2a. Operator Training Handbook and Programme

1
Handbook for the Training of Water Kiosk-

and Public Sanitation Facility Operators
Water kiosks should not be used as a car wash! (Drawing by Charles Kut, 2008)
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Toolkit for Urban Water Supply Projects Module 3 Operator Training Handbook
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Table of Contents
1 Organisation, Objective and Use of this Training Handbook 6
2 The Operator Training Workshop: Objectives and Themes 8
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................8
2.2 The Main Objectives of the Operator Training Workshop..............................8
2.3 Themes to be Addressed during the Training Workshop...............................9
2.4 Training Activities..........................................................................................11
2.5 What Happens After the Training Workshop?..............................................11
2.6 When and How to Organise the Operator Training Workshop?...................12
2.7 The Input of Local Experts............................................................................12
2.8 The Operator Recruitment Process..............................................................13
3 Organisation of the Training Workshop 14
3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................14
3.2 Preparatory Activities....................................................................................14
3.3 Duration, Venue and Invited Experts............................................................14
3.4 Required Materials........................................................................................14
3.5 Workshop Budget.........................................................................................15
3.6 The Training Programme: Timetable and Themes.......................................15
3.7 The Various Themes of the Training Workshop...........................................16
3.7.1 Welcome and Presentations.................................................................16
3.7.2 The Hydrological Cycle and Municipal Water Supply...........................17
3.7.3 Water Supply in Kenya and the Service Provider.................................18
3.7.4 Water, Hygiene and Public Health........................................................18
3.7.5 The Kiosk System..................................................................................19
3.7.6 Communication and Service Delivery...................................................20
3.7.7 Water Treatment and How the Service Provider Functions..................22
3.7.8 Evaluation of the Training Workshop....................................................23
3.7.9 Closing Remarks and Appointments.....................................................23
3.8 Visit to the WSP Office(s), the Treatment Works and to a Kiosk.................24
3.8.1 Objectives..............................................................................................24
3.8.2 Sequence...............................................................................................24
3.9 Evaluation, Conclusions and Making Appointments....................................24
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3.10 Informing Unsuitable (Operator) Candidates................................................25

3.11 On-the-Job Training......................................................................................25
3.12 Some Remarks on Bookkeeping, Remuneration and Accountability...........25
4 The Importance of Water and the Hydrologic Cycle 26
4.1 The Availability and Importance of Water.....................................................26
4.2 Detailed Description of the Hydrologic Cycle...............................................27
5 Municipal Water Supply, Water Sources and Water Quality 29
5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................29
5.2 Historical Background...................................................................................29
5.2.1 Developments in Supply Systems.........................................................29
5.2.2 Developments in Water Treatment........................................................30
5.3 Water Sources..............................................................................................31
5.3.1 Global Distribution of Water..................................................................31
5.3.2 Surface and Ground Water...................................................................31
5.4 Drinking-Water Quality..................................................................................32
5.4.1 Introduction............................................................................................32
5.4.2 Drinking-Water Quality: Health Concerns.............................................32
5.4.3 Aesthetic Concerns (Taste, Colour, Odour)..........................................33
5.4.4 Drinking Water Quality: Hardness.........................................................33
5.4.5 Water Quality Standards.......................................................................33
5.5 Water Requirements.....................................................................................34
5.5.1 Introduction............................................................................................34
5.5.2 Municipal Water Consumption..............................................................34
5.5.3 Water Treatment....................................................................................35
6 The Distribution Network 36
6.1 Introduction...................................................................................................36
6.2 Materials.......................................................................................................36
6.3 Fittings..........................................................................................................37
6.4 Installation.....................................................................................................37
6.5 Pumps...........................................................................................................37
6.6 Storage Tanks...............................................................................................38
6.7 Low Pressure, Interruption in Supply and Loss of Water Quality.................38
6.8 The Water Kiosk...........................................................................................39
6.8.1 The Various Parts of a Water Kiosk......................................................39
6.8.2 The Functioning and Purpose of the Water Meter................................39
7 Water, Hygiene and Public Health 40
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7.1 Introduction...................................................................................................40
7.2 Kenya: The Current Water Supply and Public Health Situation...................40
7.3 Water Wastage and its Potential Impact upon Public Health.......................42
7.4 The Public Health Objectives of the Service Provider..................................43
8 Description of Some Water-Related Diseases 44
8.1 Bacteria.........................................................................................................44
8.2 Diarrhoea......................................................................................................44
8.3 Cholera.........................................................................................................45
8.4 Dysentery......................................................................................................46
8.5 Typhoid.........................................................................................................47
8.6 Common Worm Infections............................................................................48
8.7 Pollution of Water by Chemical Substances................................................48
9 Improving Public Health: the Contribution of the Kiosk Operators 49
9.1 Introduction...................................................................................................49
9.2 Keeping the Kiosk Clean: The Important Role of the Kiosk Operator..........50
9.3 Sensitising Kiosk Clientele on Chains and Barriers.....................................51
9.3.1 About Chains.........................................................................................51
9.3.2 Barriers..................................................................................................52
9.3.3 Transmission Routes.............................................................................52
9.4 The Operator and Public Health Emergency Situations...............................55
9.5 Inviting Local Experts....................................................................................55
9.6 Using the PHAST Method.............................................................................56
10 Water Supply in Kenya: The Institutional Context 57
10.1 The Water Act of 2002..................................................................................57
10.2 The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI)...................................................57
10.2.1 MWI’s Vision..........................................................................................57
10.2.2 MWI’ s Mission......................................................................................57
10.2.3 MWI’s Mandate......................................................................................57
10.3 The Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB)......................................58
10.3.1 WASREB’s Strategc Objectives............................................................58
10.3.2 Main Functions......................................................................................58
10.4 The Water Services Trust Fund....................................................................59
10.4.1 History....................................................................................................59
10.4.2 Mandate of the WSTF...........................................................................59
10.4.3 Core Objective of the WSTF.................................................................59
10.5 The Water Services Boards..........................................................................59
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10.5.1 History....................................................................................................59
10.5.2 Number of WSBs...................................................................................60
10.5.3 Main Functions of the WSBs.................................................................60
10.5.4 Mandate of the WSBs............................................................................60
10.6 The Water Service Providers (WSPs)..........................................................61
10.6.1 Main responsibilities of WSPs...............................................................61
10.6.2 Operator Training Workshop: Presenting the WSP..............................61
10.7 Sector Overview............................................................................................61
11 The Kiosk System 63
11.1 Using the Contract and Rules and Guidelines during the Workshop...........63
11.2 Why the Service Provider Decided to Introduce a Kiosk System.................63
11.3 What is a Kiosk System?..............................................................................64
11.4 The Tasks, Responsibilities and Status of the Operator..............................65
11.5 Contract and Guidelines...............................................................................65
11.5.1 The Contract..........................................................................................65
11.5.2 The Appendix to the Contract................................................................66
11.6 Operators: Addressing Their Interests, Complaints and Suggestions.........67
11.7 Introducing the Kiosk System: Step-by-Step................................................68
11.8 Community Participation and Kiosks............................................................68
11.8.1 Project Implementation..........................................................................68
11.8.2 Daily Management of the Kiosk System...............................................68
12 Assisting Vulnerable Persons: The SWAS 70
12.1 Identifying Potential SWAS Beneficiaries.....................................................70
12.2 Timing of the Implementation of the SWAS Programme.............................71
13 Kiosk Hygiene and Poor Practices of Residents, Providers & Operators 72
13.1.1 Introduction............................................................................................72
13.1.2 Poor Practices of Service Providers......................................................72
13.1.3 Poor Practices of Operators..................................................................73
13.1.4 Poor Practices of Customers and other Residents...............................73
List of Abbreviations 75
Bibliography 75
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1 Organisation, Objective and Use of this Training Handbook
This handbook is written for the:
 WSTF Field Monitors,
 staff members of the Water Service Provider (WSP),
 Public Health Officers,
and others who are responsible for the recruitment, training and monitoring of the
water kiosk and/or public sanitation facility Operators.
This handbook consists of the following chapters:
 Chapter 1: The organisation and use of the handbook.
 Chapter 2: Objectives and themes of the Operator Training Workshop.
 Chapter 3: Organisation of the Operator Training Workshop.
 Chapter 4: The importance of water and the water (hydrologic) cycle.
 Chapter 5: Technical aspects of water production, treatment and distribution
 Chapter 6: The water supply system, distribution network and the water
kiosk.
 Chapter 7: Water, hygiene and public health, the public health situation in
Kenya, the public health objectives of the Water Service Provider
(WSP) and water supply in the urban low income areas.
 Chapter 8: Description of some water-related diseases
 Chapter 9: Improving public health and the contribution of the Operators.
 Chapter 10: Water (supply) in Kenya and the role and responsibilities of the
various Ministries and of the Regulator (WASREB).
 Chapter 11: The kiosk system.
 Chapter 12: The Social Welfare Assistance Scheme (SWAS).
 Chapter 13: Kiosk Hygiene and poor practices of stakeholders.
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Although the chapters follow the chronology of the training programme, the trainers
may, at an early stage, decide to introduce some messages, procedures and
practices discussed in later chapters. This handbook should not prevent the trainers
from being flexible and creative.
This handbook contain a number of texts, which, as they discuss rather complicated
issues, are quite complex and contain concepts and jargon which not always clear to
the layman.
This handbook should be considered as a tool, which:
 Identifies the various elements of the Operator Training Programme.
 Deals with the organisational aspect of the training programme.
 Contains the necessary background information that can be used to train the
future Operators.
In other words, the main objective of this handbook is to assist the trainers of
Operators to prepare an efficient and stimulating training programme. It is up to the
trainers to divide the various tasks and to prepare texts and messages that are
adapted to the knowledge levels of the participants taking part in the training
programme. Trainers may wish to consult additional reports and publications. This
handbook, therefore, has a short bibliography, which will help the trainers to obtain
additional reading materials.
The appendix of this handbook contains detailed information on subjects such as:
water, water treatment, sewage treatment, solid waste disposal, public health, and
malaria. 1
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Some elements of this training programme are based upon or have been inspired by a similar
programme that was prepared for the National Water and Sanitation Office (ONEA: Office National de
l’Eau et de l’Assainissement) of Burkina Faso by two consultancy firms. NIRAS and Sahel Consult
prepared their Operator training programme within the framework of a project financed by DANIDA.
The original title of the document is: Module de Formation des Gérants de Bornes-Fontaines et de
Fontainiers.
Some parts of the handbook, such as the description of the Social Welfare Assistance Programme
were prepared by Mabvuto Tembo, the Public Relations and Commercial Manager of the North-
Western Water Supply and Sewerage Company in Kenya.
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2 The Operator Training Workshop: Objectives and Themes
2.1 Introduction
Training of Water Kiosk Operators is necessary in order to assure the long-term
sustainability of a kiosk system. Experience shows that within the framework of a
project or programme, Water Kiosk Operators tend to receive training, but that after
the project, new Operators no longer participate in training programmes and
workshops. New Operators at best receive a kind of training on-the-job. Sometimes
the kiosk is simply “given” to a local resident. In Burkina Faso, for example, a large
number of Operators are hardly known to the local offices of the national service
provider (ONEA). An evaluation of the Chipata kiosk system in Zambia carried out in
1998, revealed that the main complaint expressed by the Operators concerned the
fact that they had only received a kind of on-the-job training instead of a proper
training by the service provider. The lack of training hampered their communication
with the water company, as most Operators were not well informed about their rights
and duties.
2.2 The Main Objectives of the Operator Training Workshop

The Operator Training Workshop should enable the participants to become
responsible, efficient and hard working Water Kiosk Operators, who have the
interests of the service provider and their clientele in mind.
The training workshop should make the Operators aware of the fact that they play a
crucial role in the provision of water in the low income areas, where a majority of the
urban population resides. Operators should know the various objectives the service
provider intends to achieve with the introduction and operation of the kiosk system.
Operators should be aware that they are representing the service provider at the
grassroots level. In other words they are the interface between the low income
population and the Water Service Provider. Operators delivering a poor service are
likely to tarnish the image of the service provider. Trainers should emphasise that the
service provider intends to deliver a good product (treated water) to its low income
customers and that these clients, as they pay for their water, also have the right to a
good service. Operators should also be able to explain to their customers how to
transport, store and use the product.
The objectives of the training workshop/programme are the following:
 Enable the Operators to manage their kiosks.
 Assure that the service provider can deliver a good product (treated water)
and a good service in the low income areas.
 Enable Operators to sensitise their clients on how to keep the kiosk clean and
on how to use water in a proper way.
 Enable Operators to take part in emergency programmes.
The expected results of the training programme can be summed up as follows:
 The Operators understand all aspects of the kiosk system.
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 They are fully aware of the importance of keeping the kiosk clean.
 They have a basic knowledge of water-related diseases.
 They are aware of their status and of their rights, as well as of the rules and
procedures they have to follow.
 They can read the meter, calculate their income and keep track of sales.
 They know how they will be supervised and controlled by the service provider.
 They know how to communicate with the various stakeholders and how to
deal with special circumstances.
2.3 Themes to be Addressed during the Training Workshop

The Operator Training Workshop should tackle the following issues:
1. General information
 The water supply problematic (worldwide and in Kenya).
 Water supply in urban and rural Kenya.
 The water cycle/water as a scarce resource.
 Water treatment (Explained during a visit of the water treatment works).
2. The Water Service Provider and the objectives of low income water supply
 The organisational structure of the service provider.
 The main objectives the service provider intends to achieve by improving
water supply in low income areas.
 The main characteristics of the kiosk system and the central role of the water
meter.
3. The kiosk system: financial management and administrative tasks
 The customer-Operator payment system.
 The importance of the water meter.
 Billing procedures and billing frequency.
 Billing cycle and metering cycle.
 Procedures concerning depositing the amounts of money collected.
 Keeping records, how to monitor water sales.
 Remuneration, incentives and sanctions.
4. The Contract
 The status of the Water Kiosk Operator.
 The content of the Contract and the appendix to the Contract.
 The rights and obligations of all parties concerned.
5. Health and hygiene
 Water hygiene and public health.
 Water quality and sources of water.
 Cleaning the kiosk and its immediate surroundings (frequency, tools).
 Personal hygiene (washing hands, etc.).
 Fetching water, cleaning containers, and water storage.
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 Washing kitchen utensils and laundry near the kiosk.

 Water-related diseases and how to prevent them.
 The use of alternative sources of water and the advantages of treated
water.
 Water usages (drinking, preparing meals, washing, bathing) and the use of
alternative sources.
 How to sensitise customers on the need to observe the rules concerning
kiosk cleanliness and hygiene.
6. Special circumstances and events
 Under which circumstances should water be supplied free of charge?
 What to do in case of a fire or a nearby funeral?
 What to do in case water quality is poor?
7. Communication with customers and the general public
 How to make sure that customers (and non-customers) become aware of
the kiosk rules and regulations.
 How to communicate with customers. How to give advice to customers.
 How to organise customers during peak demand hours, and how to solve
conflicts and fights (Addressed through a number of role plays in which the
future Operators participate).
 How to prevent vandalism.
 How to inform customers (for instance, about tariff changes).
 How to handle customer complaints.
 How to attract customers and improve sales (of water and of groceries).
 How to determine (together the service provider, the clients of the kiosk
and the local leadership) the business hours of the kiosk (kiosk opening and
closing hours).
8. Communication with the service provider
 How to countercheck the Water Bill and the other data (for instance the
meter readings) collected and provided by the service provider.
 How to communicate with the service provider and with other Water Kiosk
Operators.
 When and how to inform the service provider (in case of leakages,
prolonged interruptions in supply and other technical problems).
 With whom and when complaints and proposals should be discussed.
9. Technical management
 Who is responsible for maintenance and repair work?
 Responsibilities of the Operator when it comes to the technical state of
his or her kiosk.
 How the service provider monitors the technical and hygienic condition of
the kiosk.
 Procedures concerning damage reporting and reporting of low pressure
or poor water quality.
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During the Operator Training Workshop, the Operator has to learn how to inform and
sensitise his or her clients. It is, therefore, important that the Operators, during their
training, acquire some basic sensitisation and communication skills.
The Operator Training Workshop should last approximately 2 – 2.5 days. The
trainers should prepare a programme which shows the themes of the workshop.
Soon after having received their training, the Operators will be allocated their kiosk
and start their work.
It is important that during the first weeks all new Operators receive intensive
guidance and on-the-job training from the service provider.
2.4 Training Activities

The training of the Water Kiosk Operators should consist of the following elements:
 Transfer of knowledge: The trainers explain the various themes in a detailed
and understandable way. The trainers should prepare their presentations
carefully and may decide to use flipcharts or summary sheets.
 Field visits: The participants should visit the treatment works, one or more
kiosks and the various sections of the service provider (Billing Section,
Network Section etc.). During the field visits, the trainers will be assisted by
other staff members of the service provider (Plant Operators, etc.). It is
important that the future Operators not only visit the various premises, but that
during their visit they meet personnel of the various departments/sections of
the service provider.
Future Operators should know that treating water is a complicated and costly
process and that treated water is a scarce resource. They should also be
aware of the fact that the service provider is a complex organisation and that
the Operator, although he or she is not an employee, plays an important role
in the water supply chain.
 Active participation by the participants : In order to verify if the participants
have understood the content of the training programme, the trainers will ask
the participants to demonstrate their knowledge by answering questions, filling
in forms, reading the water meter, playing sketches, etc.
2.5 What Happens After the Training Workshop?

The Operator Training Workshop does not mark the end of the training period. The
official training programme is followed by a number of activities that serve to assure
that the kiosk system becomes a success.
Training on-the-job: As soon as the new Operator starts selling water on behalf of
the service provider, the trainers and other staff members of the service provider
will provide on-the-job training. This training will last approximately 1 week after
which the service provider will continue to monitor the Operators. The trainers or
other service provider staff should be present the first time the meter is read and
when the Operator receives his or her first Water Bill. When the meter is read, the
meter reader or the trainer should be able to provide explanations and answer
questions asked by the Operator.
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Day-to-day management of the kiosk system: Operators should always be given

the opportunity to ask questions, make proposals and express their complaints.
Providing this opportunity implies that the trainers, or the staff members of the
service provider responsible for the kiosk system, visit the kiosks on a regular
basis. These regular visits also serve to monitor and supervise the work of the
Operators and to discuss the kiosk system with clients.
Additional training: If deemed necessary the service provider may decide to ask the
Operators to attend an additional training meeting or workshop. For example, if
the Ministry of Health has issued a cholera warning, the service provider may
decide to assemble the Operators in order to provide them with detailed
information on cholera and on the procedures they will have to follow in the event
of an outbreak.
2.6 When and How to Organise the Operator Training Workshop?

It is obvious that a WSP cannot organise an Operator Training Workshop each time a
new Operator has to be recruited. Operators, who receive on-the-job training, can
perform their tasks more or less satisfactorily if they receive sufficient guidance and if
they are motivated to consult their (trained) colleagues and even their clients. It is
advisable, however, to have new Operators take part in a training workshop as soon
as their number justifies the costs of such a programme.
When a kiosk system is introduced in a number of low income areas, the service
provider will have to organise a training workshop for all the new Operators. In order
to reduce costs, the service provider should also invite and train candidates who are
supposed to work in low income areas that will be connected at a later stage.
Training should take place in the town itself, preferably near the office or the
treatment works of the service provider or in the low income area itself.
When a kiosk system is introduced in a small town, it will be uneconomical to
organise a training workshop for just a few Operators. In such cases, the emphasis
should be on on-the-job training. If possible the Operators of these small towns
should be asked to attend the training workshop, which is organised programme in a
larger town.
2.7 The Input of Local Experts

We believe an Operator Training Workshop can be more effective and interesting
when relevant service provider staff and local experts, such as the Public Health
Officer, the Community Health Extension Workers (CHEWs) and/or the staff of local
clinics and health centres are involved.
If possible the trainers should seek the assistance of a number of local experts.
Especially items concerning the interrelatedness between water, health and hygiene,
can best be explained by health experts who in addition to their professional
knowledge have a detailed knowledge of local conditions and risk factors. Local
experts should be invited to prepare presentations. It is important that these local
experts know what is expected from them and the trainers should put much
emphasis on a detailed briefing.
Some aspects of water treatment and water supply should be explained to the
participants by local service provider staff. For example, the operators of the
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treatment works are in a better position to explain the various technical and hygienic
aspects of the water treatment process.
2.8 The Operator Recruitment Process

It is important to implicate the low income community in the selection and recruitment
of prospective Operators. The WSP, however, should insist on the use of a number
of selection criteria.
Experience in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa shows that one of the main difficulties
trainers are faced with when training Operators, is the fact that the educational level
of the candidates participating the training programme differs from person to person.
It is important, therefore, to base the recruitment process upon a set of criteria. 2 If the
WSP wants its water kiosks or public sanitation facilities to be operated by
individuals, these individuals should meet a number of important criteria.
Only candidates meeting the criteria set by the WSP should be allowed to participate
in the training workshop !!
The service provider can decide to ask the Project Task Team to find suitable
candidates in the project area. The service provider should provide the Task Team
with all the details concerning the recruitment and training process.
Throughout the training, the trainers have to assess the level of comprehension of
each candidate. In other words, the trainers, by asking questions to each candidate,
have to verify that all participants have clearly understood the messages and various
elements of the training programme. Candidates who are unable to follow the
programme should be asked to leave and will have to be replaced by other, more
suitable candidates.
2
The Oloolaiser Water and Sewerage Company uses the following criteria to select individuals who
will sell water at its kiosks. The Kiosk Operator:
 Must be able to read and write (English and Swahili) and has a basic understanding of
mathematics.
 Is preferably a woman.
 Must be at least 18 years of age.
 Must be of sober character.
 Is known as an honest and hard working person.
 Is respected by the other members of the community (by the other residents).
 Does not have a criminal record.
 Has submitted a Medical/Health Certificate.
 Lives within the project area (within a radius of approximately 1 kilometre of the kiosk) and has
a permanent residence.
 Is able to socialise and deal with customers and likes to work with and for people.
 Is expected to display a pleasant behaviour and attitude towards people.
 Is not active in local politics.
 Is a businesses minded person who intends to sell a variety of goods at the kiosk.
 Is able and ready to pay (up-front) a security deposit of KSh 10,000.
 Respects the Contract his or her Group has signed with the Company and the rules and
guidelines of the Company which are annexed to the Contract.
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3 Organisation of the Training Workshop
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the more practical aspects of organising and implementing a
Operator Training Workshop. We also present an example of a training programme
lasting 2.5 days.
Each theme (topic) is listed and in sections 3.6 and 3.7 the various activities, “tools”
and participation levels are indicated.
3.2 Preparatory Activities

Before the Operator Training Workshop can be organised, the Project Task Team
and/or the trainers have to inform the management of the Water Service Provider. As
soon as the management has given its go-ahead, the trainers will have to make the
necessary arrangements with:
 The staff of the network/metering section of the service provider.
 The personnel of the treatment works.
 Local experts.
 The Operators of the venue where the workshop will take place.
A few days before the start of the training workshop, the trainers have to arrange for
means of transport (that is if means of transport are required to enable all participants
to visit the treatment works and the service provider office).
3.3 Duration, Venue and Invited Experts

The Operator Training Workshop, including field visits will last between 2 and 2.5
days. The trainers will have to arrange an affordable and suitable venue (enough
tables and chairs, a quiet conducive environment, suitable for group work, etc.) which
should be communicated to all participants, including the invited experts. 3
The trainers will also make a list of the experts they have invited. All guest presenters
(including the staff members at the treatment works and at the office who will take
part in the training programme), will have to be informed about the days the training
workshop is going to be held and exactly when their contribution is required. Each
participant and guest presenter will receive a copy of the workshop programme
3.4 Required Materials

The successful implementation of the training programme requires the following
materials:
Enough money to pay for all expenses.
A ballpoint, a pencil and a rubber (for each participant).
An exercise book for making notes (for each participant).
A copy of the programme/timetable of the workshop (for each participant).
3
Preferably the workshop takes place within the low income area itself (at a school, a training
institute, a community hall or a church).
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A copy of the Contract and the “Rules and Guidelines” for Operators (each
participant receives his or her own copy).
Copies of the various sheets, tables, receipts, etc. (each participant receives his
or her own copy).
Copies of posters on HIV/AIDS as well as the HIV/AIDS training manual.
One flip chart stand, markers and enough sheets of (A1) paper.
One functional water meter.
A calculator, a stapler and a perforator.
Enough sheets of (A4) paper.
Posters explaining the hydrologic cycle, the causes of water-related diseases, the
maintenance of the water kiosk, etc.
The PHAST (health and hygiene) Tool.
A copy of this Handbook.
If necessary: a projection screen, an overhead projector or a laptop computer, a
generator and a beamer.
The last items will only be used if the trainers have prepared a set of overhead
sheets or a PowerPoint presentation. Preparing overhead sheets or PowerPoint
slides can be useful, if the trainers wish to show photos, graphs or drawings (for
example a drawing which explains the water cycle). If possible the trainers should
have easy access to a copying machine.
All necessary materials have to be purchased and/or prepared well before the start of
the workshop.
3.5 Workshop Budget

Before the start of the training programme, the trainers will have to prepare a budget.
When preparing this budget the trainers will have to take the following into account:
 The service provider will provide lunch for all candidates. During the morning
and afternoon sessions each participant will receive tea, coffee or a soft drink.
 Each candidate will have to be issued with stationary (exercise book, pen,
pencil, rubber, etc.).
 Copies have to be made of relevant documents.
 Sometimes the use of a venue has to be paid for.
 It may be necessary to give invited guest presenters a fee or allowance for
their contribution.
3.6 The Training Programme: Timetable and Themes

This Module of the Toolkit also contains a programme for an Operator Training
Workshop. It should be noted that the programme is just an example. Trainers should
be flexible and try to adapt their training programme on the basis of experiences,
their budget and the availability of means or transport or of external experts and
service provider staff.
Before the start of the workshop, participants have to be told to be punctual and to
respect all arrangements made.
Throughout the training programme the trainers should motivate the participants to
take active part in the training by asking questions and making proposals.
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16
3.7 The Various Themes of the Training Workshop
3.7.1 Welcome and Presentations

1 & 2. Welcome and Introductions4
Theme: Welcoming the participants and introductions
Who does what?: One of the trainers welcomes all participants
All participants, trainers and guests introduce themselves
Necessary hardware: All names, addresses of the participants and the names and
addresses of contact persons have to be recorded in a list
Activities: -
Participation: All participate
3. Opening address
Theme: Opening address
Who does what?: Senior staff member of the service provider (CEO or Technical
Director, etc.)
Necessary hardware: -
Activities: Address by senior WSP management
Participation: Presenter only
4. Objectives of the workshop

Theme: Objectives of the training workshop
Who does what?: One of the trainers or a senior staff member of the service provider
Activities: A brief outline of (1) the main objectives & expected results of the
workshop
5. Themes, elements and activities of the workshop

Theme: Objectives & themes of the training workshop
Who does what?: One of the trainers or a senior staff member of the service provider
Activities: A brief outline of the various themes that will be addressed as well
as the elements and activities of the training programme
4
The table numbers refer to the themes presented in the programme of the water Kiosk Operator
training Workshop.
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17
3.7.2 The Hydrological Cycle and Municipal Water Supply
6. The importance of water

Theme: The importance of water (water is life)
Who does what?: - A trainer gives an introduction to the group works
- A trainer divides the participants into groups
- Trainers guide the group works
Necessary hardware: Flip chart and markers, posters, this handbook
Activities: Group work
Participation: - Operators are participating in the group sessions
- Operators are presenting the group session results during the
plenary session.
Group work questions: The following questions could guide the group work:
- People often say: “water is life”. Why do they say that?
- What are the advantages of safe water? (What is safe water?)
7. Water production, treatment and distribution

Theme: Water production, treatment and distribution
Who does what?: A trainer or an expert of the service provider, gives a presentation
on the technical aspects of water supply, explaining:
- the importance of treated water and the water treatment
process
- the functioning of the distribution network (purpose of
valves, storage tanks etc.)
Necessary hardware: Flip chart and markers, posters, network drawings, this handbook
Activities: Participants are asked questions
Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions
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18
3.7.3 Water Supply in Kenya and the Service Provider

8. Water supply in Kenya: the institutional context
Theme: Water supply in Kenya: the institutional context
Who does what?: A trainer or an expert of the service provider gives a presentation
Necessary hardware: Flipchart and markers, this handbook
Activities: - Presentation
- Participants are given the opportunity to ask questions
- Trainers ask questions to verify whether the theme is
understood
9. The Water Service Provider

Themes: The service provider: history, achievements and objectives
Water supply in the towns where the Operators will be working
Who does what?: A staff member of the service provider gives a presentation
Required hardware: Flipchart and markers, this handbook, the WSP Business Plan
- Trainers ask questions to verify whether the theme is
understood
3.7.4 Water, Hygiene and Public Health
10 & 11. Water, hygiene and public health

Theme: Water, hygiene and public health
Who does what?: A local expert (for example the PHO) gives a presentation and
introduces the PHAST Tool
Necessary hardware: Flip chart and markers, the PHAST Tool posters, etc.
Activities: - The local expert has received a copy of relevant parts of this
handbook and of the PHAST Tool to prepare himself/herself
- The participants are given explanations on the group works
- Group works
- Presentations made by the groups during the plenary session
Participation: - Operators are participating in the group sessions
- Operators are asked to give examples or to explain causes of
diseases. Operators are motivated to ask questions
- Operators are presenting the group session results during the
plenary session.
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19
3.7.5 The Kiosk System
14. The kiosk system: how does it function?

Theme: How does the kiosk system function?
Who does what?: Trainer gives a presentation
Necessary hardware: Flipchart and markers, this handbook,
- Questions and answers session
Participation: Operators are motivated to ask questions
15. The water meter

Theme: How does the water meter function and how will it be used?
Who does what?: Trainers explain the water meter
Necessary hardware: A functioning or a demonstration water meter and this handbook
Activities: - Presentation (short)
- Operators read the meter and calculate water consumption
Participation: - Operators are asked questions and calculate consumptions
16 & 17. The billing system and bookkeeping by the Operator

How does the billing system function and how does the Operator
Theme:
keep his or her books?
Who does what?: Trainers explain the billing and bookkeeping system
Necessary hardware: The necessary billing sheets and forms and exercise books
- Presentation (short)
Activities:
- Operators participate in billing simulation exercises
- Operators can ask questions
Participation:
- Operators are asked to calculate Water Bills
18. Operator remuneration

Theme: How are Operators remunerated?
Who does what?: Trainers explain the remuneration system
Necessary hardware: The receipts, sheets and forms, a flipchart and markers
- Presentation
Activities: - Operators participate in consumption calculations and
remuneration calculation exercises
- Operators are encouraged to ask questions
Participation:
- Operators are asked to calculate remunerations
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20
19. The kiosk system: responsibilities and tasks

Theme: What are the responsibilities, tasks and rights of all stakeholders?
Who does what?: The trainers explain the various elements (step-by-step approach)
Necessary hardware: The Contract and the appendix to the Contract (a copy for every
participant)
20. The sale of other goods at the kiosk

Theme: The sale of groceries at the kiosk by the Operator
Who does what?: The trainers explain the opportunities and restrictions (which goods
cannot be sold at the kiosk)
Necessary hardware: The Contract and the Appendix to the Contract (a copy for every
participant)
- Asking questions to establish if operators can identify goods
which are not to be sold at the kiosk
Participation: Operators are asked questions & are motivated to ask questions
21. The Contract and its appendix

Theme: The Contract and the rules and guidelines for Operators
Who does what?: The trainers explain the various elements (step-by-step approach)
Necessary hardware: The Contract and the appendix to the Contract (a copy for every
participant)
Activities: - Presentations (step-by-step discussion of the documents)
- Asking questions to verify the Contract and its appendix are
understood
3.7.6 Communication and Service Delivery
24. Communication with the Water Service Provider

Theme: Communication with the service provider
Who does what?: Trainers explain the various communication channels
Necessary hardware: A flipchart and markers
Activities: - Trainers present several examples that involve different “types”
of communication between the Operator and service provider
Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions and to explain how
they think communicating with the service provider
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21
24. Communication with clients and other residents

Theme: How to communicate with clients?
Who does what?: Trainers explain, provide examples and prepare sketches
(Johari’s Window).
Activities: - Operators are asked to play sketches that serve to explain a
number of client-Operator communications
Participation: Operators are encouraged to ask questions and are invited to
participate in the sketches
24. Dealing with special circumstances: problems and conflicts

Theme: How Operators have to respond if they are faced with special
circumstances, such as conflicts with and between clients
Who does what?: Trainers explain, provide examples and prepare
Activities: - Operators are asked to play sketches that serve to explain a
number of potential client-Operator conflicts
Participation: - Operators participate in the sketches
- Operators are encouraged to ask questions
24. Dealing with special circumstances: outbreaks of water-related diseases

Theme: The kiosk system and the outbreak of water-related diseases
Who does what?: Trainers explain the various institutions involved and the role of
the Operators in preventing or containing outbreaks
Activities: Discussions
26. HIV/AIDS, Water and Sanitation

Theme: HIV & AIDS, water supply and sanitation
Who does what?: Trainers, local expert (e.g. the PHO)
Necessary hardware: Training manuals, markers, flipchart, HIV/AIDS posters, male and
female condoms
Activities: Presentations & discussions
- Operators will participate by initially answering questions
Participation:
- Operators will be engaged in discussions where they provide
their observations, views, and suggestions
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22
3.7.7 Water Treatment and How the Service Provider Functions
26. Water treatment (during a visit of the water treatment works) (see section 3.8)
Theme: Water treatment
Who does what?: An expert of the service provider explains and shows the various
phases of the water treatment process and explains the water
quality control process and procedures (chemical and
bacteriological tests, etc.)
Necessary hardware: Means of transport, flip chart, paper and markers, equipment and
chemicals for a flocculation experiment (showing the difference
between treated and untreated water)
Activities: Making necessary arrangements with staff of the treatment works
Objectives: The main objectives of the visit are:
- Operators understand the treatment process
- Operators understand why everybody has to pay for treated water
26. How does the service provider function? / A visit to the offices of the service provider
Theme: How does the service provider function?
Who does what?: Staff members of the service provider explain their responsibilities
and the way their section/department functions
Necessary hardware: Means of transport
Activities: Making the necessary arrangements with service provider staff
27. Visit of one of the kiosks (see section 3.8)

Theme: Explaining the kiosk (technical aspects, user-friendliness, hygiene)
Who does what?: A trainer or a technical service provider staff member, gives a
detailed description of the kiosk itself (platform, valve, meter, taps,
soak away, shelves, etc.) also emphasising the ergonomic aspects
of kiosk design
Necessary hardware: Means of transport
Activities: - Making the necessary arrangements with WSP staff

- Making sure that someone has the key to the kiosk
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23
3.7.8 Evaluation of the Training Workshop
28. Evaluation of the training programme (see section 3.9)

Theme: Evaluation of the programme/workshop
Who does what?: - The trainers explains the purpose of the evaluation
(improving the programme) and asks number of prepared
questions
- Each theme is evaluated (good, fair, poor) according to a
number of criteria: quality of the presentation, time keeping,
relevance of the theme, participant participation
- The evaluation should also cover such issues as transport,
quality of food and drinks, sanitation facilities, duration of
breaks, total duration of the workshop.
- The trainers should note the remarks and proposals made by
the participants in order to improve the quality of the
workshop
Necessary hardware: Flipchart, markers and paper
Activities & participation: Operators are encouraged to make remarks and propose
improvements
3.7.9 Closing Remarks and Appointments
29. Closing remarks and appointments (see section 3.9)

Theme: Closing remarks
Who does what?: One of the trainers closes the training programme and gives
details on the inauguration of the kiosks and makes
appointments with the Operators
Necessary hardware: Agenda
Activities: Making appointments with the Operators
Participation of Operators: Operators are motivated to ask questions or make proposals
____________________
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24
3.8 Visit to the WSP Office(s), the Treatment Works and to a Kiosk
3.8.1 Objectives
The visit to the treatment works, the office of the service provider and to one of the
kiosks is an important element of the training programme. The visit will result in a
better understanding, among Operators, of what water supply is all about. It is also
an opportunity for the new Operators and the personnel of the service provider to get
to know each other.
3.8.2 Sequence
1. If possible, the office of the service provider should be visited first. The
purpose of this visit is to meet staff and management and to get an idea on how
the company and the various sections work.
2. The workshop participants should proceed to the water treatment facilities. A
service provider expert on water treatment should give a guided tour and explain
how clean and safe drinking water is produced and pumped into the main
distribution system. He or she should also explain that treating water is costly
(What are the main costs?).
3. The third part of the visit will be to the network and metering section of the
service provider. A staff member should explain the responsibilities and tasks of
this section and will also point out why it is sometimes necessary to disconnect
customers.
4. The fourth part of the visit should be to one of the kiosks. One of the trainers
should explain the various technical, ergonomic and management aspects of the
kiosk. If an operational kiosk is visited, the Operator is asked to talk about his or
her work (working conditions, disadvantages, advantages, payment, etc.) and
the new Operators will be motivated to ask their colleague as many questions as
possible.
3.9 Evaluation, Conclusions and Making Appointments

Before winding up the training workshop, the participants should be given the
opportunity to express their thoughts regarding the training programme. Attention
should be given to the content of the programme, but also to the way in which the
various elements have been presented by the trainers and by the invited experts. An
evaluation is not very useful, if its results are not used to make improvements. The
trainers, therefore, should assess if the outcomes of the evaluation need to result in
changes in the programme or in the set-up of the training.
After the evaluation the trainers will explain what will happen in the subsequent days,
weeks and months and what is expected of the Operators. The trainers should make
detailed appointments (for instance an appointment for the signing of the Contract)
with the Operators and the other participants.
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25
3.10 Informing Unsuitable (Operator) Candidates

Participants, who, after having followed the training programme, do not appear to be
suitable candidates, have to be informed as soon as possible (A few days after the
termination of the training programme).
3.11 On-the-Job Training

During the Operator Training Workshop, the trainers should emphasise that the
education of the Operators will continue after the workshop as they will all receive on-
the-job training. This training will start the day they become responsible for the
management of their kiosk. Operators should know that if they have any questions
regarding their work, they are always free to:
 Visit the office of the service provider.
 Ask relevant service provider staff to visit their kiosk.
3.12 Some Remarks on Bookkeeping, Remuneration and Accountability

Module 4 of the Toolkit contains detailed information on the billing procedures, on
cash handling, Operator remuneration and the financial control mechanisms
concerning the kiosks. It is important that during the training programme, there are
enough copies of:
 Meter reading sheets.
 Water bills.
 Exercise books the Operators will use to record their sales.
For a successful implementation of a kiosk system, it is necessary that the Operators
understand the commission-based billing/remuneration system and are able to keep
track of their sales and revenues. The trainers should emphasise that the water
meter is at the heart of the kiosk system.
Module 4 also discusses:
 The refundable deposit the Operators will have to pay before they can start
working.
 The quantity (number of litres) that can and should be fetched with a 20 litres
container.
 Water wastage and how Operators have to act when they are faced with
special circumstances.
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26
4 The Importance of Water and the Hydrologic Cycle
4.1 The Availability and Importance of Water

 The Operator Training Workshop could start with a discussion on how our
globe is surrounded by the waters of the oceans and seas, which cover 70%
of the earth. Water is almost everywhere, but approximately 97% of all water
in this world is ocean water and therefore salty.
 This means that only 3% of all water on our planet is sweet. Approximately
99% of sweet (fresh) water is fixed in the sense that is contained in glaciers
and the polar icecaps. Only 1% of all fresh water is accessible for human
consumption (see Awake 22 August 1997: 3-9 and Awake 22 June 2001: 3-
13).
 Water is indeed life. Life for all living creatures: plants, animals and of course
human beings. In fact the human body mainly consists of water.
 Every human being needs to consume (drinking or by consuming food)
between approximately 2.5 and 4.5 litres/day (depending on the climate and
the staple food) in order to survive (WHO, Minimum water quantity needed, for
domestic uses, WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia (see also:
http://www.whosea.org )
 An additional 10 – 15 litres per person/day are needed for personal hygiene
(bathing, brushing teeth and doing laundry)
Figure 4.1 (prepared by the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology) shows the
hydrologic cycle).
Figure 4.1: The hydrologic cycle
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27
The earth has a limited amount of water. That water keeps going around and around
and around and around and in what we call the "Water Cycle".
This cycle is made up of a few main parts:
 Evaporation (and transpiration).

 Condensation.
 Precipitation.
 Infiltration.
 Surface runoff.
 Collection.
 Evaporation is when the sun heats up water in rivers or lakes or the ocean and
turns it into vapor or steam. The water vapor or steam leaves the river, lake or
ocean and goes into the air.
 Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water out of their leaves into
the air. Transpiration gives evaporation a bit of a hand in getting the water vapor
back up into the air.
 Water vapor in the air gets cold and changes back into liquid, forming
clouds. This is called condensation.
 Precipitation occurs when so much water has condensed that the air cannot
hold it anymore. The clouds get heavy and water falls back to the earth in the
form of rain, hail, sleet or snow.
 When water falls back to earth as rain, hail, sleet or snow, it seeps into the soil
due to force of gravity and become part of the ground water. This seeping is
called infiltration.
 When the soil gets saturated then the water flows into the oceans, lakes or
rivers. This is surface runoff. When it ends up on oceans, lakes or rivers the cycle
starts again.
Only a small portion of water of the rainfall flows into rivers as surface water and
recharges ground water. This water is used for washing, cooking, industries,
agriculture and drinking. This is the water we tend to harness through infrastructure
development.
4.2 Detailed Description of the Hydrologic Cycle

- The following text on the hydrologic cycle has been copied from the
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, key words: Municipal
water supply and hydrologic cycle).
The hydrologic cycle is:
“The cycle that involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere
system. Of the many processes involved in the hydrologic cycle, the most important
are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Although the
total amount of water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution
among the various processes is continually changing.
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28
Evaporation, one of the major processes in the cycle, is the transfer of water from the
surface of the Earth to the atmosphere. By evaporation, water in the liquid state is
transferred to the gaseous, or vapour, state. This transfer occurs when some
molecules in a water mass have attained sufficient kinetic energy to eject themselves
from the water surface. The main factors affecting evaporation are temperature,
humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation. The direct measurement of evaporation,
though desirable, is difficult and possible only at point locations. The principal source
of water vapour is the oceans, but evaporation also occurs in soils, snow, and ice.
Evaporation from snow and ice, the direct conversion from solid to vapour, is known
as sublimation. Transpiration is the evaporation of water through minute pores, or
stomata, in the leaves of plants. For practical purposes, transpiration and the
evaporation from all water, soils, snow, ice, vegetation, and other surfaces are
lumped together and called evapotranspiration, or total evaporation.
Water vapour is the primary form of atmospheric moisture. Although its storage in the
atmosphere is comparatively small, water vapour is extremely important in forming
the moisture supply for dew, frost, fog, clouds, and precipitation. Practically all water
vapour in the atmosphere is confined to the troposphere (the region below 6 to 8
miles [10 to 13 km] altitude).
The transition process from the vapour state to the liquid state is called
condensation. Condensation may take place as soon as the air contains more water
vapour than it can receive from a free water surface through evaporation at the
prevailing temperature. This condition occurs as the consequence of either cooling or
the mixing of air masses of different temperatures. By condensation, water vapour in
the atmosphere is released to form precipitation.
Precipitation that falls to the Earth is distributed in four main ways: some is returned
to the atmosphere by evaporation, some may be intercepted by vegetation and then
evaporated from the surface of leaves, some percolates into the soil by infiltration,
and the remainder flows directly as surface runoff into the sea. Some of the infiltrated
precipitation may later percolate into streams as groundwater runoff. Direct
measurement of runoff is made by stream gauges and plotted against time on
hydrographs.
Most groundwater is derived from precipitation that has percolated through the soil.
Groundwater flow rates, compared with those of surface water, are very slow and
variable, ranging from a few millimetres to a few metres a day. Groundwater
movements studied by tracer techniques and remote sensing.
Ice also plays a role in the hydrologic cycle. Ice and snow on the Earth's surface
occur in various forms such as frost, sea ice, and glacier ice. When soil moisture
freezes, ice also occurs beneath the Earth's surface, forming permafrost in tundra
climates. About 18,000 years ago glaciers and ice caps covered approximately one-
third of the Earth's land surface. Today, about 12 percent of the land surface remains
covered by ice masses.”
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29
5 Municipal Water Supply, Water Sources and Water Quality
5.1 Introduction
- The following text (Paragraphs 5.1 – 5.5) concerning municipal water supply
has been copied from the Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe Edition CD-
Rom, key word: Municipal water supply).
“Municipal water supply can be defined as follows: Infrastructure that provides cities
and towns with water supply, waste disposal, and pollution control services. They
include extensive networks of reservoirs, pipelines, treatment systems, pumping
stations, and waste disposal facilities. These municipal works serve two important
purposes: they protect human health and safeguard environmental quality. Treatment
of drinking water helps to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases such as
cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever, and proper waste treatment and disposal
practices prevent degradation of ecosystems and neighbourhoods. Similarly,
cleaning the air of pollutant gases and particles as they are generated prevents
adverse effects on both human health and the environment.
Steady population growth, urbanization, and industrial development place steadily
increasing demands on existing infrastructure, and these demands in turn create a
need for the planning, design, and construction of new environmental works.
Because the provision, operation, and maintenance of these works require a major
investment of public funds, concerned citizens as well as municipal officials and
decision makers should be familiar with the basic concepts of environmental works
technology.
This article presents an introduction to the fundamentals of environmental works. Its
main focus is on the modern facilities and systems that provide communities with
water, dispose of waste, and prevent pollution.
Of all municipal services, provision of potable water is perhaps the most vital. All
people depend on water for drinking, cooking, washing, carrying away wastes, and
other domestic needs. Water supply systems must also meet requirements for public,
commercial, and industrial activities. During droughts, floods, earthquakes, or other
emergencies, vigorous efforts must be made to maintain public water supplies.”
5.2 Historical Background
5.2.1 Developments in Supply Systems

“Water was an important factor in the location of the earliest settled communities, and
the evolution of public water supply systems is tied directly to the growth of cities. In
the development of water resources beyond their natural condition in rivers, lakes,
and springs, the digging of shallow wells was probably the earliest innovation. As the
need for water increased and tools were developed, wells were made deeper. Brick-
lined wells were built by city dwellers in the Indus River basin as early as 2500 BC,
and wells more than 1,600 feet (almost 500 metres) deep are known to have been
used in ancient China. Construction of qanâts, slightly sloping tunnels driven into
hillsides that contained groundwater, probably originated in north-western Persia
(now Armenia) about 700 BC. From the hillsides the water was conveyed by gravity
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30
in open channels to nearby towns or cities. The use of qanâts became widespread
throughout the region, and some are still in existence. Until 1933 the Iranian capital
city, Tehrân, drew its entire water supply from a system of qanâts.
The need to channel water supplies from distant sources was an outcome of the
growth of urban communities. Among the most notable of ancient water conveyance
systems are the aqueducts built between 312 BC and AD 455 throughout the Roman
Empire. Some of these impressive works are still in existence. The writings of Sextus
Julius Frontinus (who was appointed superintendent of Roman aqueducts in AD 97)
provide information about the design and construction of the 11 major aqueducts that
supplied Rome itself. Extending from a distant spring-fed area, a lake, or a river, a
typical Roman aqueduct included a series of underground and aboveground
channels. The longest was the Aqua Marcia, built in 144 BC. Its source was about 23
miles (37 km) from Rome. The aqueduct itself was 57 miles (92 km) long, however,
because it had to meander along land contours in order to maintain a steady flow of
water. For about 50 miles (80 km) the aqueduct was underground in a covered
trench, and only for the last 7 miles (11 km) was it carried aboveground on an
arcade. In fact, most of the combined length of the aqueducts supplying Rome (about
260 miles [420 km]) was built as covered trenches or tunnels. When crossing a
valley, aqueducts were supported by arcades comprising one or more levels of
massive granite piers and impressive arches.
The aqueducts ended in Rome at distribution reservoirs, from which the water was
conveyed to public baths or fountains. A few very wealthy or privileged citizens had
water piped directly into their homes, but most of the people carried water in
containers from a public fountain. Water was running constantly, the excess being
used to clean the streets and flush the sewers. Ancient aqueducts and pipelines were
not capable of withstanding much pressure. Channels were constructed of cut stone,
brick, rubble, or rough concrete. Pipes were typically made of drilled stone or of
hollowed wooden logs, although clay and lead pipes were also used.
During the Middle Ages there was no notable progress in the methods or materials
used to convey and distribute water. Cast-iron pipes with joints capable of
withstanding high pressures were not used very much until the early 19th century.
The steam engine was first applied to water pumping operations at about that time,
making it possible for all but the smallest communities to have drinking water
supplied directly to individual homes. Asbestos cement, ductile iron, reinforced
concrete, and steel came into use as materials for water supply pipelines in the 20 th
century.”
5.2.2 Developments in Water Treatment

In addition to quantity of supply, water quality is also of concern. Even the ancients
had an appreciation for the importance of water purity. Sanskrit writings from as early
as 2000 BC tell how to purify foul water by boiling and filtering. But it was not until the
middle of the 19th century that a direct link between polluted water and disease
(cholera) was proved. And it was not until the end of that same century that the
German bacteriologist Robert Koch proved the germ theory of disease, establishing a
scientific basis for the treatment and sanitation of drinking water.
Water treatment is the alteration of a water source in order to achieve a quality that
meets specified goals. At the end of the 19 th century and the beginning of the 20 th, the
main goal was elimination of deadly waterborne diseases. The treatment of public
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31
drinking water to remove pathogenic, or disease-causing, micro organisms began

about that time. Treatment methods included sand filtration as well as the use of
chlorine for disinfection. The virtual elimination of diseases such as cholera and
typhoid in developed countries proved the success of this water treatment
technology.
In developing countries, waterborne disease is still the principal water quality
concern. In industrialized nations, however, concern has shifted to the chronic health
effects related to chemical contamination. For example, trace amounts of certain
synthetic organic substances in drinking water are suspected of causing cancer in
humans. The added goal of reducing such health risks is seen in the continually
increasing number of factors included in drinking-water standards.
5.3 Water Sources
5.3.1 Global Distribution of Water

Water is present in abundant quantities on and under the Earth's surface, but less
than 1 percent of it is liquid fresh water. Most of the Earth's estimated 326 million
cubic miles (1.4 billion cubic km) of water is in the oceans or is frozen in polar ice
caps and glaciers. Ocean water contains about 4.5 ounces per gallon (35 grams per
litre) of dissolved minerals or salts, making it unfit for drinking and for most industrial
or agricultural uses.
There is ample fresh water (containing less than one-eighth ounce of salts per gallon,
or less than 3 grams of salts per litre) to satisfy all human needs. It is not always
available, though, at the times and places it is needed, and it is not uniformly
distributed over the Earth. In many locations the availability of good-quality water is
further reduced because of urban development, industrial growth, and environmental
pollution.
5.3.2 Surface and Ground Water

Surface water and groundwater are both important sources for community water
supply needs. Groundwater is a common source for single homes and small towns,
and rivers and lakes are the usual sources for large cities. Although approximately 98
percent of liquid fresh water exists as groundwater, much of it occurs very deep in
the Earth. This makes pumping very expensive, preventing the full development and
use of all groundwater resources.
Surface water sources
The total land area that contributes surface runoff to a river or lake is called a
watershed, river basin, or catchment area. The volume of water available for
municipal supply depends mostly on the amount of rainfall. It also depends on the
size of the watershed, the slope of the ground, the type of soil and vegetation, and
the type of land use.
The flow rate or discharge of a river varies with time. Higher flow rates typically occur
in the spring, and lower flow rates in the winter. When the average discharge of a
river is not enough for a dependable supply of water, a conservation reservoir may
be built. The flow of water is blocked by a dam, allowing an artificial lake to be
formed. Conservation reservoirs store water from wet-weather periods for use during
times of drought and low stream flow. A water intake structure is built within the
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32
reservoir, with inlet ports and valves at several depths. Since the quality of water in a
reservoir varies seasonally with depth, a multilevel intake allows water of best quality
to be withdrawn. Sometimes it is advisable, for economic reasons, to provide a
multipurpose reservoir. A multipurpose reservoir is designed to satisfy a combination
of community water needs. In addition to drinking water, the reservoir may also
provide flood control, hydroelectric power, and recreation.
Groundwater sources
The value of an aquifer as a source of groundwater is a function of the porosity of the
geologic stratum, or layer, of which it is formed. Water is withdrawn from an aquifer
by pumping it out of a well or infiltration gallery. An infiltration gallery typically
includes several horizontal perforated pipes radiating outward from the bottom of a
large-diameter vertical shaft. Wells are constructed in several ways, depending on
the depth and nature of the aquifer. Wells used for public water supplies, usually
more than 100 feet (30 metres) deep and from 4 to 12 inches (10 to 30 cm) in
diameter, must penetrate large aquifers that can provide dependable yields of good-
quality water. They are drilled using impact or rotary techniques and are usually lined
with a metal pipe or casing to prevent contamination. The annular space around the
outside of the upper portion of the casing is filled with cement grout, and a special
sanitary seal is installed at the top to provide further protection. At the bottom of the
casing, a slotted screen is attached to strain silt and sand out of the groundwater. A
submersible pump driven by an electric motor can be used to raise the water to the
surface. Sometimes a deep well may penetrate a confined artesian aquifer, in which
case natural hydrostatic pressure can raise the water to the surface.
5.4 Drinking-Water Quality
5.4.1 Introduction
Water has such a strong tendency to dissolve other substances that it is rarely found
in nature in a pure condition. When it falls as rain, small amounts of gases such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide become dissolved in it. Raindrops also carry tiny dust
particles and other substances. As it flows over the ground, water picks up fine soil
particles, microbes, organic material, and soluble minerals. In lakes, bogs, and
swamps, water may gain colour, taste, and odour from decaying vegetation and other
natural organic matter. Groundwater usually acquires more dissolved minerals than
does surface runoff because of its longer direct contact with soil and rock. It may also
absorb gases such as hydrogen sulphide and methane. In populated areas the
quality of surface water as well as groundwater is directly influenced by human
activities and the effects of pollution.
5.4.2 Drinking-Water Quality: Health Concerns

Five general types of impurities are of public health 5 concern. These are organic
chemicals, inorganic chemicals, turbidity, micro organisms, and radioactive
substances. Organic contaminants include various pesticides, industrial solvents, and
trihalomethanes such as chloroform. Inorganic contaminants of major concern
include arsenic, nitrate, fluoride, and toxic metals such as lead and mercury. All these
substances can harm human health when present above certain concentrations in
5
See the appendix of this handbook for a definition and a detailed description of public health.
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33
drinking water. A low concentration of fluoride, however, has been proved to promote
dental health. Some communities add fluoride to their water for this purpose.
Turbidity refers to cloudiness caused by very small particles of silt, clay, and other
substances suspended in water. Even a slight degree of turbidity in drinking water is
objectionable to most people. Turbidity also interferes with disinfection by creating a
possible shield for pathogenic organisms. Groundwater normally has very low
turbidity owing to the natural filtration that occurs as it percolates through the soil.
Surface waters, though, are often high in turbidity.
The most important microbiological measure of drinking-water quality is a group of
bacteria called coliforms. Coliform bacteria normally are not pathogenic, but they are
always present in the intestinal tract of humans and are excreted in very large
numbers with human waste. Water contaminated with human waste always contains
coliforms, and it is also likely to contain pathogens excreted by infected individuals in
the community. Since it is easier to test for the presence of coliforms rather than for
specific types of pathogens, coliforms are used as indicator organisms for measuring
the biological quality of water. If coliforms are not found in the water, it can be
assumed that the water is also free of pathogens. The coliform count thus reflects the
chance of pathogens being present. The lower the coliform count, the less likely it is
that pathogens are in the water.
Radioactive materials from natural as well as industrial sources can be harmful water
contaminants. Wastes from uranium mining, nuclear power plants, and medical
research are possible pollutants. Strontium-90 and tritium are radioactive
contaminants that have been found in water as a result of nuclear weapons testing.
Naturally occurring substances such as radium and radon gas are found in some
groundwater sources. The danger from dissolved radon gas arises not from drinking
the water but from breathing the gas after it is released into the air.
5.4.3 Aesthetic Concerns (Taste, Colour, Odour)

Colour, taste, and odour are physical characteristics of drinking water that are
important for aesthetic reasons rather than for health reasons. Colour in water may
be caused by decaying leaves or algae, giving it a brownish yellow hue. Taste and
odour may be caused by naturally occurring dissolved organics or gases. Some well-
water supplies, for example, have a rotten-egg odour caused by hydrogen sulphide
gas. Chemical impurities associated with the aesthetic quality of drinking water
include iron, manganese, copper, zinc, and chloride. Dissolved metals impart a bitter
taste to water and may stain laundry and plumbing fixtures. Excessive chlorides give
the water an objectionable salty taste.
5.4.4 Drinking Water Quality: Hardness

Another parameter of water quality is hardness. This is a term used to describe the
effect of dissolved minerals (mostly calcium and magnesium). Minerals cause
deposits of scale in hot water pipes, and they also interfere with the lathering action
of soap. Hard water does not harm human health, but the economic problems it
causes make it objectionable to most people.
5.4.5 Water Quality Standards

Water quality standards set limits on the concentrations of impurities allowed in
water. Standards also affect the selection of raw water sources and the choice of
treatment processes. The development of water quality standards began in the
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34
United States in the early 20th century. Since that time, the total number of regulated
contaminants has increased as toxicological knowledge and analytical measurement
techniques have improved. Modern testing methods now allow the detection of
contaminants in extremely low concentrations—as low as one part contaminant per
one billion parts water or even, in some cases, per one trillion parts water. Water
quality standards are continually evolving, usually becoming more stringent. As a
result, the number of regulated contaminants increases over time, and their allowable
concentrations in water are lowered.
Drinking-water regulations include two types of standards: primary and secondary.
Primary standards are designed to protect public health, whereas secondary
standards are based on aesthetic factors rather than on health effects. Primary
standards specify maximum contaminant levels for many chemical, microbiological,
and radiological parameters of water quality. They reflect the best available scientific
and engineering judgment and take into account exposure from other sources in the
environment and from foods. Turbidity is also included in the primary standards
because of its tendency to interfere with disinfection. Secondary standards are
guidelines or suggested maximum levels of colour, taste, odour, hardness,
corrosiveness, and certain other factors.
5.5 Water Requirements
5.5.1 Introduction
Municipal water supply systems include facilities for storage, transmission, treatment,
and distribution. The design of these facilities depends on the quality of the water, on
the particular needs of the user or consumer, and on the quantities of water that must
be processed.
5.5.2 Municipal Water Consumption

Water consumption in a community is characterized by several types of demand,
including domestic, public, commercial, and industrial uses. Domestic demand
includes water for drinking, cooking, washing, laundering, and other household
functions. Public demand includes water for fire protection, street cleaning, and use
in schools and other public buildings. Commercial and industrial demands include
water for stores, offices, hotels, laundries, restaurants, and most manufacturing
plants. There is usually a wide variation in total water demand among different
communities. This variation depends on population, geographic location, climate, the
extent of local commercial and industrial activity, and the cost of water.
Water use or demand is expressed numerically by average daily consumption per
capita (per person). In the United States the average is approximately 380 litres per
capita per day for domestic and public needs. Overall the average total demand is
about 680 litres per capita per day, when commercial and industrial water uses are
included. (These figures do not include withdrawals from freshwater sources for such
purposes as crop irrigation or cooling operations at electric power-generating
facilities.) Water consumption in some developing countries may average as little as
15 litres per capita per day. The world average is estimated to be approximately 60
litres per person per day.6
6
In many low income areas in Kenya, daily per capita water consumption ranges between 7 and 25 litres.
___________________________________________________________________
35
In any community, water demand varies on a seasonal, daily, and hourly basis. On a
hot summer day, for example, it is not unusual for total water consumption to be as
much as 200 percent of the average demand. The peak demands in residential areas
usually occur in the morning and early evening hours (just before and after the
normal workday). Water demands in commercial and industrial districts, though, are
usually uniform during the working day. Minimum water demands typically occur in
the very early or predawn morning hours. Civil and environmental engineers must
carefully study each community's water use patterns in order to design efficient
pumping and distribution systems.
5.5.3 Water Treatment

Water in rivers or lakes is rarely clean enough for human consumption if it is not first
treated or purified. Groundwater, too, often needs some level of treatment to render it
potable. The primary objective of water treatment is to protect the health of the
community. Potable water must, of course, be free of harmful micro organisms and
chemicals, but public supplies should also be aesthetically desirable so that
consumers will not be tempted to use water from another, more attractive but
unprotected source. The water should be crystal clear, with almost no turbidity, and it
should be free of objectionable colour, odour, and taste. For domestic supplies, water
should not be corrosive, nor should it deposit troublesome amounts of scale and
stains on plumbing fixtures. Industrial requirements may be even more stringent.
many industries provide special treatment on their own premises.
The type and extent of treatment required to obtain potable water depends on the
quality of the source. The better the quality, the less treatment is needed. Surface
water usually needs more extensive treatment than does groundwater, because most
streams, rivers, and lakes are polluted to some extent. Even in areas remote from
human populations, surface water contains suspended silt, organic material,
decaying vegetation, and microbes from animal wastes. Groundwater, on the other
hand, is usually free of microbes and suspended solids because of natural filtration
as the water moves through soil, though it often contains relatively high
concentrations of dissolved minerals from its direct contact with soil and rock.
Water is treated in a variety of physical and chemical methods. Treatment of surface
water begins with intake screens to prevent fish and debris from entering the plant
and damaging pumps and other components. Conventional treatment of water
primarily involves clarification and disinfection (as shown in the figure). Clarification
removes most of the turbidity, making the water crystal clear. Disinfection, usually the
final step in the treatment of drinking water, destroys pathogenic microbes.
Groundwater does not often need clarification, but it should be disinfected as a
precaution to protect public health. In addition to clarification and disinfection, the
processes of softening, aeration, carbon adsorption, and fluoridation may be used for
certain public water sources. Desalination processes are used in areas where
freshwater supplies are not readily available. (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe
edition, CD-Rom, keyword: Municipal water supply).
The various phases of the water treatment process are discussed in the Appendix.
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36
6 The Distribution Network
6.1 Introduction
- The following text (see paragraphs 6.1 – 6.6) on the water distribution network
has been copied from the Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe Edition CD-
Rom, key word: Municipal water supply).
According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica: “A water distribution system is a network
of pumps, pipelines, storage tanks, and other appurtenances. It must deliver
adequate quantities of water at pressures sufficient for operating plumbing fixtures
and fire-fighting equipment, yet it must not deliver water at pressures high enough to
increase the occurrence of leaks and pipeline breaks. Pressure-regulating valves
may be installed to reduce pressure levels in low-lying service areas. More than half
the cost of a municipal water supply system is for the distribution network.
The pipeline system of a municipal water distribution network consists of arterial
water mains or primary feeders, which convey water from the treatment plant to
areas of major water use in the community, and smaller-diameter pipelines called
secondary feeders, which tie in to the mains. Usually not less than 6 inches (150
mm) in diameter, these pipelines are placed within the public right-of-way so that
service connections can be made for all potential water users. The pipelines are
usually arranged in a gridiron pattern that allows water to circulate in interconnected
loops. this permits any broken sections of pipe to be isolated for repair without
disrupting service to large areas of the community. “Dead-end” patterns may also be
used, but they do not permit circulation, and the water they provide is more
susceptible to taste and odour problems because of stagnation.
A water distribution pipeline must be able to resist internal and external forces, as
well as corrosion. Pipes are placed under stress by internal water pressure, by the
weight of the overlying soil, and by vehicles passing above. They may have to
withstand water-hammer forces. These occur when valves are closed too rapidly,
causing pressure waves to surge through the system. In addition, metal pipes may
rust internally if the water supply is corrosive or externally because of corrosive soil
conditions.”
6.2 Materials
“Distribution pipes are made of asbestos cement, cast iron, ductile iron, plastic,
reinforced concrete, or steel. Although not as strong as iron, asbestos cement,
because of its corrosion resistance and ease of installation, is a desirable material for
secondary feeders up to 16 inches (41 cm) in diameter. Pipe sections are easily
joined with a coupling sleeve and rubber-ring gasket. Cast iron has an excellent
record of service, with many installations still functioning after 100 years. Ductile iron,
a stronger and more elastic type of cast iron, is used in newer installations. Iron pipes
are provided in diameters up to 48 inches (122 cm) and are usually coated to prevent
corrosion. Underground sections are connected with bell-and-spigot joints, the spigot
end of one pipe section being pushed into the bell end of an adjacent section. A
rubber-ring gasket in the bell end is compressed when the two sections are joined,
creating a watertight, flexible connection. Flanged and bolted joints are used for
aboveground installations.
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37
The use of plastic pipes is increasing. Available in diameters up to 24 inches (61 cm),
they are lightweight and easily installed. They are also corrosion-resistant, and their
smoothness provides good hydraulic characteristics. Plastic pipes are connected
either by a bell-and-spigot compression-type joint or by threaded screw couplings.
Pre-cast reinforced concrete pipe sections up to 12 feet (366 cm) in diameter are
used for arterial mains. Reinforced concrete pipes are strong and durable. They are
joined using a bell-and-spigot-type connection that is sealed with cement mortar.
Steel pipe is sometimes used for arterial mains in aboveground installations. It is very
strong and lighter than concrete pipe, but it must be protected against corrosion by
lining the interior and by painting and wrapping the exterior. Sections of steel pipe are
joined by welding or with mechanical coupling devices.”
6.3 Fittings
“In order to function properly, a water distribution system requires several types of
fittings, including hydrants, shut-off valves, and other appurtenances. The main
purpose of hydrants is to provide water for fire fighting. They also are used for
flushing water mains, pressure testing, water sampling, and washing debris off public
streets.
Many types of valves are used to control the quantity and direction of water flow.
Gate valves are usually installed throughout the pipe network. They allow sections to
be shutoff and isolated during the repair of broken mains, pumps, or hydrants. A type
of valve commonly used for throttling and controlling the rate of flow is the butterfly
valve. Other valves used in water distribution systems include pressure-reducing
valves, check valves, and air-release valves.”
6.4 Installation
“Water mains must be placed 3 to 6 feet (91 to 183 cm) below the ground surface to
protect against traffic loads and to prevent freezing. Since the water in a distribution
system is under pressure, pipelines can follow the shape of the land, uphill as well as
downhill. They must be installed with proper bedding and backfill. Compaction of soil
layers under the pipe (bedding) as well as above the pipe (backfill) is necessary to
provide proper support. A water main should never be installed in the same trench
with a sewer line. Where the two must cross, the water main should be placed above
the sewer line.”
6.5 Pumps
“Many kinds of pumps are used in distribution systems. Pumps that lift surface water
and move it to a nearby treatment plant are called low-lift pumps. These move large
volumes of water at relatively low discharge pressures. Pumps that discharge treated
water into arterial mains are called high-lift pumps. These operate under higher
pressures. Pumps that increase the pressure within the distribution system or raise
water into an elevated storage tank are called booster pumps. Well pumps lift water
from underground and discharge it directly into a distribution system.
Most water distribution pumps are of the centrifugal type, in which a rapidly rotating
impeller adds energy to the water and raises the pressure inside the pump casing.
The flow rate through a centrifugal pump depends on the pressure against which it
operates. The higher the pressure, the lower the flow or discharge. Another kind of
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38
pump is the positive-displacement type. This pump delivers a fixed quantity of water
with each cycle of a piston or rotor. The water is literally pushed or displaced from the
pump casing. The flow capacity of a positive-displacement pump is unaffected by the
pressure of the system in which it operates.”
6.6 Storage Tanks

“Distribution storage tanks, familiar sights in many communities, serve two basic
purposes: equalizing storage and emergency storage. Equalizing storage is the
volume of water needed to satisfy peak hourly demands in the community. During the
late night and early morning hours, when water demand is very low, high-lift pumps
fill the tank. During the day, when the water demand is high, water flows out of the
tank to help satisfy the peak hourly water needs. This allows for a uniform flow rate at
the treatment plant and pumping station. The capacity of a distribution storage tank is
about equal to the average daily water demand.
Distribution storage tanks are built at ground level on hilltops higher than the service
area. In areas with flat topography, the tanks may be elevated above ground on
towers in order to provide adequate water pressures, or ground-level storage tanks
with booster pumping may be provided.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe
Edition, keyword: Water distribution network)
6.7 Low Pressure, Interruption in Supply and Loss of Water Quality

During the Operator Training Workshop, it is important to discuss the various causes
of low pressure and loss of water quality. The main causes of low pressure and
interruptions in supply are:
 Prolonged power cuts.
 Technical problems at the water works (breakdown of a pump, etc.).
 Major maintenance work at the treatment works or on the distribution network.
 Leakages.
 Rationing in times of draught or when the service provider is unable to supply
all town sections at the same time.
The main causes of leaks in the distribution network are:

 Lack of maintenance and poor quality repair work.
 The distribution network is old and pipes are rusted or partly broken (in the
case of asbestos pipes).
 Acts of theft or vandalism (residents wish to have access to treated water).
 Pipes get damaged as a result of construction work or traffic.
What should a Operator do if he or she is faced with low pressure, prolonged

interruption in supply or poor water quality?:
 Inform the service provider.
 Inform his or her clientele.
 Stop the sale of water if its quality is not good.
 Waste poor quality water (Operators will have to do and record the meter
reading before and after the necessary the water wastage).
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39
6.8 The Water Kiosk
6.8.1 The Various Parts of a Water Kiosk

Operators will spend a large part of their day at their water kiosk. In order to be able
to maintain the kiosk, and to inform the service provider whenever repair or
maintenance work is required, they need to know the purpose of each part of the
kiosk.
During the training, the trainers or a technical staff member of the service provider
will have to point out the functioning and importance of the following parts:
 Platform.
 “Fetching slap (or fetching bay)”.
 Soak away.
 Drainage system.
 Valve(s) and taps.
 Water meter.
 The kiosk itself (door, window, shelves, etc.).
It is important to point out how the various parts of the kiosk have to be kept clean
and maintained.
6.8.2 The Functioning and Purpose of the Water Meter

Since the Operators will be charged on the basis of the meter readings, it is important
that they are able to do the meter reading themselves and to calculate the daily or
monthly consumption at their kiosk. It is essential to point out:
 The meaning of the black figures (cubic metres. 1 m 3 = 1,000 litres which is
approximately 50 containers of 20 litres of approximately 5 oil drums).
 The meaning of the red figures (right of the black figures) or the little round
displays (dials) that show the consumption in litres, decilitres (1 decilitre = 10
litres) and hectolitres (1 hectolitre = 100 litres).
For example:
M3
0 1 4 4 0 1 2 0
Indicates a consumption of 1440 cubic metres and 120 litres.
M3
0 1 4 5 2 3 5 8
If the next meter reading indicates a total consumption of 1452 cubic metres and 358
litres, the consumption between the 2 meter readings has been 12 cubic metres and
238 litres (= 1452.358 m3 - 1440.120 m3).
The Operator has to report a non-functioning meter immediately to the service
provider.
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40
7 Water, Hygiene and Public Health
7.1 Introduction
According to the WHO 80% of all diseases in the developing world are water-related,
of which a significant proportion is attributable to inadequate drinking water supplies
and sanitary installations and to the absence of hygiene education.
Having access to treated water reduces the risk of contracting worm infections and a
number of diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery and typhoid, water availability is a
major factor in facilitating improvements in hygiene practices (washing, bathing etc.)
and. According to Boot:
“Water and sanitation-related diseases include various types of diarrhoea, worm
infestations, skin and eye diseases and mosquito-borne diseases. Together
they form the most frequent cause of illness and death in the developing world.
Water and sanitation projects generally aim to reduce these diseases. They
thus contribute to:
 Improving public health and personal well-being.
 Reducing the costs of curative health services.
 Higher productivity of school children and working people because less
energy is lost from poor health and illness.
Adequate water and sanitation are basic human needs. Water and sanitation
projects address these needs, and so help to improve living conditions. New
water supplies may result in:
 Less burden of water collection, reducing the overall workload, especially of
women and children.
 Time and energy gains used for better family care, schooling and productive
activities.
 Use of surplus water for small-scale economic activities. (See Boot 1991:1).
Many studies have been carried out to learn more about the relationship between
water, sanitation and health. A review of 144 of these studies by Esrey (Esrey et al
1990) shows that demonstrable health impacts affecting all age groups in most of the
developing world can be expected from improvements in water supply, sanitation and
hygiene.
7.2 Kenya: The Current Water Supply and Public Health Situation
The 2003 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey (KDHS) shows that:
“Acute respiratory illness, malaria, and dehydration caused by severe
diarrhoea are major causes of childhood mortality in Kenya. “ (KDHS 2003
Preliminary Report: 20)
The KHDS also concludes:
“Diarrhoea can cause dehydration, a leading cause of illness and death
among children in Kenya. During the two weeks before the survey, 16
percent of Kenyan children under five had diarrhoea. The rate was highest
(29 percent) among children 6 to 11 months old. Diarrhoeal disease is least
common in Central Province and most common in Western Province.
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41
Diarrhoea occurs least often among children who drink rainwater or bottled
water.” (KDHS 2003, Key Findings: 8)7
Numerous studies show that poor water supply and sanitation are the main causes of
diarrhoea typhoid and cholera.
Many households in Kenya do not have access to adequate water supply and
sanitation. Table 7.1 shows the sources of water used by households.
Table 7.1: Sources of water used by households

No. Source of water Households %
1 Pond 286,237 4.49
2 Dam 137,772 2.16
3 Lake 94,230 1.48
4 Stream/river 1,731,675 27.18
5 Spring 753,864 11.83
6 Well 843,821 13.21
7 Borehole 505,857 7.94
8 Piped system 1,944,424 30.52
9 Jabias/tank 73,490 1.15
Total: 6,371,370 100
Source: CBS: January 2001: 7-1)

Many households in Kenya depend on streams, rivers, lakes and dams as far as their
water supply is concerned. A significant percentage of the Kenyan population still has
to draw water directly from shallow wells, windlass wells or hand dug yard wells.
Table 7.1 shows that approximately half the Kenyan population (49.71%) still
depends on sources of unsafe water. The fact that other households use sources of
safe water (piped systems, springs and boreholes) does not mean, however, that
their supply is adequate. The distance to the taps which is used by households, the
tariff may prevent these households from fetching the required minimum quantities.
Moreover, water fetched from springs and boreholes, especially in urban areas, often
does not meet quality standards.
Among the provinces, Nairobi Province has the highest proportion of households
with access to clean (safe) water, 94 percent, followed by Coast and Western
7
According to the 2003 KDHS Key Findings Report: “The level of under-five mortality was 114 deaths
per 1,000 births during the five-year period before the 2003 KDHS survey, implying that 1 in every 9
children born in Kenya during the period died before reaching their fifth birthday. The infant mortality
rate recorded in the survey was 78 deaths per 1,000 lives births.
Comparison of mortality rates recorded in 2003 KDHS with the earlier KDHS surveys shows an
increase in both infant and under five mortality rates from 1989 to 2003. For example, the infant
mortality rate increased by 30 percent from 60 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1989 to 78 in 2003.
Similarly, under-five-mortality rate increased by 30 percent within the same period. The trend depicts
continued deterioration in the quality of life amongst the Kenyan population over the last 20 years.”
(KDHS 2003, Key Findings Report: 7)
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42
Provinces, 61 percent. North-Eastern Province clearly has the lowest percentage

of households with access to safe sources of water (29%) (see also Table 7.2).
Table 7.2: Sources of water used by Kenyan Households (rural and urban)
(Source: CBS, January 2001: 7-1)
7.3 Water Wastage and its Potential Impact upon Public Health
The knowledge that many low income urban residents have no access to safe water
becomes especially frustrating if one considers that a lot of treated water produced
by the WSPs is wasted. In some towns water wastage ranges between 20 and 50%
of the total volume of water produced. Water is wasted because there are leaks in
the distribution network, but also because residents (especially residents who pay a
flat rate or who receive water free of charge) are not motivated to replace broken
taps or the pipes within their yard and do not see the need to close their taps, or to fix
a leaking toilet.
In some low income urban areas residents, in their attempt to get access to clean
water, have vandalised the rising main running through the compound and public
taps are not maintained and often lack a closable tap.
Water wastage can have serious implications for low income residents and as a
result it can have a negative impact upon public health 8:
 If water is wasted in one area, it often means that some other areas have
insufficient pressure and residents are unable to fetch the quantities they
require.
8
See the appendix for a definition and a detailed description of public health.
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43
 If water is wasted, the resulting (mud) pools often represent a health hazard as
they are a breeding place for worms, mosquito’s and disease causing bacteria.
 In case water wastage is caused by a leak, polluted wasted water can also
“contaminate” treated water in the distribution network, especially when the
water pressure is low.
7.4 The Public Health Objectives of the Service Provider

One of the objectives the WSPs should aim to achieve is to make a significant
contribution to an improved public health situation in the low income urban areas.
Improving water supply should help to improve living conditions and prevent water
and sanitation-related diseases.
With the introduction of a kiosk system, the service provider should achieve a
number of important health objectives:
 In principle, every low income resident should have access to at least 20 litres
of safe water a day, as recommended by the World Health Organisation
(WHO).
 Residents use treated water for drinking and preparing meals.
 Water wastage is reduced.
 The public health situation in the low income areas is improved.
 Outbreaks of diseases such as typhoid and cholera can be prevented.
 Residents spend less on curative health measures treatment of water-related
diseases.
 Water is fetched in a clean environment.
 Residents are aware of the correlation between hygiene, health certain
diseases and the consumption of (polluted/contaminated) water.
 The quality of life in the area is improved through improved water supply and
water quality and through better health and hygiene practices.
It is important to emphasise, that the service provider also intends to achieve a
financial/commercial objective, which is closely linked to the social/public health
objective. If water supply is to become a sustainable activity, the service provider has
to be able to cover its costs (personnel, chemicals, electricity, etc.). This implies that
every client, including clients in the low income areas, have to pay for the water they
consume. Instead of paying a flat rate, which results in water wastage, customers
have to pay for every container or cubic metre they consume.
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44
8 Description of Some Water-Related Diseases

In what follows a description is given of some of the main water-related diseases that
occur or can occur in the low income areas of Kenya.
8.1 Bacteria
Many water-related diseases, such as cholera and some forms of diarrhoea are
caused by bacteria. According to the Encarta Encyclopedia (1996 edition) bacteria
(Greek bakterion, “little staff”), constitute a:
“Large group of mostly microscopic, unicellular organisms that lack a distinct
nucleus and that usually reproduce by cell division.
Bacteria are tiny, most ranging from 1 to 10 micrometers (1 micrometer equals
1/25,000 in), and are extremely variable in the ways they obtain energy and
nourishment. They can be found in nearly all environments—from air, soil,
water, and ice to hot springs. even the hydrothermal vents on the deep ocean
floor are the home of sulphur-metabolizing bacteria. Certain types are found in
nearly all food products, and bacteria also occur in various forms of symbiosis
with most plants and animals and other kinds of life. (Microsoft® Encarta® 96
Encyclopedia. ). 9
The Encyclopaedia Britannica provides the following description of Bacteria:

“Bacteria can be found in all natural environments, often in extremely large
numbers. As a group, they display exceedingly diverse metabolic capabilities
and use almost any organic compound, and even some inorganic salts, as a
food source. Some bacteria cause disease in humans, animals, or plants, but
most are harmless or beneficial ecological agents whose metabolic activities
sustain higher life forms. Without bacteria, soil would not be fertile, and dead
organic material would decay much more slowly. Some bacteria are widely
used in the preparation of foods, chemicals, and antibiotics.
In a sense, bacteria are the dominant living creatures on Earth, having been
present for perhaps three-quarters of Earth history and having adapted to
almost all available ecological habitats. Studies of the relationships among
different groups of bacteria continue to yield new insights into the origin of life
on Earth and the directions of evolution.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003,
Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, keyword: Bacteria).
8.2 Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea:
“Also spelled diarrhoea abnormally swift passage of waste material through the
large intestine, with consequent discharge of loose faeces from the anus.
Diarrhoea may be accompanied by cramping. The disorder has a wide range of
causes. It may, for example, result from bacterial or viral infection, from
dysentery, either amoebic or bacillary, from impaired absorption of nutrients,
9
© 1993-1995 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. © Funk & Wagnalls
Corporation. All rights reserved.
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45
from eating coarse or highly seasoned foods or drinking large quantities of

alcoholic beverages, from poisons such as arsenic or mercury bichloride or from
drugs administered to reduce high blood pressure. Excessive amounts of
thyroid hormones, parathyroid hormone deficiencies, irritable bowel syndrome,
and uremia (an excess of nitrogenous wastes in the blood) all may cause
diarrhoea. Most cases of diarrhoea are not serious and do not require
treatment. Dehydration can be prevented by drinking plenty of clear liquids.
Diarrhoea caused by an infection can often be treated with antibiotics.”
(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, keyword: Diarrhoea).
8.3 Cholera
Cholera is an:
“Acute bacterial infection of the small intestine caused by Vibrio cholerae and
characterized by massive diarrhoea with rapid and severe depletion of body
fluids and salts. Cholera often rises to epidemic proportions in Southeast Asia,
particularly in India and Pakistan, having been responsible for at least 370,000
deaths in India in the period from 1898 to 1907. In the 1980s and 1990s cholera
spread among the crowded refugee camps and city slums of famine-stricken
countries in Africa, particularly Ethiopia and The Sudan. Following a 70-year
absence from the Western Hemisphere, there was a major outbreak of cholera
in Peru in 1991.
The vibrio enters the body via the mouth, usually in contaminated water or
foods, and causes an infection in the mucous membranes lining the lumen of
the small intestine. The diarrhoea is caused by the action of the Vibrio cholerae
toxin in the intestine. This toxin combines with a substance in the cells of the
intestinal wall, activating an enzyme system that causes the rapid excretion of
body fluids containing bicarbonate and sodium.
After an incubation period of 12 to 28 hours, the disease usually starts with
abrupt, painless, watery diarrhoea that may amount to a volume of 15 to 20
litres or more in 24 hours. This purging diarrhoea is soon followed by vomiting,
and the patient rapidly becomes dehydrated, the skin becomes cold and
withered, and the face is drawn, the blood pressure falls, and the pulse
becomes faint. Muscular cramps maybe severe, and thirst intense. As
dehydration increases, the person becomes stuporous and comatose and may
die in shock. The disease ordinarily runs its course in two to seven days.
With prompt fluid and salt repletion, which is accomplished by the oral or
intravenous administration of an alkaline solution of sodium chloride, recovery
can be remarkably rapid, but if therapy is inadequate, the mortality rate is high.
The administration of antibiotics during the first day of treatment usually
shortens the period of diarrhoea and decreases the requirement for fluid
replacement.
The prevention of cholera outbreaks rests upon better sanitation, particularly the
use of clean drinking water. Immunization with a vaccine of killed vibrio bacteria
provides partial protection in individuals for a limited time, but its use on a
massive scale does not prevent the spread of infection. This can be
accomplished only by attacking the source of the infection, usually the water
supply.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom, keyword:
Cholera).
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46
8.4 Dysentery
Dysentery is an:
“Infectious disorder characterized by inflammation of the intestine, abdominal
pain and straining, and diarrhoea with stools that often contain blood and
mucus.
There are two major types of dysentery: bacillary and amoebic, caused,
respectively, by bacteria and amoebas. Bacillary dysentery, or shigellosis, is
caused by bacilli of the genus Shigella. Symptomatically, the disease ranges
from a mild attack to a suddenly commencing severe course ending in death
caused by dehydration and poisoning by the bacterial toxins. After an incubation
period of one to six days, the disease has an abrupt onset with fever and the
frequent production of watery stools that may contain blood. Straining and
vomiting may also occur, and dehydration soon becomes obvious owing to the
copious loss of body fluids. In advanced stages of the disease, chronic
ulceration of the large intestine causes the production of bloody stools. The
most severe bacillary infections are caused by Shigella shigae (also called S.
dysenteriae type 1), which is found chiefly in tropical and subtropical regions. S.
flexneri, S. sonnei, and S. boydii are other Shigella bacilli that cause dysentery.
The treatment of bacillary dysentery is based on the use of such antibiotic drugs
as tetracycline, oxytetracycline, and chlortetracycline. The copious
administration of fluids and, in some cases, blood transfusions may be
necessary in cases where the patient is severely dehydrated.
Amoebic dysentery, or intestinal amoebiasis, is caused by the protozoan
Entamoeba histolytica. This form of dysentery is usually much more chronic and
insidious than is the bacillary disease and is more difficult to treat because the
causative organism occurs in two forms, a motile one and a cyst, each of which
produces a different disease course. The motile form causes acute dysentery,
the symptoms of which resemble those of bacillary dysentery. The cyst form
produces a chronic illness marked by intermittent episodes of diarrhoea and
stomach cramps or other abdominal pains. Bloody stools occur in some
patients. The chronic type is much the more common of the two and is marked
by frequent remissions and exacerbations of symptoms. The chronic form may
also produce ulcerations of the large intestine. Both forms of amoebic dysentery
are treated with emetine, diodoquin, and other drugs that specifically kill the
amoebic parasites that thrive in the intestines.
The transmission of both bacterial and amoebic dysentery occurs through the
ingestion of food or water that have been contaminated by the faeces of a
human carrier of the infective organism. The transmission is often by infected
individuals who handle food with unwashed hands. The spread of amoebic
dysentery is often accomplished by people who are carriers of the disease but
who currently show no symptoms. Dysentery is commonly found when people
are crowded together and have access only to primitive sanitary facilities. It is
one of the typical diseases found in prisoner-of-war camps, especially those in
tropical climates.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom,
keyword: Dysentery).
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47
8.5 Typhoid
Typhoid:
“Also called typhoid fever acute infectious disease of humans caused by the
bacterium Salmonella typhi. The bacterium usually enters the body through the
mouth by the ingestion of contaminated food or water, penetrates the intestinal
wall, and multiplies in lymphoid tissue there. it first enters into the bloodstream
within 24 to 72 hours, causing septicemia (blood poisoning) and systemic
infection.
After an average 10–14 day incubation period, the early symptoms of typhoid
appear: headache, lassitude, generalized aching, fever, and restlessness that
may interfere with sleep. There may be loss of appetite, nosebleeds, cough,
and diarrhoea or constipation. Persistent fever develops and gradually rises,
usually in a stepwise fashion, reaching a peak of 103° or 104° F (39.4° or 40°
C) after 7–10 days and continuing with only slight morning remissions for
another 10–14 days. During the first few days of the disease the patient may
remain ambulatory.
During about the second week of fever, when typhoid bacilli are present in great
numbers in the bloodstream, a rash of small, rose-coloured spots appears on
the trunk, lasts four or five days, and then fades away. The lymph follicles
(Peyer's patches) along the intestinal wall in which the typhoid bacilli have
multiplied become inflamed and necrotic and may slough off, leaving ulcers in
the walls of the bowel. The dead fragments of bowel tissue may erode blood
vessels, causing a haemorrhage into the bowel, or they may perforate the
bowel wall, allowing the bowel's contents to enter the peritoneal cavity
(peritonitis). Other complications can include acute inflammation of the gall
bladder, heart failure, pneumonia, osteomyelitis, encephalitis, and meningitis.
With a continued high fever the symptoms usually increase in intensity, and
mental confusion and delirium may appear.
By the end of the third week the patient is prostrated and emaciated, his
abdominal symptoms are marked, and mental disturbance is prominent. In
favourable cases, during about the beginning of the fourth week, the fever
begins to decline, the symptoms begin to abate, and the temperature gradually
returns to normal. If untreated, typhoid proves fatal in up to 25 percent of all
cases.
Most major epidemics of typhoid have been caused by the pollution of public
water supplies. Food and milk may be contaminated, however, by a carrier of
the disease who is employed in handling and processing them, by flies or by the
use of polluted water for cleaning purposes. Shellfish, particularly oysters,
grown in polluted water and fresh vegetables grown on soil fertilized or
contaminated by untreated sewage are dangerous. The prevention of typhoid
fever depends mainly on proper sewage treatment, filtration and chlorination of
water, and the exclusion of carriers from employment in food industries and
restaurants. In the early part of the 20th century, prophylactic vaccination using
killed typhoid organisms was introduced, mainly in military forces and
institutions, and contributed to a lowering of the incidence of the disease.
The treatment of typhoid formerly was entirely symptomatic and supportive.
After 1948 treatment with antibiotics, particularly with chloramphenicol, proved
to be effective. Chloramphenicol begins to lower the patient's fever within three
or four days after beginning therapy, and there is progressive improvement
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48
thereafter. The drug treatment is continued for several weeks in order to prevent
relapses. Ampicillin, often in combination with other drugs, is an effective
alternate treatment.
About 30 percent of typhoid cases become transient carriers of the disease,
excreting the causative bacteria in the stool or urine for weeks or months. About
5 percent remain long-term carriers, harbouring the microorganisms and
shedding them for years. In these carriers, who show no apparent ill effects, the
bacilli are found mainly in the gallbladder and biliary passages. The bacteria
may be excreted continuously or intermittently. One of the most famous
instances of carrier-borne disease in medical history was the early 20th-century
case of Typhoid Mary (q.v.).” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition
CD-Rom, and keyword: Typhoid).
8.6 Common Worm Infections

This section contains some information on common worm infections:
“The worm Ascaris lumbricoides causes one of the most prevalent infections in
the world. It lives in the soil and its eggs are ingested with contaminated food.
The eggs hatch in the human intestine and the worms then travel through the
bloodstream to the liver, heart, and lungs. They can cause pneumonia,
perforations of the intestine, or blockage of the bile ducts, but infected people
usually have no symptoms beyond the passage of worms in the stool. Specific
treatment is available and prognosis is excellent.
Infections are also caused by whipworms, genus Trichuris, and pinworms,
Enterobiusvermicularis, each popularly named for its shape. The former is
parasitic in the human large intestine and may cause chronic diarrhea. The
latter can be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract, especially in children,
and can cause poor appetite, loss of weight, anemia, and itching in the anal
area (where it lays its eggs). Both conditions are easily diagnosed and treated
with drugs.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003, Deluxe Edition CD-Rom,
keywords: Worm infections and infections).
8.7 Pollution of Water by Chemical Substances

Consuming water that has been polluted by chemical substances, for instance,
fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, oil-products, heavy metals (which can be found in
batteries) can be harmful to a person’s health.
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49
9 Improving Public Health: the Contribution of the Kiosk Operators
9.1 Introduction
When discussing the linkages between:
 hardware, for instance a ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) or a water supply
facility such as a kiosk .
 and software, for instance, a hygiene campaign aimed at changing existing
practices.
Boot argues that:
“To maximize potential benefits of water supply and sanitation projects,
technical and behavioural measures must go hand in hand. Benefits of a safe
water supply will easily be lost if water is not collected and handled in such a
way as to prevent contamination before it is drunk. …. Hygiene education is
meant to help establish the link between improved facilities and user practices.
Table 2 presents a summary of basic measures, which help to prevent water
and sanitation-related diseases. … Personal hygiene in Table 2 refers to water
(and soap or substitute) used for cleaning the body, including bathing and
washing the eyes, face, and hands. Domestic hygiene refers to the use of water
in keeping the home clean, as well as cleansing those components of the home
environment that are related to disease transmission (e.g. clothes, utensils,
floors, counter tops, or towels). The category ‘personal and domestic hygiene’
also includes the safe collection transportation, storage and use of drinking
water. In the case of schistosomiasis, water and domestic hygiene relates to
reduced human contact with infected water and increased use of improved
water supplies for bathing and washing.” (Esrey et al, 1990).” (Boot 1991: 3)
Table 9.1 shows the ways in which water and sanitation-related diseases can be
prevented.
Table 9.1: Prevention of transmission of water and sanitation-related diseases
(1)
Disease Safe drinking Safe excreta Personal and Food Waste water disposal
water disposal domestic hygiene (2) hygiene and drainage
Diarrhoeas    
Poliomyelitis and Hepatitis A    
Worm infections:
Ascaris, Trichuris     
 Hookworm  
 Pinworm, Dwarf tape   
 worm
Other Tapeworms   
 Schistosomiasis   
 Guinea worm 
Skin infections 
Eye infections   
Insect-transmitted diseases:
 Malaria 
 Urban Yellow fever,  (3) 
dengue
1): See Boot 1991: 3, Table 1), based upon WHO (1983), Esrey et al (1990) and Cairncross and Ouano (1991).
2): Personal and domestic hygiene often require the use of more water
3): Vectors breed in water storage containers
Importance of preventing disease transmission:  high,  medium,  low to negligible
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50
9.2 Keeping the Kiosk Clean: The Important Role of the Kiosk Operator
It is very important that during the training programme the new Water Kiosk
Operators become aware that they will play a crucial role in the achievement of the
above-mentioned public health objectives of the service provider.
The Operators will play an important role in the prevention of water-related diseases
and, consequently, in the improvement of public health situation (see the appendix of
this handbook for a definition and description of public health) in the low income
areas where the service provider has introduced or is planning to introduce a kiosk
system. The contribution of the Operators can be divided into 3 tasks or
responsibilities:
 Keeping the kiosk and its surroundings clean.
 Sensitising the population and their clientele in particular on the way in which
the main product of the service provider has to be used.
 Assisting the service provider or the Public Health Officer in case of an
emergency (for instance an outbreak of cholera).
The objective of keeping the kiosk and its surrounding clean is twofold:
 Preventing that water gets contaminated.
 Preventing that the kiosk, its platform, the soakaway and the immediate
surroundings of the kiosk become a “source” of diseases.
What should Operators do?:

1) The Operator should, by keeping his or her kiosk and its surroundings clean
and (the platform) as dry as possible, prevent the contamination of the water
which is sold. If a kiosk is dirty, it easily becomes a breeding place of bacteria
and other pathogens (such as worms). These pathogens may contaminate the
water which is being sold at the kiosk, if they get in contact with the containers
customers use to fetch water. Water can be used to clean the platform and the
kiosk, but pools of stagnant water should be prevented. Cleaning the kiosk
and its surroundings is an important measure to prevent the contamination of
water through organic materials such as mango peels, sugarcane chews, etc.
All these measures are aimed at preventing the bacteriological contamination
of water. In addition to bacteriological pollution, the Operator should try to
prevent the pollution of treated water by inorganic and organic chemical
substances, such as oil products, fertilisers, pesticides, insecticides, heavy
metals from batteries, and other substances that can cause diseases (in the
long run or the short run).
2) The water kiosk, like a market, is a place where many people meet . A water
kiosk, if not kept clean and dry, can become an environment where disease
transmitting or causing insects (flies, mosquitoes and cockroaches), worms
and even rats (during the night) spend time or lay their eggs (i.e. the insects
and worms). In other words, a dirty kiosk, even if it does not pollute the water
that is being sold, can act as a source of diseases or disease transmission.
Many children in low income areas do not wear shoes. It is a known fact that
infections are often caused when children with small wounds on their feet or
other parts of their body, are infected at dirty water outlets and sources.
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51
Operators should clean their kiosk at least twice a day. Before they start selling
water, and whenever the kiosk is becoming dirty. When they knock off, the kiosk
should be clean. A clean kiosk is less likely to get polluted and vandalised . Kiosks
should be washed with water and the service provider should allow for some “water
wastage” so that Operator do not get the impression that they are being charged for
the water they have to use for cleaning purposes. If necessary, the kiosk should be
cleaned with soap.
During the training it is important to emphasise that Operators will have to purchase
items such as brooms, brushes, shovels, gloves and soap themselves. 10 However, in
order to prevent water wastage, the service provider should purchase a:
 Piece of hosepipe (approximately 1 metre).
 Funnel.
 Plastic cup (to be used by clients who want to drink at the kiosk) and
 “Standard” container (to be used to measure water if the Operator has doubts
regarding the volume of the containers used by his or her customers).
9.3 Sensitising Kiosk Clientele on Chains and Barriers
9.3.1 About Chains

Cleaning is important, but preventing the kiosk from becoming dirty is equally
important. One cannot prevent the kiosk from becoming dirty as a result of normal
use, but the Operator can prevent “additional pollution” by sensitising his or her
clients.
 Operators should, for instance, explain to their clients that they cannot wash
their motor bikes or laundry on the kiosk platform or next to the kiosk.
 Clients should not bring dirty containers or wash dirty containers at the kiosk.
 The Operator should tell children not to eat at the kiosk and he or she should
also see to it that after closing hours the kiosk does not become a refuse
dump or public toilet.
As in the case of vandalism, Operators should report deliberate pollution of the kiosk
to the WSP.
The point of departure of each health and hygiene education or sensitisation
programme should be the conclusion that water supply and sanitation are in fact
chains or sequences of activities, (movements, displacements) that involve various
(infra-) structures (treatment works, the distribution network, kiosks, recipients,
storage facilities, houses and yards, latrines, windlass wells, etc.), and objects (water,
faeces, buckets, clay pots, etc.).
To establish possible dangers for public health and the need for sensitisation and
education, these sequences should be carefully analysed, in the field, by the
sanitation expert and the staff of the service provider responsible for the kiosks. This
should be done in order to identify moments or circumstances that may cause water
and sanitation related diseases and that, therefore, represent a danger to public
health. For example, one chain can be identified for each source of water and the
first part of the chain is the quality of the water itself. Toilet facilities represent another
10
In Chipata, Zambia, the Chipata Water and Sewerage Company (CWSC) decided to stop buying
these goods for its Operators, as they were often used for private purposes (cleaning the house and
the yard of the Operator).
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52
chain, and faecal material may pollute other environments through being transported
by insect, unwashed hands, etc.
9.3.2 Barriers
During the analysis, barriers or factors to prevent the pollution from occurring will
have to be identified. These barriers will have to be the main focus (message) of a
health and hygiene programme but Operators, during their training workshop, have to
be made aware of these chains and barriers so that they are motivated to clean their
kiosks and are able to sensitise their clientele.
9.3.3 Transmission Routes

There are many transmission routes of water and sanitation-related diseases and
the hygiene education of Operators and low income communities should cover a
number of these routes. Burgers (et al, 1988) made a shortlist of questions for
identifying action points, from which the following has been adapted by Boot
(1991: 15):
Water source:
 Do all children, women and men in the community use safe water sources for
drinking, washing clothes and bathing?
 Is water used efficiently (not wasted), and is wastewater properly drained?
 Are improved water sources used with care and well kept?
 Is there a risk of contamination of water sources from nearby latrines,
wastewater drainage, free ranging cattle or land cultivation?
Water collection:
 Is drinking water collected in clean recipients, without coming into contact with
hands?
 Is water transported in a covered container?
Water storage:
 Is water stored in clean recipients (containers), which are covered and
regularly cleaned?
 Is drinking water stored in a separate container, if possible?
Water drinking:
 Is drinking water fetched from a reliable source?
 Is drinking water taken from the storage vessel in such a way that hands, cups
or other objects cannot contaminate the water?
Water use:
 Are adequate amounts of water available, transported and used for
personal and domestic hygiene? (It is estimated, that some 30 to 40 litres per
person per day are needed for personal and domestic hygiene).
Food handling:
 Are hands washed with soap, before preparing and eating food?
 Do family members use the same bowl and the same water to wash their
hands?
 Are vegetables and fruits washed with safe water and is food properly
covered?
 Are kitchen utensils washed with safe water and left in a clean place?
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53
Excreta disposal:
 Do all men, women and children use hygienic means of excreta disposal at
home, at work and at school?
 Are stools of infants and young children safely disposed of?
 Do all family members throughout the year use household latrines and are
these regularly cleaned and maintained?
 Are latrines sited in such a way that the pit contents cannot wash into water
sources or enter the ground water table?
 Are hand washing facilities and soap available and are hands always
washed after defecation, and after helping babies and little children?
Wastewater disposal:
 Is household wastewater disposed of or re-used properly?
 Are measures taken to ensure that wastewater is not left to create breeding
places for mosquitoes and other disease transmission vectors, or to
contaminate safe water?
Important: All these questions have to be asked and answered if the service
provider intends to plan and implement a health education (HE) programme and
some of them (especially the ones concerning the various aspects of water supply
and consumption) should be explained in some detail to the Operators during the
training programme. This will enable each Operator to sensitise his or her clients by
informing them that:
 Improved water and sanitation technologies will only lead to health impacts if
linked with appropriate behaviour and proper use.
 Drinking clean water protects family members from sickness.
 Protection of water sources and water containers safeguards health.
 The kiosk and its surroundings have to be kept clean.
 The kiosk platform should not be used as a public toilet.
 Women should not wash their laundry next to the kiosk, cars, trucks and
motorbikes should not be washed next to the kiosk, children should not eat at
the kiosk and foodstuffs should not be prepared at the kiosk.
 Cleanliness at home and in the compound, village or city prevents disease,
loss of work days, loss of income, and heavy medical expenses.
 Water is precious and sanitation facilities are necessary, and are worth paying
for.
 Protection of water sources and water containers safeguards health.
Kiosk Operators should also be able to:

 Show their customers how water has to be fetched, transported, stored and, if
necessary, treated.
 Explain the importance of treating water that is going to be stored within the
household (treating it with Water Guard11 or boiling it).
11
Operators could contribute to a better public health by selling WaterGuard, but also by selling other
products such as mosquito nets and condoms.
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54
 Explain their clients that they have the right to complain to the service provider
when they consider the hygienic condition of the kiosk to be unsatisfactory.
The main aim of the sensitisation by Operators is to improve change practices such
as drinking water from unsafe sources. The Operator should be aware that his or her
effort will receive support from other initiatives such as HE programmes initiated by
the service provider and by other organisations and institutions such as the Ministry
of Health.
Operators should sensitise their clients, whenever they are being asked questions by
clients, whenever they observe practices that represent a threat to public health and
when they are asked by the service provider to transmit a certain message or to take
part in a sensitisation campaign of health education programme.
According to Boot:
“Behavioural change can gain an important impetus through the support and
example of respected persons. If a respected key person is setting the example
and promoting certain behaviours, it is likely that more people will follow. The
role models may be official leaders such as religious leaders and community
representatives, but also individuals who are trusted and consulted for specific
problems, or who live the life desired by many people. … The reverse is also
true. When hygiene behaviour is promoted by people who have neither status
nor influence, it is unlikely that the new behaviour will take root.” (Boot 1991: 13)
Operators in their effort to sensitise their clientele, should try to approach or seek the
support of respected persons such as the Community Health Extension Worker
(CHEW) members, the Chief or community/church leaders (assuming they are
indeed respected by the population) or others. It is even more important that the
Operator him- or herself, becomes such a respected person and is considered by his
clientele and by the population at large a local expert on water and hygiene matters
who is able to give valuable advice. Water is the main product of the service provider
and the Operator should be able to, so to say, communicate the product manual and
explain how it should be used and how it should not be used. (In addition to other
sensitisation and health education efforts the service provider will be engaged in).
A central but also the most abstract part of health education is the germ theory. The
service provider cannot expect the Operator to be a medical expert or a professional
sensitizer. However, Operators should be able to explain to their clientele that the
above-mentioned measures and behaviours are mainly aiming at preventing harmful
bacteria from developing and transmitting diseases.
Throughout the training workshop, the trainers have to emphasise that the Operators
will play a crucial role in achieving the public health objectives of the service
provider. Without their contribution the kiosk system cannot become a public health
success story. By keeping their kiosk and its surrounding very clean, they should
give a good example and by sensitising their clientele they should play a role in
changing certain practices which have a negative impact upon the health of low
income residents.
The trainers should add that sensitising customers on the advantages of using
treated water for a variety of usages (drinking, preparing meals, washing baby
nappies, brewing local beer, washing a patient, etc.), will have a positive impact upon
water sales. In this context, sensitisation and marketing are compatible activities.
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9.4 The Operator and Public Health Emergency Situations

During emergencies, such as a sudden outbreak of cholera, or in an attempt to
prevent outbreaks of water-related diseases, the water kiosks of the service provider
can play an important role. Within most low income areas, the water kiosks of the
service provider can be considered to be the “official structure” with the highest
density (a higher density compared to pharmacies, markets, health centres,
community centres) and the largest clientele. As the kiosk is a reliable source of safe
water, residents will continue to visit their kiosk, even- or especially during, outbreaks
of water-related diseases such as cholera. The kiosk, therefore, can play an
important role in diffusing information during a sensitisation/education campaign
aimed at controlling or combating the outbreak. For instance, posters can be put up
at the kiosk and Operators can be asked to sensitise their clientele or to distribute
WaterGuard.12
However, the fact that water kiosks are likely to play an important role during
outbreaks of water-related diseases (consumption levels are likely to be higher than
usual), means that the kiosk itself, if not well managed, can become a “source” of
cholera. Operators, therefore, will have to be given special instructions by the service
provider and the Ministry of Health, with regard to kiosk cleanliness & hygiene and
proper client behaviour. Clients should, for instance, be instructed to clean their
recipients at home, instead of at the kiosk.
9.5 Inviting Local Experts

As we mentioned earlier, the training workshop for Operators can be improved and
made more interesting, by inviting local health experts such as the Public Health
Officer (PHO), the Community Health Extension Worker (CHEW) or staff members of
local clinics and hospitals. These guest presenters can be asked to discuss issues
such as the often complex relationships between health, hygiene and water. The
following issues will have to be addressed:
 The various water-borne, water-washed and water-related diseases.
 Why prevention is better than treatment as far as diseases are concerned.
 The importance of keeping kiosks clean.
 What to do about customers who want to draw water with dirty containers.
 How water should be handled and stored within the household
 What things can and what goods cannot be sold at the kiosk.
 How to sensitise and educate kiosk customers and other residents.
The local health experts are asked to use the PHAST method (See next paragraph).
9.6 Using the PHAST Method

To train the Operators on:
 The importance of keeping the kiosk clean.
12
In fact as we suggested earlier, the kiosks, as they will be used by Operators to sell other goods
besides water, can also be used by other organisations, including NGOs, as distribution points or
sales outlets for products such as mosquito nets, condoms, etc. Provided that the products involved
do not appear on the list of prohibited goods mentioned in the Contract the Operators have signed with
the service provider (goods such as insecticides, meat, fuel, etc.)
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 The transmission routes of water and sanitation-related diseases.

The WSTF has adapted the PHAST Method (Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation
Transformation) to suit the training of training of Operators of water kiosks and public
sanitation facilities (See WHO/UNDP World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme:
1997).
The adapted PHAST tool is included in this Module of the Toolkit.
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10 Water Supply in Kenya: The Institutional Context
10.1 The Water Act of 2002

In 2002 the Government of Kenya passed the Water Act 2002 (Date of Assent: 17th
October, 2002). The objects of this Bill are (among others) to:
(a) Establish the Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) and define its
functions (Sections 46-48).
(b) Specify the rights, responsibilities and duties of the Water Services Boards
(WSBs) (Sections 51- 54) and of the Water Service providers (WSPs) (Section
55).
(c) Provide for the efficient and sustainable supply of water and sanitation
services under the general regulation of WASREB.
(d) Establish the Water Services Trust Fund (WSTF, Section 83)
10.2 The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI)
The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) has its fundamental goal and purpose as
conserving, managing and protecting water resources for socio-economic
development.
Its aim is to improve the living standards of people by ensuring proper access to
available water resources. The Ministry was created in 2003 following a separation
from the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. The split was aimed at
consolidating the responsibility for the management and development of water
resources under a single Minister.
This Ministry is, therefore, also responsible for the provision of potable water to the
low income areas. (See also: http://www.water.go.ke/aboutus.html ).
10.2.1 MWI’s Vision
MWI’s Vision: Assured water resources and availability and accessibility by all.
10.2.2 MWI’ s Mission
MWI’s Mission: Integrated Water Resources Management and Development through

stakeholder participation to ensure water availability and accessibility to enhance
National Development.
10.2.3 MWI’s Mandate
The Ministry's mandate is to contribute to national development through sustainable

conservation, management and development of the available water and land
resources and facilitate their planned exploitation.
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10.3 The Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB)

The Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) is a non-commercial State
Corporation established in March 2003 as part of the comprehensive reforms in the
water sector. The mandate of the institution is to oversee the implementation of
policies and strategies relating to provision of water and sewerage services.
WASREB sets rules and enforces standards that guide the sector towards ensuring
that consumers are protected and have access to efficient, adequate, affordable and
sustainable services.
Key among the responsibilities of the Regulator is issuance of licences to Water
Services Boards (WSBs). Through these licenses, WSBs become responsible for the
efficient and economical provision of water services within their jurisdictions. Under
the Water Act 2002, WSBs cannot provide services directly, so they have to enter
Contract with Water Service Providers (WSPs) through signing Service Provision
Agreements (SPAs). The Water Services Regulatory Board monitors the
performance of WSBs and WSPs on a continuous basis (See also:
http://www.wsrb.or.ke/ ).
10.3.1 WASREB’s Strategc Objectives

The strategic objectives of WASREB can be summed up as folows:
 Develop and institutionalise effective mechanisms for regulation of water
supply and sanitation services.
 Establish effective information and communication systems to facilitate public
awareness on water supply and sanitation services.
 Improve capacity for effective regulation.
 Inform policy makers on water and sanitation issues.
 Facilitate interventions on cross-cutting issues such as mainstreaming gender,
HIV/AIDS and governance.
10.3.2 Main Functions

The main functions of WASREB can be summareised as follows:
 Overseeing the implementation of policies and strategies relating to provision
of water and sewerage services.
 Regulating the provision of water and sewerage services.
 Licensing Water Service Boards and approving their appointed Water Service
Providers through SPAs.
 Setting rules, establishing standards and guidelines and ensuring that Water
Service Boards comply with the conditions stipulated in the licences.
 Developing guidelines on service provision agreements between WSBs and
WSPs.
 Developing operational standards for adoption relating to the whole process of
development of water services including design, construction, operations and
maintenance of water and wastewater systems.
 Developing standards on water quality and efficient disposal of waste water.
 Developing guidelines for setting of tariffs.
 Developing guidelines for dispute resolution.
 Determining technical, water quality and effluent disposal standards.
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 Monitoring and evaluating the performance of Water Service Boards and

Water Service Providers.
 Gathering and maintaining information on water services and publishing
forecasts, projections and information on water services.
 Advising the Minister on matters connected to water services.
10.4 The Water Services Trust Fund
10.4.1 History
The Government of Kenya, through the Ministry Water and Irrigation established the
Water Services Trust Fund (WSTF) as a corporate body under the Water Act 2002 to
channel funding for its long-term objectives of developing water and sanitation
services in areas of Kenya without adequate water. The WSTF was registered on the
10th May 2004 and consequently appointed and gazetted the Trustees of the Fund
(see also: http://www.wstfkenya.org/ ).
10.4.2 Mandate of the WSTF

The Water Act 2002 mandates the Fund to assist in financing the provision of water
services to rural and urban areas of Kenya without adequate water services with
funds placed in the Fund either through:
 Appropriation by Parliament i.e. through normal Government budgetary
allocations.
 Donations.
 Grants and bequests from whatever source.
 Any other monies payable to the Fund.
10.4.3 Core Objective of the WSTF

The core objective of the Fund is to assist in financing capital investment costs of
providing water services to communities without adequate water services in the
country priority being given to poor and disadvantaged groups. Other support
includes capacity building activities and initiatives, which enable communities to plan,
implement, manage, operate and sustain water services. This objective is supported
by creation of awareness and dissemination of information regarding community
management of water services and encouraging active community participation in the
implementation and the sustainable management of water services.
The Fund operates within the new institutional framework for the Water Sector and
therefore the planning process involves the regional Water Services Boards (WSBs)
and other key stakeholders
10.5 The Water Services Boards
10.5.1 History
The Water Services Boards (WSBs) were formed as part of the Ministry of Water and
Irrigation reforms brought about by the Water Act 2002 enacted in 2003. The Boards
were created under Section 51 of the Water Act 2002 to be responsible for the
provision of water services in their jurisdiction area.
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10.5.2 Number of WSBs

There are 8 WSBs in Kenya:
 Athi Water Services Board.
 Lake Victoria North Water Services Board.
 Lake Victoria South Water Services Board.
 Rift Valley Water services Board.
 Tana Water Services Board.
 Coast Water Services Board.
 Northern Water Services Board.
 Tanathi Water Services Board.
10.5.3 Main Functions of the WSBs

The WSBs were created to bring about efficiency, economy and sustainability in the
provision of water and sewerage services in the country.
The following are the main functions:
 Ownership and holding of water and sewerage assets.
 Planning, development and expansion of water and sewerage.
 Contracting out water and sewerage services provision to water service
providers.
 Monitoring the water and sewerage services provision in its area of
jurisdiction.
For the reform programmes to succeed they need to be well understood and
supported by stakeholders. The WSBs are expected to put in place mechanisms to
secure political and social support amongst the stakeholders. These mechanisms
include a strategic approach to all interested parties. The general lack of awareness
and uncertainty on the implications of the changes necessitates the use of strategic
communication to:
 Raise the profile of water aspects of social economic development.
 Develop effective means of building understanding and generating support for
reform.
 Provide a forum for the board to proactively take up leadership in water sector
reforms through direct means to avoid misconceptions.
10.5.4 Mandate of the WSBs

The overall mandate of the WSBs is to ensure provision of clean, affordable water
and efficient sewerage services in the area of our jurisdiction. A WSB has to:
 Mobilise/secure resources for capital investments for water and sewerage
services.
 Ensure increased coverage of water service and efficient sewerage services
provision.
 Supervise the Water Service Providers.
 Oversee implementation of Government of Kenya policies with regards to
provision of efficient and effective water and sewerage services.
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 Study tariffs and advise the Regulatory Board on changes required for
effective implementation of water and sewerage sector reforms.
 Build capacity of water service providers.
 Monitor and evaluate performance of Water Service Providers.
10.6 The Water Service Providers (WSPs)
10.6.1 Main responsibilities of WSPs

The Water Service Providers (WSPs):
 Act as WSB’s water and sanitation provision agents.
 Are responsible for the maintenance, rehabilitation and development of water
and sanitation infrastructure.
The WSPs have a primary responsibility of providing affordable water and sewerage
services through efficient, effective, and sustainable utilisation of the available
resources in an environmentally-friendly manner, and meet and exceed the
expectations of our consumers and other stakeholders.
10.6.2 Operator Training Workshop: Presenting the WSP

During the Operator training workshop, WSP staff should provide a detailed
presentation of the Company. After all the operators will sign a Contract with the
WSP and will work hand in hand to improve water supply and sanitation services in
the low income areas. The presentation of the WSP should address the following
topics:
 History and achievements.
 Vision.
 Mission.
 Values.
 Objectives.
 Water and sewerage (sanitation) products and services.
 Customer care.
 Service area (towns and areas served).
 Pro-poor strategy.
 Water quality (control).
10.7 Sector Overview

Table 10.1 shows how the various organisations described in the previous
paragraphs are linked.
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Table 10.1: Sector overview
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11 The Kiosk System
11.1 Using the Contract and Rules and Guidelines during the Workshop
Important: The detailed discussion of the Contract and the appendix to the Contract
is one of the main elements of the training workshop and trainers should give the
participants ample opportunity to ask questions.
Important: The appendix to the Contract (“Rules and Guidelines for the Operator”,
should be used as a training tool, when explaining the various elements of the kiosk
system to the new Operators.
Also when providing on-the-job training, the appendix can be used as a training
guide.
Important: The appendix has been designed in such a way, that the trainers can
discuss the appendix chapter after chapter.
During this part of the training the trainers should be able to show how a water meter
works and how the meter reading is going to record the meter readings. It is useful to
have a water meter available.
During the training the trainers will have to provide a number of examples:
 How should customers pay for their water and how should payments be
recorded?
 How to create and control a new “Customer kiosk book”.
 How to calculate and keep track of the money collected from customers?
 How to calculate and record monthly consumption?
 How to interpret the different figures mentioned on the Water Bill?
 How to calculate the net revenue (the Operator’s remuneration)?
11.2 Why the Service Provider Decided to Introduce a Kiosk System

The trainers should explain why the service provider has decided to introduce a kiosk
system in the low income areas within its service area. After all there are alternatives.
In other parts of Kenya projects and experiments have been carried out with
communal or yard tap-based supply schemes and in some low income urban areas
residents still fetch water free of charge at a public tap. In other words, why
introducing a kiosk system?
The trainers should describe the advantages and disadvantages of the various
technical options.
Trainers should explain why it is impossible to provide all low income households
with individual house connections:
 House connections are expensive (unaffordable for many households) and
 The layout of most low income areas do not allow for dense distribution
network. This does not mean that households that can afford a house
connection will not be given the opportunity to acquire their own connection.
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Most WSTF-funded water supply projects will introduce mixed systems (which
means network extensions will have pipe diameters which allows for the
supply of water kiosks and private connections).
The disadvantages of a public tap, where water can be fetched free of charge are:
 Water wastage.
 Poor hygienic conditions.
The disadvantages of a hand pump are:
 Technology not suited for urban settings as aquifers get polluted by pit
latrines, solid waste dumpsites, etc.
 Poor hygienic conditions if users are not organised.
 Experience shows that maintenance and repair concepts that work in a rural
context are not successful in an urban setting characterised by low levels of
social cohesion and high levels of vandalism.
11.3 What is a Kiosk System?

With the introduction of the kiosk system, the service provider intends to achieve a
number of important objectives. The main objectives of the kiosk system can be
summed up as follows:
 Contributing to an improved public health and better living conditions by
providing the population of the low income areas with safe treated water.
 Providing a good and affordable product and service to low income residents.
 Reducing water wastage as a result of negligence (taps left open after use),
leaking pipes, vandalism, etc.
 Increasing the percentage of paid-for water . This is necessary in order to have
a sustainable water supply system.
 Making sure that the Operators are able to earn an acceptable income.
The basic elements of a standard kiosk system can be summarised as follows :
 Each water kiosk is managed by an Operator.
 The Operator receives training before and/or after signing a Contract with the
service provider. This Contract contains detailed information on the
responsibilities and rights of all parties involved in low income water supply
(authorities, service provider, residents and Operator).
 The Operator sells water on behalf of the service provider, but is not an
employee of the service provider. The Operator should consider the kiosk as
his or her private business undertaking.
 The Operator sells water for a fixed price per unit (for example KSh 2.00 for a
full jerrycan of 20 litres or KSh 20.00 for an oil drum of 220 litres).
 The Operator has to pay the service provider according to the monthly meter
readings.
 The Operator receives a commission for each cubic metre sold.
 The Operator may sell other goods at his or her kiosk with the exception of
such products as meat, fish, certain (specified in the Contract) chemicals, etc.
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 The Operator is guided by the qualified staff members of the service provider:
the Kiosk Supervisor or Customer Services Assistant (CSA), the Public
Relations Officer or the Manager of the Low Income Areas Unit).
 The Operator has to keep the kiosk clean and report damage to the service
provider.
 The Operator has to be present during the opening hours he has agreed upon
with his or her customers and with the service provider.
 Customers are allowed to fetch very small quantities of water free of charge in
order to clean their buckets or containers. Very dirty containers must not be
cleaned at the kiosk.
 If customers have complaints they can address themselves to the local office
of the service provider.
 If the Operator does not work in accordance with his Contract, the service
provider has the right to terminate the Contract with the Operator.
It is important to note that specific aspects of the kiosk system are also described in
detail in Module 4 of this Toolkit (See: Module 4, Table of Contents).
11.4 The Tasks, Responsibilities and Status of the Operator

The main responsibilities of the Operator can be summed up as follows:
 Following the instructions as stated in the agreement signed between the
Operator and the service provider.
 Respecting the working hours that have been agreed upon with the customers
of the kiosk.
 Cleaning the kiosk (taps, building) and direct surroundings.
 Making sure that customers do not litter and pollute the kiosk and its
surroundings.
 Selling water to customers.
 Assisting customers (especially the aged and handicapped as well as
pregnant women).
 Following the customer-Operator payment and water fetching procedures.
 Following the cash handling and cash depositing procedures introduced by the
service provider.
 Paying the Water Bill on time.
 Reporting to the service provider: damage, low pressure, interruptions in
supply and poor water quality.
 Sensitising customers on the proper ways to fetch, store and use water.
The trainers will have to discuss the above-mentioned responsibilities in detail and
answer all questions of the Operators.
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11.5 Contract and Guidelines
11.5.1 The Contract

The rights and responsibilities of the Operator and the service provider are described
in detail in the Contract that is signed by both parties. The Contract addresses
issues such as:
 Conditions that have to be met by the future Operator before he or she can
sign the Contract (for example, possessing an Identification Card).
 Terms and termination of the Contract.
 The status of the Operator.
 The rights, duties and responsibilities of the Operator vis-à-vis the service
provider the authorities and his or her clients.
 The rights, duties and responsibilities of the service provider vis-à-vis the
Operator.
 General information on the working conditions and concerning opening and
closing hours.
 Special circumstances (absence of the Operator, sickness).
 Force majeure (war, uprisings, natural disasters).
11.5.2 The Appendix to the Contract

The Contract has an appendix that specifies some of the rules and guidelines for the
Operators. These rules and guidelines are meant to provide the Operators some
guidance during their work, during their communication with their clientele and with
the service provider, when special circumstances occur and in case of a dispute.
The appendix to the Contract covers the following subjects:
Duties, rights and working conditions:
 A detailed description of the work, duties, responsibilities and rights of the
Operator.
 Working conditions and working relationship between service provider staff
and the Operator.
 Procedure to determine the opening and closing hours of the kiosk.
The sale of water:
 Details concerning the sale of water, intervals between meter readings, how
and where cash has to be kept.
 The number of times the Operator has to report at the office of the service
provider (or at another location) to hand over the money that has been
collected.
 Detailed information on income and payment of the Operator.
 Guidelines and tools (checklists) that will help the Operator to countercheck
the records of the service provider.
 How the Operator has to organise the fetching of water at the kiosk, what the
Operator has to do in case of conflicts and fights at the kiosk and under which
circumstances the Operator has to close the kiosk.
Kiosk hygiene and cleanliness:
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 How the kiosk has to be maintained and kept clean (number of times the
kiosk has to be cleaned). Keeping the kiosk clean and in good technical
condition is one of the most important responsibilities of the Operator.
 The rules and guidelines concerning kiosk hygiene and cleanliness the
Operator has to convey to his clients and if necessary to the other residents of
the low income area. Rules and guidelines addressing issues such as
preventing water wastage, the use of clean recipients, doing laundry at the
kiosk, eating at the kiosk, etc.
 Goods and products Operators are not allowed to sell at their kiosk (for
instance insecticides, raw or prepared meat, etc.).
Technical management of the kiosk:
 Guidelines and procedures concerning the reporting of low pressure, poor
water quality, damage (for instance as a result of vandalism) and leaks.
 What the Operator has to do if there is a sudden drop in water quality (for
example if water becomes muddy after the occurrence of a leak in the
network).
Special circumstances:
 Under what conditions water can be fetched free of charge by clients (for
instance the small quantities fetched for cleaning recipients).
 Special circumstances that may force the Operator to supply water free of
charge (in case of fires or if persons with third-degree burns have to be
assisted).
 Special circumstances (such as a cholera outbreak) that oblige the Operator
to follow the instructions and guidelines of the service provider, the local
authorities or the Ministry of Health.
Goods the Operator receive from the service provider:
 A list of goods the Operator has been issued with.
Control procedures and measures:
 Control procedures, measures and instruments (check-lists, etc.) the Water
Service Provider has put in place to monitor the kiosks and the Operators
(technical control, financial control, operational control).
Communication between the Operator and the WSP:
 Guidelines and procedures concerning the communication between the
service provider and the Operators (weekly visits, control procedures,
meetings, written information on tariff changes, etc.)
 Guidelines concerning the communication between the Operators on the one
hand and the population, CBOs and the authorities on the other.
 The Operator is expected to participate in sensitisation campaigns and
programmes organised by the service provider or, if instructed by the service
provider, campaigns organised by government organisations such as the
Ministry of Health.
 The procedure the Operator should follow in case he or she has complaints
about the way in which he or she is treated by the service provider or by
particular service provider personnel.
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 The procedure the Water Service Provider should follow in case clients,
CBOs, or the authorities express their complaints about the Operator, the
kiosk, water quality, the service provider, etc.
11.6 Operators: Addressing Their Interests, Complaints and Suggestions

Operators should be given the opportunity to express their concerns and complaints
as well their proposals. Operators, in order to protect their interests, have the right to
organise themselves and to appoint representatives who are asked to discuss and
negotiate with the service provider. The service provider should be flexible and allow
the Operators or their representatives to discuss all work-related problems and
proposals.
11.7 Introducing the Kiosk System: Step-by-Step

Module 3 of the Toolkit discusses the various phases of the introduction and
implementation of a kiosk system. As the Operators will play an important role in this
process, the trainers should explain the various phases of the implementation
process.
11.8 Community Participation and Kiosks

Although the service provider will introduce a kiosk system, which in principle can
function without community participation, the service provider wishes to give a
meaningful content to community participation during the project implementation
phase as well as when it comes to the day-to-day operation of the kiosks:
11.8.1 Project Implementation

The low income community, CBOs (such as water committees, neighbourhood health
committees and local health centres) and the CHEW can play an active role during:
 The design and implementation of sensitisation and information
campaigns. For example, campaigns aimed at introducing the kiosk system, a
new tariff, educating the population on health and hygiene matters.
 The collection of data on the population, water supply and sanitation
infrastructures (open wells, hand pumps, windlass wells, pit latrines, etc.).
 The collection of data on water consumption levels, water-related diseases,
the willingness and ability to pay.
 The implementation and commissioning of the water supply project.
11.8.2 Daily Management of the Kiosk System

The community and existing CBOs can play an important role during the operation of
the low income water supply (management) system:
 Prevention of vandalism (social control, reporting and sanctions). An active
role should be given to Neighbourhood Watch Committees and the
neighbourhood water committees. The service provider will have to sensitise
the population.
 Assuring cleanliness and hygiene at the kiosks .
 Reporting by residents of damage and leakages .
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 Collecting and communicating complaints to the service provider in case of

poor service levels (for instance problems with pressure of water quality).
 Establishing efficient communications between users and the WSP (customer
complaints forms, organisation of feedback and quick response in case of
reported damage or customer complaints).
 Assisting in health and hygiene education or sensitisation campaigns (for
instance the neighbourhood health committees and the neighbourhood water
committees).
 Participating in the identification and recruitment of new Kiosk Operators.
By giving community participation a meaningful content and by assuring that the low
income population identifies itself with “its kiosks”, the service provider can
contribute, albeit in a modest way, to community building and the strengthening of
the local civil society.
Operator and WSPare responsible for the kiosk. However, each client and each low
income resident has his or her responsibilities. For example, residents have to refrain
from and report acts of vandalism and have to participate in the effort to keep the
kiosks clean.
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12 Assisting Vulnerable Persons: The SWAS
12.1 Identifying Potential SWAS Beneficiaries

The main components and objectives of the Social Welfare Assistance Scheme
(SWAS) can be described as follows:
The main purpose of the scheme is to provide some assistance to the vulnerable
(destitute) individuals within the low income communities. The programme aims to
ensure that vulnerable people or sections within the population have access to clean
water. The service provider can define the concept vulnerable group or people as
follows:
 The aged and the handicapped.
 Indigent persons awaiting repatriation.
 Persons who are victims of such disasters as fire, floods or droughts.
With these categories in mind, the major factor to consider is the ability of a particular
person to pay for piped water. If, for instance, a person is aged and has no children
or other close relatives who are in a position to take care of him or her, he or she duly
qualifies to benefit from this scheme. The same applies to the disabled: If a person is
disabled, the head of a household, has no sources of income and receives no
assistance from relatives or others (organizations such as the Roman Catholic
Church) that person also qualifies.
The amount of water to be provided per person per day is 20 litres. Normally only the
disabled or aged person receives this quantity free of charge, albeit that in certain
extreme cases (the household has no sources of income) also the other household
members will be allowed to benefit from the scheme.
The persons benefiting from the programme should identify themselves at the kiosk
by presenting the (laminated) SWAS card, which bears the person names and the
daily amount he or she is allowed to fetch free of charge.
The service provider has the right to decide to stop providing water free of charge to
individuals or households. The following reasons may influence the decision of the
service provider to withdraw the SWAS card:
 A marked improvement in the financial situation of the household.
 Attempts to misuse the service provider card, etc.
It is not up to the service provider to go out in the low income areas in order to
identify potential SWAS beneficiaries. Instead the service provider should work
together with the Ministry of Special Programmes. It is important to establish if the
records of this Ministry are up-to-date. If not, the WSP may decide to create its own
file using the criteria of the Ministry.
If in a particular town, the files of the Ministry are out-dated, the service provider
could create its own database by visiting the low income areas (walking around and
asking), by contacting local grassroots organisations (local NGOs, CBOs, local
clinics, etc.) and the churches. The Operators should also be asked if they know
persons who should benefit from the programme.
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71
If necessary, Operators should provide assistance to SWAS beneficiaries, as well as

to other handicapped and elderly persons (cleaning and lifting containers, etc.).
12.2 Timing of the Implementation of the SWAS Programme

Before and during the introduction of a kiosk system in a low income area, the
service provider will have to sensitise residents on the necessity to pay for water.
Introducing the SWAS at this stage is not advisable. Residents could reject the idea
that some have to pay, whereas other can fetch water free of charge. A SWAS
programme should be introduced at least 6 months after the successful introduction
of kiosks.
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72
13 Kiosk Hygiene and Poor Practices of Residents, Providers & Operators
13.1.1 Introduction
In the following sections we described some of the difficulties faced by Operators
when convincing their clientele to avoid “poor practices” that may have a negative
impact upon public health and upon the sustainability of the kiosk system. In this
section we provide a list, based upon experiences and data collected in Burkina
Faso, Rwanda and Zambia, of the “poor practices” of low income residents, service
providers and Operators.
Programmes and projects aimed at improving low income water supply should pay
attention to such practices and prevent or combat them by developing and
implementing rules and regulations, sensitisation campaigns, sanctions or incentives
(for example, a bonus for the cleanest kiosk).
13.1.2 Poor Practices of Service Providers

Poor practices by the service provider are often an indication of the fact that water
supply in low income areas is not a priority. Poor practices often result in the gradual
disintegration and degeneration of a kiosks scheme and in a neglect of the
infrastructure (kiosks, meter chambers, the network, etc.). It should be noted that the
list of poor practices is far from being exhaustive:
1. Poor management of Operators:
 Inadequate remuneration of Operators.
 No regular controls. Visits are carried out on an ad hoc basis and not based
upon detailed procedures and guidelines.
 Sanctions (disconnections, replacing the Operator) are not put into practice.
 Operators do not receive any training and many of them work without having
signed a Contract.
 Operators are not aware of their rights and responsibilities let alone of the
rights and responsibilities of the service provider and of their clients.
 Imposition of Operators on the community.
2. Poor technical management:
 Kiosks are not repaired after acts of vandalism.
 Taps and water meters are of poor quality and low water pressure often
leads to long waiting hours, discussions and conflicts among clients.
 Leaks and meters are not repaired.
 There are too many types of kiosks and a large number of kiosks are not well
constructed and maintained.
 Some kiosks are not well localised. As a result their accessibility is not good.
3. Poor communication between the service provider and the Operators:
 The only contact between the service provider and the Operator, takes place
when the water meter is read or and when the Operators visits the office of the
WSP to pay his or her bill. There are no formal encounters (regular meetings)
during which problems and propositions are being discussed.
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73
 Operators do not know what to do when water quality drops as a result of

leak repair works.
4. Poor communication and cooperation between WSP and residents:
 The service provider does not cooperate with CBOs.
 Residents are not involved in the programming of a project, the result being
the poor localisation of water points (in isolated areas with very low population
densities or near major roads, bars, etc.), which makes them prone to
vandalism.
 The low income population is not aware of its rights and responsibilities.
 The service provider does not collect the necessary quantitative and
qualitative data on the low income areas.
 The service provider has no low income strategy and does not carry out any
sensitisation campaigns or programmes.
13.1.3 Poor Practices of Operators

It is important to note, that poor practices by Operators can often be attributed to the
lack of a proper kiosk management approach. Poor practices of Operators:
 The Operator does not respect the conditions, rules and guidelines mentioned
in his or her Contract.
 The Operator does not seek the advice of the service provider and does not
inform the service provider in case of damage, leaks, a drop in water quality,
etc.
 The Operator does not respect the agreed opening and closing hours.
 The Operator does not clean his or her kiosk and its immediate surroundings.
 The Operator does not sensitise/inform his or her clientele on matters
pertaining to the kiosk system (for example, a new tariff).
 The Operator is not polite to his or her customers and does not help his or her
elderly customers.
13.1.4 Poor Practices of Customers and other Residents

In some low income areas, it is difficult to prevent acts of vandalism and theft and
also difficult to make sure that residents observe certain rules and regulations. It is
the responsibility of the service provider to make sure that the low income
communities are informed, educated and sensitised.
Poor practices of clients and other residents are:
 Certain customers do not wash their containers before arriving at the kiosk.
Some insist on cleaning their containers at the kiosk.
 Customers (especially during the rainy season) approach the kiosks wearing
dirty shoes or boots and customers have dirty hands.
 Water is being wasted, because clients use leaking recipients resulting in
wastage. This leads to the pollution of the kiosk and its direct environments.
 The kiosk is used as a solid waste disposal site.
 Residents eat mangos, sugarcane and other foodstuffs at the kiosk and throw
leftovers on the kiosk platform or in the soak away.
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74
 Customers drink directly from one of the taps or the hosepipe (used to fill
containers and oil-drums).
 Children and drunken residents use the kiosk (platform) as a public toilet.
 After closing hours the kiosk is used as a playground (by children).
 Cars or motorbikes are being washed next to the kiosk.
 Acts of vandalism jeopardise proper kiosk management.
 Women do their laundry next to the kiosk.
 Conflict and fights among clients or between clients and the Operator occur at
the kiosk.
 Taps and meters and iron roofing sheets are stolen and the kiosk is
vandalised.
___________________________________________________________________
Washing hands after using the toilet: A must do! (Drawing by Charles Kut, 2008)
___________________________________________________________________
75
List of Abbreviations
AD: Anno Domini
AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
BC: Before Christ
CAAC: Catchment Area Advisory Committee
CBO: Community-Based Organisation
CHEW: Community health Extension Worker
HE: Health Education
HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus
NGO: Non-Governmental Organisation
ONEA: Office National de l’Eau et l’Assainissement (Burkina Faso)
PHAST: Participatory Hygiene and Sanitation Transformation
PHO: Public Health Officer
SPA: Service Provision Agreement
SWAS: Social Welfare Assistance Scheme
VIP: Ventilated improved pit latrine
WAB: Water Appeals Board
WASREB: Water Services Regulatory Board
WHO: World Health Organisation
WRMA: Water Resources Management Authority
WSB: Water Services Board
WSP: Water Service Provider
WSTF: Water Services Trust Fund
Bibliography
The water Crisis, a worldwide problem, in: Awake 22nd of August 1997, Watchtower
Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. International Bible Students Association,
Brooklyn, New York, USA
Boot, M.T. (1991) Just Stir Gently. The way to mix hygiene education with water
supply and sanitation. Technical Paper Series, IRC International Water and
Sanitation Centre, The Hague, The Netherlands
Boot, M.T. and Cairncross, S. (1993) The study of hygiene behaviour in water and
sanitation projects, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, and London
School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, The Hague, The Netherlands
Burgers, L., Boot, M. and Wijk-Sijbesma, C. van (1988) Hygiene education in water
supply and sanitation: Literature review with selected and annotated bibliography.
(Technical papers series. No. 27). The Hague, The Netherlands, IRC International
Water and Sanitation Centre
Cairncross, S. and Ouano, E.A.R. (1991) Surface water drainage for low-income
communities. Geneva, Switzerland, World Health Organisation
___________________________________________________________________
76
Central Bureau of Statistics/Ministry of Finance and Planning (January 2001) The

1999 Population and Housing Census, Volume I: Population Distribution by
Administrative Areas and Urban Centres. Nairobi, Kenya
Central Bureau of Statistics/Ministry of Finance and Planning (January 2001) The
1999 Population and Housing Census, Volume II: Socio-Economic Profile of the
Population. Nairobi, Kenya
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Ministry of Health (MOH) and ORC Macro
(December 2003). Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2003: Preliminary Report.
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), Ministry of Health (MOH) and ORC Macro (2004).
Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2003: Key Findings. Calverton, Maryland, USA:
CBS, MOH and ORC Macro
Encyclopaedia Britannica 2003 (Deluxe Edition CD-Rom)
Esrey, S. A., et al 1990. Health benefits from improvements in water supply and
sanitation: survey and analysis of the literature on selected diseases. (WASH
technical report. No. 66) Arlington, VA, USA, Water and Sanitation for Health Project
Government Printer (24th October 2002) Kenya gazette Supplement, Acts 2002, The
Water Act. Nairobi, Kenya
WHO (1983a). Maximizing benefits to health: an appraisal methodology for water
supply and sanitation projects. Geneva, Switzerland, World health Organization
WHO (1983b). Minimum evaluation procedures (MEP) for water supply and
sanitation projects, Geneva, Switzerland, World health Organization
WHO/UNDP World Bank Water and Sanitation Programme (1997, reprinted in 2000)
The PHAST Initiative: Participatory Health and Sanitation Transformation, Geneva
Switzerland
Wijk-Sijbesma, C. van (1985) Participation of women in water supply and sanitation:
roles and realities. (Technical paper series. no. 22) IRC International Water and
Sanitation Centre, The Hague, The Netherlands
Internet Sites:
Ministry of Water and Irrigation (http://www.water.go.ke/aboutus.html )
Water Services Regulatory Board (http://www.wsrb.or.ke/ )
Water Services Trust Fund (http://www.wstfkenya.org/ )
WHO, Minimum water quantity needed, for domestic uses, WHO Regional Office for
South-East Asia ( http://www.whosea.org )
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2a. Operator Training Handbook and Programme

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Handbook for the Training of Water Kiosk-

Handbook for the Training of Water Kiosk-

3.10 Informing Unsuitable (Operator) Candidates................................................25

Handbook for the Training of Water Kiosk-

 Chapter 1: The organisation and use of the handbook.

 Chapter 2: Objectives and themes of the Operator Training Workshop.

 Chapter 3: Organisation of the Operator Training Workshop.

 Chapter 4: The importance of water and the water (hydrologic) cycle.

 Chapter 5: Technical aspects of water production, treatment and distribution

 Chapter 8: Description of some water-related diseases

 Chapter 9: Improving public health and the contribution of the Operators.

 Chapter 11: The kiosk system.

 Chapter 12: The Social Welfare Assistance Scheme (SWAS).

 Chapter 13: Kiosk Hygiene and poor practices of stakeholders.

2 The Operator Training Workshop: Objectives and Themes

2.2 The Main Objectives of the Operator Training Workshop

2.3 Themes to be Addressed during the Training Workshop

 Washing kitchen utensils and laundry near the kiosk.

2.4 Training Activities

2.5 What Happens After the Training Workshop?

Day-to-day management of the kiosk system: Operators should always be given

2.6 When and How to Organise the Operator Training Workshop?

2.7 The Input of Local Experts

2.8 The Operator Recruitment Process

3 Organisation of the Training Workshop

3.2 Preparatory Activities

3.3 Duration, Venue and Invited Experts

3.4 Required Materials

3.5 Workshop Budget

3.6 The Training Programme: Timetable and Themes

3.7 The Various Themes of the Training Workshop

3.7.1 Welcome and Presentations

4. Objectives of the workshop

5. Themes, elements and activities of the workshop

3.7.2 The Hydrological Cycle and Municipal Water Supply

6. The importance of water

7. Water production, treatment and distribution

3.7.3 Water Supply in Kenya and the Service Provider

9. The Water Service Provider

3.7.4 Water, Hygiene and Public Health

10 & 11. Water, hygiene and public health

3.7.5 The Kiosk System

14. The kiosk system: how does it function?

15. The water meter

16 & 17. The billing system and bookkeeping by the Operator

18. Operator remuneration

19. The kiosk system: responsibilities and tasks

20. The sale of other goods at the kiosk

21. The Contract and its appendix

3.7.6 Communication and Service Delivery

24. Communication with the Water Service Provider

24. Communication with clients and other residents

24. Dealing with special circumstances: problems and conflicts

24. Dealing with special circumstances: outbreaks of water-related diseases

26. HIV/AIDS, Water and Sanitation

3.7.7 Water Treatment and How the Service Provider Functions

Activities: Making the necessary arrangements with service provider staff

Participation: Operators are motivated to ask questions

27. Visit of one of the kiosks (see section 3.8)

Activities: - Making the necessary arrangements with WSP staff

3.7.8 Evaluation of the Training Workshop

28. Evaluation of the training programme (see section 3.9)

3.7.9 Closing Remarks and Appointments