10th IFAC Symposium on Intelligent Autonomous Vehicles

10th
10th IFAC Symposium
IFACPoland,
Symposium on
on Intelligent
Intelligent Autonomous
Autonomous Vehicles
Vehicles
Gdansk,
10th IFAC July 3-5,
Symposium on 2019
Intelligent Available online
Autonomous at www.sciencedirect.com
Vehicles
Gdansk,
10th IFAC
Gdansk, Poland, July
Symposium 3-5,
on 2019
Intelligent Autonomous Vehicles
10th IFACPoland,
Gdansk, Poland, July
July 3-5,
Symposium 2019
on Intelligent
3-5, 2019 Autonomous Vehicles
Gdansk, Poland, July 3-5, 2019
Gdansk, Poland, July 3-5, 2019
ScienceDirect
IFAC PapersOnLine 52-8 (2019) 375–380

Path-Following
Path-Following Controller
Controller for
for 4WDs
4WDs Hydraulic
Hydraulic Heavy-Duty
Heavy-Duty
Path-Following
Path-Following Controller
Controller for
for 4WDs
4WDs Hydraulic
Hydraulic Heavy-Duty
Heavy-Duty
Path-Following
Field
Path-Following
Field Controller
Robots with
Controller
Robots with for
for 4WDs
Nonlinear
4WDs
Nonlinear Hydraulic
Internal
Hydraulic
Internal Heavy-Duty
Dynamics
Heavy-Duty
Dynamics
Field
Field Robots
Robots with
with Nonlinear
Nonlinear Internal
Internal Dynamics
Dynamics
Field Robots with Nonlinear Internal Dynamics
Field Robots with Nonlinear Internal Dynamics
Henri Liikanen1 Mohammad M. Aref 1 Reza Oftadeh2 Jouni Mattila1
Liikanen111 Mohammad
Henri Liikanen Mohammad M. Aref 111 Reza
M. Aref Oftadeh222 Jouni
Reza Oftadeh Mattila111
Jouni Mattila
Henri
Henri Liikanen 1 Mohammad M. Aref 1 Reza Oftadeh2 Jouni Mattila 1
1 Henri
11 Faculty of
Henri Liikanen
Engineering
Liikanen and
1 Mohammad
Natural
Mohammad M. Aref
Sciences, Reza
Tampere
M. Aref 1 Oftadeh
RezaUniversity, Jouni
Oftadeh 33014,
2 Mattila
JouniTampere,
Mattila1 Finland
2 Faculty
1 Faculty
of
of Engineering
Engineering and
and Natural
Natural Sciences,
Sciences, Tampere
Tampere University,
University, 33014,
33014, Tampere,
Tampere, Finland
Finland
2
2
Department
Department
1
of Computer
1 Faculty
Faculty
of of
of Science
Engineering
Engineering
Computer Science &
& Engineering,
and
and Natural
Natural Texas A&M
Sciences,
Sciences,
Engineering, Texas University,
Tampere
Tampere
A&M College
University,
University,
University, Station,
33014,
33014,
College TX
Tampere,
Tampere,
Station, TX 77843, United
Finland
Finland
77843, United States
States
2
2
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843,
Department email:Faculty
of Computerof Engineering
Science
henri.liikanen@tuni.fi, &and Natural Sciences,
Engineering,
m.aref@ieee.org,Texas Tampere
A&M University,
reza.oftadeh@tamu.edu, United
University, College 33014,
and Tampere,
Station, TX Finland
77843,
jouni.mattila@tuni.fi United States
States
2Department
Department email:
email: of Computer Science
henri.liikanen@tuni.fi,
henri.liikanen@tuni.fi,
ofhenri.liikanen@tuni.fi, &
Computer Science & Engineering, Engineering,
m.aref@ieee.org,
m.aref@ieee.org,Texas A&M University,
reza.oftadeh@tamu.edu,
reza.oftadeh@tamu.edu,
Texasreza.oftadeh@tamu.edu,
A&M University, Collegeand College and
andStation, TX
TX 77843, United States
77843,
jouni.mattila@tuni.fi
jouni.mattila@tuni.fi
Station, United States
email:
email: m.aref@ieee.org, jouni.mattila@tuni.fi
email: henri.liikanen@tuni.fi,
Abstract: henri.liikanen@tuni.fi,
This paper describes a m.aref@ieee.org,
m.aref@ieee.org,
full closed-loop reza.oftadeh@tamu.edu,
reza.oftadeh@tamu.edu,
vehicle model for use in and
high jouni.mattila@tuni.fi
andprecision
jouni.mattila@tuni.fi
path-following
Abstract: This
Abstract: This paper
paper describes
describes aa full full closed-loop
closed-loop vehicle vehicle model
model for for use
use in in high
high precision
precision path-following
path-following
control
control of
Abstract:
Abstract: heavy-duty
of This
This paper
paper
heavy-duty field
field robots.
describes
describes aa full
robots. fullWe present
present aaa vehicle
closed-loop
closed-loop
We high-performance
vehicle model
model
high-performance for
for path-following
use
use in
in high
high
path-following precision
precisioncontroller
controller for
for four-
path-following
path-following four-
control
Abstract:
wheeled
control of heavy-duty
This
drive
of paper
(4WD),
heavy-duty field
describesrobots.
a
steer-articulated
field robots. fullWe
We present
closed-loop
vehicles,
present high-performance
vehicle
typically
a model
used
high-performance as for
mobilepath-following
use in high
bases
path-following precision
for controller
aerial work
controller for
path-following
platforms.
for four-
four-
control
wheeled
wheeled
control of heavy-duty
drive
drive
of (4WD),
(4WD),
heavy-duty field robots.
steer-articulated
steer-articulated
field robots. We
We present
vehicles,
vehicles,
present aa high-performance
typically
typically used
used
high-performance as
as mobile
mobilepath-following
bases
bases
path-following for
for controller
aerial
aerial work
work
controller for
platforms.
platforms.
for four-
four-
Our
wheeled
wheeled
Our control
drive
drive
control system
(4WD),
(4WD),
system promptly evaluates
steer-articulated
steer-articulated
promptly evaluates the curvature
vehicles,
vehicles,
the typically
typically
curvature of
of the
used
used
the path
as
as
path the
mobile
mobile
the vehicle
bases
bases
vehicle is
for
for
is about
aerial
aerial
about to
work
work
to navigate
platforms.
platforms.
navigate and
and
Our
wheeledcontrol
regulates
Our drive
control the system
(4WD),
wheels’
system promptly
speeds
promptly evaluates
steer-articulated
accordingly
evaluates the
to
the curvature
vehicles, typically
insure
curvature high of
of the
used path
performance
the as
path the
mobile
the vehicle
bases
execution
vehicle is
for
is about
aerial
while
about to
work
avoiding
to navigate
platforms.
navigate velocity and
and
Our control
regulates
regulates
Our control the
the system
wheels’
wheels’
system promptly
speeds
speeds
promptly evaluates
accordingly
accordingly
evaluates the
to
to
the curvature
insure
insure
curvature high
high of
of the path
performance
performance
the path the
the vehicle
execution
execution
vehicle is
is about
while
while
about to
avoiding
avoiding
to navigate
navigate velocity
velocity and
and
saturation.
regulates
regulates
saturation. Moreover,
the
the wheels’
wheels’
Moreover, we illustrate
speeds
speeds
we the
accordingly
accordingly
illustrate the architecture
to
to insure
insure
architecture of
high
high
of the
the developed
performance
performance
developed control
execution
execution
control software
while
while
software and
avoiding
avoiding
and its
its integration
velocity
velocity
integration
saturation.
regulates
into the
saturation. Moreover,
the
vehicle’s wheels’
Moreover, we
proprietary
we illustrate
speeds control
illustrate the
accordingly architecture
unit.
the to
We insure
use
architecture of
high the
aa simulation
of the developed
performance
model
developed control
of execution
the
control software
test-casewhile
software robotand
avoiding
and its
toits integration
compare velocity
integration the
saturation.
into
into the
the
saturation. Moreover,
vehicle’s
vehicle’s
Moreover, we
proprietary
proprietary
we illustrate
control
control
illustrate the architecture
unit.
unit.
the We
We use
use
architecture of the
the developed
aa simulation
simulation
of Then, model
model
developed control
of
of the
the
control software
test-case
test-case
software robot
robotand
andto toits integration
itscompare
compare
integration the
the
developed
into
into the
the
developed controller
vehicle’s
vehicle’s
controller to other
proprietary
proprietary
to other path-follower
control
control unit.
unit.
path-follower We
Wecandidates.
use
use
candidates. a simulation
simulation
Then, the controller
model
model
the controllerof
of the
the is
is used
test-case
test-case
used in
in experiments
robot
robot
experiments to
to compare
compareto
to verify
the
the
verify
developed
into
developed
its feasibility controller
the vehicle’s
controller
in to
to other
proprietary
other
heavy-duty, path-follower
control unit. We
path-follower
4WD-steered candidates.
use
candidates.
field robots Then,
a simulation
Then,
having the
the controller
model
controller
nonlinear theis
ofinternal
is used
test-case
used in
in
dynamicsexperiments
robotand
experiments to compare
high to
to verify
the
verify
inertia.
developed
its
its feasibility
feasibility
developed controller
in
in to other
heavy-duty,
heavy-duty,
controller to other path-follower
4WD-steered
4WD-steered
path-follower candidates.
field
field robots
robots
candidates. Then,
having
having
Then, the controller
nonlinear
nonlinear
the controller is
internal
internal used
is used in
dynamics
dynamicsexperiments
in experimentsand
and high
high to verify
inertia.
inertia.
toinertia.
verify
Publicly
its
its available
feasibility
feasibility in
in videos
heavy-duty, of the experiments
4WD-steered disseminate
field robots having the proposed
nonlinear controller
internal performance
dynamics and in
high action.
Publicly
Publicly
its feasibility
Publicly in heavy-duty,
available
available
available
videos of
videos
heavy-duty,
videos
of 4WD-steered
of
the experiments
the experiments
4WD-steered
the experiments
field robots
robots having
disseminate
disseminate
field
disseminate having the
the
nonlinear
the proposed
proposed internal
internal dynamics
controller
nonlinearcontroller
proposed controller
performance
performance
dynamics
performance
and
and high in
high
in
inertia.
in action.
action.
inertia.
action.
Publicly available
Mobile videos
robot, of the
four experiments
wheel drive,disseminate
four wheel the proposed
steer, controller
autonomous performance
heavy-duty in action.
vehicle,
Keywords:
© 2019, IFAC
Publicly
Keywords:
Keywords:
available
Mobile
Mobile
videos
(International
robot,
robot,
of the
four
four
experiments
Federation
wheel
wheel ofdrive,
drive,
disseminate
Automaticfour
four Control)
wheel
wheel
the proposed
Hosting
steer,
steer,
controller
by Elsevier Ltd.
autonomous
autonomous
performance
All rightsvehicle,
heavy-duty
heavy-duty reserved.path
in action.
vehicle, path
path
following,
Keywords:
Keywords:
following, odometry
Mobile
Mobile
odometry localization
robot,
robot, four
four
localization feedback,
wheel
wheel
feedback, autonomous
drive,
drive, four
four
autonomous wheel
wheel intelligent
steer,
steer,
intelligent vehicle
autonomous
autonomous
vehicle heavy-duty
heavy-duty vehicle,
vehicle, path
path
following,
Keywords:
following, odometry
Mobile
odometry localization
robot, four
localization feedback,
wheel
feedback, autonomous
drive, four
autonomous wheel intelligent
steer,
intelligent vehicle
autonomous
vehicle heavy-duty vehicle, path
following, odometry localization feedback, autonomous
following, odometry localization feedback, autonomous intelligent vehicle intelligent vehicle
1.
1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION In
In thethe past
past 10 10 years,
years, studies
studies have
have addressed
addressed the the path
path following
following
Autonomous vehicles (AVs) have been studied since at least In the past 10 years, studies have addressed the path
Autonomous
Autonomous vehicles
vehicles
1. INTRODUCTION
(AVs)
1. (AVs) have
INTRODUCTION
have been
been studied
studied since
since at
at least
least of
InIn the
4WS
the past
past 10
vehicles.
10 years,
years, studies
Setiawan
studies have
have et addressed
al.
addressed (2016) the
the path following
implemented
path followinga
following
the 1950s,
Autonomous
Autonomous but during
vehicles
vehicles the
(AVs)
(AVs) last decade,
have
have been
been interest
studied
studied in this
since
since field
at
at of
least
least of
of In 4WS
4WS
the past vehicles.
vehicles.
10 years, Setiawan
Setiawan
studies have et
et al.
al.
addressed (2016)
(2016) the implemented
implemented
path following aaa
the
the 1950s,
1950s,
Autonomous but
but during
during
vehicles the
the
(AVs) last
last decade,
decade,
have been interest
interest
studied in
in this
this
since field
field of
of
at least dynamic
of
of 4WS
4WS controller
vehicles.
vehicles. and directed
Setiawan
Setiawan et
eta 4WIS
al.
al. vehicle
(2016)
(2016) to follow
implemented
implemented two aa
study
the has
1950s, grown
but considerably.
during the last The problem
decade, interest of path-following
in this field of dynamic
dynamic
of 4WS controller
controller
vehicles. and
and directed
directed
Setiawan etaa 4WIS
4WIS
al. vehicle
vehicle
(2016) to
to follow
follow
implemented two
two
the
study
study
the 1950s,
has
has
1950s, but
grown
grown
but during the
considerably.
considerably.
during the last
last decade,
The
The interest
problem
problem
decade, interest of
of in this field
path-following
path-following
in this field of
of types
dynamic of paths
controller with position
and directederrors of
aa 4WIS less than
vehicle ± to2 cm.
follow Li and
two
control
study is
has one
grown of the main
considerably. subjects
The of AV
problem and of wheeled mobile
path-following dynamic
types
types
dynamic of
of controller
paths
paths
controller with
with and directed
position
position
and directederrors
errors 4WIS
of
of less
less
afeedforward
4WIS vehicle
than
than
vehicle ±
± to2
to2 follow
cm.
cm.
follow Li
Li two
and
and
two
study
control has
is grown
one of considerably.
the main The
subjects
Theof problem
AV and of path-following
ofwheeled mobile Yu (2009) used position
aa controller with and
control
study (WMR)
control
robot is
has
is one
grown
one of
of the
the
research. main
considerably.
main Many subjects
subjects
studiesof
of AV
problem
AV
have and
and wheeled
wheeled
addressed themobile
path-following
mobile
path-
types
types
Yu
Yu
of
of
(2009)
(2009)
types of
paths
paths
paths used
used
with
with
a
with position
controller
controller
position
errors
errors
with
with
errors
of
of less
less
feedforward
feedforward
of less
than
than
than
±
±
and
and
± 22feedback
2 cm.
cm.
feedback
feedback
cm.
Li
Li
Li
to
and
and
to
to
and
control
robot
robot is
(WMR)
(WMR)
control(WMR) one
is one of the
research.
research.
of main
the main Many
Many subjects
studies
studies
subjects of AV
have
have
of are and wheeled
addressed
addressed
AVdescribed
and wheeled the
themobile
path-
path-
mobile control
Yu (2009) front-used a
and controller
rear-wheel with feedforward
steering angles and feedback
of a 4WAS to
following
robot of WMRs;
research. theManylatest ones
studies have addressed in Cong
the path-et Yu
control
control
Yu (2009)
(2009) front-
front-used
used a
and
and
a controller
rear-wheel
rear-wheel
controller with
with feedforward
steering
steering
feedforward angles
angles and
and feedback
of
of a
a
feedback 4WAS
4WAS to
to
robot
following
following
robot (WMR)
(WMR) of research.
of WMRs;
WMRs;
research. the
theMany
Manylateststudies
lateststudies
ones are
ones have
are
have addressed
described
described
addressed in the
inthe
Cong
Congpath-
path-et vehicle
et control separately,
front- and such that
rear-wheel it could
steering followangles the desired
of aa 4WAS yaw
al. (2018)
following and
of Basma
WMRs; et
the al. (2018).
latest ones are
However,described
to the in Cong
best of the
et control
vehicle
vehicle
control front-
separately,
separately,
front- and
and rear-wheel
such
such that
that
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it steering
could
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steering follow
followangles
angles the
the of
desired
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of a 4WAS
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Basma et
of WMRs; the
et
et al.latest
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(2018).
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However,
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are describedto the
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best
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Cong et
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et and
the vehicle slip angles.
separately, The
such controller
that it could included
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the desired effects;
yaw
authors’
al. (2018) Basma
knowledge,
and al. (2018). However,
autonomous to best
functionalities of of vehicle
and
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angles.
angles.
separately, such
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included
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effects;
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al. (2018) and Basma
knowledge,
knowledge,
and Basma et
et al.
the
the
al. (2018). However,
autonomous
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(2018). However, to the best
functionalities
functionalities
to the best of
of the
of
of
the and
however, slip angles.
all the The
results controller
were included
simulated. dynamic al. effects;
(2018)
construction
authors’ vehicles
knowledge, have
the not been
autonomous considered due
functionalities to their
of and
however,
however, slip angles.
and slip angles. all
all the
the The
results
results
The controller
were
were
controller included
simulated.
simulated.
included dynamic
Dai
Dai
dynamic et
et al.
al. effects;
(2018)
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effects;
authors’
construction
construction knowledge,
authors’ dynamics. vehicles
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knowledge, the
have
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vehicle to
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have
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the results
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were
strategy
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to enable aaDai
to enable
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et al.
etcontrol,
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vehicle
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nonlinear dynamics.
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a have present
not been
four-wheel
The present study
steered
study investigates
considered
(4WS),
investigates due theto path-
heavy-duty,
the their presented
path- follow aa force-control
predefined paths. strategy
In addition to enable
to aa 4WAS
kinematic vehicle
control, to
that
nonlinear
following dynamics.
control of The
a present
four-wheel study
steered investigates
(4WS), the path-
heavy-duty, follow
presented
study
follow predefined
predefined
accounted forpaths.
force-control
paths.
otherIn
In addition
strategy
addition to
uncertainties to
enable
to kinematic
kinematic
and 4WAS
dynamic control,
vehicle
control, that
to
that
effects,
following
nonlinear
articulated
following control
dynamics.
boom
control of
lift
of a four-wheel
The
vehicle,
a present
four-wheelas steered
study
shown
steeredin (4WS),
investigates
(4WS),
Fig. 1. heavy-duty,
the path-
heavy-duty, follow
study predefined
accounted forpaths.
otherIn addition
uncertainties to kinematic
and dynamic control, that
effects,
following study
follow accounted
predefined for other
paths. In uncertainties
addition to and
kinematic dynamic control, effects,
that
following control
articulated
articulated boom
boom
boom lift
control of
of aavehicle,
lift four-wheel
vehicle,
four-wheelas
as
as shown
steered
shown
steeredin
in (4WS),
Fig.
in Fig.
(4WS), 1.
1. heavy-duty, including
1. heavy-duty, study
study accounted the slip
for forces.
other Its results
uncertainties implied
and dynamic good path-
effects,
articulated
articulated boom lift
lift vehicle,
vehicle, as shown
shown in Fig.
Fig. 1. study accounted
including
including
following
including accounted the
the slip
the
performance
for
slip
slip other
forces.
forces.
for forces.
other
with
uncertainties
Its
Its results and
results
uncertainties
aIts results
maximum
implied
implied
and
lateral
implied
dynamic
dynamic
error
good
good
good of
effects,
path-
path-
effects,
12 cm
path-
There
There are are
articulated two
are twoboomtypes
two types lift
types of of steering
vehicle,
of steering as methods
shown
steering methods
methods amongamong
in Fig.
among 4WS 1.4WS vehicles:
4WS vehicles:
vehicles: followingincluding
following the slip
performance forces.
with aIts results
maximum implied
lateral errorgood of path-
12 cm
There including
during
following performance
the
cornering slip
performance with
forces.
situations.
with a maximum
Its
Oftadeh
a results
maximum et al.lateral
implied
(2013a)
lateral error
errorgood of
proposed
of 12
12 cm
path-
cm a
four
There wheel
are independent
two types of steering
steering methods
(4WIS), among
as used 4WS
by vehicles:
Setiawan following
during performance
cornering with
situations. a maximum
Oftadeh et al.lateral
(2013a) error of
proposed 12 cm
There
four
four
There are
wheel
wheel
are two types
independent
independent
two types of
of steering
steering
steering methods
steeringmethods
(4WIS), among
(4WIS),amongas used
as used 4WS
by
4WS vehicles:
by Setiawan
Setiawan
vehicles: during
following
full-kinematic
during cornering
performance
cornering situations.
path-followingwith
situations. Oftadeh
a maximum
controller
Oftadeh et
et al.
al. (2013a)
lateral
for a
(2013a) error
4WIS proposed
of 12
platform
proposed cmaaa
et
four
foural. (2016),
wheel
wheel and four
independent
independent wheel active
steering
steering steering
(4WIS),
(4WIS), as
as (4WAS),
used by as used
Setiawan during
full-kinematiccornering situations.
path-following Oftadeh
controller et al.for(2013a)
a 4WIS proposed
platform aa
et
et
four
by
et
al.
al.
Li
al.
(2016),
(2016),
wheel
(2016),
and Yu
and
and
(2009).
four
and four wheel
fourInwheel
independent wheel active
active
steering
4WAS, active
steering
steering
(4WIS),
the steering
front- as used
and used by
by Setiawan
(4WAS),
(4WAS), as
as used
used
Setiawan
rear-wheel
(4WAS), as axles
used
full-kinematic
during cornering
full-kinematic
and evaluated
full-kinematic
path-following
situations.
path-following
its performance.
path-following
controller
Oftadeh
controller
The
controller
et
study for
al.for
for aaa 4WIS
(2013a)
cited 4WIS
4WIS above platform
proposed
platform
imply
platform
et
by al.
Li (2016),
and Yu and
(2009).four In wheel
4WAS, active
the steering
front- and (4WAS),
rear-wheel as used
axles and
and evaluated
evaluated
full-kinematic its
its performance.
performance.
path-following The
The
controller study
study cited
cited
forhavinga 4WIS above
above imply
imply
platform
by Li
et al. and Yu
(2016), (2009).
and fourIn 4WAS,
wheel the
active front-
steeringand rear-wheel
(4WAS), as axles
used accurate and evaluated its performance.
controllability performance.
for The study cited above imply
can
by
by
can Li
Liusually
and
and
usually Yu
Yu be
be steered
(2009).
(2009).
steered In
In separately,
4WAS,
4WAS,
separately, the
the as in
front-
front-
as in the
and
and
the present test
rear-wheel
rear-wheel
present test case.
axles
axles
case. and
accurate
accurate
and evaluated its
controllability
controllability
evaluated its for aaa robot
for
performance. robot
robot The
The
platform
study
platform
platform cited
cited above
having
having
study dimensions
low
low inertia,
low
above imply
inertia,
inertia,
imply
can
by Liusually
and Yu be steered
(2009). In separately,
4WAS, the as in
front- the
and present test
rear-wheel case.
axles a mass of less than 200 kg, and all main of
While
can
can
While 4WAS
usually
usually
4WAS be
be decreases
steered
steered
decreases maneuverability
separately,
separately,
maneuverabilityas
as in
in compared
the
the present
present
compared to
test
test
to that of
case.
case.
that of
accurate
accurate
a aaccurate
mass of
mass
controllability
ofcontrollability
less than
less than 200
controllability
for
200for
forkg,
kg,
a robot
aa robot
and all
and
robot
platform
platform
all having
having
main dimensions
main
platform dimensions
having
low
low
low of less
inertia,
inertia,
of less
less
inertia,
While
4WIS,
While 4WAS
can usuallyit
4WAS bedecreases
steered
simplifies
decreases the maneuverability
separately,
control as in the
structure
maneuverability compared
because
compared to
testthat
presentthere
to is
that of
case.
no
of than
aathan 1
mass meter.
of lessOnethan similarity
200 kg, in
andall these
all main studies is
dimensions that the
of test-
less
While mass
1 of
meter. lessOnethan 200
similaritykg, and
in all all
these main dimensions
studies is that of
the less
test-
Whilefor4WAS
4WIS,
4WIS,
need
4WIS,
it
it
4WAS
itseparate
decreases
simplifies
simplifies
decreases
simplifies
the
the
heading
the
maneuverability
control
control
control
and
structure
structure
maneuverability
linear-velocity
structure
compared
because
because
compared
vector
because
to
to that
there
there is
is
that
control,
there is
of
no
of than
no
as
no
a mass
case
than
than
1 meter.
of lessOne
11vehicles
1 meter.
meter.
than
were
One
One
similarity
200 kg,
rather
similarity
similarity
in
and
smaller
in
in
all
all
all
these
all
and
these
these
main studies
lighter
studies
studies
is
dimensions
weight
is
is
that
that
that
the
of test-
than
the
the
less
the
test-
test-
4WIS,
need forit simplifies
separate the
heading control
and structure
linear-velocity because
vector there is
control, no
as case
case
than vehicles
vehicles
meter. were
were
One rather
rather
similarity smaller
smaller
in all and
and
these lighter
lighter
studies weight
weight
is that than
than
the the
the
test-
need
4WIS,
need for
for
discussed itseparate
simplifies
separate
in Sectionheading
the
heading
3. and linear-velocity
control
and linear-velocity
structure because vector
vector control,
there
control, as
is no
as test-case
case robot
vehicles in
were the present
rather study.
smaller and lighter weight than the
need for
discussed separate
in Sectionheading
3. and linear-velocity vector control, as case
test-case
test-case
case vehicles
robot
robot
vehicles were
in
in
were the
therather
present
present
rather smaller
study.
study.
smaller and
and lighter
lighter weight
weight than
than the
the
discussed
discussed in
need for separate
in Section
Section 3.
heading
3. and linear-velocity vector control, as test-case robot in the present study.
discussed in Section 3. test-case
The present
test-case robot
robot in
study the
in the usedpresent
modeling
present study. and simulation
study.and simulation to compare to compare
discussed in Section 3. The
The present study used modeling
threepresent
The
The present
study
path-following
present study
study
used
used
used
modeling
controllers.
modeling
modeling
and
and
and
simulation
First, the study
simulation
simulation
to
to
to
compare
robot’s
compare
compare
three
three
The path-following
path-following
present study used controllers.
controllers.
modeling andFirst,
First, the
the
simulation study
study to robot’s
robot’s
compare
physical
three
three structure
path-following and internal
controllers. dynamics First, were
the modeled
study in a
robot’s
three path-following
physical
physical
simulation
physical
structure
structure
path-following
structure
and
and
environment.
and
controllers.
internal
internal
controllers.
internal Next,
dynamics
dynamics
dynamics
First,
First,
various
the
were
were
were
study
modeled
modeled
the path-following
study
modeled
robot’s
in
in
robot’s
in
aa
a
physical
simulation
simulation structure
physical structure and
environment.
environment. internal
and internal Next,
Next,dynamics
dynamics various
various were modeled
modeled in aa
path-following
path-following
werepath-following in
scenarios
simulation
simulation were simulated
environment.
environment. Next,
using
Next, thevarious
three
various
scenarios
simulation were
scenarios were simulated
simulated using the three path-following
controllers.
scenarios
scenarios The
were
were results of using
environment.
simulated
simulated these
using
using
the
Next, simulations
the
the
three
various
three
three
path-following
were used to
path-following
path-following
controllers.
controllers.
scenariosthewere The
The results
results
simulated of
of these
these
using simulations
simulations
thewas three were
were
path-followingused
used to
to
controllers.
identify
controllers. The
best
The results
results of
controller,
of these
which
these simulations
simulations then were
used used
were in real
used to
to
identify
identify
controllers. the
the best
best
The controller,
controller,
results of thesewhich
which was
was
simulations then
then used
used
were in
in
used real
real
to
identify
experimental
identify the
the best controller,
evaluation,
best including
controller, which
which was
calculating
was then
then the used in
localization real
experimental
experimental
identify the evaluation,
evaluation,
best including
including
controller, which calculating
calculating
was then theused
the in
localization
localization
used in real
real
feedback
experimental
experimental using the wheel
evaluation,
evaluation, odometry
including
including feedback.
calculating
calculating In
the
the the absence
localization
localization
feedback
feedback
experimental using
using the
the wheel
wheel
evaluation, odometry
odometry
including feedback.
feedback.
calculating In the
In method
the the absence
absence
localization
of absolute-position
feedback
feedback using
using the
the feedback,
wheel
wheel the dead-reckoning
odometry
odometry feedback.
feedback. In
In the
the absence
was
absence
of
of absolute-position
absolute-position
feedback using the feedback,
feedback,
wheel the
the
odometry dead-reckoning
dead-reckoning
feedback. In method
method
the was
was
absence
used
of
of to evaluate
absolute-position and verify
feedback, the the dead-reckoning
feasibility of using method
the was
selected
Fig.
Fig. 1.
1. Test-case
Test-case field
field robot
robot Haulotte
Haulotte 16RTJ
16RTJ PRO. PRO. of absolute-position
used
used to
to
controller
used to
evaluate
evaluate
absolute-position and
and
in heavy-duty
evaluate and
feedback,
verify
verify
feedback,
verify4WS
the
the
the
the dead-reckoning
feasibility
feasibility
the
field dead-reckoning
robots.of
feasibility
of using method
using
of using the
the selected
method
the
was
selected
selected
was
Fig.
Fig. 1.
1. Test-case
Test-case field
field robot
robot Haulotte
Haulotte 16RTJ
16RTJ PRO.
PRO. used to
controller evaluate
in and
heavy-duty verify4WS the feasibility
field robots. of using the selected
Fig. 1. Test-case field robot Haulotte 16RTJ PRO. controller
used to
controller in
evaluate
in heavy-duty
and
heavy-duty verify4WS the field robots.
feasibility of using the selected
Fig. 1. Test-case
2405-8963 field (International
© 2019, IFAC robot Haulotte 16RTJ PRO.
Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting controller
controller by Elsevier
in Ltd. All4WS
in heavy-duty
heavy-duty rightsfield
4WS
4WS reserved.
field
field
robots.
robots.
robots.
Copyright © 2019 IFAC
Peer review©under responsibility of International Federation of Automatic Control.
Copyright
Copyright © 2019
2019 IFAC
IFAC
10.1016/j.ifacol.2019.08.106
Copyright
Copyright © 2019 IFAC
© 2019 IFAC
Copyright © 2019 IFAC
2019 IFAC IAV
Gdansk, Poland, July 3-5, 2019
376 Henri Liikanen et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 52-8 (2019) 375–380

2. ROBOT ARCHITECTURE
2.1 Test-Case Robot: Haulotte
The test-case robot, the Haulotte 16RTJ PRO, is a heavy-duty,
4WD, steer-articulated boom lift. The platform weigh 6650 kg.
The driving and steering actions are powered by hydraulic
actuators. Table 1 presents the key dimensions and parameters
2.2 Software
The software development environment used was the
MATLAB Simulink. The program developed was built for a
dSpace 1103 real-time target that used Control Desk as its host
or visualization environment. Fig. 2 shows a detailed

robot. The localization feedback �, �, �� depended on whether

of the Haulotte with respect to the present study.
The robot has a diesel engine, which is connected to a variable-
displacement hydraulic pump. The pump, in turn, is connected
to a pressure-controlled servo valve, which is added to the
system to provide a constant source of pressure and to ease
possible control problems. In the current solution, the
schematic of the control-system modules interacting with the
the simulation model or the actual robot was being used. The
following paragraphs briefly introduce the three modules,
which then are not discussed again in Section 3.
The Path Generator receives from the Path planner two

�� … �� �
revolution speed of the diesel engine was set to its maximum matrices with n-amount of control points
�� = �� … � �
of 2800 rpm, and the displacement of the pump was increased
� � ���
velocities �� = ��� … �� ����
and the maximum magnitude of linear
�
until a source-pressure level of 150 bar was reached, thereby
providing the hydraulic system with a constant high pressure on the reference path. The
before applying any driving or steering commands. block relies on interpolation between the control points based
on cubic Bezier curves, which are well known and used in
The robot has four fixed-displacement hydraulic motors, one
computer graphics (see Agoston, 2005). The generated path
for each wheel. The motors are controlled with four hydraulic constructs of x and y coordinate pairs, which are separately

to a specifically defined world frame {�} (see Fig. 3). The

servo valves. The revolution speed of each motor can be
defined at each control sample and are represented with respect

normalized path parameter s is defined as 0 ≤ � ≤ 1.

controlled separately by controlling the valve opening. The
motors are attached to travel reduces, which, in turn, are

� �� ��,�
attached to the wheels. Table 1 shows the specific gear ratio of

��,�
the wheels. s
��
Inverse ��,�
�� (�) �� Kinematics
To measure wheel odometry, each wheel was equipped with a Actuator

Generator ��� (�)

rotating disk and two optical sensors. The disk had 150 equally
��,� ��,�
Path Control
Controller

��
distributed holes, which the optical sensors were used to sense.

�� ��
The velocity of the wheel was derived from the sensed pulses.
��
With hall-effect sensors, the resolution of the encoder becomes Robot

�, �, �� ��
large and during a low speed motion, limited amount of pulses Forward
are generated, which causes difficulties for the controller Path Kinematics
feedback, see M. Aref et al. (2014). In this case, we used an Planner
Simulation feedback
optical sensor to improve pulses per round ratio and obtain a Fig. 2. Schematics of the modular system structure.
high resolution output because this type of vehicles are not

the valve openings ��,� for driving or the ��,� for steering. The
expected to be driven fast. All the robot’s actuators are controlled by commanding either

steering-angle commands ��,� and ��,� , and their respective

The front and rear wheels are steered using two symmetric Actuator Control module receives the wheels’ velocity and

measured signals �� and �� . The steering-valve openings, for

hydraulic cylinders, which are controlled using two
proportional valves. The cylinders are connected to steering
mechanisms that simultaneously steer both wheels on the same front and rear wheel axle, are proportionally controlled using
axis. To avoid wheel slippage while cornering, the structure of equation
��,� = ��,� ���,� − �� �,
the mechanism is designed using the principle of Ackermann
steering. The steering cylinders’ positions are measured using (1)
where, ��,� is the proportional gain. The wheels’ velocity
wire encoders. Then, the steering angles are derived using the
measured cylinder positions and dimensions of the known
feedforward term. The equation for the valve opening ��,� is
steering structures. control is executed using PI-control combined with velocity

��,� = ��,� ���,� − �� � + ��,� ����,� − �� � �� + ���,� ��,�

Table 1. General specifications of the robot
Description Quantity (2)
where k �,� , k �,�, and k ��,� are gains for the proportional,
Dist. between front and rear wheel axle (L) 2.1 m
Dist. between wheel axle’s steer. joints (l) 1.46 m
Dist. between steer. joint and wheel center 0.24 m integral, and feedforward term, respectively.
(c)
Wheel diameter 0.854 m 3. CLOSED-LOOP VEHICLE MODEL
Mass 6650 kg As Fig. 2 shows, the software modules Controller, Inverse
Travel reducer gear ratio 17.7 Kinematics, and Forward Kinematics, together with the Robot,
Approx. max. linear wheel velocity 4WS 0.36 m/s form a closed-loop vehicle model, which is discussed in this
Approx. max. wheel steering angle 45 deg section. Sections 3.1 and 3.2 present the kinematics and
equations behind the modeled dynamic robot. Sections 3.3 and

376
 2019 IFAC IAV
Gdansk, Poland, July 3-5, 2019
Henri Liikanen et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 52-8 (2019) 375–380 377

3.4 concisely describe the path-following problem and the
controllers.
3.1 Kinematics
Inverse Kinematics are used to map the angular and linear
velocity of the robot’s base frame {b} to the wheel velocities
and steering angles. As Fig. 3 shows, the Haulotte has offset
wheels with a specific distance between the steering joint {k}
and the center of the wheel {j}. As Kelly (2013) described, the
linear and angular velocity of {b} in the world frame {w} can
3.2 Dynamics
The dynamics of the test-case robot were modeled using the
MATLAB Simulink and Simscape environments. The internal
fluid dynamics were modeled using well-known hydraulic
equations. The physical robot was modeled using solid
structures, revolute joints, and rigid transformations, all of
which were provided by the Simscape multibody environment.
The contact dynamics nonlinear interaction between the tire
and the terrain was modeled using the Simscape Multibody

the command ��,� for the wheel velocity to be derived as

be mapped to the velocity of frame {j} in {w}, which enables Contact Forces Library (see Miller, 2019).

�� ��
follows
��
� �
= � ��
� + �� � � �� + �� � � �� �� ,
� � �
(3)

��,� = ���(�� )����

��
+ ���
��
, (4)

where ω� �
�� = �� (Fig. 3) for the planar motion, and v� is the
magnitude of the velocity vector v. In the proposed solution, r
represents the two-dimensional vectors of the relative

wheel’s steering-angle command ϕ�,� measured with respect to

positions of the origins of the defined coordinate frames. The

the body frame is obtained from the velocity components of

��
the steering frame {k} using the following equations.
��
� �
= � ��
� + �� � � �� ,
� (5) Fig. 3. Denoted coordinate frames and path-following

��,� = ����2(���
�
, ���
�
).
variables.
(6)
For the internal fluid dynamics, all hydraulic actuators were
The use of atan2 function, provides a four-quarter, inverse- valve controlled. The valves were modeled by modeling the
tangent solution form the two input arguments. ports of the valves as orifices (see Hyvönen et al., 2006).

valve’s nominal transient pressure level ��� the flow ��

Depending on the pressure level over the orifice and the

through the orifice can be either turbulent (|�� − �� | � ��� ) or

Forward Kinematics were used to derive the localization

laminal (|�� − �� | ≤ ��� ), and the equation can be presented

feedback used by the path-following controller. The proposed
solution for the problem was based on the least-square solution
presented in Oftadeh et al. (2013b). The equations for the
�� ���(�� − �� )�|�� − �� | , |�� − �� | � ���
as follows
specific linear- and angular-velocity components of the base

�� = � �� (�� − �� ) |�� − �� | , (11)

��� � , |�� − �� | ≤ ���
frame {b} in planar motion can be summarized as follows.
�
�3 −
2���� ���
� ��� � = �� �,
�

���
�
(7)
where,

�� = �� �� .
�
�
where
� = (�� ) � ,
(12)
Note that in the above equations, |�� − �� | represents the
� � �� �

1 0 … 1 0
(8)

�� = � 0 1 … 0 1� , sgn function defines the fluid flow’s direction. The term �� is

magnitude of the pressure difference over the orifice, and the

−��� ��� … −��� ���

(9)
���
where �� is the flow coefficient, A is the area of the orifice,
a gain for a fixed-size orifice under constant fluid density,

�� = ���� ��� … ��� ��� ���� .
In the proposed solution, the elements of A are based on
vectors measured from the base frame {b} to the wheel frames
{j}, and they vary as functions of the measured steering angles
and constant dimensions l, L, and c, which are presented in
Fig. 3. Because of the mechanical linkage between two pairs
(10) and � is the density of the liquid. The assigned value of �� is
approximated between 0.6 and 0.8. The dynamics of the valve
spool are approximated using a second-order transfer function
and transport delay. The characteristic angular velocity,
damping, and delay between the control and the spool
movement are parameters, which are usually separately

unlike in Oftadeh et al. (2013b), �� depends on steering angles

of steering joints, this matrix is always invertible. Therefore,
and it is calculated in each control cycle. In the MATLAB
environment, this was done using the function pinv, which
calculates the pseudoinverse of the matrix A.
defined experimentally for each valve type. In the present
study, these parameters were empirically tuned until valid
behavior was achieved from each component.
The modeling of the hydraulic steering cylinders was based on
the modeling of the volumes of the cylinder chambers. The

377
2019 IFAC IAV
Gdansk, Poland, July 3-5, 2019
378 Henri Liikanen et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 52-8 (2019) 375–380

universal state equation for the volume can be presented as The functionalities and properties of Controller 2 are

�� = �∑ � − �,
���� ��
presented in Lynch and Park (2017). For the errors given by
� ��
(13) eq. 16, the nonlinear control laws for the linear and angular

Where, ���� is the effective bulk modulus of the volume V,

��
�� (� − �� |�� |(�� + �� ���∅� ))/���∅�
velocity of the vehicle are presented by the following equation
��
is the change of the volume with respect to time, and ∑ � is �� � = � � �,
� �� − (�� �� �� + �� |�� |���∅� )��� � ∅� (18)

nonlinear cylinder model, ∑ � contains a loss term ��,� from a

the sum of the flows entering and leaving the volume. For a
where, k1, k2, and k3 are controller gains.

∑ � = �� − ��,� − , where �� is the flow received from the

��
nonlinear look-up table. In the case of a hydraulic hose, we get Controller 3 is based on Oftadeh et al. (2013a). It uses error
��
valve, and ��,� is the flow entering the hydraulic motor or
definitions similar to those presented in eq. 16. One of its
advantages is the ability to control the speed of progress on the
cylinder. path by formulating the rate of the normalized path parameter

�� = (�� �� + cos �(� � ))�� ,

s, illustrated in Fig. 2. The equation is as follows
the input flow �� and the torque �� produced by the fixed-
As presented by Mononen et al. (2018), equations describing
(19)
where �� is a proportional gain, and �� is the control velocity,
normalized with respect to the path length. The term �(�� ) is
displacement hydraulic motor can be presented as
�� = �� �� + �� ∆�,
�� ∆�
(14)

�� = �1 − �� � − �� ��� �� , �� ��
given by the equation

2� �(� � ) = ���(�) sin�� ,

|�� | + �
(15)
Where, �� and �� are the displacement and the rotational
(20)
where, �� is the measured lateral position error, � � is a gain in
speed of the motor, ∆�� is the pressure difference over the area of 0 to 1, and � is a coefficient greater than 0. In case of
motor, �� is the internal leakage coefficient, �� is the coulomb
friction coefficient, and �� is the viscous friction coefficient.
large lateral errors, this equation slows the progress of the
robot on its path.
The system’s hydraulic pump is modeled as a constant The equations used to control the heading rate can be
pressure source. The travel reducers are modeled as constant summarized as follows.
�� = ��� + �� (�� ),
gear ratios and are presented in Table 1.
(21)
3.3 Path-Following Problem Definition
where
�� = �� − �(�� ),
Based on Fig. 3, the platform configuration errors can be

�� ����� ����� 0 � − ��
defined as (22)

��� � = �−����� 0 ����� 0� � � − �� �, �� = − �(�� ) + �� − �� .

�� 1 �� − ��
(23)
0 0 In the above equations, ��� is a discrete derivative of the angle
(16)

in which the rotation matrix is used to present the errors �� and of eq. 22, and �� is an additional term presented by the authors
�� along the vectors � and �, respectively. For a given path of this paper. When subtracting �� in eq. 23, we used the
�� (�) and the errors presented, the objective of the path- angular difference function to cover all angles in the four
following is to control the linear (v) and angular (�) velocity quarters of a full circle. Since the ultimate goal of the control

such that error signals �� , ��, and �� remain bounded and

of frame {b}, so that it converges and follows the frame {t}, system is to cooperate with the manipulator, at this level of

maneuver. This means �� ≈ �� for the purpose of base-frame

experiments, we do not use the independent heading
converge to zero.

manipulation planning. Therefore, �� values are assigned to

3.4 Controllers
For the simulation phase, the authors selected three path-
following controllers: Controller 1, Controller 2, and
Controller 3. The following paragraphs present the key
properties of each.
control. It is kept for cooperative control for mobile
keep the robot’s heading tangent to the path. Except for the
term presented in eq. 23, the stability of all terms in eqs. 19–
22 were proved by Oftadeh et al. (2013a).

control velocity �� is determined based on the minimum out of

Controller 3 uses a bounded-velocity solution in which the
Controller 1 relies on pure pursuit (see Corke, 2011). During

the ��,� values (Fig. 2) based on current inputs and the

path-following, the robot maintains a distance from the goal maximums principle. Inverse kinematics is used to calculate
frame according to the goal radius parameter d, as it is shown

compares these values with the desired velocity �� set by the

in the following equation

�� ��(� − �� )� + (� − �� )� − ��
predefined maximum wheel velocity (Table 1). Controller 3

��
�� � = � � − �� �.
�� ����2( )
path planner and selects the minimum out of the maximums,
�
� − ��
(17)
such that the command velocity is selected based on eq. 24

in which the parameters �� and �� are controller gains, and �� = min(�� , � �,� ).
� − �� and � − �� represent the measured position errors.
(24)

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4. RESULTS
4.1 Simulation Results
The three path-following controllers presented in the previous
section were first evaluated under equal simulation conditions
using ideal, smooth localization feedback and a small delay of
20 ms. The simulation results from well-behaved paths 1 and
2 in Table 2, in which the limitations of the vehicle had already
been taken into account in the planning phase, showed that
even a relatively simple method such as pure pursuit
(Controller 1) provided accurate following with a lateral
position errors of less than 1 cm. However, the negative effects
of the goal radius became clear. While maintaining other
controller gains for small lateral position errors, the goal radius
of less than 10 cm caused the control to become unstable.

The performances of Controllers 2 and 3 on paths that were

well-behaved in terms of measured error signals proved to be
close to one another. When studying controllers on more Fig. 4. Experimental results with bounded velocity control.
challenging paths (Path 3), open-loop (but constrained) control
of the robot’s linear velocity (Controller 3) provided better
controllability during scenarios that were closer to reality,
including possible steering saturations (see Path 3 in Table 2)
and the actuators’ driving velocity limitations. During the
steering saturation, Controller 2 increased the robot’s linear
velocity to reduce the errors. This can be seen as an unwanted
property, especially with slow-speed robots. Controller 1 was
unable to handle the simulation scenario of Path 3. It is notable
that the errors presented in Table 2 were simulated on even
ground and had ideal localization feedback, but the internal
and contact dynamics were included, as presented in Section
3.2. All errors of the table are in centimeters.
Table 2. Simulated minimum mean absolute position errors
Path 1 Path 2 Path 3
15 10

Reference 10

(- -) 5 0

Simulated 0 Fig. 5. Wheels’ velocity commands and measurements

from the experiment shown in Fig. 4.

2] 3] 2] 3] 2] 3]
-5
( ) -10 0 10
-10
-10 0 10

Controller 1 16.88 0.36 14.56 0.15 - -

Controller 2 0.88 0.58 0.69 0.25 2.41 7.60
Controller 3 0.11 0.45 0.13 0.10 0.61 7.02
4.2 Experimental Results
The graphs in Figs. 4, 5 and 6 show the results from the
experimental scenario in which Controller 3 was used during
path-following at the maximum possible speed, which was 1
limited by the maximum 4WS wheel velocity, as shown in
Opening [-]

0.5
Table 1. All the measured signals were based on the wheel-
odometry feedback. The mean absolute x and y errors of the 0

experiment were 2.84 and 0.06 cm, respectively. Furthermore, -0.5 Front cylinder
the first video in the playlist1 was created to show that the Rear cylinder
-1
experiment’s absolute end-position errors were less than .5 m. 0 50 100 150
To ensure the repeatability of the results, the same path was Time [s]
driven multiple times. Fig. 6 shows all valve openings during
Fig. 6. Valve openings of the experiment of Fig. 4

1
See the YouTube playlist: https://goo.gl/Yj14zt

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380 Henri Liikanen et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 52-8 (2019) 375–380

the experiment. The smoothness of the openings proves that robot’s progress on the path, based on the sharpness of the path
the actuator control that was implemented functioned well and amount of errors, considerably increased the smoothness
with the path-following controller and the closed-loop and performance of the path-following of a hydraulic field
odometry-localization feedback. robot. The higher performance is due to the fact that the
controller promptly evaluates instantaneous curvature of the

Heading angle [rad]

wheels path, which allows it to exploit the full velocity
y-position [m]

bandwidth. In future research, the authors will include global

positioning by minimally using a highly accurate differential
GPS and visual feedback to perform high performance mobile
manipulation tasks.
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