energies

Article
Numerical Calculation Method of Model Predictive
Control for Integrated Vehicle Thermal Management
Based on Underhood Coupling Thermal Transmission
Pengyu Lu 1,2, *, Qing Gao 1,2 , Liang Lv 3 , Xiaoye Xue 4 and Yan Wang 1,2
1 State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun 130025, China;
gqing@jlu.edu.cn (Q.G.); wangyan2387@163.com (Y.W.)
2 College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130025, China
3 College of Telecommunication Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130025, China; lvliangcn@163.com
4 FAW-Volkswagen Automobile Co. LTD, Changchun 130013, China; xiaoye.xue@faw-vw.com
* Correspondence: Lupengyu135@126.com; Tel./Fax: +86-0431-8509-5196




Received: 10 December 2018; Accepted: 11 January 2019; Published: 15 January 2019


Abstract: The nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) controller is designed for an engine
cooling system and aims to control the pump speed and fan speed according to the thermal load,
vehicle speed, and ambient temperature in real time with respect to the coolant temperature and
comprehensive energy consumption of the system, which serve as the targets. The system control
model is connected to the underhood computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model by the coupling
thermal transmission equation. For the intricate thermal management process predictive control
and system control performance analysis, a coupling multi-thermodynamic system nonlinear model
for integrated vehicle thermal management was established. The concept of coupling factor was
proposed to provide the boundary conditions considering the thermal transmission interaction
of multiple heat exchangers for the radiator module. Using the coupling factor, the thermal
flow influence of the structural characteristics in the engine compartment was described with the
lumped parameter method, thereby simplifying the space geometric feature numerical calculation.
In this way, the coupling between the multiple thermodynamic systems mathematical model and
multidimensional nonlinear CFD model was realized, thereby achieving the simulation and analysis
of the integrated thermal management multilevel cooperative control process based on the underhood
structure design. The research results indicated an excellent capability of the method for integrated
control analysis, which contributed to solving the design, analysis, and optimization problems for
vehicle thermal management. Compared to the traditional engine cooling mode, the NMPC thermal
management scheme clearly behaved the better temperature controlling effects and the lower system
energy consumption. The controller could further improve efficiency with reasonable coordination of
the convective thermal transfer intensity between the liquid and air sides. In addition, the thermal
transfer structures in the engine compartment could also be optimized.

Keywords: integrated vehicle thermal management; nonlinear model predictive control; multidimensional
coupling computation; system energy consumption optimization

1. Introduction
Increasingly stringent fuel consumption and emission regulations have generated higher
requirements for engine cooling. Previous simple heat dissipation problems have gradually
evolved into the use of an intelligent vehicle thermal management system that considers emissions,
dynamic performance, economy, and other aspects [1]. As compared to traditional engine cooling,
the new-generation vehicle thermal management system, which considers the electronic control as

Energies 2019, 12, 259; doi:10.3390/en12020259 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 259 2 of 27

the technical scheme, takes the system simulation and test calibration as the design method, as well
as pursuing vehicle performance optimization as the ultimate goal, has achieved the following
technological breakthroughs [2].

• The technical scheme of the motor driven pump, intelligent fan, electronic thermostat,
and electronic control unit (ECU) controller is adopted to replace the mechanical pump and
graded speed fan. Converting the passive control mode into the active control mode improves the
engine efficiency, emission, and attachment energy consumption and enhances the comprehensive
performance of the cooling system [3].
• The air conditioning, oil cooling, and turbo charging intercooling systems are extended into
the integrated thermal management system [4]. The mechanism of the complex multiple
thermodynamic systems coupling transmission can be studied by applying the computer
simulation approach and the wind tunnel test analysis. In addition, the single system verification
design can be transformed into a multi-system integration optimization design [5].

1.1. Trend towards Electronic Thermal Management

In recent years, the industry has generally accepted the replacement of the traditional cooling
mode of engines with electric thermal management technology to significantly improve the temperature
stability, dynamic response, energy consumption, and emissions of engines [6]. In these technical
solutions, multiple types of controllers have been applied, such as proportional-integral-derivative (PID),
robust, and rule-based controllers [7,8]. Khaled designed the controller based on feedback regulation
to strengthen the engine cooling capability and concluded that the implementation of a reasonable
control strategy is essential to ensuring the outstanding performance of the cooling system [9,10].
Zhou added feed forward control to the engine thermal management control process. As compared
to the feedback control system, the feed forward scheme can select lower instantaneous power for
the fan, coolant pump, and oil pump while satisfying the engine thermal dissipation requirements,
thereby saving 57% of driving accessories consumption [11]. Given the presence of many technological
problems in thermal systems, such as multi-input and multi-output (MIMO), high non-linearity, and
conflicting control targets, the use of a single feedback controller to achieve the best results is more
difficult [12,13]. Model predictive control is capable of system state predictions and control model
optimizations to effectively solve multi-objective nonlinear system control problems [14]. The high
reliability mathematical model predicts the future system status, the objective function determines the
controlled parameters, and the optimal output sequence obtains the control horizon with respect to
the state update and the repeated optimization equation solution [15,16]. Mohammad generated a
model predictive control scheme for the thermal management of heavy trucks [17]. The comprehensive
energy consumption of the system can be reduced by 38% through the implementation of reasonable
coordination in the energy distribution of each component and the braking recovery. Lopez designed a
double-loop thermal management system for hybrid vehicles [18]. The test results showed that the
nonlinear model predictive control (NMPC) thermal management system was improved in terms of
the battery warming rate, optimal temperature duration, and energy consumption reduction of the
internal resistance as compared to using the non-predictive control scheme.

1.2. Underhood Multi-Thermodynamic System Coupling Thermal Transmission

The NMPC controller has a high requirement for accuracy of system dynamic prediction. However,
most cases are more concerned with the reliability of the single system mathematical model and take no
such considerations to the multi-system coupling thermal transmission problem. The environmental
temperature is generally served as the radiator boundary condition, and the heat transfer interaction
between the heat exchangers is ignored, thereby resulting in model prediction inaccuracy [19].
Blago emphasized that high-temperature air reflow and condenser calefaction were important deviation
factors between the simulation results and experimental values. Given above, it should not be
 Energies 2019, 12, 259 3 of 27

neglected in the high reliability mathematical modeling [20]. In the engineering and academic
community, the bench test [21], computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis [22,23], and 1D/3D
co-simulation [24,25] are usually adopted to observe the flow field and heat exchange capacity in the
engine compartment solving the thermal transmission enhancement problem [26]. Mao carried out the
full-scale geometric model of the truck engine compartment. The prototype design reasonableness
Energies 2019,radiator
of the 12, x FORwas
PEERevaluated
REVIEW by the CFD simulation, including the heat exchange amount, space3 of 26
placement, core size, and pressure drop, all of which were of great reference for heat transfer structure
optimization
The prototype design[27].reasonableness
The 1D/3D co-simulation method
of the radiator is effective
was evaluated byfor
thethe
CFDmulti-system
simulation,coupling
includingheat
the heat
transfer theoretical analysis. The MATLAB/FLUENT-based co-simulation model quantified
exchange amount, space placement, core size, and pressure drop, all of which were of great reference for heat the
aerodynamic
transfer structure cooling process[27].
optimization of multiple heat exchangers,
The 1D/3D co-simulation summarized
method isthe characteristic
effective for therule of the
multi-system
temperature
coupling field theoretical
heat transfer about the radiator
analysis.thermal load and vehicle conditions,
The MATLAB/FLUENT-based analyzedmodel
co-simulation the causes and the
quantified
aerodynamic cooling process of multiple heat exchangers, summarized the characteristic rule for
influencing factors of the high-temperature air reflow, and provided an improved targeted scheme of the
structural
temperature optimization
field [28,29]. thermal load and vehicle conditions, analyzed the causes and influencing
about the radiator
factors of the high-temperature air reflow, and provided an improved targeted scheme for structural
1.3. Research Content
optimization [28,29].
The schematic diagram of the integrated vehicle thermal management control system is shown in
1.3. Research Content
Figure 1, including the engine cooling system, air conditioning system, passenger cabin, underhood,
and vehicle ECU controller. In engineering developments and integrated vehicle thermal management
The schematic diagram of the integrated vehicle thermal management control system is shown in Figure
system designs, there exist three key technical problems as follows:
1, including the engine cooling system, air conditioning system, passenger cabin, underhood, and vehicle
ECU (1)controller.
How to In select
engineering developments
the reasonable controland integrated
scheme vehiclestrategy
and control thermalofmanagement system
engine cooling designs,
system
there existto
three key technical problems as follows:
improve the temperature control stability of components and the system dynamic
(1) How toresponsiveness [30]. control scheme and control strategy of engine cooling system to improve the
select the reasonable
(2) How
temperature to optimize
control stability the structural arrangement
of components and the systemin dynamic
underhood to restrain the
responsiveness harmful thermal
[30].
(2) How tointeraction of multiple
optimize the heat
structural exchangers in
arrangement and improve the
underhood to radiator thermal
restrain the efficiency
harmful [31].
thermal interaction of
multiple heat exchangers and improve the radiator thermal efficiency [31].
(3) How to evaluate the engine cooling performance effectively to strengthen the matching degree
(3) How tobetween
evaluate the engineand
components cooling performance
increase the energyeffectively
efficiency to
of strengthen the matching
thermal management degree
system [32].between
components and increase the energy efficiency of thermal management system [32].

Figure 1. Schematic
Schematic diagram of the integrated vehicle thermal management control system.

To solve
To solve the the above
above technicalproblems,
technical problems,anan optimization
optimizationcontrol
controlmethod
methodof integrated vehicle
of integrated thermal
vehicle thermal
management
management system
system basedbased on NMPC
on NMPC was was proposed
proposed in this
in this paper.
paper. ThisThis technical
technical route
route adopted
adopted in
in paper is
paper is shown in Figure 2, including four contents of engine cooling mechanism modeling,
shown in Figure 2, including four contents of engine cooling mechanism modeling, underhood coupling underhood
thermal transfer characteristics characterization, NMPC integrated thermal management controller design,
and evaluation and optimization of system thermal control performance.
Step 1: The mechanism mathematical model of engine cooling process was established to provide system state
prediction for NMPC controller, and the simulation results were compared with system bench test to verify
the reliability of the prediction model.
 Energies 2019, 12, 259 4 of 27

coupling thermal transfer characteristics characterization, NMPC integrated thermal management

controller design, and evaluation and optimization of system thermal control performance.

Step 1: The mechanism mathematical model of engine cooling process was established to provide
system state prediction for NMPC controller, and the simulation results were compared with
system bench test to verify the reliability of the prediction model.
Step 2: By means of CFD numerical calculation, the complex underhood aerodynamic coupling thermal
transmission process was analyzed. Then a multi-system thermal transmission characterization
method based on coupling factor was provided to be the coupling thermal boundary condition
Energies 2019, 12,
forxthe
FORmodel
PEER REVIEW
predictive control process. 4 of 26

Step 3: The NMPC controller of an integrated thermal management system was designed.
on coupling With factordetermining
was provided the to
controlled parameters,
be the coupling objective
thermal function
boundary optimization
condition for theequation and
model predictive
control process. system constraints, the cooperative control of the pump and fan can be realized in the engine
Step 3: The NMPC coolingcontroller
process. of an integrated thermal management system was designed. With determining
the controlled
Step 4: The parameters,
temperatureobjective functionand
control stability optimization equation
system energy and system
consumption were constraints,
chosen to be the cooperative
evaluation
control of theindices.
pump andThefan can becontrol
thermal realized in the engine
performance cooling process.
comparison and analysis between control schemes
Step 4: The of temperature
NMPC andcontrol
PID were stability
carriedand
out. system energybasis,
On the above consumption were optimization
control strategy chosen to bescheme
evaluation
indices. The and thermal control thermal
underhood performance comparison
transmission and analysis
structure between
optimization control
scheme hadschemes of NMPC
been outlined to and
PID were carried out. On the above basis,
improve system energy efficiency. control strategy optimization scheme and underhood thermal
transmission structure optimization scheme had been outlined to improve system energy efficiency.

Integrated thermal
Figure 2. Integrated thermal management
management system optimization control technology route.

2. Engine
2. Engine Cooling
Cooling Mechanism
Mechanism ModelModel

In thisIn this section,

section, thethe mathematicalmodel
mathematical model ofof engine
engine cooling
coolingsystem
system mechanism
mechanism waswas
established and and
established
verified by the system bench test. There were two main functions of the mathematical model.
verified by the system bench test. There were two main functions of the mathematical model. First, it was First, it was
used used to calculate
to calculate the cooling
the cooling process
process of theofengine
the engine
and and evaluate
evaluate the thermal
the thermal control
control performance
performance of
of different
different thermal management control schemes as the controlled system. Secondly,
thermal management control schemes as the controlled system. Secondly, it provided the system future state it provided the
system future
information for thestate
modelinformation
predictionforcontroller,
the model soprediction controller,
as to solve so as tofunction
the objective solve theoptimization
objective function
equation,
optimization equation, realizing the coordinated control of the pump and
realizing the coordinated control of the pump and fan. System mechanism mathematical modeling fan. System mechanism was of
greatmathematical
significance modeling was of
in integrated great significance
thermal management in integrated
design, andthermal
it was management
the basis ofdesign, and it was
evaluation, analysis,
the basis and
optimization of evaluation, analysis, optimization
control. Therefore, in order to and control.
ensure Therefore,of
the reliability in numerical
order to ensure the many
model, reliability
classical
mathematical description methods and thermal transfer formulas were adopted in this paper toformulas
of numerical model, many classical mathematical description methods and thermal transfer establish the
enginewere adopted
cooling systemin this paper to establish the engine cooling system model.
model.

2.1. Engine Internal Thermal Transmission Model

The comprehensive heat transfer rate for the internal convection and radiation received by the cylinder
wall was calculated with respect to the mixture gas combustion exothermic rate and heat emission
coefficient. ℎ can be obtained through the system thermal balance test. Figure 3 presents the thermal
transmission process between the cylinder, coolant, engine block, and the external environment [33]. The
 Energies 2019, 2019,
Energies 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
12, 259 5 of 26
5 of 27

The energy balance equation of the coolant is defined as

2.1. Engine Internal Thermal Transmission Model
The comprehensive heat+transfer ∙ ∙rate, for−the, internal = , ∙ and
− convection ∙ radiation received by the (3)
.
cylinder wall Q gw was calculated with respect to the mixture gas combustion exothermic rate and
The energy
heat balance
emission equation
coefficient. of thecan
hemission engine block is defined
be obtained throughasthe system thermal balance test. Figure 3
presents the thermal transmission process between the cylinder, coolant, engine block, and the external
+ − = ∙ ∙ (4)
environment [33]. The following energy balance equations were established for each component.

Figure 3. Engine internal thermal transmission process.

Figure 3. Engine internal thermal transmission process.
The thermal production equation of the engine is defined as
The temperature distribution of the cylinder and the engine block were considered uniform by the
. .
lumped parameterization. The coolant temperature Q gw =gradient
Qcom ·hemissionin the jacket was assumed constant, and (1) was
represented by the arithmetic mean value of the engine inlet and outlet temperatures. To establish the
convectionTheheatenergy
transfer equations,
balance the of
equation Hohenberg
the cylinder convection
wall is defined heat transfer
as model was applied to determine
the heat transfer coefficients, specifically and [34].
. . dTw as
The convection heat transfer equations of the coolant
Q gw − Qwc = m are defined
l ·Cl · (2)
dt
+
=∝ ∙ ( − )
The energy balance equation of the coolant is defined as 2
(5)
+ .
. . = ∙ (  − ) dT c
Qwc + mc ·cc · Tc,e in − Tc,eout − 2 Qeb = mc,e ·cc · (3)
dt
Since the natural convection between the engine surface and ambient air only accounts for 1–2% of the
The energy balance equation of the engine block is defined as
coolant, can be neglected in the system energy balance equations. is the friction thermal load
generated by the mechanical motion of the . piston . and . is calculated dTeb with the engine friction mean effective
pressure (FMEP) as [33] Q eb + Q f − Q a = m eb ·c eb · (4)
dt
The temperature distribution of the cylinder = and∙ the engine block were considered uniform by (6)
the lumped parameterization. The coolant temperature gradient in the jacket was assumed constant,
The
andliquid-immersion
Tc was represented lubricant
by the cooler was mean
arithmetic applied in thermal
value management
of the engine inlet andsystem, and the lubricant
outlet temperatures.
coolerTowas cooledthe
establish byconvection
the coolant of transfer
heat engine. equations,
There were thetwo routes during
Hohenberg the thermal
convection transmission
heat transfer model wasof the
entire applied
system: to
a part of the thermal load was directly transmitted to the external
determine the heat transfer coefficients, specifically αwc and αeb [34]. environment via the radiator
with the heat
Theexchange between
convection the coolant
heat transfer and the
equations cylinder;
of the coolanttheare other part as
defined was carried away by the lubricant,
passing through the lubricant cooler, and this the heat was finally transferred to coolant in jacket. These two
paths both ultimately exchanged the heatQ.to = the
∝wccoolant
·Al (Twin
Tcout +
− the
Tcin
radiator,
) thus the cylinder and the lubricant
wc 2
circuit were regarded as a whole in the energy . balance equation.
T +T In order (5) it
to simplify the model calculation,
Qeb = αeb ·Aeb ( cout2 cin − Teb )
was considered that the total thermal load of the engine was transmitted to the coolant, and the thermal
exchange between
Since thethe cylinder
natural and the between
convection lubricantthealsoengine
couldsurface
be ignored.
and ambient air only accounts for 1–2%
. .
of the coolant, Qa can be neglected in the system energy balance equations. Q f is the friction thermal
2.2. External Cooling Circulation Model
 Energies 2019, 12, 259 6 of 27

load generated by the mechanical motion of the piston and is calculated with the engine friction mean
effective pressure (FMEP) as [33]
. ωe
Q f = FMEP·V (6)
ε
The liquid-immersion lubricant cooler was applied in thermal management system, and the
lubricant cooler was cooled by the coolant of engine. There were two routes during the thermal
transmission of the entire system: a part of the thermal load was directly transmitted to the external
environment via the radiator with the heat exchange between the coolant and the cylinder; the other
part was carried away by the lubricant, passing through the lubricant cooler, and this the heat was
finally transferred to coolant in jacket. These two paths both ultimately exchanged the heat to the
coolant in the radiator, thus the cylinder and the lubricant circuit were regarded as a whole in the
energy balance equation. In order to simplify the model calculation, it was considered that the total
thermal load of the engine was transmitted to the coolant, and the thermal exchange between the
Energies 2019, 12,and
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thePEER REVIEW
lubricant also could be ignored. 6 of 26
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 26
2.2. External Cooling Circulation Model
The external circulations include two branches of the radiator and bypass cycles, which are composed of
The external
The external
the thermostat, radiator, circulations
circulations include
coolant include
pump, twocooling
two branches
and branches
of the ofastheshown
radiator
fan, radiatorin and
and bypass Figure bypass
cycles, cycles,
which
4. The arewhich
coolingcomposedare of
circulation
the composed
thermostat,
hydraulic of
head was the thermostat,
radiator,
provided by aradiator,
coolant pump, coolant
volumetricandpump, pump,
coolingand and
fan,
theascooling
shown
coolant fan,in
flow asrate
shown
Figureis a in
4. Figure 4. The cooling
Therelationship
linear cooling circulation
with the
pumpcirculation
hydraulic headThe
speed. hydraulic
was provided
electronic headby was provided
a volumetric
thermostat bythe
pump,
adjusts a volumetric
and the
valve pump,flow
liftcoolant
according andtorate
the , coolant
is a, linear
thus flow rate is a linear
relationship
determining with
the flowthe
ratio relationship
pump ofspeed. The with
the radiator the pump
electronic
cycle and speed. cycle.
thermostat
bypass The electronic
adjusts 5thermostat
the valve
Figure adjusts
lift according
presents the tothe valve
temperature, lift according
, thus determining
characteristic to Tthe
curve of,flow
c,eout the
ratio thus
of thedetermining
radiator the
cycle flow
and ratio of
bypass the radiator
cycle. Figurecycle
5 and bypass
presents thecycle. Figure
temperature
electronic thermostat valve lift. The flow balance equation of the thermostat and the energy balance equation 5 presents the
characteristictemperature
curve of the
of thecharacteristic
electronic thermostat
radiator arecurve
valve of lift.
the electronic
established Theasflow thermostat
balance(8)
Formulas valve(9).
equation
and lift. Thethermostat
of the
The flow balance
circulation and equation
the energy
branch of the
flow thermostat
balance
rate is equation
assumed
of theand the to
radiator
proportional energy balance
arethermostat
the establishedequation of the radiator
lift.as Formulas are established
(8) and as Formulasbranch
(9). The circulation (8) and (9).
flowThe circulation
rate is assumed
branch flow
proportional to therate is assumed
thermostat lift.proportional to the thermostat lift.

Figure 4. External cooling circulation.

Externalcooling
Figure4.4.External
Figure coolingcirculation.
circulation.

Figure 5.
Figure Thermostatvalve
5. Thermostat valvelift
liftcharacteristic
characteristiccurve.
curve.
Figure 5. Thermostat valve lift characteristic curve.
The pump coolant flow rate is defined as
The pump coolant flow rate is defined as
= ∙ ∙ ⁄60 (7)
= ∙ ∙ ⁄60 (7)
The flow balance equation of the thermostat is defined as
The flow balance equation of the thermostat is defined as
= + = , ∙ + [1 − , ]∙ (8)
= + = , ∙ + [1 − , ]∙ (8)
 Energies 2019, 12, 259 7 of 27

The pump coolant flow rate is defined as

.
mc = Npump ·Vpump ·ρc /60 (7)

The flow balance equation of the thermostat is defined as

. . .   . h  i .
mc = mr + mby = lt Tc,e out ·mc + 1 − lt Tc,e out ·mc (8)

The energy balance equation of the radiator is defined as

. . dTc,rout
mr ·cc ·(Tc,eout − Tc,rout ) − Qr = mc,r ·cc · (9)
dt
The convection heat transfer coefficient expressions on the liquid and air sides were fitted by the
semi-empirical formula through the steady experimental data of the radiator (Figure 6). Coefficients a
and b are the exponential fitting coefficients of the internal and external fluids, respectively. The thermal
transmission equation of the radiator was established to determine the heat transfer capacity per unit
.
temperature difference, UA, using the number of transfer units (NTU) method to calculate Qr , which is
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 26
the heat transfer rate in the radiator [35].

Figure 6. Radiator experimental data fitting.

Figure 6. Radiator experimental data fitting.
The thermal transmission equation of the radiator is defined as
The thermal transmission equation of the radiator is defined as
11 11
UA = = (10)
= 1 + δt + 1 = 1
+ δt
+ 1 (10)
Ac ·αc + λt ·At + Aa ·αa ain ·Gc bin + λt ·A+
t aext ·Gair bext
∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
.
=
wherewhere NTU =,
UA. = , , Q=
, ε1=−1 − e−NTU r = ∙ε·mr ∙·cc ·(∙T(c,r in
, −−
Tairin ). )
∙ m ·c r c

2.3. System
2.3. System EnergyEnergy Consumption
Consumption ModelModel
Formula
Formula (11) is(11)
the is the pressure
pressure balance
balance equation
equation of theofpump
the pump
head,head,
engineengine pressure
pressure drop,drop, radiator
radiator pressure
drop, pressure drop, and
and thermostat thermostat
pressure drop.pressure drop. drop
The pressure The pressure drop jacket
of the water of the and
water jacket and
radiator wereradiator
mainlywere
the flow
mainly the flow friction loss, which can be approximately considered as the quadratic
friction loss, which can be approximately considered as the quadratic polynomial of the coolant flow rate. polynomial of The
the coolant
thermostat is the flow rate. The
resistance thermostat
pressure drop is the resistance
caused pressure
by the orifice drop caused
throttling, whichbyisthe orifice
related tothrottling,
the flow area
which is related to the flow area and
and resistance coefficient of the valve body [36].resistance coefficient of the valve body [36].
The pressure
The pressure balancebalance equation
equation of the of the cooling
cooling circulation
circulation is defined
is defined as as

∙ H ∙ ·ρ
= + +∆ = +∆ (11) (11)
pump c ·g = Pe drop + Pr drop + ∆Pt radiator = Pe drop + ∆Ptpass

The thermostat flow rate is defined as

= ∙ (2 ∙ ∆ / ) (12)

The energy consumption of the pump and fan was calculated by the effective power and efficiency of the
fluid machinery. The effective power refers to the mechanical power of the medium obtained from the fluid
machinery, which is related to the flow rate and hydraulic head. Efficiency is converted between the effective
power and the energy consumption of components, wherein factors such as the fluid friction, bearing
Energies 2019, 12, 259 8 of 27

The thermostat flow rate is defined as

q
.
mr = Atr ·Ctr (2·∆Pt radiator /ρc ) (12)

The energy consumption of the pump and fan was calculated by the effective power and efficiency
of the fluid machinery. The effective power refers to the mechanical power of the medium obtained
from the fluid machinery, which is related to the flow rate and hydraulic head. Efficiency is converted
between the effective power and the energy consumption of components, wherein factors such as the
fluid friction, bearing rotational friction, and motor mechanical efficiency are taken into account [37].

ρc ·g·Vpump ·Hpump V f an ·∆P f an

Ppump e = , P f an e = (13)
1000 1000

Ppump e = Ppump ·ηpump

P f an e = P f an ·η f an (14)
P f an e = P f an ·η f an

2.4. Model Validation

Because the reliability of numerical model directly affects the control performance of thermal
management system, the mechanism model of engine cooling established in this paper should be
verified the bench test, which is mainly used to provide reasonable system state prediction for
NMPC controller. Taking NEDC driving cycle as the test condition, the engine cooling system model
was verified by bench test. The vehicle speed information and the gearbox shift strategy in test
condition were converted into engine speed signal, which was transmitted to the electromagnetic
dynamometer. The dynamometer provided load for the engine according to the controlled engine speed
information. The ECU controller adjusted accelerator pedal signal to ensure corresponding engine
torque load. The signals of engine speed and brake mean effective pressure (BMEP) were obtained
from dynamometer. The heat emission coefficient was determined with the interpolation of engine
speed and BMEP in engine MAPs. Finally, the thermal load of the cooling system can be estimated
by Formula (1), in which the dynamic fuel consumption rate was measured with fuel consumption
meter. Engine speed, fuel consumption rate and BMEP in test condition were present in Figure 7,
and the calculated thermal load of the cooling system was shown in Figure 8. Temperature sensors
were arranged at the inlet and outlet of the engine jacket and the inlet of the thermostat, respectively
reading the coolant temperature inside the engine and the thermostat. The coolant temperature
signal could be translated into the information of the valve lift by the thermostat characteristic curve.
The radiator was located in a wind tunnel where the velocity was maintained in range of 4.5 ± 0.5 m/s
and temperature was controlled within 30 ± 0.2 ◦ C. When the engine coolant temperature reached up
to 90 ◦ C, the operating mode was turned on and the fan rotate speed was 4000 rpm. If the coolant
temperature was below 80 ◦ C, the mode would switch to stationary. The coolant pump was driven by
engine crankshaft through pulley, and the transmission ratio was 1.05. The engine coolant temperature
and thermostat lift comparisons between the model calculation and experimental test are presented in
Figures 9 and 10, respectively.
 tunnelwhere
tunnel wherethe thevelocity
velocitywas
wasmaintained
maintainedin inrange
rangeofof4.5
4.5±0.5
±0.5m/s
m/sand
andtemperature
temperaturewas
wascontrolled
controlledwithin
within30 30
±0.2℃. When the engine coolant temperature reached up to 90 ℃, the operating mode
±0.2℃. When the engine coolant temperature reached up to 90 ℃, the operating mode was turned on and the was turned on and the
fan rotate
fan rotate speed
speed was was 4000
4000 rpm.
rpm. IfIf the
the coolant
coolant temperature
temperature was was below
below 80 ℃, the
80 ℃, the mode
mode would
would switch
switch toto
stationary. The coolant pump was driven by engine crankshaft through pulley, and the transmission
stationary. The coolant pump was driven by engine crankshaft through pulley, and the transmission ratio was ratio was
1.05. The
1.05. The engine
engine coolant
coolant temperature
temperature and and thermostat
thermostat lift
lift comparisons
comparisons between
between the
the model
model calculation
calculation and
and
Energies 2019, 12, 259 9 of 27
experimentaltest
experimental testare
arepresented
presentedin
inFigure
Figure99andandFigure
Figure10,
10,respectively.
respectively.

Figure
Figure7.7.
Figure Engine
7.Engine speed,
Enginespeed, fuel
speed,fuel consumption
fuelconsumption rate,
consumptionrate, and
rate,and brake
andbrake mean
brakemean effective
meaneffective pressure.
effectivepressure.
pressure.

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 26

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 26
Figure
Figure Enginethermal
Figure8.8.Engine
Engine thermalload
thermal loadunder
load underthe
under thetest
the testconditions.
test conditions.
conditions.

Figure 9. Comparison of the coolant temperature.

Comparison of
Figure 9. Comparison of the
the coolant
coolant temperature.
temperature.

Comparison of
Figure 10. Comparison of the
the thermostat
thermostat lift.
Figure 10. Comparison of the thermostat lift.

The coefficient determination was selected as the evaluation standard for the model’s credibility [19]. In
The coefficient determination was selected as the evaluation standard for the model’s credibility [19]. In
the regression process, represents the proportion of the explained variation in the total variation, whose
the regression process, represents the proportion of the explained variation in the total variation, whose
value ranges from 0 to 1. When the value is closer to 1 indicates that the simulation result is consistent
value ranges from 0 to 1. When the value is closer to 1 indicates that the simulation result is consistent
with the experimental test.
with the experimental test.
∑( − )
= ∑( − ) (15)
Energies 2019, 12, 259 10 of 27

The coefficient determination was selected as the evaluation standard for the model’s
credibility [19]. In the regression process, R2 represents the proportion of the explained variation in
the total variation, whose value ranges from 0 to 1. When the R2 value is closer to 1 indicates that the
simulation result is consistent with the experimental test.

P 2
Xexp i − Xsimi
2
R = P _ 2
(15)
(Xexp i − Xexp i )

In this article, the coolant temperature determination coefficient was 0.947 and thermostat valve
lift was 0.752. The mainly influential factors of the simulation can be deduced as follows:

(1) At the engine starting stage, the thermostat was closed and some coolant remains idle in the
radiator cycle but not in the bypass cycle. As a result, the coolant mass determined by the
simulation calculation was higher than the actual test value, thereby resulting in a reduced
heating rate.
(2) The radiator heat transfer rate of simulation model was calculated based on steady radiator data
without considering the actual heat transfer inertia. In addition, temperature response velocity
was infinity. This hypothesis is more suitable for the condition of a relatively stable coolant
temperature, which resulted in the forward movement of the thermostat opening time.

Although deviations were presented in the system prediction model at the engine start stage,
the determination coefficients of the system model reached to 0.972 and 0.896 with the radiator cycle
opening. The increases indicated that the estimated results of prediction model in the normal operating
range had a higher reliability. Furthermore, the present study focused on the collaborative control
of the pump and fan as well as the influence of the underhood structure on the system performance
without paying any attention to the engine cold start process. Based on these observations, the system
prediction model could be fulfilled with the reliability requirements of NMPC controller.

3. Coupling Thermal Transmission Model of the Underhood Structure

In this section, CFD numerical method was adopted to simulate the aerodynamic coupling thermal
transmission process in underhood. The multi-system coupling thermal boundary conditions for
radiator were provided, and the calculation result of the mathematical model could be closer to the
actual vehicle driving situation. In addition, the concept of coupling factor was proposed to characterize
the coupling thermal transmission with lumped parameters method, realizing the correlation between
CFD simulation and system control model. In this way, the structural characteristics of CFD model
were reflected into the performance evaluation of the thermal management system, rather than simply
limited to the observation of temperature, pressure, and heat exchange capacity underhood.

3.1. Underhood CFD Simulation

The CFD simulation was applied to observe the flow field, temperature distribution, and heat
transfer process in the engine compartment based on the interactive thermal transmission mechanism
of multiple heat exchangers. The underhood geometric structure model was displayed in Figure 11
which included the cabin shell, condenser, radiator, engine, and other components.
The intake grille wall was set as the velocity-inlet boundary condition, which imported the
ambient temperature and the vehicle windward velocity. The cabin shell wall was sat as the adiabatic
boundary ignoring solar radiation and external convection thermal transmission. The underhood
bottom wall was defined as the pressure outlet boundary condition, and the background pressure
was set as one standard atmospheric pressure (i.e., 1 ATP) [29]. In the process of aerodynamic
coupling thermal transmission in the CFD model of engine compartment, the only fluid medium
is the air. In addition, the liquid-side convection heat exchange capability of heat exchangers was
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 26

Energies 2019, 12, 259 11 of 27

3. Coupling Thermal Transmission Model of the Underhood Structure
Indescribed
this section, CFD
in the numerical
cooling systemmethod was adopted
mathematical to simulate
model [38]. the aerodynamic
The volume coupling
thermal generation thermal
load in
transmission process in underhood. The multi-system coupling thermal boundary conditions
each heat exchanger was defined, such that the convection heat transfer coefficient was deemed for radiator
were provided,
uniform andandthethesurface
calculation result
weighted of the temperature
average mathematicalwas model
usedcould
as thebe closer to the
observation actual
of the vehicle
thermal
drivingtransmission
situation. Inboundary,
addition,thus the ignoring
concept of coupling factor was proposed to characterize the
the inconsistencies on the windward surfaces [39]. The flow coupling
thermal transmission
pressure drop ofwith
thelumped parameters
heat exchanger method,
core realizing theby
was characterized correlation between
the porous mediaCFD simulation
model, and theand
systeminertial
controland
model.
viscous resistance coefficients were fitted by the experimental resistance curves ininto
In this way, the structural characteristics of CFD model were reflected the the
performance
porous media transmission equation [40]. The flow characteristics of fan were calculated in two ways: of
evaluation of the thermal management system, rather than simply limited to the observation
temperature, pressure, and
3D-FAN_ZONE and rotating
heat exchange capacity
coordinate underhood.
system methods. If the detailed geometric grids of fan blades
were provided, rotation coordinate system method could be selected to define the normal vector of the
3.1. Underhood CFD Simulation
rotation axis, the position of the rotation region, and the relative angular velocity were defined, as
Theshown
CFD in Figure 12. was
simulation The applied
3D-FAN_ZONE wasthe
to observe a simplified
flow field,fan simulation method,
temperature which
distribution, washeat
and suitable
transfer
processforin the
theconditions that the flow
engine compartment characteristic
based curves ofthermal
on the interactive fan were known without
transmission complex
mechanism of geometric
multiple heat
mesh of
exchangers. Thetheunderhood
fan. In thisgeometric
method, the flow-rate
structure and pressure
model of the fan
was displayed rotation11domain
in Figure which were calculated
included the cabin
in the one-dimensional
shell, condenser, process.
radiator, engine, and other components.

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 26

Figure11.
Figure Underhood
11.Underhood geometry.
geometry.

The intake grille wall was set as the velocity-inlet boundary condition, which imported the ambient
temperature and the vehicle windward velocity. The cabin shell wall was sat as the adiabatic boundary
ignoring solar radiation and external convection thermal transmission. The underhood bottom wall was
defined as the pressure outlet boundary condition, and the background pressure was set as one standard
atmospheric pressure (i.e., 1 ATP) [29]. In the process of aerodynamic coupling thermal transmission in the
CFD model of engine compartment, the only fluid medium is the air. In addition, the liquid-side convection
heat exchange capability of heat exchangers was described in the cooling system mathematical model [38].
The volume thermal generation load in each heat exchanger was defined, such that the convection heat
transfer coefficient was deemed uniform and the surface weighted average temperature was used as the
observation of the thermal transmission boundary, thus ignoring the inconsistencies on the windward
surfaces [39]. The flow pressure drop of 12.
theRadiator
heat exchanger
and coolingcore geometry.
was characterized by the porous media
Figure
Figure 12. Radiator and cooling fanfan
geometry.
model, and the inertial and viscous resistance coefficients were fitted by the experimental resistance curves in
the porous Itmedia transmission
was difficult equation
to gather data for[40].
CFDThe flow characteristics
simulation of fan
verification due were
to the lackcalculated in two
of wind tunnel ways:
tests.
It was difficult to gather data for CFD simulation verification due to the lack of wind tunnel tests.
3D-FAN_ZONE
However, and rotatingstudy
the present coordinate
refers tosystem methods.
other similar If the
cases anddetailed
processes geometric grids of fan
for the simulation blades were
calculations,
However, the present study refers to other similar cases and processes for the simulation calculations,
provided, rotationfor
specifically coordinate
the meshsystemqualitymethod couldequations,
and physical be selectedtotoensure
definethe
thecredibility
normal vector
of theofresults
the rotation
[41–43]axis,
specifically for the mesh quality and physical equations, to ensure the credibility of the results [41–43]
the position of the rotation region, and the relative angular velocity were defined, as shown in Figure 12. The
Due• to Due
3D-FAN_ZONE to fanarotation
fan rotation
was motion,motion,
simplified the the standard
fanstandard
simulation turbulence
turbulence
method, whichequation
equation wascoveredcovered
thefor
suitable the
the influencing
influencing factors
factorsthat
conditions theofflow
of vorticity
vorticity
in the air
characteristic rotation
curves inofthefanairwere
domain. rotation domain.
Therefore,
known a moreTherefore,
without a more
reasonable
complex reasonable
RNG
geometric −mesh RNG k − εfan.
turbulence
of the turbulence
transport transport
In thisequation
method,was the
adopted
flow-rate equation
andtopressure was
improveofthe adopted
theaccuracyto improve
of the
fan rotation the accuracy
flow calculation.
domain of the flow
In addition,
were calculated calculation. In addition,
the second orderprocess.
in the one-dimensional the
windward second
discrete
schemeorder windward
was selected discrete the
to enhance scheme was selected
precision to enhanceresults.
of the simulation the precision of the simulation results.
 • Different
Different grid were
grid forms formsused
weretoused to discretize
discretize the underhood
the underhood geometry geometry
model. model. Heat exchangers
Heat exchangers and other
and other important observation components were divided
important observation components were divided by the high-quality structural mesh. by the high-quality structural mesh.
The complex
The complex
structures—such as structures—such
the shell, engine,asand the shell, engine, and
fan—adopted fan—adopted
a more a more flexible
flexible unstructured unstructured
grid. In addition,
local encryption was carried out on the acute angle boundary and the area with a high extension ratio to
guarantee the integrity of the geometric features. Considering the boundary effect of air flow, the wall
boundary layer mesh were refined in the following regions, the fan blades, air rotation domain, flow
scanning surfaces of radiator, condenser, and engine.
 Based on the test results, the total number of grids was more than 1.5 million. And when the number of
Energies 2019, 12, 259 12 of 27

grid. In addition, local encryption was carried out on the acute angle boundary and the area
with a high extension ratio to guarantee the integrity of the geometric features. Considering the
boundary effect of air flow, the wall boundary layer mesh were refined in the following regions,
the fan blades, air rotation domain, flow scanning surfaces of radiator, condenser, and engine.
• Based on the test results, the total number of grids was more than 1.5 million. And when the
number of iteration steps was exceeded 800, the global calculation precision residuals of CFD
model can be controlled within 10−3 , and the residuals of the important observation parameters
were less than 10−5 . Such observation parameters can be temperature, pressure, turbulent
dissipation rate, and convection heat transfer coefficient. This simulation also took consideration
of grid independence, computational stability, and simulation time. After mesh trials, the model
mesh size was finally defined to be 2.5–6.5 mm, the grid number is 1.7 million with a mesh quality
of 0.5–0.85. Furthermore, the iterative step number is 900 in the steady simulations.

3.2. Coupling Thermal Transmission Equation

In the cabin, the integrated heat exchangers module was located at the front of engine compartment
and was situated in a narrow heat transfer space with other components. During the aerodynamic
cooling process, heat exchangers interacted with each other through air flow through two main aspects:
(1) an upstream heat exchanger that warmed the downstream heat exchanger air intake; (2) and through
fan suction, radiator resistance, and engine obstruction, which generated high-temperature air reflow.
The coupling thermal transmission equation was established for the whole engine compartment to
determine the mathematical relation of the radiator inlet temperature about the thermal source load
and underhood construction. The temperature distribution in the cabin mainly depended on the air
flow field and thermal load of the heat sources. The vehicle speed Vcar and fan speed N f an were the
primary factors for the flow field. In addition, underhood heat sources were also observed such as the
. . .
radiator load Qr , condenser load Qc , convective heat transfer of engine block Qa , and radiation heat
.
transfer of external environment Qenv .
 . . . . 
Tair,r in = fstr Vair,r in , Qr , Qc , Qa , Qenv , Tenv (16)

where fstr is the structural heat transfer function, is established with the CFD model, and represents
the mathematical relationship between the intake temperature of the radiator Tair,r in and factors.
In addition, Vair,r in is the air mass flow rate of the radiator and is related to the vehicle and fan speeds.
The thermal transmission equation of the radiator was established according to Formula (10) and is
expressed as
.  . 
Qr = fradiator Vair,r in , Tair,r in , mr , Tc,r in (17)

where fradiator is the radiator thermal transmission function established by the mathematical model of
.
the cooling system and reflects the relationship between Qr and Tair,r in . In the aerodynamic thermal
.
transmission process of the underhood, Tair,r in and Qr should be both satisfied by Formulas (16) and
.
(17). Under different conditions, fstr and fradiator are plotted in the plane coordinate system of Qr and
Tair,r in , thereby establishing the simultaneous equation. The construction of a function fcouple ensures
.
that all the coordinates of Qr and Tair,r in both satisfy fstr and fradiator and are located on the function.
The constructor function is defined by the coupling thermal transmission function, and Figure 13 is the
schematic diagram of the coupling thermal transmission equation.
 ,
conditions, and are plotted in the plane coordinate system of and , , thereby
establishing the simultaneous equation. The construction of a function ensures that all the coordinates
of and , both satisfy and and are located on the function. The constructor function is
defined by the coupling thermal transmission function, and Figure 13 is the schematic diagram of the
Energies 2019, 12, 259 13 of 27
coupling thermal transmission equation.

Figure
Figure 13. Coupling thermal
13. Coupling thermal transmission
transmission equation.
equation.

The coupling
The coupling thermal
thermal transmission
transmission function
function is formulated
is formulated to establish
to establish the mathematical
the mathematical relationship
relationship between the intake temperature and thermal load of heat
between the intake temperature and thermal load of heat exchangers during the aerodynamic exchangers during the heat
coupling
aerodynamic
transfer process. Incoupling
this way,heat transfer
couldprocess. In this
be obtained way, Tair,r in
with andcould in
bethe
obtained
enginewith fcouple
cooling system
. ,
and Qr inmodel.
mathematical the engine cooling system
In addition, mathematical
the structural factors model. In addition,are
of the underhood thealso
structural factors
reflected by theof coupling
the
underhood
thermal are also
transmission reflected
function. by the coupling
To calculate thermal
, the transmission
coupling function.
factor method To calculate
was proposed Tair,r
based on in ,three
,
the coupling factor method was proposed based on three theoretical assumptions:
theoretical assumptions:
1. The The thermal
1. thermal transmission
transmission interaction
interaction of the
of the heat heat exchangers
exchangers is only considered
is only considered and the
and the heat heat of
convection
. .
engine block
convection and
of external
engine blockenvironment heat environment
Qa and external transfer rate heat transfer
are ignored.
rate Qenv are ignored.
2. The
2. physical parameters of air were regarded as constant such as the density,
The physical parameters of air were regarded as constant such as the density, specific specific
heat, and thermal
heat,
conductivity. Therefore,
and thermal the temperature
conductivity. field
Therefore, intemperature
the the engine compartment may not
field in the engine affect the airmay
compartment flow and
thus may not change the convection heat transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger.
not affect the air flow and thus may not change the convection heat transfer coefficient of the
3. Assuming an acceptable response speed of the aerodynamic heat transfer, the system dynamic process
heat exchanger.
can
3. beAssuming
replaced by
an multiple
acceptable steady statespeed
response conditions.
of the aerodynamic heat transfer, the system dynamic
process can
In Assumption 1,be
thereplaced
effects ofby multiple
and steady werestate conditions.
neglected, and the coupling heat transfer process only
considered the thermal interaction of condenser . and. radiator. Based on Assumption 2, the convection heat
In Assumption
transfer coefficients of the1, heat
the effects of Qaunder
exchangers and Qsteady
env were neglected,
state andwere
conditions the coupling heattotransfer
only related the vehicle
process only considered the thermal interaction of condenser and radiator. Based on
speed and fan speed, which are independent of the underhood temperature distribution. Therefore, Assumption 2,
couldthe
be convection
simplified asheat
thetransfer coefficients of the heat exchangers under steady state conditions were
linear expression
only related to the vehicle speed and fan speed, which are independent of the underhood temperature
, = as
distribution. Therefore, fstr could be simplified ∙ the+linear +
∙ expression (18)

where, ∙ and ∙ represent the air intake temperature

. . rise of the radiator, which is caused by the
Tair,r in = kr ·Qr + kc ·Qc + Tenv (18)
. .
where kr ·Qr and kc ·Qc represent the air intake temperature rise of the radiator, which is caused by the
high-temperature air reflow and condenser calefaction; kr is defined as the coupling factor of radiator;
and kc is the coupling factor of the condenser. The coupling factors were determined by the CFD model,
and the vehicle speed and fan speed were adjusted after the thermal loading of the heat exchangers to
observe the radiator inlet temperature, as presented in Formula (19). Figures 14 and 15 are the coupling
factor curves under different conditions.
Tair,r ini,j −Tenv
kri,j = .
Qr i,j
Tair,r ini,j −Tenv (19)
kci,j = .
Qc i,j

where i, j are the mark numbers of the fan speed N f an i and vehicle speed Vcar j , respectively.
 ,
= ,
, (19)
, ,
− (19)
= , ,
−
,
,
= ,
,
where, , 2019,
Energies are the mark numbers of the fan speed
12, 259 and vehicle speed , respectively. 14 of 27
where, , are the mark numbers of the fan speed and vehicle speed , respectively.

Figure 14. Coupling factor curves of the radiator.

Figure 14.
Figure Coupling factor
14. Coupling factor curves
curves of
of the
the radiator.
radiator.

Figure 15. Coupling

Figure 15. Coupling factor
factor curves
curves of
of the
the condenser.
condenser.
Figure 15. Coupling factor curves of the condenser.
Considering
Considering the coupling
the coupling factors
factors forfor further
further mathematicaltreatment,
mathematical treatment,the theflow
flow influencing
influencing elements
elements and
Considering
and the the coupling
structure factors
influencing for further
element were mathematical
decoupled. In treatment,the
addition, the flow influencing
coupling factor elements
curves were and
the structure influencing element were decoupled. In addition, the coupling factor curves were fitted with the
the structure
fitted influencing
with the form element
of the were decoupled.
exponential function. In addition, the coupling factor curves were fitted with the
form of the exponential function.
form of the exponential function.
∙
= fr N f an ,,Vcar = =R ·N∙ ·V∙ Rr,2 ·N, , f∙ an
 
kr =
=  ,  = r,1, , ∙ f an ∙ car (20) (20)
Rc,2 ·N f an
kc = = fc (N f an , ,Vcar )= =Rc,1, ·N∙ f an ·Vcar
∙ , ∙ (20)
∙
= ( , ) = , ∙ ∙ ,

where,
where andRr and Rare the
c are structural
the structural coefficients
coefficients andand represent
represent the effects
the effectsofofthe theunderhood
underhoodstructure
structureon the
where, and are the structural coefficients and represent the effects of the underhood structure on the
coupling
on thefactors such factors
coupling as the space
such position
as the spaceof theposition
heat exchangers
of the heat andexchangers
the flow resistance characteristics
and the flow resistanceof the
coupling factors such as the space position of the heat exchangers and the flow resistance characteristics of the
radiator core, respectively.
characteristics Both can
of the radiator determine
core, respectively.the necessity
Both cantodetermine
install thethe flow guide device
necessity (baffle
to install plate and
the flow
radiator core, respectively. Both can determine the necessity to install the flow guide device (baffle plate and
heat guide
shield). According to Assumption 3, Formula (18) can be expressed as
device (baffle plate and heat shield). According to Assumption 3, Formula (18) can be expressed a differential form:
heat shield). According to Assumption 3, Formula (18) can be expressed as a differential form:
as a differential form:
. . . .
dTair,r in d(kr ·Qr ) d(kc ·Qc ) d Qr . d fr dQc . d fc
= + = fr · + Qr · + fc · + Qc · (21)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
Formula (21) shows the mathematical relationship of the thermal load, fan speed, vehicle
speed, and underhood structure. Formula (21) quantitatively describes the effects of the structural
characteristics and flow characteristics on the coupling thermal transmission process. The radiator air
intake temperature under the action of the underhood aerodynamic coupling thermal transmission was
calculated by the coupling factor and coupling thermal transmission equation. The thermal transmission
boundary conditions with structural characteristics were provided for the radiator module, and the
correlation between the system mathematical model and underhood CFD model was established to
achieve the multidimensional coupling simulation for integrated vehicle thermal management.
4. Integrated Thermal Management NMPC Control Design
In this section, the nonlinear model prediction controller was designed for the integrated thermal
management system. The engine coolant temperature and the average cylinder temperature were taken as the
control objectives,
Energies 2019, 12, and
259 the coordinated control of coolant pump and electronic fan was realized according
15 of 27 to
the driving condition and environmental temperature of the vehicle.

4. Integrated
4.1. NMPC Thermal
Controller Design Management NMPC Control Design
Figure In 16
thisissection, the nonlinear
the schematic diagrammodel prediction
of NMPC controller
control process.wasThe designed for the
controller integrated
adjusted the thermal
speed of the
fans and pumps in real time according to the thermal load of the engine and the vehicle driving were
management system. The engine coolant temperature and the average cylinder temperature condition,
taken as the
and selected the control objectives,
combination of theand the coordinated
pump and fan with control
lower of energy
coolant consumption
pump and electronic fan was the
while satisfying
realized
coolant according
temperature to therequirements.
control driving conditionThe and environmental
actual control objective temperature of the vehicle.
of the system shall be and ,
though their variation ranges are at different orders of magnitude. The direct adoption of as the
4.1. NMPC Controller Design
objective function may have caused instability in the control of . Therefore, was closer to the variation
range andFigure 16 is theasschematic
was selected the inputdiagram of NMPC control
of the controller. process.
In addition, theThe controller adjusted
comprehensive energythe speed of of
consumption
the fans
the system and
was pumps in
indirectly real timeby
optimized according
analyzing to the
thefunction
thermal relation
load of the of enginewithand the vehicle
respect to driving
.
condition, and selected
It is inconvenient to measure the combination of the pump and fan with lower energy
under actual operation conditions. Therefore, Tw was determinedconsumption whileby the
satisfying
indirect the coolant
calculation of other temperature control requirements.
physical quantities such as , The, ,actual
and control objectivean
. Therefore, of open
the system
loop state
shall be T and
observer was cintroduced P , though their variation ranges are at
total into the control system to estimate the value ofdifferent orders of magnitude. The direct
for future controls [44].
adoption
Information onof P,total
as , the , and
objectivewas
function may have
transmitted caused
to the NMPC instability
controllerin through
the controltheof Tc . Therefore,
sensors. In addition,
Tw intake
the air was closer to the variation
temperature of the range
radiator andatwasthe selected
current astimethewas input of the controller.
computed In addition,
by the coupling thermal
the comprehensive energy consumption
transmission equation model with the parameters of of the system ,
was , , , and
indirectly optimized . by analyzing
and the were
function
regarded relation
as the Tw withtorespect
controlofoutputs to Ptotal
the engine .
cooling system.

Figure 16. Schematic diagram of the NMPC control process for the engine cooling system.

It is inconvenient to measure Tw under actual operation conditions. Therefore, Tw was determined

. .
by the indirect calculation of other physical quantities such as mc , Tc ,, and Q gw . Therefore, an open
loop state observer was introduced into the control system to estimate the value of Tw for future
. . .
controls [44]. Information on Tc , mc , Qr , and Qc was transmitted to the NMPC controller through the
sensors. In addition, the air intake temperature of the radiator at the current time was computed by
. .
the coupling thermal transmission equation model with the parameters of Vcar , Tenv , N f an , Qr , and Qc .
N f an and Npump were regarded as the control outputs to the engine cooling system.
Energies 2019, 12, 259 16 of 27

4.2. Predictive Model Equation

The Euler method was used to discretize the system state equation and variables, which can be
expressed in the prediction control horizon as
   
x(k + 1|k) = f x(k), N f an (k), Npump (k) = F x(k), N f an (k), Npump (k)
 
x(k + 2|k) = f x(k + 1), N f an (k + 1), Npump (k + 1)
 
= f ( f x(k), N f an (k), Npump (k)), N f an (k + 1), Npump (k + 1)
    (22)
x(k + 1|k) = f x(k), N f an (k), Npump (k) = F x(k), N f an (k), Npump (k)
 
x(k + 2|k) = f x(k + 1), N f an (k + 1), Npump (k + 1)
 
= f ( f x(k), N f an (k), Npump (k)), N f an (k + 1), Npump (k + 1)

The engine coolant temperature and cylinder wall temperature were defined as the input
variables of the controller x = [Tc , Tw ]T , and the fan speed and pump speed were the output variables
h iT
u = N f an , Npump . In addition, the coolant temperature and comprehensive energy consumption
were the state parameters of the cooling system at Np moment as
   
Tc k + Np k = gt (x(k + Np k))
    (23)
Ptotal k + Np k = gp (x(k + Np k))

4.3. Objective Functions and System Constraints

The NMPC controller solves the fan and pump speeds by the extremum optimization equation of
the objective function. The objective function optimization equation can be constructed in the form
 
min J = Y1Np (k), Y2Np (k), Nu , Np
k (24)
J = w1 kY1Np (k + 1|k) − R1 (k + 1)k2 + w2 kY2Np (k + 1|k) − R2 (k + 1)k2

where,
 
 Tc (k + 1|k) 
 
 Tc (k + 2|k) 
Y1Np (k + 1|k) = 
 
.. 
 .  
 
 

Tc k + Np k


 
 Tw (k + 1|k) 
 
 Tw (k + 2|k) 
Y2Np (k + 1|k) = 
 
.. 
 .
 
   

T w k + Np k


R1 (k + 1) = Tc re f

R2 (k + 1) = Tw re f

where w1 , w2 are the weight coefficients of Tc and Tw , respectively. The fan and pump are limited by
the motor load characteristics in the system operation and only operate under the maximum speed.
In addition, the speed gradient should also be restrained and should consider the vibration, noise,
and fatigue life of components.
Rotational speed constraint
0 ≤ N f an ≤ 4500 (rpm)
(25)
0 ≤ Npump ≤ 4000 (rpm)
Energies 2019, 12, 259 17 of 27

Rotational speed gradient constraints

.
−300 ≤ N f an ≤ 300 (rpm/s)
. (26)
−300 ≤ Npump ≤ 300 (rpm/s)

5. NMPC Thermal Management System Performance Evaluation and Optimization

Taking the temperature control stability and the system energy consumption as evaluation
reference basis, the thermal control performance of engine cooling system with NMPC control scheme
and PID scheme were compared using numerical simulation methods. By further analysis of the thermal
management system, control strategy optimization scheme, and underhood thermal transmission
structure optimization scheme were proposed to improve system energy efficiency in this section.

5.1. Performance Comparison of Control Schemes for Integrated Thermal Management System
At present, the industry is more inclined to apply feedback control schemes for engine
thermal management because of their high reliability, simple control algorithm and low hardware
requirements [45]. Since the feedback schemes control the system through the deviation of the
controlled target, there is bound to be more or less time lag in control process. A smaller proportional
gain coefficient will delay the system response, but the lager coefficient also leads to system oscillation.
In addition, due to the non-minimum phase characteristics of pump flow control process, the feedback
control is generally difficult to achieve the optimal coolant flow rate adjustment. So, the control schemes
of mechanical pump and fan feedback adjustment are usually chosen in engineering application [46].
These schemes mainly rely on the thermostat to regulate the flow rate of the system, which will result
in over-cooling under certain conditions with unnecessary energy waste.
The NMPC thermal management scheme based on feed-forward control mode owns the ability
of multi-objective optimization control to realize the cooperative regulation of coolant pump and
air fan. The controller could predict the system future state and solve the optimal speed of pump
and fan, so the temperature control stability and response speed are better than the feedback control
scheme. To demonstrate the technical advantage, the thermal control performance of NMPC thermal
management scheme and traditional engine cooling scheme were compared in NEDC conditions.
The traditional cooling system adopted PID control scheme of air fan with mechanical coolant pump.
In this case, the ambient temperature was defined as 30 ◦ C, the controller sample interval is 0.5 s,
and the engine target reference coolant temperature was set at 85 ◦ C. The initial value of the system
state was defined as the ambient temperature, and the controller was activated when the coolant
temperature reached the opening temperature of the thermostat. The root mean square error (RMSE)
between the engine actual coolant temperature and target reference coolant temperature was applied
to evaluate the temperature control stability of the system.
v
u
NC
t
1 X 2
RMSE = Tci − Tc re f (27)
NC
i=0

The evaluation indicators were calculated based on the data in Figure 17, specifically
RMSENMPC = 0.228 (◦ C) and RMSEPID = 1.547 (◦ C). The PID controller adjusted the fan speed based
on the deviation between Tc and Tc re f , such that a time lag was observed in the system dynamic control
process. The NMPC controller contained a system state prediction model and objective optimization
function, which can solve the optimal speed of fan and pump according to the current feedback signal,
so that the system will reach to the target state in the shorter time. The results indicated that the NMPC
scheme was superior to the traditional cooling mode in temperature control stability.
in this paper the energy of motors was thought to come from car batteries, which were charged by the engine
driven generator, and the charging efficiency was 90%. The mechanical efficiency between motor and
actuators (fan and pump) ranged from 85% to 95%, and value was quadratic polynomial about motor speed.
The energy consumption of electric pump and electric fan was converted into equivalent engine mechanical
power through
Energies 2019, efficiency
12, 259 conversion. In this way, the energy consumption evaluation standards of different
18 of 27
schemes were unified.

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 26

actuator adopted motor driven mode, while the pump in the PID scheme was mechanically driven, so there
were some measurement differences in energy consumption evaluation. In order to simplify the calculation,
in this paper the energy of motors was thought to come from car batteries, which were charged by the engine
driven generator, and the charging efficiency was 90%. The mechanical efficiency between motor and
actuators (fan and pump) ranged from 85% to 95%, and value was quadratic polynomial about motor speed.
The energy consumption of electric pump and electric fan was converted into equivalent engine mechanical
Comparison of
power through efficiency conversion. Figure In17. this way, theofenergy
Comparison the coolant
the coolant temperature.
consumption evaluation standards of different
schemes were unified.
In theIntraditional
addition cooling
to evaluating mode, the the pump
stability
andofengine
temperature control, the
were connected by the comprehensive energy
mechanical transmission,
the pump speed was proportional to the engine speed, and the transmission ratio satisfied theenergy
consumption of thermal management system in different control schemes was also analyzed. The maximum
consumption
thermal dissipationevaluation
demand of wasthetaken
engine.the Intotal
thepower
partialconsumed by the thermal
loading conditions, the pumpmanagement system the
often provided
over which
currentwas flowequal
in the to the summation
design, therebyofresulting
the pump in and fan power
excessive engine consumption,
cooling with asunnecessary
shown in Formula thermostat
(14).
throttle lossInand
the water
NMPC scheme,
jacket flowthe actuator
friction loss.adopted
Taking motor ( driven
, mode,
, ,while )theaspump
the in the
objective PID
function
scheme was mechanically driven, so there were some measurement
coolant temperature, the system energy consumption could be reasonably controlled in the NMPC system differences in energy consumption
basedevaluation.
on the pump In order andtofan simplify the calculation,
cooperative control.inAn thisappropriate
paper the energy valueofofmotors
was
canthought
weigh to thecome
thermal
from car batteries, which were charged by the engine driven generator,
transmission cost in the liquid and air sides of the system. Therefore, it was necessary to choose the smaller and the charging efficiency was
pump90%.speed Thetomechanical
accurately efficiency
control the between
coolantmotor and actuators
temperature and to(fanavoidandthepump)
throttlerangedloss from
and flow85% to 95%, loss
friction
and value was quadratic polynomial about motor speed. The energy
caused by excessive cooling (Figure 18 and Figure 19). Figure 20 presents the energy consumption comparison consumption of electric pump
of theand
twoelectric
schemes, fan was converted

into equivalent
= 175,744 (J) and engine mechanical
= 247,672 (J) powerinthrough
the entire efficiency
NEDC conversion.
control horizon.
In this way, the energy
As compared to the traditional Figure consumption evaluation
cooling17.scheme,
Comparison standards
the energy of different
consumption
of the coolant temperature.schemes
of NMPC scheme were unified.
was reduced by
29%. In the traditional cooling mode, the pump and engine were connected by the mechanical
transmission,
In the traditional thecooling
pump speed mode, was proportional
the pump and engine to the engine
were speed, by
connected andthe the transmission
mechanical ratio
transmission,
satisfied the maximum thermal dissipation demand of the engine.
the pump speed was proportional to the engine speed, and the transmission ratio satisfied the maximum In the partial loading conditions,
the dissipation
thermal pump often provided
demand theengine.
of the over current flow inloading
In the partial the design, thereby
conditions, theresulting
pump often in excessive
provided the
over engine
current cooling
flow in the withdesign,unnecessary
thereby thermostat
resulting inthrottle
excessive loss and cooling
engine water jacket flow frictionthermostat
with unnecessary loss.
Taking
throttle loss andJ ( T
min water , T
c Nk jacket , T
c re f flow , T
w Nk friction ) as the objective
w re f loss. Taking ( , , , ) as the objective function
function coolant temperature, the system energy
consumption
coolant temperature, could be reasonably
the system energy controlled
consumption in the
could NMPC system based
be reasonably controlledon theinpumpthe NMPC and fan system
cooperative control. An appropriate
based on the pump and fan cooperative control. An value of T can weigh the
w re f appropriate value of thermal transmission

cost in
can weigh the thermal the
liquid and
transmission costairinsides of the and
the liquid system. Therefore,
air sides of theitsystem.
was necessary
Therefore, to choose
it was the smallertopump
necessary choose speed to
the smaller
accurately control the coolant temperature and to avoid the throttle loss
pump speed to accurately control the coolant temperature and to avoid the throttle loss and flow friction loss and flow friction loss caused
causedbyby excessive
excessive cooling
cooling(Figures
(Figure 18 18 and 19). Figure
and Figure 20 presents
19). Figure the energy
20 presents consumption
the energy consumption comparison
comparison
of theoftwo two schemes, P total NMPC
theschemes, = 175, 744and
= 175,744 (J) (J) and P total = PID = 247, 672 in
247,672 (J) (J)the
in the
entireentire
NEDCNEDC control
control horizon.
Figure 18. Comparison of the fan speed.
horizon. As compared to the traditional cooling scheme, the
As compared to the traditional cooling scheme, the energy consumption of NMPC scheme was reduced byenergy consumption of NMPC scheme
29%. was reduced by 29%.

Figure 18. Comparison of the fan speed.

Figure 18. Comparison of the fan speed.
 Energies
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12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 27
18 of 26
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 26

Figure
Figure 19.
19. Comparison
Comparison of
Comparison of pump
of pump speed.
pump speed.

Figure 20. Comparison of the system energy consumption.

Figure
Figure 20.
20. Comparison
Comparison of
of the
the system
system energy
energy consumption.
consumption.
5.2. NMPC Controller Optimization Design
5.2. NMPC Controller
5.2. NMPCBased
Controller Optimization
Optimization Design
Design
on case 1, the influence of the control targets on system energy consumption was examined
Based
to propose
Based on
on case 1,
1, the
a variable
case theTinfluence
w re f control
influence of the
the control
of strategy control targets
to optimize
targets the on system
systemofenergy
on design consumption
the controller.
energy consumption was
was examined
The convection heat to
examined to
propose
propose a
transfer coefficient αwccontrol
variable
a variable control strategy
was increased to
strategybytoadding optimize
optimize the
the coolant design
the design of
flow ofratethe
and
the controller.
enhancingThe
controller. The convection
convection heat
the convection heat
.
transfer
heatcoefficient
transfer transfer rate of
coefficient was
wastheincreased
cylinder. by
increased In adding
by the casethe
adding where
the coolant
coolant Tc wasflow rate
rate and
flowbasically enhancing
andstable, mc was
enhancing the
theaconvection
monotone heat
convection heat
transfer rate
decreasing of the
functioncylinder.
of T
transfer rate of the cylinder.w In the case where In
. the
The case
value ofwhere
T w re f was
affected basically
the stable,
coordination
was basically stable, the was
was a monotone decreasing
heat a monotone
transfer intensity on
decreasing
function
function of
liquidof and .. The value
air sides
The valueof of
ofthe radiator affected
and the
affected coordination
determined
the coordination the
the heat
the weight heatoftransfer
the fan intensity
transfer and pump
intensity on liquid
liquid and
onspeeds, air
thereby
and air sides
sides

of
of the radiator and determined the weight of the fan and pump speeds, thereby affecting the system
the radiator
affecting the and
systemdetermined
comprehensive the weight
energy of the fan
consumption. and pump speeds, thereby affecting the system
comprehensive
comprehensive As shown energy
energy consumption.
in Figures
consumption. 21 and 22, the high Tw,re f control scheme defined the lower pump speed and
As
As shown in Figure 21 and Figure
shown
energy in Figure
consumption 21 asandthe output22,
Figure and
22, the
thedid high
high not affect
, control
the coolant
control scheme defined
defined the
temperature
scheme lower
control
the lowereffectpump
pump butspeed
did and
speed and
,
energy consumption
sacrifice the as
economy the output
of the and
fan.
energy consumption as the output and did not affect the coolant did
Conversely,not affecta the
low T coolant
w re f temperature
temperature control effect but did sacrifice
control scheme control
exhibited effect but
opposite did
effects.
sacrifice
the
the economy
It can thus
economy of
of bethe fan.
fan. Conversely,
theconcluded that theaaextreme
Conversely, low
low value control
of Tw rescheme
control f as theexhibited
scheme control target
exhibited opposite
was bound
opposite effects.
effects.toIt can
can thus
Itsacrificethus be be

concluded
the that
thermal the extreme
transmission
concluded that the extreme value of value
economy of of a certain as
as the
heat
the control
transfer
control target
side
target in was
the
was bound
system.
bound Toto
to sacrifice
solve this
sacrifice the
problem,
the thermal
thermal

a variable
transmission
transmission Tw re f control
economy
economy of strategy
of aa certain
certain heat
heatwas proposed
transfer
transfer sidetoin
side in optimize
the
the system.
system.the system
To
To solve energy
solve this consumption.
this problem,
problem, A high
aa variable
variable
controlT strategy
f was selected
was as the control target in the heavy load condition of the engine, and the heat transfer
controlw,restrategy was proposed
proposed to to optimize
optimize the the system
system energy energy consumption.
consumption. A A high
high ,, was
was selected
selected as as the
the
controlefficiency
target in ofthe
theheavy
air side loadwas strengthened
condition of the toengine,
ensureand the the
efficiency
heat of the liquid
transfer efficiencyside.ofAthe low air Tw,re
side f was
control target in the heavy load condition of the engine, and the heat transfer efficiency of the air side was
was adopted
strengthened as the control target to the reduce the side. fan energy consumption in the smallthe load condition.
strengthened to to ensure
ensure the the efficiency
efficiency of of the liquidliquid side. A A low
low ,, was
was adopted
adopted as as the. control
control target
target to to
reduce According
the fan to
energythe above
consumptionanalysis inconstructing
the small
reduce the fan energy consumption in the small load condition. According to thew,re loadthe mathematical
condition. function
According to oftheT above
f
above and Q
analysis
gw
analysis , the linear
constructing
constructing
the optimization function
the mathematical
mathematical control objective
function of ,, function
of and with
and ,, the
the the best energy
linear
linear optimization
optimizationreduction effectobjective
control
control was finally
objective selected
function
function with
withbased
the
the best
best
energy on reduction
comparisons of various function forms (linear, polynomial, and arctangent function). The linear
energy reduction effect was finally selected based on comparisons of various function forms (linear,
effect was finally selected based on comparisons of various function forms (linear,
control optimization
polynomial, had a systemThe energy consumption of 126,119 (J), and the system economy was
polynomial, and and arctangent
arctangent function).
function). The linear linear controlcontrol optimization
optimization had had aa system
system energy energy consumption
consumption of of
improved low Tw re f control
126,119
126,119 (J), andby
(J), and the28%
the system
systemas compared
economytowas
economy the improved
was improved by by 28%28%scheme
as
as compared in Figure
compared to 23. The
to the
the low results
low

indicated
control
control that in
scheme
scheme in
Figure the
23. system
The energy
results efficiency
indicated can
that thebesystem
improved energy by reasonable
efficiency coordination
can be improved of air
by side and liquid
reasonable side
coordination
Figure 23. The results indicated that the system energy efficiency can be improved by reasonable coordination
of thermal transferside capacity based on engine thermal load. engine thermal load.
of air
air side
side andand liquid
liquid side thermalthermal transfertransfer capacity
capacity based based on on engine thermal load.
. − .
= − Q gw min ∙ (
Q gw − − )) + (28)
Tw re f =
= − ·(∙T(wmax − −
Twmin ) + +
Twmin (28) (28)
.
− .
Q gwmax − Q gwmin
 Energies
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Energies 12,
12, xxx FOR
2019,2019, FOR
12,
FOR PEER
259 REVIEW
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 19
20 of 27 of
19 of 26
of 26
26
Energies 2019, 12, PEER 19

Figure
Figure 21. Comparison
21. Comparison
Comparison of
of the
the fan
fan speed.
speed.
Figure 21.
Figure Comparison of
of the
the fan
fan speed.
speed.

Figure 22.
Figure 22. Comparison of
Comparison of
22. Comparison
Comparison the
of the pump
the pump speed.
pump speed.
speed.
Figure

Figure 23.
Figure
Figure 23. Comparison of
23. Comparison
Comparison of the
of the system
the system energy
system energy consumption
energy consumption for
consumption for optimized
for optimized control
optimized control strategy.
control strategy.
Figure 23. Comparison of the system energy consumption for optimized control strategy.
5.3. Underhood Thermal Transmission Structure Optimization
5.3. Underhood
5.3. Underhood Thermal
Underhood Thermal Transmission
Thermal Transmission Structure
Transmission Structure Optimization
Structure Optimization
Optimization
5.3.
This case focuses on the influence of the coupling heat transfer in underhood on the control effect
This case
This case focuses
case focuses on
focuses on the
on the influence
the influence of
influence of the
of the coupling
the coupling heat
coupling heat transfer
heat transfer in
transfer in underhood
in underhood
underhood on on the
on the control
the control effect
control effect of
of the
effect of the
This
of the NMPC thermal management system. Figure 24 presents the radiator intake temperature rise the
NMPC
NMPC thermal
thermal management
management system.
system. Figure
Figure 24
24 presents
presents the
the radiator
radiator intake
intake temperature
temperature rise
rise caused
caused by
by
NMPC thermal
caused management
by condenser system.and
calefaction Figure 24 presents the
high-temperature air radiator intake representing
reflow, thereby temperature the risesystem
caused by
condenser calefaction
condenser calefaction and
calefaction and high-temperature
and high-temperature
high-temperature air air reflow, thereby
air reflow, thereby representing
thereby representing the
representing the system
the system thermal
system thermal transmission
thermal transmission
transmission
condenser
thermal transmission boundary conditionsreflow,under actual conditions. However, in ideal conditions,
boundary
boundary conditions
conditions under
under actual
actual conditions.
conditions. However,
However, in
in ideal
ideal conditions,
conditions, the
the ambient
ambient temperature
temperature was
was
boundary conditions
the ambient under actual
temperature conditions.
was regarded as However, in inlet
the radiator idealconditions
conditions,andthethe
ambient
design temperature
structure of was
regarded
regarded as
as the
the radiator
radiator inlet
inlet conditions
conditions and
and the
the design
design structure
structure of
of engine
engine compartment
compartment exhibited
exhibited
regarded
engineascompartment
the radiatorexhibited
inlet conditions andto the
applicability design
eliminate thestructure of engine compartment
thermal transmission exhibited
interaction between
applicability
applicability to
to eliminate
eliminate the
the thermal
thermal transmission
transmission interaction
interaction between
between the
the heat
heat exchangers.
exchangers.
applicability
the heatto eliminate the thermal transmission interaction between the heat exchangers.
exchangers.
Figure 25 presents a comparison of the actual and ideal conditions and reflects on the effects of the
coupling thermal transmission on the system energy consumption. The condenser calefaction and
high temperature air reflow equivalently increased the radiator intake temperature to 7.78 ◦ C, thereby
increasing the energy consumption of the system by 20.8%. Qian conducted in-depth research on the
enhancement of aerodynamic heat transfer in the underhood [47]. Observations on the air velocity
vector, pressure distribution, and temperature cloud map aided in explanations for the mechanism
 Energies 2019, 12, 259 21 of 27

of coupling thermal transmission as well as in proposing a targeted structural improvement design.

The present study applied these research results for reference given that the heat transfer enhancement
effects in the underhood reflected upon the system performance index based on the optimization
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 26
design structural characteristics
Figure 24. that
Radiator intake were represented
temperature rise causedby
bythe
thecoupling factors. transmission.
coupling thermal

Figure 25 presents a comparison of the actual and ideal conditions and reflects on the effects of the
coupling thermal transmission on the system energy consumption. The condenser calefaction and high
temperature air reflow equivalently increased the radiator intake temperature to 7.78 °C, thereby increasing
the energy consumption of the system by 20.8%. Qian conducted in-depth research on the enhancement of
aerodynamic heat transfer in the underhood [47]. Observations on the air velocity vector, pressure
distribution, and temperature cloud map aided in explanations for the mechanism of coupling thermal
transmission as well as in proposing a targeted structural improvement design. The present study applied
these research results for reference given that the heat transfer enhancement effects in the underhood reflected
upon the system performance index based on the optimization design structural characteristics that were
represented by the coupling factors.
Figure 24.
Figure Radiator intake
24. Radiator intake temperature
temperature rise
rise caused
caused by
by the
the coupling
coupling thermal
thermal transmission.

Figure 25 presents a comparison of the actual and ideal conditions and reflects on the effects of the
coupling thermal transmission on the system energy consumption. The condenser calefaction and high
temperature air reflow equivalently increased the radiator intake temperature to 7.78 °C, thereby increasing
the energy consumption of the system by 20.8%. Qian conducted in-depth research on the enhancement of
aerodynamic heat transfer in the underhood [47]. Observations on the air velocity vector, pressure
distribution, and temperature cloud map aided in explanations for the mechanism of coupling thermal
transmission as well as in proposing a targeted structural improvement design. The present study applied
these research results for reference given that the heat transfer enhancement effects in the underhood reflected
upon the system performance index based on the optimization design structural characteristics that were
represented by the coupling factors.
Figure 25.
Figure Effects of
25. Effects of the
the coupling
coupling thermal
thermal transmission
transmission on
on the system energy consumption.

Air passed
Air passed throughthrough
the the condenser
condenser reducespressure
reduces pressuredue due toto the
theflow
flowresistance
resistanceof the core,core,
of the thereby
thereby
generating local high temperature due to the fan suction and high pressure
generating local high temperature due to the fan suction and high pressure behind the radiator. However, behind the radiator.
someHowever, some high-temperature
high-temperature air blocked byair theblocked
engineby the engine
returned returned
to the to the low-pressure
low-pressure area behindarea thebehind
condenser,
the condenser,
and was and was termed
termed high-temperature airhigh-temperature
reflow. Accordingair toreflow. According
the mechanism of to the
hot airmechanism
reflux, the of hot airstudy
present
reflux,
proposes an the present study
improvement schemeproposes
for theanheat
improvement scheme
shield and baffle for (as
plate the shown
heat shield and baffle
in Figure plate
26). The heat(asshield
shown in Figure 26). The heat shield around the core effectively reduced the backflow
around the core effectively reduced the backflow air returning into the radiator. The baffle plate may increase air returning into
the radiator.ofThe
the proportion baffle
fresh air plate may increase
to decrease the proportion
the inlet temperature, of fresh
but air
mayto also
decrease the inlet
improve thetemperature,
convection heat
but may also improve the convection heat transfer of the
transfer of the radiator, all of which can enhance the heat transfer effects. radiator, all of which can enhance the heat
transfer effects.
The degree of condenser heating action depends on the equivalent radiator windward shielding
Figure the
area, of which 25. Effects of theposition
placement coupling thermal
and core transmission on the are
size dimension system
the energy consumption.
key factors. It is difficult to
apply large changes to the core size of the condenser due to the limits of refrigeration requirements
Air passed
for the through thesystem.
air conditioning condenser reducesthe
Therefore, pressure
placement dueposition
to the should
flow resistance
be adjustedof to
thereduce
core, the
thereby
generating local high temperature due to the fan suction and high pressure behind the radiator. However,
equivalent flow shielding area of the condenser between the inlet grille and radiator to weaken the
some high-temperature air blocked by the engine returned to the low-pressure area behind the condenser,
harmful thermal transmission interaction (as shown in Figure 27).
and was termed high-temperature air reflow. According to the mechanism of hot air reflux, the present study
Figures 28 and 29 present comparisons of the coupling factor curves to optimize the radiator and
proposes an improvement scheme for the heat shield and baffle plate (as shown in Figure 26). The heat shield
condenser structures, respectively. The results indicated that the optimized design of the baffle plate
around the core effectively reduced the backflow air returning into the radiator. The baffle plate may increase
and heat shield effectively weakened the high temperature air reflow within the condition of vehicle
the proportion of fresh air to decrease the inlet temperature, but may also improve the convection heat
speed 20–70 km/h. In addition, the arrangement of the condenser’s forward motion mainly reduced the
transfer of the radiator, all of which can enhance the heat transfer effects.
thermal transmission interaction for a vehicle speed range of 35 to 60 km/h. The simulation results in
Figure 30 indicate a structure optimized system energy consumption of 140,313 (J), of which the system
energy consumption was reduced by 11.8% as compared to the original design. Therefore, the influence
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 26

Energies 2019, 12, 259 22 of 27

of coupling underhood thermal transmission should be considered in the thermal management control
system design process and it is important for system energy consumption reduction to restrain the
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 26
harmful thermal transmission interactions between heat exchangers.

Figure 26. Radiator optimization scheme.

The degree of condenser heating action depends on the equivalent radiator windward shielding area, of
which the placement position and core size dimension are the key factors. It is difficult to apply large changes
to the core size of the condenser due to the limits of refrigeration requirements for the air conditioning system.
Therefore, the placement position should be adjusted to reduce the equivalent flow shielding area of the
condenser between the inlet grille and radiator to weaken the harmful thermal transmission interaction (as
shown in Figure 27). Figure 26. Radiator optimization scheme.
Figure 26. Radiator optimization scheme.

The degree of condenser heating action depends on the equivalent radiator windward shielding area, of
which the placement position and core size dimension are the key factors. It is difficult to apply large changes
to the core size of the condenser due to the limits of refrigeration requirements for the air conditioning system.
Therefore, the placement position should be adjusted to reduce the equivalent flow shielding area of the
condenser between the inlet grille and radiator to weaken the harmful thermal transmission interaction (as
shown in Figure 27).

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 26

Figure
Figure 27. Condenser
27. Condenser optimization
optimization scheme.
scheme.

Figures 28 and 29 present comparisons of the coupling factor curves to optimize the radiator and
condenser structures, respectively. The results indicated that the optimized design of the baffle plate and heat
shield effectively weakened the high temperature air reflow within the condition of vehicle speed 20–70 km/h.
In addition, the arrangement of the condenser’s forward motion mainly reduced the thermal transmission
interaction for a vehicle speed range of 35 to 60 km/h. The simulation results in Figure 30 indicate a structure
optimized system energy consumption of 140,313 (J), of which the system energy consumption was reduced
Figure 27. Condenser optimization scheme.
by 11.8% as compared to the original design. Therefore, the influence of coupling underhood thermal
transmission
Figures 28 and should be considered
29 present in theofthermal
comparisons management
the coupling control to
factor curves system design
optimize the process
radiatorand
andit is
important for system energy consumption reduction to restrain the harmful thermal transmission interactions
condenser structures, respectively. The results indicated that the optimized design of the baffle plate and heat
between
shield heat weakened
effectively exchangers.
the high temperature air reflow within the condition of vehicle speed 20–70 km/h.
Figure 28. Radiator coupling factor optimization.
In addition, the arrangement of theFigure 28. Radiator
condenser’s coupling
forward factor optimization.
motion mainly reduced the thermal transmission
interaction for a vehicle speed range of 35 to 60 km/h. The simulation results in Figure 30 indicate a structure
optimized system energy consumption of 140,313 (J), of which the system energy consumption was reduced
by 11.8% as compared to the original design. Therefore, the influence of coupling underhood thermal
transmission should be considered in the thermal management control system design process and it is
important for system energy consumption reduction to restrain the harmful thermal transmission interactions
between heat exchangers.
 Figure 28. Radiator coupling factor optimization.
Energies 2019, 12, 259 23 of 27
Figure 28. Radiator coupling factor optimization.

Figure 29. Condenser coupling factor optimization.

Figure 29. Condenser coupling factor optimization.
Figure 29. Condenser coupling factor optimization.

Figure 30.
Figure System energy
30. System energy consumption
consumption optimization.
optimization.

6. Conclusions Figure 30. System energy consumption optimization.

6. Conclusions
In this article, an integrated vehicle thermal management numerical calculation method based on
6. Conclusions
In this article, an integrated vehicle thermal management numerical calculation method based on model
model predictive control is proposed to solve the problems of engine cooling performance evaluation,
predictive
In thiscontrol
article, isanproposed
integrated to vehicle
solve the problems
thermal of enginenumerical
management cooling performance
calculation evaluation,
method underhood
based on model
underhood thermal transfer structure optimization and thermal management system control scheme
thermal
predictive transfer
control structure
is proposedoptimization
to solve and thermal
the problems management system control scheme designing
of engine cooling performance evaluation, underhood guidance.
designing guidance. The main conclusions are as follows:
The maintransfer
thermal conclusions are asoptimization
structure follows: and thermal management system control scheme designing guidance.
The(1)(1) As
main compared to the traditional engine cooling mode (PID scheme), the NMPC thermal
Asconclusions
compared to aretheas traditional
follows: engine cooling mode (PID scheme), the NMPC thermal management
management scheme clearly exhibits better temperature control effects and lower system
(1) scheme
Asenergy clearly to
compared exhibits better temperature
the traditional
consumption. engine coolingcontrol effects
mode and
(PID lower system
scheme), energy
the NMPC consumption.
thermal management
(2) The system energy efficiency could be improved by reasonable coordination of air side and liquid
(2) scheme clearly
The system exhibits
energy better temperature
efficiency could be improvedcontrolby
effects and lower
reasonable system energy
coordination consumption.
of air side and liquid
side
(2) The thermal
system transfer
energy capacity
efficiency based on engine thermal load.
side thermal transfer capacitycould
basedbe onimproved by reasonable
engine thermal load. coordination of air side and liquid
(3) The influence of coupling thermal transmission
side thermal transfer capacity based on engine thermal load. should be considered in system control process and it
(3) is The
of influence
great of coupling
significance for thermal
energy transmission
consumption should be considered
reduction to enhancein system control process
the aerodynamic thermal
(3) The influence of coupling thermal transmission should be considered in system control process and it
and it
transmission is of great significance
in underhood. for energy consumption reduction to enhance the aerodynamic
is of great significance for energy consumption reduction to enhance the aerodynamic thermal
thermal transmission in underhood.
transmission in underhood.
To sum up, the integrated vehicle thermal management numerical calculation method proposed
in this article is a comprehensive simulation system that embodies system mathematical model
establishment, cooling performance evaluation, as well as the control strategy and optimized structural
design. As an advanced numerical simulation solution, the presented scheme is beneficial for
technology development and engineering applications for vehicle thermal management. Moreover,
this method has a wide range of applicability and can be applied to the thermal management of
pure electric vehicles (PEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), thereby providing a more
powerful control analysis approach for the thermal management of new energy vehicles.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Q.G.; methodology, P.L., Liang lv; formal analysis, P.L.; resources, X.X.;
writing-original draft preparation, P.L.; writing-review and editing, Y.W.; funding acquisition, Q.G.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Science Foundation of China (no. U1864213); “Double Ten”
Science & Technology Innovation Project of Jilin Province of China (17SS022); Foundation of Jilin Development
Energies 2019, 12, 259 24 of 27

and Reform Committee, grant/award Number: 2016C022; Science Foundation for Excellent Youth Scholars of Jilin
Province of China, grant/award Number: 20180520066JH.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Abbreviation
ECU Electronic Control Unit
IVTM Integrated Vehicle Thermal Management
NEDC New European Driving Cycle
NMPC Nonlinear Model Predictive Control
Symbols  
αa Radiator heat transfer coefficient on the air side (W/ m2 ·K )
 
αc Radiator heat transfer coefficient on the coolant side (W/ m2 ·K )
 
αeb Coolant to engine block heat transfer coefficient (W/ m2 ·K )
 
αwc Wall to coolant heat transfer coefficient (W/ m2 ·K )
Aa Radiator heat transfer area on the air side (m2 )
Ac Radiator heat transfer area on the coolant side (m2 )
Aeb Heat transfer area between coolant and engine block (m2 )
Al Heat transfer area between liner and coolant (m2 )
At Tube wall heat transfer area (m2 )
Atr Thermostat flow area (m2 )
cc Coolant specific heat capacity (J/(kg·K))
ceb Engine block specific heat capacity (J/(kg·K))
cl Liner specific heat capacity (J/(kg·K))
Ctr Thermostat flow coefficient (−)
ε Radiator energy efficiency (−)
εe Engine revs per cycle (rad/s)  
Ga Air equivalent mass flow (kg/ s·m2 )
 
Gc Coolant equivalent mass flow (kg/ s·m2 )
hemission Heat emission coefficient (−)
Hpump Pump hydraulic head (m)
lt Thermostat relative lift (%)
.
mby Coolant mass flow through by-pass circulation (kg/s)
.
mc Coolant mass flow through the engine (kg/s)
mc,e Mass of coolant in the engine (kg)
mc,r Mass of coolant in the radiator (kg)
meb Engine block mass (kg)
ml Liner mass (kg)
.
mr Coolant mass flow through the radiator (kg/s)
N f an Fan speed (rpm)
Npump Pump speed (rpm)
Pe drop Engine flow resistance (Pa )
P f an Fan energy consumption (W)
P f an e Effective fan power (W)
∆P f an Fan pressure increase (Pa )
Ppump Pump energy consumption (W)
Ppump e Effective pump power (W)
Pr drop Radiator flow resistance (Pa )
∆Ptpass Thermostat throttle resistance in by-pass circulation (Pa )
∆Pt radiator Thermostat throttle resistance in radiator circulation (Pa )
Ptotal Total system energy consumption (W)
.
Qa Engine block to air heat transfer rate (W)
.
Qcom Gas combustion exothermic rate (W)
Energies 2019, 12, 259 25 of 27

.
Qeb Coolant to engine block heat transfer rate (W)
.
Qf Heat transfer rate due to friction (W)
.
Q gw Gas to cylinder heat transfer rate (W)
.
Qr Coolant to air heat transfer rate in the radiator (W)
.
Qwc Liner to coolant heat transfer rate (W)
R2 Determination coefficient (−)
Tairin Radiator intake temperature (◦ C))
Tc,e in Coolant temperature at engine inlet (◦ C))
Tc,eout Coolant temperature at engine outlet (◦ C)
Tc re f Coolant reference target temperature (◦ C))
Tc,r out Coolant temperature at radiator outlet
Teb Engine block temperature (◦ C))
Tenv Environment temperature (◦ C))
Tw Mean cylinder temperature (◦ C))
Tw re f Cylinder reference target temperature (◦ C))
V Engine displacement (L)
Vcar Vehicle speed (km/h)
V f an Fan volume flow (m3 /s)
Vpump Pump displacement (m3 )
ωe Engine angular speed (rad/s)
ρc Coolant density (kg/m3 )
λt Tube wall heat conductivity coefficient (W/(m·K))
δt Tube wall thickness (m)

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