type.
• It prevent the carbon deposition
on the nozzle hole.
• It result in good atomization.
• It avoid weak injection &
dribbling.

Disadvantage
• Distribution & penetration are
poor. Hence not suitable for open
combustion chamber.
 PINTAUX NOZZLE
• It is a type of pintle nozzle which has
an auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle
body.

• If the fuel is injected in a direction

upstream the direction of air, the
delay period is reduced due to
increased heat transfer b/w air & fuel.
This results in good cold starting
performance.

• Disadvantages
– The tendency of the auxiliary
hole to choke.
– The injection characteristics are
even poorer then multi hole
nozzle.
 FUEL INJECTION (Cont’d)
Typical DI Injector

• Injection Pressure - 1000 to 2500 bar

• Injector holes diameter ≈ 5 to 20 at 0.2 mm

• Drop size ≈ 5 to 30 μm

• For best torque, injection timing ≈ 15 to 20˚bTDC

• For NOx control, retarded injection timing close to

TDC
EXAMPLE OF INJECTION PROCESS
6 Cylinders, rated at 160 kW at 2500 rpm

• Injection duration - 22˚CA

• BSFC 220 g/kWh (Approx. 40% Efficiency)

• Fuel delivered per cylinder per injection – 0.078gm ≈

0.1 cc (100 mm3)

• Average fuel flow rate during injection - 68 mm3/ms

• With 10 nozzle holes at 0.2 mm dia. exit velocity at

nozzle = 216 m/s
CHARACTERISATION OF FUEL SPRAY
• Air-fuel mixing process is a key event in
diesel combustion.

• A good knowledge of the formation of the

spray is essential to improve mixing
efficiency.

• Spray penetration length and spray

penetration rate from a fuel injector are the
parameters used to judge fuel spray
performance.
CHARACTERISATION OF FUEL SPRAY
(Cont’d)

• The merits of high or low penetration

largely depend on engine design and
geometry.

• Shorter spray penetration may be an

advantage where it reduces fuel
impingement, but in larger engines may
inhibit maximum air utilisation.
 SCHEMATIC OF FUEL SPRAY
INJECTED INTO SWIRLING AIR
 REGIONS OF SPRAY
• Lean flame Region LFR)

• Lean Flame – Out Region

(LFOR)

• Spray Core

• Spray Tail

• Fuel Deposited on the wall

 LEAN FLAME REGION (LFR)

• Concentration of
vapour in the air
between the core and
the leading edge of the
spray is not
homogeneous.

• Local FAR may vary

from zero to infinity.
 LEAN FLAME REGION (Cont’d)

• Ignition nuclei formed

at several locations
where the mixture is
most suitable for auto-
ignition.

• Ignition starts from the

leading edge of the
spray
 LEAN FLAME REGION (Cont’d)
• Small independent non-
luminous flame fronts
propagate from ignition
nuclei and ignite the
combustible mixture
around them.

• Mixture in this region on

mass average basis is
leaner than stoichiometric
mixture hence referred to
as LFR.
 LEAN FLAME REGION (Cont’d)
• Combustion is complete
and NO may be formed at
high local concentration.

• Under very light loads

temperatures may not be
high enough to produce
high nitric oxide
concentrations at this
early stage of the
combustion process.
 LEAN FLAME – OUT REGION (LFOR)

• Near the far leading edge

of the spray the mixture is
too lean to ignite or
support combustion. This
region is referred to as
LFOR.

• Some fuel decomposition

(lighter HC molecules) and
partial oxidation products
(aldehydes or oxygenates)
are expected.
 LEAN FLAME – OUT REGION (Cont’d)

• Believed to be one of
the main contributors to
the UBHC.

• Corresponds to the
quench zone in SI
engines in terms of
formation of UBHC.
 LEAN FLAME – OUT REGION (Cont’d)
• Width of LFOR depends on

- temperature and pressure in the

chamber during the course of
combustion
- Fuel Air Ratio
- Air Swirl
- Type of Fuel
- Turbocharging
- Coolant Temperature
 LEAN FLAME – OUT REGION (Cont’d)
• In general higher
temperatures and
pressures extend the
flames to leaner mixtures
and thus reduce the LFOR
width.

• At borders between LFOR

and LFR primary reactions
take place and HC’s are
reduced to CO, H2, and
H2O & various radical
species O, H, OH and
other lighter UBHCs.
 SPRAY CORE
• Following ignition
and combustion in
LFR the flame
propagates towards
the core of the spray.

• In the region between

LFR and core of the
spray the fuel
droplets are larger.
 SPRAY CORE (Cont’d)

• Fuel droplets gain heat by radiation

from the already established flames and
evaporate at a higher rate.

• The increase in temperature also

increase the rate of vapour diffusion
because of the increase in molecular
diffusivity.
 SPRAY CORE (Cont’d)

• Droplets may be completely or partially

evaporated.

• If droplets are completely evaporated

the flame will burn all the mixture with
the rich ignition limit.
 SPRAY CORE (Cont’d)

• Droplets which are not completely

evaporated will be surrounded by a
diffusion type flame.

• Rate of combustion of these droplets

depends upon many factors which
govern the rate of evaporation and
diffusion of O2 to the flame.
 SPRAY CORE (Cont’d)

• The combustion in the

core of the jet depends
mainly upon the local
fuel air ratio.

• Under part load

conditions this region
contains adequate O2,
combustion is expected
to complete and to result
in high NOx production.
 SPRAY CORE (Cont’d)

• Near full load conditions

incomplete combustion
occurs in many locations in
the fuel-rich core.

• More UBHC’s, CO,

oxygenated compounds
and carbon may be formed
near full load with lesser
NOx.
 SPRAY TAIL
• Last part of the fuel to be
injected and usually has
large droplets because of the
relatively small pressure
differential acting on the fuel
which is caused by a
combination of decreased
fuel injection pressure and
increased cylinder gas
pressure.

• Also penetration of this part

is poor.
 SPRAY TAIL (Cont’d)
• Under high load conditions
spray tail has little chance to get
into regions with adequate O2
concentration. However the
temperature of the surrounding
gases is high and the rate of
heat transfer to these droplets is
fairly high. Therefore these
droplets tend to evaporate
quickly and decompose.

• Products in this region contain

UBHC’s, a high concentration of
carbon molecules, CO and
aldehydes.
 FUEL DEPOSITED ON THE WALLS
• Some sprays impinge on the walls.

• Because of the shorter spray path and the

limited number of sprays this is especially the
case in small high speed DI Engines.

• The rate of evaporation of the liquid film

depends upon
- Gas and wall temperatures
- Gas velocity
- Gas Pressure
- Property of fuel
 FUEL DEPOSITED ON THE WALLS (Cont’d)

• Studies showed that the liquid droplets reach an

equilibrium temperature during evaporation and
remain at this temperature until they are
completely evaporated.

• For the liquid film the wall temperature is

generally lower than the equilibrium temperature
for many compounds in the fuel.

• Also the surface area for mass transfer is smaller

with the liquid film than if the liquid were
atomised into many droplets.
FUEL DEPOSITED ON THE WALLS (Cont’d)
• Therefore the rate of evaporation of the liquid film
is expected to be less than the corresponding rate
for the droplets and it is expected that this will be
the last part to be evaporated.

• The vapour concentration is maximum on the

liquid surface and decreases with increased
distance from the surface.

• If the surrounding gas has a high relative velocity

and contains enough oxygen the flame will
propagate to within a small distance from the wall.
FUEL DEPOSITED ON THE WALLS (Cont’d)
• Combustion of the rest of fuel on the walls will
depend upon the rate of evaporation and
mixing of fuel and oxygen.

• If the surrounding gas has a low oxygen

concentration or the mixing is not appropriate
evaporation will occur without complete
combustion.

• Under this condition the fuel vapour will

decompose and form unburned hydrocarbons,
partial oxidation products and carbon particles.
SCHEMATIC OF A DIESEL SPRAY AND FLAME
WITH TEMPERATURES AND CHEMISTRY
 EFFECT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON
SPRAY CHARACTERISTICS
Factors Change Break-up Penetration Dispersion Droplet size
Distance (effective)
NOZZLE
Orifice Diameter Increase Increase Increase Decrease Increase
Orifice L/D Various Optimum Minimum Optimum Optimum
1 – 2:1 1 - 2:1 4 - 2:1 4 - 6:1
Orifice Rougher Decrease Decrease Increase Decrease
Smoothness
Opening Pressure Increase Decrease Increase Increase Decrease
OPERATING CONDITIONS
Injection pressure Increase Increase Increase Increase Increase
Discharge Increase Decrease Increase Increase Decrease
quantity
Speed or rate Increase Decrease Increase Increase Decrease
EFFECT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON SPRAY
CHARACTERISTICS (Contd..)

Factors Change Break-up Penetration Dispersion Droplet

Distance (effective) size

OIL PROPERTIES

Viscosity Increase Increase Increase Decrease Increase

Surface Reduce Decrease Decrease Increase Decrease

tension

Density Increase Increase Increase Decrease Increase

GAS PROPERTIES

Density Increase Decrease Decrease More Even Decrease

FUEL PARAMETERS
EMISSION FORMATION MECHANISM IN A
FUEL SPARY INJECTED IN SWIRLING AIR
ATOMISATION PROCESS

Injection pressure 70 bar Distance from nozzle 38 mm Discharge orifice

diameter 0.2 mm

Injection pressure 70 bar Air density 1 atm Discharge orifice diameter

0.35 mm
ATOMISATION PROCESS (Cont’d)

Injection pressure 70 bar Air density 1 atm Dikscharge orifice

diameter 0.5 mm
EFFECT OF INJECTION PRESSURE
AND AIR DENSITY ON SPRAY TIP
VELOCITIES AND PENETRATION
 EFFECT OF CHAMBER PRESSURE
AND INLET AIR PRESSURE ON SPRAY
TIP VELOCITIES AND PENETRATION
EFFECT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON
DROPLET SIZE
DISPERSION RADIUS OF A SPRAY FOR THREE
DIFFERENT OILS WITH VARIOUS INJECTION
PRESSURES AND AIR PRESSURES
EFFECT OF AIR PRESSURES ON
DROPLET SIZE DISTRIBUTION
EFFECT OF ORIFICE L/D ON SPRAY TIP
PENETRATION

Orifice diameter 1.0 mm Nitrogen in chamber 14 bar

Nozzle opening pressure 245 bar Discharge per stroke at 500 rpm 110 mm 3
CHANGE IN SPRAY CONE ANGLE WITH
AIR DENSITY
EFFECT OF ORIFICE DIAMETER ON
ATOMISATION
VARIATION IN SPRAY TIP PENETRATION
WITH ORIFICE DIAMETER
EFFECT OF OIL DENSITY ON SPRAY
PENETRATION
 TURBULENCE

Increases the rate of

• Heat Transfer

• Evaporation

• Mixing

• Combustion
 TURBULENCE (Cont’d)
• Turbulence is higher during intake and
then decreases as the flow rate reduces
near BDC.

• It then increases again during compression

as swirl, squash and tumble.

• Higher turbulence near TDC when ignition

occurs is very desirable for combustion.
 TURBULENCE (Cont’d)
• It breaks up and spreads the flame front
many times faster than that of laminar
flame.

• The air-fuel is consumed in a very short

time and self-ignition and knock are
avoided.

• Turbulence is enhanced by the expansion of

the cylinder gases during combustion
process.
 TURBULENCE (Cont’d)

• Shape of combustion chamber is extremely

important in generating max. turbulence and
increasing the desired rapid combustion.

 Very much required for both Otto and Diesel

engines.
TURBULENCE INSIDE THE CYLINDER
 AIR MOTION (Cont’d)

EFFECTS

• Atomisation

• Mixing

• Distribution of droplets
 AIR MOTION (Cont’d)

• Assists Combustion of droplets.

• Peels off combustion products from

burning drops.

• Supplies fresh air to interior portion of

droplets.
 AIR MOTION (Cont’d)

• Increases heat transfer to the droplets,

hence reduces delay period.

• Reduces after burning of fuel.

• Effects better utilisation of air, hence

permits reduction in excess air which inturn
reduces cylinder size and width.
 AIR MOTION (Cont’d)

• Thermal efficiency increases.

• Ensures exhaust from carbon particles.

• Increases heat losses from charge to

cylinder, hence from cylinder to coolant
and outside.
 TYPES OF AIR MOTION
• Swirl
 Organised rotation of charge
about the cylinder axis.

 Mechanism for very rapid

spreading of flame front during
combustion process.

 Very much required for diesel

engines.
 SWIRL

Induction Swirl (DI Diesel Engines)

Generated by constructing the intake

system to give a tangential component to
the intake flow as it enters the cylinder by
shaping the intake manifold and valve
ports
SWIRL MOTION GENERATED FROM
TANGENTIAL INLET PASSAGE
 TYPES OF SWIRL

Compression Swirl (IDI Diesel Engines)

Enhances the mixing of air and fuel to

give a homogeneous mixture in the very
short time available.
 SWIRL RATIO
• Dimensionless parameter used to quantify
rotational motion within the cylinder.

• Defined in two different ways

(SR)1 = Angular Speed / Engine Speed

=ω/N

(SR)2 = Swirl Tangential Speed / Average

Piston Speed = UT / UP
 SWIRL RATIO (Cont’d)
• Angular motion is very non-uniform
within the cylinder, being a maximum
away from the walls and being much
less near the walls due to viscous drag.

• Non uniformity is both in radial direction

due to drag with the cylinder walls and
in the axial direction due to drag with the
position face and cylinder head.
 SWIRL RATIO (Cont’d)
• Swirl ratio continuously changes during
the cycle.

• During intake it is high decreasing after

BDC due to viscous drag with the
cylinder walls.

• Combustion expands the gases and

increases swirl to another maximum part
way into the power stroke.
 SWIRL RATIO (Cont’d)
• Expansion of the gases and viscous drag
quickly reduce this again before blow
down occurs.

• This will assure fuel distribution

throughout the combustion chamber.

• Higher the swirl ratio greater will be the

losses.
 SWIRL RATIO (Cont’d)
• For CI and SI engines with direct injection the period of one
swirl rotation and the number of holes in the injector nozzle is
related to injection timing as
Injection Time = Period of Swirl /No. of holes

• Helical ports can achieve swirl ratios of 3 to 5 at TDC.

• Bowl in piston chambers can achieve about 15 at TDC.

• Maximum swirl ratio can be 5 to 10.

OBJECTIVE : To match swirl, fuel and injection characteristics to

give the desired ROPR and maximum pressure.
 SQUISH
• Radially inward or transverse gas
motion that occurs towards the end of
compression.

• Related to quench area defined by

parallel portions of the piston and
cylinder head which almost touch each
other as the piston approaches TDC.

% Quench area = (Piston area – Bowl

area) / Piston Area
= d2 / D2
 SQUISH (Cont’d)
• The intensity of Squish increases with

Decrease of clearance length

Decrease in the ratio of the diameter

of the combustion chamber to the
diameter of the cylinder

Increase in engine speed

DIRECTED INDUCTION SWIRL

MASKED INLET VALVE CHAMBER WALL DEFLECTION

AIR MOTION CREATED BY HELICAL
INLET PORT
SCHEMATICS OF PISTON MOTION
GENERATED SQUISH

WEDGE SHAPED SI BOWL IN PISTON DI CI

ENGINE CHAMBER ENGINE CHAMBER
EFFECT OF SWIRL RATIO ON BMEP AND
BSFC
EFFECT OF SWIRL RATIO ON RATE OF PRESSURE
RISE, MAXIMUM PRESSURE AND EXHAUST
TEMPERATURE
BSFC AND EMISSIONS LEVEL AS A FUNCTION
SWIRL RATIO AND INJECTION TIMING
EFFECT OF CRANK ANGLE POSITION ON
SWIRL RATIO
SWIRL MOTION AND METHODS TO
GENERATE SWIRL

Swirl motion within Air entering cylinder from

engine cylinder tangential direction

Contoured intake runner Contoured valve

SWIRL CONTROL ARRANGEMENTS
VARIABLE SWIRL INLET SYSTEM
RUNNER DESIGN IN MPFI SYSTEM TO
PROMOTE SWIRL
TOYOTA ENGINE CYLINDER HEAD WITH SWIRL
CONTROL

TWO VALVE FOUR VALVE

EFFECT OF HELICAL INLET PORT DESIGN
ON THE ENGINE PERFORMANCE
EFFECT OF CLEARANCE LENGTH ABOVE
PISTON CROWN ON SQUISH VELOCITY
SWIRL METER
SWIRL METER
TUMBLE METER
TUMBLE MOTION
 KNOCKING
•The ignition characteristics of the fuel affect the ignition delay.

•The ignition quality of a fuel is defined by its cetane number.

•For low cetane fuels the ignition delay is long and most of the
injected fuel is accumulated in the cylinder before autoignition.

•This leads to rapid combustion.

• Under extreme cases, this produces an audible knocking

sound referred to as “diesel knock”.
KNOCKING COMBUSTION IN SI &
CI ENGINES
COMBUSTION PROBLEMS IN
DIESEL ENGINE
 DIESEL KNOCK AFFECTED BY
VARIABLES
To reduce the possibility of knock, the
first elements of fuel and air should have

• A high temperature

• A high Density

• A shortage ignition delay

• A reactive composition
 TEMPERATURE FACTORS
Decreasing the temperature of the
initially formed mixture by any of the
following methods will increase the
possibility of knock

• Lowering the compression ratio

• Lowering the inlet air temperature

• Lowering the coolant temperature

 TEMPERATURE FACTORS (Cont’d)

• Lowering the temperatures of cylinder

walls and combustion chamber

• Decreasing the load

• Advancing or retarding the start of

injection
 DENSITY FACTORS

Decreasing the density of the initially

formed mixture by either of the following
methods will increase the possibility of
knock

• Decreasing the inlet air pressure

• Decreasing compression ratio

 TIME FACTORS
Increasing the amount of fuel in the initially formed
mixture or increasing the time for forming a
homogeneous mixture by any of the following methods
will increase the possibility of knock

• Decreasing the turbulence of the compressed air

• Increasing the speed of engine

• Decreasing the Injection pressure

• Increasing the rate of injection

 COMPOSITION

Probability of knock is decreased by

• Increasing the cetane rating of fuel

• Increasing the volatility of fuel

• Decreasing the viscosity of fuel

 COMBUSTION CHAMBER TYPES

Direct injection: Direct injection:

quiescent chamber swirl in chamber Indirect injection: turbulent
and swirl pre-chamber
DIRECT INJECTION COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER
 OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

(a) Hemisherical (b) Shallow bowl

(c) Shallow toroidal bowl (d) Deep toroidal
 OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER

MERITS

• Simple in construction.

• Heat losses are lesser because of

- Low turbulence or swirl

- Low surface to volume ratio
- Low overall combustion temperatures
 OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER (Cont’d)

• Starting is easier.

• Higher thermal efficiency.

• Components operate at lower

temperatures.
 OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER (Cont’d)

• Suitable for moderate speed engines.

• Quiet and relatively free from combustion

noise at low and moderate speeds.
 OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER (Cont’d)

DEMERITS

• At higher speeds knock due to ignition

delay occurs.

• Power to weight ratio is lesser.

• Fuel injection pressures must be higher.

 OPEN COMBUSTION CHAMBER (Cont’d)

• Requires a multi hole nozzle of small

orifice.

• Very high peak pressures upto 220 bar

are likely to occur.

• Higher RoPR.

• Knock intensity increases with speed.

PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
PRECOMBUSTION CHAMBER
 PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS
MERITS

• Better mixing of air due to combustion

induced swirl.

• Lower injection pressure can be used.

• Eliminates dribbling.
 PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS (Cont’d)

• Large injection orifices can be used.

• Higher viscosity fuels can be used.

• Combustion proceeds at a slower rate as

only a fraction of the fuel is burnt in
precombustion chamber.
 PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS (Cont’d)

• RoPR and peak pressure will be lower.

• Engine will be running smooth.

• Precombustion chamber imprisons the

combustion shock hence, piston,
connecting rod & bearings have longer life
 PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS (Cont’d)

• Inferior quality fuels can be used.

• Suitable for high engine speed.

• Creates air movement inside the

combustion chamber during combustion.
 PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS (Cont’d)

DEMERITS

• Brake mean effective pressures are lower.

• Heat losses through the orifices are greater

during compression.

• Cold starting is difficult.

 PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS (Cont’d)

• Scavenging the precombustion chamber is

difficult. This causes inefficient combustion.

• Considerable amount of fuel enters the main

combustion chamber which burns late in
the expansion stroke. This reduces
efficiency.
M COMBUSTION CHAMBER
 M COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Simple but peculiar combustion chamber with rules

 Fuel must be allowed to oxidise slowly and gradually

and must be heated only as vapour in the mixed
state.

 Fuel quantity undergoing auto-ignition must be

minimised.

 Mixing of fuel vapour and air must be done

faster as combustion proceeds and mixture
must never be richer than stoichiometric.
M COMBUSTION CHAMBER (Cont’d)

• Combustion chamber is
located on piston bowl.

• Has a recess at the top

just below nozzle.

• Nozzle directs fuel

towards combustion
chamber walls
tangentially.
M COMBUSTION CHAMBER (Cont’d)
• Intake port is inclined.

• Intake valve has mask.

• Direction of swirl is
same as that of fuel jet.

• Fuel particles first meet

hot dense air, get well
dispersed and
undergoes combustion.
M COMBUSTION CHAMBER (Cont’d)

• Succeeding particles get

deposited on
combustion chamber
walls in the form of thin
film which does not get
combusted
immediately.

• Fuel deposited starts

evaporating and moves
towards centre.
M COMBUSTION CHAMBER (Cont’d)
• Swirling air removes fuel
vapours from the zone of
evaporation.

• Slow oxidation takes place, the

fuel has no chance for knock
and smoky exhaust.

• Combustion is smooth and

efficient.

• Rate of pressure rise &

maximum pressure are higher.
DIVIDED CHAMBER – AIR CELL

• Small antechamber
supplies air and
creates secondary
turbulence.

• Air cell contains 5% of

clearance volume.
DIVIDED CHAMBER – AIR CELL (Cont’d)
• Rise in pressure with
combustion in main chamber
forces additional air into the air
cell.

• Later in expansion stroke,

pressure in main chamber falls
below that in the air cell and air
flows from air cell to main
chamber creating a light
secondary turbulence that helps
to complete combustion process
to some small degree.
LANOVA ENERGY CELL
DIVIDED CHAMBER – ENERGY CELL

• During the compression

stroke air flows into the cell.

• Nozzle injects a small angle

spray in the main chamber
with the main body of spray
entering through funnel
shaped opening into the
minor cell.
DIVIDED CHAMBER – ENERGY CELL
(Cont’d)
• Fringe of fuel starts to burn
in the main chamber before
compression stroke ends
with consequent rise in
pressure.

• Pressure rise plus

momentum of fuel carries
most of the liquid spray into
major and minor cells.
DIVIDED CHAMBER – ENERGY CELL
(Cont’d)
• At about TDC fuel in the
minor cell ignites either from
the flame in the main
chamber or by auto-ignition.

• Since piston started on the

expansion stroke and the
orifices are so small the high
pressure never reaches main
chamber.
DIVIDED CHAMBER – ENERGY CELL
(Cont’d)
• Rather explosion expels
burning gases and fuel into
the main chamber with the
outflow picking up the last
remnants of spray.

• A very strong swirl is setup by

the contour of the chamber
which increases the main
chamber pressure.
DIVIDED CHAMBER – ENERGY CELL
(Cont’d)
• With fall in pressure of
the minor cell, the
major cell also
discharges with the
outflow scavenging the
minor cell and enter the
main chamber to renew
swirl and complete
combustion.
DIVIDED CHAMBER – ENERGY CELL
(Cont’d)
 COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES
• Indirect-injection Engine

Chamber is divided into two regions and the fuel is

injected into the “prechamber” which is connected
to the main chamber via a nozzle, or one or more
orifices.

• Direct-injection Engine

Have a single open combustion chamber into which

fuel is injected directly
OPEN CHAMBER (DIRECT INJECTION)

Application

Truck and Bus

(Heavy Duty)
PRE CHAMBER (INDIRECT INJECTION)

Application

Passenger Car
(Light Duty)
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
DI AND IDI DIESEL ENGINES
DI Characteristics IDI
Higher Peak Comb. Pressure Lower
Higher Peak Comb. Temperature Lower
Harsher Combustion Severity Harsh
Higher Rate of Press. Rise Lower
Higher Noise Harshness Lower
Lower Heat Rejection Higher
Higher Fuel Economy Lower
Higher Fuel System Pressure Lower
Heavier Engine Structure Lighter
Heavy Duty Application Light Duty
DI VOLUMETRIC COMBUSTION CHAMBER
DI FILM (M) COMBUSTION CHAMBER
DI FILM (M) COMBUSTION CHAMBER
DI VOLUMETRIC COMBUSTION CHAMBER
RICARDO SWIRL CHAMBER (COMET)
COMPARISON OF ROUND AND TOROIDAL COMBUSTION
CHAMBERS WITH AND WITHOUT LIP (ISUZU)

ROUND SQUARE
PRECOMBUSTION SYSTEM (MERCEDES BENZ)
AIR CELL COMBUSTION CHAMBER
IDI SWIRL COMBUSTION CHAMBER
(RICARDO COMET)
IDI SWIRL COMBUSTION CHAMBER
(RICARDO COMET)
IDI PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
(MERCEDES BENZ)
IDI WITH PRE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
(MERCEDES BENZ)
DI DIESEL ENGINE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
WITH HELICAL INDUCTION PORT (FORD)
LIP CAVITY PISTON (PERKINS)
COMPARISON OF HEAT RELEASE
RATE DIAGRAMS
HEAT RELEASE RATE EQUATION
HEAT RELEASE RATE EQUATION
(Cont’d)
HEAT RELEASE RATE EQUATION
(Cont’d)
HEAT RELEASE RATE EQUATION
(Cont’d)
 IGNITION DELAY CORRELATIONS

GENERAL EXPRESSION

Where A = Constant for each combustion chamber

EA = An exponent dependent upon the
properties of the fuel. It decreases with
increase in cetane number of the fuel.
T = Absolute temperature
p = Absolute pressure
n = Exponent (depends on fuel)
 IGNITION DELAY CORRELATIONS
(Cont’d)

WATSON’S FORMULA

Where T = Absolute temperature

P = Absolute pressure
IGNITION DELAY CORRELATIONS
(Cont’d)
HARDENBURG AND HASE FORMULA
HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS
(Cont’d)
WOSCHNI’S CORRELATION

he = 3.26 B-0.2P0.8T-0.55

Where B =Bore
P = Pressure
T = Temperature
 HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS
WOSCHNI’S CORRELATION

Where Vd = Displacement volume

P = Instantaneous cylinder pressure
T = Instantaneous cylinder temperature
Vp = Mean piston speed
Parameters C1 C2
Compression 2.28 0
Combustion and expansion 2.28 0.00324
Gas exchange process 6.18 0
 HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS
(Cont’d)
HOHENBERG’S CORRELATION

h = C1.V-0.06.Tg-0.4.P0.8.(Vp + C2)0.8

Where V = Instantaneous cylinder volume

p = Instantaneous cylinder pressure
Tg = Instantaneous cylinder temperature
Vp = Mean piston speed
C1 = 130
C2 = 1.4
 HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATIONS
(Cont’d)
ANNAND’S CORRELATION

h = a(k/B).(Re)b(T-Tw) + C(T4-Tw4)

Where b = 0.7, C = 1.6 x 10-12

a = 0.38 for two stroke engines
a = 0.49 for four stroke engines
COMPARISON OF HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

Source : Watson, N. and Janota, M. S. Turbocharging the Internal Combustion Engine. Macmillan Education Ltd., 1982
 SPRAY CORRELATIONS

Spray Angle

It is influenced by the injector characteristics, fuel

properties and ambient conditions. Basically during
injection the angle increases rapidly, reaches
maximum and than decreases to a constant value.
 SPRAY CORRELATIONS (Cont’d)

Spray Angle - Arai model

 SPRAY CORRELATIONS (Cont’d)
Spray Angle - Hiroyasu and Arai model
 SPRAY CORRELATIONS (Cont’d)
Spray Tip Penetration - Hiroyasu and Arai Model

Spray tip penetration increases linearly with time

Spray tip penetration is proportional to the square root of time

 SPRAY CORRELATIONS (Cont’d)
Liquid Length - Hiroyasu and Arai Model
 SPRAY CORRELATIONS (Cont’d)
Sauter Mean Diameter

Sauter Mean Diameter (SMD or x32) characterises a

single droplet with the same volume to surface area
ratio as the ratio of the respective quantities integrated
over the whole droplet size distribution present in a
real spray.

SMD is a quantity characterising the average droplet size of

spray.
 SPRAY CORRELATIONS (Cont’d)
SMD – Hiroyasu Model
 SPRAY CORRELATIONS (Cont’d)
SMD – Hiroyasu and Arai Model

Maximum of the two will be taken

TIME SCALE OF DIESEL COMBUSTION
PROCESS
MODERN DIESEL ENGINE POWER TRAIN
CONCEPT MAP OF NOX EMISSION AND
COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS

Mustafa Ertunc Tat, (2003)"

 REFERENCES

S. Year of
Authors Title of Book Publisher
No. Publication
Internal Combustion SciTech Publications (India)
1 Ramalingam K K Engines Pvt. Ltd. 2004
Internal Combustion Tata McGraw Hill Book Co.
2 Ganesan V Engines 2003
Internal Combustion McGraw Hill Education
3 John B Heywood Engine Fundamentals (India) Private Ltd. 2016

Pundir B P I.C. Engines Combustion Narosa Publishing House

4 and Emission 2010
Pundir B P Engine Combustion and Narosa Publishing House
5 Emission 2011
Mathur M L and Sharma R P A Course in Internal Dhanpat Rai Publications Pvt.
6 Combustion Engines Ltd. 1993
Obert E F Internal Combustion International Text Book
7 Engine and Air Pollution Publishers 1983
A Course in Internal Dhanpat Rai & Co. (P) Ltd.
8 Domkundwar V Combustion Engines 2002
Internal Combustion Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.
9 Rajput R K Engines 2006
Engg. Fundamentals of Prentice Hall
10 Willard W Pulkrabek the Internal Combustion 2007
Engines
Internal Combustion Prentice Hall of India
11 Gupta H N Engines 2012
Advanced Engine SAE Publications
12 Heinz Heisler Technology 1995