Anderson, Loren Runar et al "RING STABILITY"

Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000
Figure 10-1 Top — Elliptical ring with uniform radial pressure P acting on it.

Bottom — Free-body-diagram of half of the elliptical ring showing approximate ring compression thrust in
the walls due to pressure P.

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CHAPTER 10 RING STABILITY
The performance limit of ring stability is instability.
Ring instability is a spontaneous deformation that
progresses toward inversion (reversal of curvature).
At worst, instability is ring collapse. Buried pipes
can invert only if the ring deflects and the soil slips
at the same time. Instability of buried pipes is
analyzed as a soil-structure interaction. The
stiffness of the ring resists inversion. Soil supports
the ring by holding it in a stable (near circular)
shape. Soil resists inversion of the ring.
Two basic modes of ring instability are: 1. ring
compression, i.e., wall crushing or buckling at yield
stress; and 2. ring deformation. See Figure 10-1.
Each is analyzed separately. Instabilities of buried
and unburied rings are also analyzed separately.
UNBURIED RING COLLAPSE
From Chapters 2 and 5, external pressure at collapse
of an unburied thin-walled, circular, elastic ring is
found from the equations:
Pr/A = σf RING COMPRESSION COLLAPSE
Pr3/EI = 3 RING DEFORMATION
COLLAPSE
where
P = external pressure at collapse,
r = mean circular radius of ring,
A = wall area per unit length,
t = wall thickness of plain pipe,
m = r/t = ring flexibility,
do = initial ring deflection (ellipse),
E = modulus of elasticity,
I = moment of inertia of the cross-sectional
area of the wall per unit length,
σf = yield strength,
Pcr = critical pressure on the circular ring.
The ring compression collapse equation is a function
of ring flexibility and yield strength.
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Performance limit is wall crushing. The ring
deformation collapse equation is a function of ring
stiffness, EI/r3. Performance limit is inversion. Ring
stiffness is related to pipe stiffness; i.e., F/∆ =
53.77EI/D3. Pipe stiffness can be measured by a
parallel plate test or three-edge-bearing test. The
ring deformation collapse equation is based on
assumptions that the ring is elastic, and that the pipe
is restrained longitudinally. Longitudinal restraint
results in a plane stress analysis. The Poisson ratio
is not included.
In a plane strain analysis, longitudinal stress is zero,
the Poisson ratio is included, and the pressure at
collapse is,
Pcr = 3EI/r3(1-ν2),
where
Pcr = critical pressure, i.e., P at collapse,
ν = Poisson ratio = 0.27 for steel,
EI/r3 = ring stiffness.
The difference in fluid pressures between top and
bottom of the pipe is usually ignored, but may be
significant. For plane stress analysis of critical
pressure at collapse of circular, unburied pipes,
Pcr = 3EI/r3 . . . . . (10.1)
For plain pipes (not coated, lined, rib stiffened, or
corrugated), critical pressure at collapse is,
Pcr = E/4m3 . . . . . (10.2)
Moment of Inertia, I
In order to evaluate ring stiffness, EI/r3, the moment
of inertia, I, must be known. For plain pipes, I =
t3/12. For corrugated pipes, tables of values for I
are found in the manuals provided by manufacturers.
For steel pipes with lining and coating, consider
Figure 10-2 Transformed section of a unit slice of mortar-lined and coated steel pipe wall, transformed into
its equivalent section in mortar, for evaluating moment of inertia. Shown on the right is the elastic stress
distribution.

Figure 10-3 Effective T-section , comprising stiffener ring and an effective width of pipe wall — often
assumed to be 50t in steel pipes.

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a unit slice of the wall. See Figure 10-2. Example 1
Discounting conservatively the bond between mortar
and steel, moment of inertia, I, is the sum of the A plain 18-inch high-density polyethylene pipe is
separate moments of inertia of steel, lining, and out-of-round (elliptical) by five percent. It is
coating. Because the mortar is the critical material, unburied. What is the internal vacuum at collapse?
steel is transformed into its equivalent width, n, in
mortar. n = Es /Em . For the layers, ID = 16.217 and t = 0.857,
DR = 21 = OD/t = 2m+1,
Ic = tc 3/12 m = 10 = r/t,
Is = nts3/12 σf = 3.2 ksi = yield strength',
Il = tl3/12, E = 110 ksi = modulus of elasticity,
Pcr = 27.5 psi = E/4m3 from Equation 10.2,
and I = Ic + Is + Il do = 0.05 = initial ring deflection.

For pipes with stiffener rings welded to the pipe, the
moment of inertia is found from the effective T-
s ection. See Figure 10-3. The procedure is
described in texts on mechanics of solids. For steel
pipes, the T-section comprises the stiffener ring and
an effective width of pipe wall — in steel usually
assumed to be 50t. The pipe wall between effective
T-sections is ignored in calculating I.
Substituting into Equation 10.3a, internal vacuum at
collapse is, P = 21.5 psi. From Equation 10.3b, P =
9.2 psi with ample safety factor included.
Example 2
Calculate the vacuum at collapse of a mortar-lined
and coated steel pipe, for which:

r = 25.5 inch (D = 51 inch for steel),

Elliptical Ring Instability tc = 0.75 inch, Ic = 0.03516 (cr)
ts = 0.175 inch, nIs = 0.00335
Instability of non-circular, unburied rings is difficult tl = 0.5 inch, Il = 0.01042
to analyze. However, analysis is available from Em = 4(106) psi,
texts on mechanics of solids for one important case Es = 30(106) psi,
— a ring that is initially elliptical with ring deflection n = 7.5 = Es /Em ,
d o . Vacuum increases ring deflection. Stress is σf = 10 ksi for mortar (critical),
c ritical at the spring lines, B, where the ring is I = 0.04893 in 3,
subjected to both maximum ring compression stress d = 0 = ring deflection (negligible).
and maximum flexural stress. See Figure 10-1.
Vacuum, P, at collapse is found from: From Equation 10.1, Pcr = 3Σ (Em I/r3). Assuming the
mean radius of the steel is,
P2 - [σf /m + (1+6mdo)Pcr] P + σ f Pcr /m = 0 rs = 25.5, then rc = 25.9625 and rl = 25.1625.
. . . . . (10.3a) Substituting values, Pcr = 32 psi.

Equation 10.3a is applied by plotting values of P as Example 3

a function of m for given values of do and for a
constant σf. For design, a simplification is proposed What does Equation 10.3a reduce to if Pcr = P? It is
by Murphy and Langner (1985), easily shown that all of the terms cancel except
6mdoP, which must be zero. The only way this term
P = Pcr /(1+40d) . . . . . (10.3b) can be zero is if initial ring deflection is do = 0. As
expected, for a circular ring, P = Pcr.

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BURIED RING COLLAPSE
Stress Analysis of Elliptical Ring
Figure 10-1 is a half ring free-body-diagram. At B
the ring compression stress is,
σc = P(OD)(1+d)/2A . . . . . (10.4)
and the ring deformation stress (flexural stress) is,
σd = Ec(1/r'x - 1/rx) . . . . . (10.5)
Notation:
P = vertical external pressure,
OD = outside diameter of the circular ring,
do = initial ring deflection,
d = ring deflection after P is applied,
r'x = radius of curvature at B due to initial ring
deflection do,
rx = radius of curvature at B after vacuum P is
applied,
E = modulus of elasticity,
c = distance from the neutral surface of the
wall to the most remote fiber (t/2 for a
plain pipe),
σd = flexural stress caused by ring deformation.
Substituting in values of radii of curvature for the
ellipse from Chapter 3, the equation for flexural (ring
deflection) stress becomes:
σd = (Ec/r) 3(d-do) / (1-2d-2do) . . . . . (10.6)
The maximum stress is the sum of Equations 10.4
and 10.6; i.e., σ= σ c + σ f. The maximum stress at B
in a buried plain pipe is,
σ = Pm(1+d) + (E/2m)3(d-do) / (1-2d-2d
. .o). . . (10.7)
where m = r/t = ring flexibility of a plain pipe.
Equation 10.7 can be solved to find vacuum P at
yield stress for brittle (rigid) pipes.
But yield stress is not failure for plastics or elasto-
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plastics (metals), for which wall crushing can occur
only after ring compression stress (not flexural
stress) reaches yield strength. See Chapter 5.
Therefore, Equation 10-7 is limited. Initial ring
deflection, do, depends upon compression of sidefill
which requires analysis of pipe-soil interaction.
Equations 10.4 to 10.7 are based on elastic theory.
Under some circumstances, plastic theory is
justified. For plain pipes and corrugated pipes, the
plastic moment (at plastic hinging) is 3/2 times the
moment at yield stress by elastic theory.
Ring Deformation Collapse of Buried Pipes
For the following analyses, vacuum is negative
pressure, p, inside the pipe plus positive external
hydrostatic pressure, u. Both affect ring collapse.
Rigid Pipes
Because ring deflection of rigid pipes is negligible,
rigid pipes are analyzed by ring compression except
that vertical pressure on the pipe is P+p
.
Ring compression stress is,
σ = (P+p)(OD)/2A . . . . . (10.8)
where
σ = ring compression stress in the pipe wall,
P = total soil pressure at the top of the pipe,
including water pressure, u,
p = internal vacuum,
OD = outside diameter of the pipe,
A = wall area per unit length of pipe.
Area A is a transformed section if the wall is
composite such as concrete reinforced with steel
bars. For design, the ring compression stress, σ ,
from Equation 10.8 is equated to the strength of the
pipe wall, σf, reduced by a safety factor.
In the case of a very large diameter pipe, it may be
necessary to consider the change in pressure of
liquids (both inside and outside) throughout the depth
of the pipe. For example, if the pipe is empty, but
the water table is above the top of the pipe, it may
be prudent to apply Equation 10.8 to the bottom of
the pipe where total pressure P, acting up on the
bottom, is greater than prismatic soil pressure on top
by the increase in hydrostatic pressure between the
top and bottom. Of course, water inside the pipe will
negate any increase in external hydrostatic pressure.
It is noteworthy that internal vacuum and external
hydrostatic pressure have little effect on the opening
of cracks in rigid pipes. The 0.01-inch crack is not
a suitable performance limit.
Flexible Pipes
Collapse of buried flexible pipes is either: 1. wall
crushing (ring compression) or 2. inversion (ring
deformation). Collapse due to longitudinal bending
is not included in this analysis. Bending deforms the
pipe cross section into an ellipse with the short
diameter in the plane of the bend. Bending strength
is decreased. Bending failure is collapse. Following
are procedures for evaluating the vacuum at which
a buried flexible ring collapses.
If the ring could be held circular, analysis would be
simple ring compression — the same as for a rigid
pipe. But flexible ring analysis anticipates ring
deflection, do, before the vacuum is applied. Ring
deflection depends upon ring stiffness and stiffness
of the embedment soil. It is assumed that pipes are
initially circular and empty, and that coefficient of
friction between the pipe and the backfill is zero
because of the inevitable breakdown of shearing
stresses due to earth tremors and changes in
temperature, moisture, and pressures. The
embedment is assumed to be granular. The flexible
pipe is often assumed to be thin-walled; i.e., OD =
ID = D = mean diameter of the pipe.
Performance limit is collapse which occurs if the
ring either crushes due to ring compression, or
inverts due to sidefill soil slip at B. See Figure 10-4.
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σf = (P+p)(1+d)OD/2A . . . . . (10.9)
COLLAPSE BY WALL CRUSHING
where
σf = ring compression stress at yield stress in
the pipe wall at B,
A = wall area per unit length of pipe,
t = wall thickness = A for plain pipes,
OD = outside diameter,
P = external pressure at top of pipe,
p = internal vacuum,
d = ∆ D = ring deflection.
Area, A, is used for transformed composite sections,
or ribbed, or ring-stiffened or corrugated.
At ring deformation collapse the soil must slip in
order for the ring to deflect. See Figure 10-4. In the
left sketch, the vertical pressure includes soil
pressure and vacuum; i.e. PA = P+p. Before it is
buried, the ring is circular, but as backfill is placed,
the ring deflects into an ellipse.
If the ring is flexible, and if shearing stresses
between pipe and soil are neligible, vertical and
horizontal soil pressures are related as follows:
PArA = PBrB = Pr = constant
where Pr is the product of pressure and radius of
curvature at any point on the circumference of the
ring. For an ellipse,
rA /rB = (1+d)3/(1-d)3.
Therefore,
PB = PA(1+d)3/(1-d)3 = PAr r . . . . . (10.10)
where
rA = mean radius of curvature at the top A,
rB = mean radius of curvature at the side B,
PA = pressure on the pipe at A,
PB = pressure on the pipe at B,
d = /D = initial ring deflection,
rr = (1+d)3/(1-d)3 = ratio of radii.
 p

Figure 10-4 UNSATURATED SOIL — (left) Free-body-diagram of an infinitesimal cube at spring line, B,
showing the stresses at incipient soil slip. (right) Vertical soil pressure, Po, supported by the pipe due to ring
stiffness.

Figure 10-5 Free-body-diagrams for finding the vertical deflection of point B by means of the Castigliano
theorem.

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But for any pipe stiffness, F/∆ (or equivalent ring PB = (PA+p-Po)rr - p
stiffness, 53.77 EI/D3), the ring itself is able to
support part of the vertical pressure as it deflects. See Figure 10-6 for free-body-diagram and
That part of the vertical pressure supported by ring assumptions. For a plain pipe, substituting in Po,
stiffness is Po shown in the sketch on the right of
Figure 10-4. For a given ring deflection, Po can be PB = (PA+uA+p-Ed/m3)rr - p . . . . . (10.11)
calculated by the Castigliano theorem from the free-
body-diagram in Figure 10-5. From the sketch on where
the left, the moment M at point B can be evaluated PB = horizontal pressure of pipe on soil,
by noting that the slope at B does not change during PA = vertical external soil pressure at A,
deflection. θ BA = 0. Knowing M, Castigliano can be p = internal vacuum,
applied again using the sketch on the right from EI/D3 = ring stiffness,
which the vertical deflection, YB, is evaluated for the F/ = 53.77(EI/D3) = pipe stiffness,
virtual load p due to the forces on the ring quadrant. D = mean diameter of the circular ring,
Knowing YB, the ring deflection, d, can be found as r = mean radius of the circular ring = D/2,
a function of EI and Po, and from this relationship, Po t = thickness of the plain pipe wall,
can be found as a function of d. The result is: m = r/t = ring flexibility,
d = ∆ /D = initial ring deflection,
Po = 96(EI/D3)d/(1-2d) rr = (1+d) 3 /(1-d)3 = ratio of vertical and
horizontal radii (maximum and minimum
For small ring deflections, it is conservative to radii of the ellipse).
disregard 2d in the denominator; whereupon, µA = rwh for floods at level h.

Po = Ed/m3 = 96(EI/D3)d If soil at B does not have adequate strength, the soil
slips, and the ring inverts.
where
Po = vertical pressure on top of the pipe Strength of Soil at Spring Lines
that can be supported by ring
stiffness, Because most embedment is granular, the following
Ed/m3 = Po for a plain pipe, is analysis of strength for granular (cohesionless)
EI/D3 = ring stiffness = 0.0186 F/∆ , sidefill. See Figure 10-6. The horizontal strength of
F/∆ = pipe stiffness, soil at point B, at soil slip, is soil passive resistance,
I = moment of inertia of the pipe wall per
unit length of pipe = t3/12 for plain σx = Kσ y
pipe,
t = wall thickness for plain pipe, _where
D = mean diameter, σ = horizontal effective soil stress at B,
_x
r = mean radius of the circular pipe, σ y = vertical effective soil stress at B,
m = r/t = ring flexibility, K = ratio of horizontal to vertical effective
d = ring deflection. stresses at soil slip (ring collapse),
K = (1+sinφ)/(1-sinφ),
φ = friction angle of the embedment, for which
Pressure Against Soil at Spring Lines values can be obtained from tests.
_
The horizontal pressure of the pipe against the soil at σ y can be evaluated at the spring lines by methods
B is reduced by Po; i.e., of Chapter 4.

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 x x

Figure 10-6 SATURATED SOIL — Free-body-diagram of an infinitesimal soil cube at B, showing the
stresses acting on it at incipient soil slip, and showing the shear planes at soil slip.

x +u+p

Figure 10-7 Pressure diagram for analyzing critical hydrostatic pressure on the bottom of the pipe at inversion
of the ring from the bottom. rr = ry /rx.

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Vacuum at Collapse of Buried Pipes
The total horizontal soil pressure on the pipe at
spring lines B at soil slip is,
_
PB = Kσy + uB . . . . . (10.12)
where
PB_ = total horizontal pressure on soil at B,
Kσ y = horizontal effective soil slip stress at B,
uB = hydrostatic pressure in the soil at B.
When the horizontal pressure PB from Equation
10.11 is equal to PB from Equation 10.12, the soil is
on the verge of slipping — instability. For plain
pipes, including all of the pertinent variables, the
equation of equilibrium of sidefill at soil slip is,
_ effective soil wedge on top. Collapse occurs from
p'(r r-1) = Kσ y + uB - (PA - Ed/m3)rr . . . . . (10.13)
COLLAPSE BY RING INVERSION
where
p' = vacuum at collapse,
rr = (1+d)3/(1-d)3 = ratio of vertical to
horizontal radii of elliptical pipe,
m = r/t,
r = mean radius of the circular pipe,
t = wall thickness for plain pipe,
d = /D = initial ring deflection — usually due
to backfilling,
K = (1+sinφ)/(1-sinφ) at passive resistance,
φ = friction angle of the embedment,
σy = vertical effective soil stress at B,
uB = hydrostatic pressure (pore water pressure)
at B if a water table is above the pipe,
PA = soil and water pressure at A,
E = modulus of elasticity of pipe material,
I = moment of inertia of the wall cross section
per unit length of pipe,
E/m = 96EI/D3 where,EI/D3
3
= ring stiffness,
F/∆ = pipe stiffness = 53.77EI/D3.
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From Equation 10.13, the vacuum at ring collapse
can be calculated. E/m 3 can be replaced by
96EI/D3, or 1.7856F/∆ for other-than-plain pipes.
If the embedment is not cohesionless, as assumed
in the above analysis, the same procedure may be
used except that the relationship between horizontal
and vertical stresses at soil slip must be evaluated
for each particular _embedment. In the case of ideal
_
cohesive soil, σ y - σ x = 2C, where C is the cohesion
of the soil. See Chapter 4.
Below a groundwater table, the hydrostatic pressure
on the bottom of the pipe is greater than on top.
Figure 10-7 shows buoyant pressure on the bottom,
γ w(h+H+D). An empty pipe tends to float, but in
this analysis, is assumed to be restrained by the
the bottom for large, empty, flexible pipes with a
water table above the pipe.
Example 1
A thin-wall, welded steel penstock is 51 inches in
diameter with a wall thickness of 0.219 inch. It is
buried in embedment of dry, uncompacted sand to a
height of two ft above the top of the pipe. Unit
weight of the sand is 102 pcf. The soil friction angle
is 25 o . Ring deflection was not controlled during
backfilling, so the average initial ring deflection is
8%. What is the internal vacuum at collapse? The
pertinent data are:
D = 2r = 51 inches,
t = 0.219 inch = average wall thickness,
E = 30(106) psi = modulus of elasticity,
I = 875(10-6) in3 = moment of inertia of
the wall cross section per inch of
length of pipe.
EI/D3 = 0.198 psi = ring stiffness,
d = 0.08 = ∆/D = initial ring deflection
before vacuum is applied,
H = 2 ft = soil cover,
γ = 102 pcf = unit weight of soil,
h = 0 — no water table,
uB = 0 — no hydrostatic pressure at B,
ϕ = 25o = soil friction angle at the spring lines,
K = 2.464 = ratio of horizontal to vertical
effective soil stresses at soil slip.
Substituting values into Equation 10.13, p = 11.9 psi
= vacuum at collapse. Increasing ϕ by compacting
the soil greatly increases the vacuum at collapse.
Example 2
Specifications for the penstock of Example 1 limit
ring deflection to 5%. Had ring deflection been 5%,
what would be the internal vacuum at collapse?
From Equation 10.13, p = 18.7 psi. Because the
maximum vacuum (atmospheric pressure) is only
14.7 psi, the pipe would not collapse. This illustrates
the importance of limiting ring deflection by soil
compaction if the pipe is to be subjected to vacuum.
Example 3
Solve Example 1 if ring stiffness is neglected; i.e. the
pipe is so flexible that ring stiffness cannot be
depended upon to support any of the soil load. With
8% ring deflection, what is the vacuum at collapse?
From Equation 10.13, neglecting the ring stiffness
term, Ed/m3, vacuum at collapse is, p = 8.0 psi. Ring
stiffness does provide resistance to inversion in loose
soil.
STABILITY DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
Flexible Pipes Under High Fills With No Internal
Vacuum and No Water Table
One example of flexible pipes under high fills is drain
pipes under sanitary landfills. Some sanitary landfills
reach heights of hundreds of feet. They require
drainage by a system of pipes. The leachate may be
so corrosive that plastic pipes are specified. For
plastic pipes, the embedment must be select, and
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carefully placed and compacted so that ring
deflection will not be excessive.
Ring Compression:
Ring compression stress must be less than short-
term yield. Long-term yield strength does not apply
because, under constant deflection in select
embedment, the plastic relaxes faster than the yield
strength regresses. See Chapter 20.
Ring Inversion:
In evaluating critical pres sure, P, it is assumed that:
1. The basic deformation is from circle to ellipse.
2. Friction between soil and pipe is negligible.
3. There is no vacuum in the pipe and no water
table.
Equation 10.13 applies. p = 0; uB = 0; and, for high
fills , σ y ≅ P A ≅ P. The critical pressure P is the
following in three different forms:
P = 8Ed/(DR-1)3(1-K/rr)
P = Ed/m3(1-K/rr)
P = 1.7854 (F/ )d/(1-K/rr) . . . . . (10.14)
where K = (1+sinϕ)/(1-sinϕ), and r r = (1+d)3/(1-d)3.
From Equations 10.14, it is clear that if K > rr, there
is no soil slip regardless of soil pressure P. In fact,
P becomes negative.
Equation 10.14 is plotted in Figure 10-8. The vertical
scale is dimensionless critical soil pressure term,
P/(EI/r3). The soil friction angle of the sidefill is ϕ.
The horizontal scale is ring deflection d. If the
critical soil pressure term, P/(EI/r3), and the ring
deflection term, d, locate a point below or to the left
of a soil friction curve (ϕ-curve), the buried pipe is
stable. If the point falls above and to the right of a
ϕ-curve, collapse is incipient — not imminent but
possible. Collapse may progress over a period of
time, due to soil dynamics such as earth tremors,
wetting and drying, etc.
Compaction of the embedment has a significant
effect on stability. No safety factor is included, but
soil arching action assures a margin of safety. If
ring deflection is more than 20%, Equation 10.14
(Figure 10-8) loses accuracy because of non-
elliptical ring deformation and ring stresses beyond
elastic limit. Collapse is not a problem if ring
deflection is less than about 10% even for very loose
granular soil (ϕ = 15o). In fact, pipes with more than
10% ring deflection are usually rejected for reasons
other than structural instability. Including a safety
factor, if ring deflection is more than 10%, minimum
soil friction angle should be increased — say to ϕ =
30°.
The conditions for stability are assured if the sidefills
are good granular soil, carefully compacted, and if
the ring deflection is less than 10%. Under
conditions where mitigation is sought, live loads and
height of soil cover can be limited.
Example
PVC piping is proposed for drainage under a
sanitary landfill that is to be 600 ft high. Unit weight
of the landfill is 75 pounds per cubic feet. Fifteen
years are anticipated to complete the landfill. The
piping is to serve for 100 years.
1. What dimension ratio (DR) is required? DR is
the ratio of outside pipe diameter to wall thickness.
Assume a 15-year yield strength of 5000 psi for
PVC. Safety factor is to be 1.5. From Equation
10.9, ring compression stress is, σ = 0.5γ H(1+d)DR.
For a long-term sanitary landfill, it is prudent, for
cleaning the pipes, to hold ring deflection to nearly
zero by compacted select sidefill. Solving Equation
10.14 with d = 0, and with a safety factor of 1.5; DR
= 21.3. Specify PVC pipe SDR 21(200) ASTM D-
2241. SDR is "standard dimension ratio." It is
defined the same as DR; i.e., SDR = OD/t. PVC
pipes are resistant to corrosive leachate.
2. What is the maximum allowable ring deflection if
embedment is loose with soil friction angle ϕ = 15°?
From the Uni-Bell Handbook, for SDR = 21, the
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pipe stiffness is F/ = 234 psi for E = 400,000 psi.
From Equation 10.14 if P/(F/ ) = 600(75)/234(144)
= 1.34, and ϕ = 15o, ring deflection at incipient
collapse is d = 11.4%.
Ring deflection can be controlled by the quality and
density of the sidefill. From laboratory tests, select
crushed stone compacted to 95% density AASHTO
T99 (70% relative density) will hold ring deflection
to less than d = 5% under 600 feet of cover at unit
weight of 75 pcf.
With Soil Support — No Water Table or Vacuum
Performance limit is soil slip of the sidefill. At soil
slip, the pressure of the pipe against the soil at spring
line is equal to passive soil resistance.
Prr = Kσ y . . . . . (10.15)
P is soil pressure at the top of the pipe. rr =
(1+d)3/(1-d)3. From Equation 10.15, ring deflection,
d, can be found at soil slip.
Example
What is the ring deflection of a flexible steel pipe at
sidefill soil slip if D = 72 inches and H = 4 ft?
Embedment is poor, granular, loose soil. Unit weight
is γ = 100 pcf. The soil friction angle is assumed to
be ϕ = 15o from which, K = (1+sinϕ)/(1-sinϕ) = 1.7.
P = γ H = 400 psf. σy = γ Z = (100pcf)(4ft+3ft) =
700 psf. For the first trial, let Z = 7 ft. Substituting
these values into Equation 10.15,
Prr = (400lb/ft2)(1+d)3/(1-d)3 = 1189 lb/ft2.
Solving, d = 18%. For a second trial, let Z =
4ft+2.5ft = 6.5 ft to account for the 18% reduction
in vertical diameter of the deflected ring. This
solution yields d = 17%.
The above analysis is conservative because ring
stiffness is ignored. Ring stiffness is included in
Figure 10-8 which comprises graphs at soil slip of
soil pressure as a function of ring deflection and
sidefill soil friction angle. It is assumed that soil
Figure 10-8 UNSATURATED SOIL — Soil pressure term at soil slip as a function of ring deflection and soil
friction angle. Empty steel pipes — no internal vacuum. When used for design, a safety factor should be
considered.

Liquefied Soil — Soil can liquefy if it is saturated,

and shaken, and if density is less than about 80%,
AASHTO T-180. The concept of liquefaction is as
follows. Pour loose dry sand into a quart jar to the
top. Carefully fill to the top with water. Replace
the lid. Shake the jar, remove the lid and turn the jar
upside down. Liquefied soil gushes out because the
sand is "shaken down." Repeat the experiment, but,
this time, densify (tamp) the sand in layers as it is
placed in the quart jar. Then fill to the top with
water, replace the lid, shake, remove the lid, and turn
upside down. The wet sand "hangs up" in the jar. It
has not liquefied. In fact, the soil strength has
increased because the sand is "shaken up."
Figure 10-9 Conditions for collapse of a flexible ring
in liquefied embedment.

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cover is high enough that H is essentially equal to Z.
Figure 10-9 shows interrelationships of the pertinent
variables. Two important conclusions are:
1. Compaction of the embedment has a significant
effect on pressure, P, at soil slip.
2. Soil does not slip if ring deflection is less than
about 10%. Therefore, maximum allowable ring
deflection is often limited by specification, to 5%,
including safety factor — or less if other
performance limits prevail.
Example
If height of cover is H = 12 ft, what is the ring
deflection of a steel pipe at soil slip? D = 72 inches
and t = 0.245 in. The embedment is poor, loose soil
for which γ = 100 pcf, and friction angle is φ = 15o.
EI/r3 = 0.78 psi. P = 1200 psf = 8.33 psi. The
pressure term is P/(EI/r3) = 10.7. From Figure 10-9,
d = 11%. No problem is anticipated if ring
deflection is less than 5% — even in this poor soil.
Flexible Pipes in Liquefied Soil Embedment
If the embedment liquefies when a circular pipe is
empty, the ring may be subjected to the hydrostatic
pressures shown in Figure 10-8. If flotation is
prevented, catastrophic collapse occurs from the
bottom according to the classical equation,
Pr3/EI = 3; or h = (E/4γ )(t/r)3 for plain pipe.
Example
What is the height, h, of water table above the
bottom of a steel pipe in embedment so loose that it
can liquefy and cause catastrophic ring collapse?
Pipe:
D = 51 inches,
t = 0.219,
r/t = 117.
Soil:
γ = 125 pcf, saturated,
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h = height of water table above invert,
P = hγ
Solving, h = 5.4 ft. This illustrates the importance of
densifying embedment soil — including soil under
the haunches — if a water table could rise in the
embedment.
With Soil Support and Internal Vacuum
— No Water Table
The performance limit for internal vacuum and/or
external soil pressure is ring inversion. Embedment
usually prevents total collapse. Critical vacuum, p,
is sensitive to radius of curvature. Ring deflection
reduces critical vacuum. Because vertical radius of
curvature, ry , is greater than r; ring stiffness, EI/ry 3,
is less than EI/r3, and the vacuum at collapse is less
for a deflected ring than for a circular ring.
The stability analysis can include internal vacuum, p,
and the resistance of ring stiffness which, for a plain
pipe, is Ed/m3. The horizontal stresses on the
infinitesimal cube, B, of Figure 10-6 can be equated
to passive soil resistance (soil slip). Solving for
vacuum, p, at soil slip,
_
p(rr-1) = Kσ y - (PA-Ed/m3)rr
UNSATURATED SOIL . . . . . (10.16)
For notation, see the more general form, Equation
10.17. Figure 10-10 shows graphs of Equation 10.16
for a plain steel pipe with D/t = 288, and ring
deflection d = 10%, in granular embedment with two
feet of cover. It is noteworthy that critical vacuum
is increased significantly by compacting the
embedment (increased soil friction angle, φ). The
effect of soil unit weight on critical vacuum is small.
Example
A plain steel pipe is 51 inches in diameter with a
0.187 inch thick wall. D/t = 274.
D/t = 288

Figure 10-10 UNSATURATED SOIL — Example of graphs constructed for the design and analysis of the
following buried steel pipe:
D = 48 inches
t = 0.167 inches
H = 2 ft
γ = 100 pcf = soil unit weight

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The height of soil cover is 2 ft. The soil is silty sand
(SM) with soil friction angle φ = 25o (light
compaction), and unit weight of about 100 pcf. If
the buried ring deflection is discovered to be d =
10%, what is the internal vacuum at soil slip?
Because D/t is close to 288, Figure 10-10 may be
used. p = 8 psi. Had the soil been compacted such
that φ = 35o, all else unchanged, the pipe could have
withstood a vacuum of 12 psi. And had the ring
deflection been only 5% in compacted soil, the pipe
could have withstood a vacuum of 26 psi, which is
above atmospheric pressure. By ring compression
analysis, the critical vacuum would be increased
tenfold.
For the design of pipes to withstand internal vacuum,
a safety factor of 1.5 is recommended. It is prudent
to require that embedment soil be denser than
critical. Critical density can be evaluated in the soils
laboratory. Even without a water table, percolating
water and earth tremors tend to shake loose soil
down such that ring deflection could increase and
reduce internal vacuum at collapse.
With Soil Support —
With Water Table Above the Pipe:
If the water table is above the top of the pipe, the
soil is in no danger of liquefaction if density of the
embedment is 90% Standard Proctor (ASTM D698
or AASHTO T-99). The height of water table, h,
above ground surface, adds to the internal vacuum.
The worst case is an empty pipe with the water
table above ground surface (flood level). See Figure
10-11. Critical vacuum includes water table above
the pipe and effective soil pressure. Using the
stability analysis of Figure 10-6, but including ring
stiffness and vacuum and water table, the equation
of stability is,
_ which leaves little margin of safety against collapse
p(rr-1) = Kσ y + uB - (PA + πrγ w/2 - Ed/m3)rr
SATURATED SOIL . . . . . (10.17)
where:
p = vacuum and/or pressure due to flood level h
above the pipe,
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_
σy = effective vertical soil stress at B,
PA = total vertical pressure at A,
K = (1+sinφ)/(1-sinφ),
φ = soil friction angle,
uB = water pressure at B = (h+H+r)γ w,
h = height of water table above ground surface,
γw = unit weight of water = 62.4 pcf,
E = modulus of elasticity of steel = 30(10-6)psi,
d = ring deflection (ellipse) = ∆ /D,
D = circular diameter of the pipe,
m = r/t = ring flexibility,
r = D/2 = radius of the circular pipe,
t = wall thickness,
rr = ry /rx.
The term, (πrγ w /2), is uplift pressure equivalent to
buoyancy of the empty pipe. If the pipe is full of
water, this term is dropped from Equation 10.17.
Noteworthy from Figure 10-11:
1. A water table reduces the critical vacuum.
2. The effect of D/t on p is minor for values of D/t
greater than 240. Soil becomes the primary
resistance to vacuum. The pipe is a lining.
3. The significant variables are ring deflection and
soil density.
Example
A steel pipe of diameter D = 51 inches and wall
thickness t = 0.187 inch is buried under a soil cover
of H = 4 ft. The embedment is loose granular soil
with saturated unit weight of 125 pcf and φ = 15o.
The water table is at ground surface. Ring
deflection happens to be 10%. What is the internal
vacuum at ring collapse? Substituting values into
Equation 10.17, the critical vacuum is p' = 0.4 psi,
in a flood. If ring deflection had been held to 5%,
even in this poor soil, the vacuum at collapse would
have been 3.8 psi which is equivalent to a flood 4.8
ft above ground surface. In the example above, if
embedment had been compacted such
D/ t = 240

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that saturated unit weight was 130 pcf and φ = 35o,
vacuum at collapse would be P' = 6.9 psi. If ring
deflection were 5% in this compacted embedment,
"vacuum" at collapse would exceed 20 psi.
REFERENCES
Murphy, C.E. and Langner, C.G., (1985) Ultimate
Pipe Strength Under Bending," Proceedings of
ASME 4th International Offshore and Arctic
Engineering Symposium, New York, N.Y.
PROBLEMS
10-1 What does Equation 10.3 reduce to if do = 0,
and ring compression stress term, σy /m, is
negligible? (P'r3/EI = 3)
10-2 Derive Equation 10.6 for flexural stress:
σf = (Et/D)(3do-3d)/(1-2do-2d).
10-3 A 10-inch PVC pipe Schedule 80 is to serve as
a buried conduit for telephone cables under a river.
Suppose that for some reason the backfill is washed
off the pipe at one location. What is the head of
water at which the pipe will collapse? From the
Uni-Bell Handbook, DR = 18.13, and
F/∆ = 370 psi. (380 ft)
10-4 For a steel pipe penstock full of water,
D = 96 inches in diameter ,
t = 0.375 inch,
m = 128 = r/t,
E = 30(106) psi,
The pipe is buried in an embedment of silt and fine
sand. The height of soil cover is 16 ft. At certain
times during the year, the water table rises to 2 ft
below the ground surface. The pipe stiffness is F/∆
= 5.5 psi. The dry unit weight of soil is 100 pcf. Soil
friction angle is 15o. The maximum vacuum that can
occur is 11.4 psi. What is the elliptical
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ring deflection at which collapse occurs? Specific
gravity of soil grains is 2.65. (6.1%)
10-5 In Problem 10-4 what is the internal vacuum at
collapse if the ring deflection. is 3%? (39 psi)
10-6 In Problem 10-4, what pipe stiffness, F/∆,
would be needed to prevent collapse with a safety
factor of 2 w.r.t. vacuum if ring deflection is 5% and
vacuum is 11.4 psi? (24 psi)
10-7 What is the allowable external hydrostatic
pressure plus internal vacuum on 150 class PVC
pipe of nominal 10 inch diameter? (818 psi)
E = 400 ksi Assumptions:
σf = 7 ksi Temperature, 40ο F
ID = 9.82 in Safety factor = 2
OD = 11.12 in No soil restraint
(Soil liquefies)
10-8 If the pipe of Problem 10-7 is 10% out-of-
round (ellipse), what is the allowable external
hydrostatic pressure? (88 psi)
10-9 What is the external water head at collapse of
a 4D PVC pipe, SDR 26, if a sudden internal
vacuum of 12 psi occurs at the same time as the
external water head? D/t = 25. E = 400 ksi.
(90.5 ft)
10-10 What is the allowable external water head on
a 20D polyethylene pipe, DR 32.5, if the pipe is
unburied and has an initial ovality (ring deflection) of
5%? From manufacturer's engineering data, short
term E = 115 ksi.
10-11 What horizontal soil-bearing capacity is
required for a 36D PVC pipe, SDR 41? Pipe
stiffness is F/∆ = 28 psi? Initial ring deflection due
to careless installation is 15.9% and the vertical soil
load on top of the pipe is P = 1 ksf. The soil is dry.
Safety factor is 1.0 at the point of collapse.