THE MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY’S CONCEPT OF BODY-SUBJECT

IN THE PERSPECTIVE OF ONTOLOGY AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO

RECONSTRUCT PHILOSOPHY OF SPORT SCIENCE

Pramono, Made

Corresponding Author
Faculty of Sport Science, Universitas Negeri Surabaya
Jl. Lidah Wetan, Kampus Unesa Lidah Wetan Surabaya 60123
madepramono@unesa.ac.id

Abstract: Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology of the body which was

reviewed from ontological perspective, was the main object for this research by

means its result was implemented as reconstruction philosophical base of sport

science. This goals’ research were: (1) to know the meaning of the body in

Merleau-Ponty’s body-subject concept, (2) as the critical analysis of the Merleau-

Ponty’s body-subject concept in ontological perspective, and (3) as the reflection

of this study of ontologi of the body to reconstruction philosophy of sport science.

Many concepts which was relevan to this research were analyzed by historical

continuity, hermeneutic in explaining and revealing Merleau-Ponty’s thought, and

heuristic in capturing the meaning and also finding and developing new path to

reconstruct sport science philosophically. Three scientific fundaments based on

subject-body ontology have been proposed as reconstruction form of sport

science’s philosophical base. Reconstruction of ontological base of sport science

is focused on objects and investigate spheres, where the moving body in sport is

subject of perception in relation to the world, so its’ implementation in

investigation spheres of sport science also based on it. In the epistemological base

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of science, sport science is autonomous ontologically, but interdisciplinary in

epistemologically approach, with many theory fields and subject fields.

Development forms of theory fields and subject fields must be reflecting on way

of treating toward the body as subject. Axiological base of science emphasizes on

attitudes and acts preference that make the body precisely as perceptioning

subject, which is axiologically assume neutral value, indeed positive-productive.

Keywords: Ontology, Body-Subject, Philosophical Base, Sport Science

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I. INTRODUCTION

Clarification and justification are two main processes role in the fields of

philosophy studies (Hardman and Jones, 2010: 2), where this study both as an attempt

to reconstruct the philosophy of sport science. Reconstruction through clarification

and justification involves a good understanding of the "system" philosophy to be

reconstructed.

Ontology recites about what you want to know or is it a study of the theory of

being. Ontological basis of sports science related to the study of philosophical issues

related sport science studies what objects are unique and are not reviewed by other

disciplines, as well as map the field study sport science as a formal object details, and

a discussion of the goals and objectives of sports science which is the problem or

focus important in establishing the theoretical foundations of sport science from the

ontological aspect (KDI Keolahragaan, 2000: 6, 9; Haag, 1994: 9).

Human movement as a material object sport science (KDI Keolahragaan, 2000:

6), requires the concept of the body as a vehicle movement. There is no sport without

a body. Construct the concept of sports, means construction should also be based on

congruent concept of the body. Overview of the ontological body is thus an

ontological review of the conceptual aspects of one material object sport science,

which in turn constructively to strengthen the philosophical foundations of sports

science.

The view of the body-subject Merleau-Ponty been explored in the research for

this study due to two reasons. The first reason is patterned objective: that Merleau-

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Ponty is one of the most original and interesting philosopher in the 20th century,

where his work covers a broad spectrum that involves various disciplines and subject

areas are always seated ideas of Merleau-Ponty in a way that distinguishable from the

ideas of other figures, the reference to "eternal" about your body, perceptual, and

existential themes in Merleau-Ponty inspired original (Carman, 2008: 1 and 3). The

strength of the new dimension of his thinking even offer solutions to the problems of

traditional philosophy (Hass, 2008: 2). Gail Weiss (2008: 1) refer to a broad spectrum

of Merleau-Ponty's thinking as "interdisciplinary scholar".

The second reason is more subjective: some thoughts after reading philosophy

(most of the philosophers of the West), the researchers concluded that the body tends

to be regarded as something whose presence is often not as important as the soul (or

spirit as well), and this indicates a lack of respect for the body in philosophy projects.

Merleau-Ponty in his ontology, to be a "bright spot" that since 2003 to help

researchers answer the fundamental problems both in relation to body and sport

science.

This study though about to reconstruct the foundation philosophy of sport

science by Merleau-Ponty's ontology of the body, not coercion oriented philosophy as

the solution of various problems of the sport (and sport science), but insists on an

indirect relationship is assumed between the views espoused by the orientation of

philosophical concepts/actions in the realm of science and the practice of daily

exercise.

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II. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

1. Knowing the meaning of the body in the Merleau-Ponty’s concept of body-

subject.

2. Criticical analysis of the Merleau-Ponty’s concept of body-subject by using

ontology perspective.

3. Reflection study of Merleau-Ponty's ontology of the body in order reconstruction

of the philosophy of sport science.

III. THEORETICAL BASIC

One of the tasks of ontology is a reflection of reality as a fact, or, in a concrete

finding existing meaning (Siswanto, 2004: 44, 58). The researcher liken metaphysics

with ontology, as made explicit by Joko Siswanto (2004: 4-6) to generalize the

contemporary view that ignores the general metaphysical scheme of Wolff and

special metaphysics. The Researcher maintains ontology terms to narrow the

discussion with a specialization in general metaphysics, and avoid metaphysical

cosmology, rational psychology and natural theology (Christian Wolff scheme) as a

formal job descriptions of the objects of this study. Body "which examined

ontologically", as such, are discussed within the framework of "the body as being"

seen in generality, without relying on the existence of scientific observation and

experimentation. The body is examined in this study not only examined the body in

limited linkages with human nature in the sense of human philosophy (or refer to

Wolff: rational psychology). Researchers used the perspective of ontology as a formal

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object of this study in order to direct the construction process of the body's most

fundamental or radical philosophy, and most common, or universal, from her studies

such as philosophy of science or human philosophy constituted (Coffey, 2011: 33).

Attempts to explain the body in sport needs - implicitly or explicitly - to use a

particular ontological view of what might be conceived of a body in a sports reality.

The conception of the body in the history of philosophy tends to be dominated by

ontological view that places the body as object and confirms the dualistic position in

view of the problems of the body and soul. The position of monism in studying body

issues cover a wide range of thought that saw unity of body and soul. The concept of

body-subject Merleau-Ponty in this study offers one of the ontological view, with

dimensions of thought which is very different from existing traditional philosophy.

IV. METHODS

Material object of this study is the concept of body-subject Merleau-Ponty,

while the perspective of ontology is a formal object. This research can be categorized

as a historical-factual research (Bakker and Zubair, 1990: 61), or the study of

philosophical problems (Kaelan, 2005: 255). Collecting data of various references to

the ontological dimension of construction existing sport science, and also data on the

concept of body-subject, both from primary sources, secondary, and tertiary is the

first step followed by classification, analysis, and interpretation of data to obtain

analytical resultsclear understanding of the concept of the body, and then directed to

the proper understanding of the reconstruction of the philosophy of science of sports.

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 Stages of analysis begins with an intensive review of the literature as a

historical continuity, followed by hermeneutic to capture objective geist (deepest

meaning, the nature of values) contained in the object of research. Heuristics is next

to the analysis results can open new avenues in reconstructing philosophy of sport

science with a view of the body-subject analyzes ontologically to discover and

develop new methods (a new way for reconstruction) of this research.

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. Discourse of Ontology

The first question (prima facie) of philosophy is the ontological question.

Ontology which is often used interchangeably with the term metaphysics, is a major

branch of philosophy which refers to the investigation of the existence or being. The

Greek word for "ontology" refers to the terms on which is the present participle of

einai, which means "exist" (to be), while the term logos derived from legein means

"to talk about". Ontology, which mean that discourse being in beingness, a study of

being and beingness. Aristotle termed the First Philosophy, a discipline that examines

the existing (to on hei on, being qua being), and the characteristics possessed in

existence itself (Craig, 2000: 6200; Munn and Smith, 2008: 23).

Being which is discussed in ontology, referring to the concept of universal

being. The formal object of ontology is the nature of reality of being. Ontology in this

study is defined as the branch of philosophy that examines being in the sense that is

not aimed at that-thought out but at that-is, whether it relates to the issue of what is-

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there itself, as well as the most common traits relationships and everything

(Corazzon, 2013, in http://www.ontology.co). Ontological questions answered by one

of the methods, can the abstraction method, dialectics, transcendental criticism,

phenomenology, or hermeneutics (Siswanto, 2004: 8-13).

2. Merleau-Ponty’s Body-Subject

Merleau-Ponty's thought focused on the mystery (enigma). Mystery core of his

work is perception, perception rather the capacity to uncover the world. The idea of

Merleau-Ponty's philosophy of the center is that the perception is a body united

phenomenon, not a mental event that occurs at the end of the chain of physical

causation as alleged Descartes. Bodies are aware, not the mind. That is, I realized not

as a subject face to face with the object, but as agents in the body and the world.

Merleau-Ponty understands perception as an aspect of what he calls, following

Heidegger, "being in the world" (être au monde) (Carman, 2008: 26-27).

For Merleau-Ponty, phenomenology is "the study of essence", as Husserl

conceived, namely "the essential meaning of the phenomenon, or what appears in

front of us", but also phenomenology "philosophy that put the essence in existence

and do not think that one can understand humans and the world except by starting

from ‘their facticities'"(Merleau-Ponty, 1962: vii), a Heideggerian philosophy of

existence. Phenomenology of the body that Merleau-Ponty explored, actually located

in the area of ontology (Dillon, 1988: 5; Hass, 2008: 55; Fay, in Turner and Roth

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(eds.), 2003: 43). The task of phenomenology is "to describe, not explain or analyze"

(Merleau-Ponty, 1962: viii).

"Intentionality" as one of the key themes and the basis used by Husserl's

phenomenology to show the relationship of consciousness to its object (in the context

of the introduction), but in Merleau-Ponty understood that primarily serve to describe

the same relation to his world that are subject to pre-reflective, meaning that precede

all reflection and awareness. This is no longer in the context of the introduction, but

the extent of existence (Pramono, 2003a: 89).

Husserl tried many of reduction to practice motto "back to the things

themselves", as Merleau-Ponty's "back to the world of experience". Therefore, for

Merleau-Ponty's philosophy is actually nothing but a "metaphysics" is rooted in the

experience. The main task of philosophy is explicit or disclose the contents of

experience (Bertens, 2001: 132-133; Spiegelberg, 1960: 534).

According to Merleau-Ponty, a person is his body, and in contrast to Descartes,

someone not connected with the body as an external object. Knowledge is not

knowledge involved can be reflective. This is what Merleau-Ponty called the "royal

pre-objective" (Syamsuddin, 2014: 64-65), a pre-reflective understanding that one of

the keys to understanding the body-subject Merleau-Ponty.

In lived experience there are not yet any pure objects, but there is already a

subject who perceives. Illustration of driving a car that Merleau-Ponty presented as

corporeal schema, interesting to better understand the " lived experience" is. When

driving a car, one does not think "about" cars, but thought "as" car, "from the point of

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view of the car". Car has been incorporated within someone's corporeal schema and

thereby becomes an extension of their body (Syamsuddin, 2014: 65 and 67). Merleau-

Ponty’s more inclusive and accommodating dialectic approach allow him to avoid the

trap of the inadequate or incomplete analysis of inheritance of reductionism. For

Merleau-Ponty, human life can not be satisfactorily examined in a series of

presuppositions which presented the dualism of mind and body as well as subject and

object. This dualism is typically ignores the body and its role in acquiring knowledge

(Primozic, 2001: 7). Merleau-Ponty asserts that "man is not a rational animal”.

Sightings of reason and the mind does not conceive of the complete issue on human

instinct (Merleau-Ponty, 1963: 181). Thought mechanical causality and Merleau-

Ponty rejected for (1963: 226), not only because it is derived from Descartes'

dualism, but as patterned reductionistic. This reductionistic complexion, thickened on

scientisme, something that was also rejected. Merleau-Ponty reveal his rejection of

this case, that the ontology for the hidden philosophy of scientism is an ontology that

makes the world (eg, including the body and perception) becomes the object of a

view purely theoretical (Bertens, 2001: 132-133; Spiegelberg, 1960: 533 ).

In the beginning ontology reasoning, which is the main developed by Merleau-

Ponty is about perception. Macann (2005: 166) mentions that Merleau-Ponty has

enriched the use of perception; only when previous perceptions of sensory activities

sensory responsiveness, for Merleau-Ponty perception are vital in the relation of

subject and object. Empiricism and intellectualism criticized over enrichment of

meaning and perception of the body. Both presuppose objective world that the main

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task of phenomenological reflection to redirect the areas of pre-objective (Macann,

2005: 168).

Merleau-Ponty introduces the term "perception" in a broader sense than simply

observing an object with their eyes. Perception is, says Merleau-Ponty (1962: 67),

ending in the object that is so constituted, appear as the basic reason for the whole

experience can be owned or possessed. For Merleau-Ponty (1962: 68) perception is

the basis or foundation for the human experience. Perception can not be understood

apart from the human body and in direct contact with the material world. Perception

is not determined by the body, but in conjunction with the body to touch the world.

The structure perception is the body structure. "My body", says Merleau-Ponty, "is a

point of view to the world" (in Carman, 2008: 81). According to Merleau-Ponty

(1962: 203), "theory of the body is already a theory of the perception".

Humans can be described as being-in-the world and perceptions are genuine

human relationship with the world (Bertens, 2001: 138). This is the result of Merleau-

Ponty's critique of the cogito of Descartes that departs from the problem "method of

doubt". Once perceived doubt, it should be recognized that in fact do not really

perceive. Who perceive and are perceived can not be separated. It is the basis of

Merleau-Ponty's neglect towards cogito of Descartes and launched new: "being-

comes-together-the world”: placing human beings in the world and the presence of

the human world (Spiegelberg, 1960: 716).

Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of perception clearly rejects realism and

idealism. Both of them fall in the same mistake, which is what is Merleau-Ponty

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conceptual choices: not recognizing subjectivity as a being-in-the world (Bertens,

2001: 131, 138-139). Clearly, extreme subjectivism and objectivism opposition

Combined extreme ideas in the "world". This is called "bipolar phenomenology".

"World-centered" it Merleau-Ponty's philosophy is more viscous than the Husserl

(Spiegelberg, 1960: 535).

The body is not a simple object else in the world, but it can be regarded as an

"anchor in the world"; the mode of communication and human interaction (Meier, in

Morgan and Meier (ed.), 1995: 91). Body in perception is to say in relation to the

subject of the world, acting as a subject. The body is the subject of perception. This is

the "body-subject", Merleau-Ponty's views are well known. The body is not a kind of

tool which is used by the subject. A piano player is not "using" her hands. His body

"know" how to be engaged in the world (Bertens, 2001: 140). The body is more than

a commodious instrument that I could do without: "my body is my self, the man who

I am" (Sarano, 1966: 49).

Humans then seen as bodily subject, unity, and not unification, of the things

psychological, biological, physical and participating fully in the dialectical

interrelationships. Merleau-Ponty calls man as "body-subject" or bodily

consciousness - an existence in a world that is related precisely to the independence

from the world (Meier, in Morgan and Meier (ed.), 1995: 91). "Living body" is not an

object of human beings, but that's human, is a human body. It is a spontaneous

movement, constant permanent way where I fit in the world (Lawrence and

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O'Connor, 1967: 60). Merleau-Ponty connects the unity of self and the world with the

truth (Spiegelberg, 1960: 535).

In the end the work entitled “The Visible and the Invisible”, Merleau-Ponty

formulated two new metaphors, namely flesh and chiasm. In the book mentioned that

perception is always rooted in the body in an environment. This is called a chiasm,

which is overlapped (entrelacs) between perception, body, and world. Merleau-Ponty

believes, the body and the world are not separate, as the veins of flesh, connected to

each other and not as a reaction to the situation (not the stimulus and the response),

but as a single entanglement texture (Carman, 2008: 149), as something intertwined

in one unit. The concept of "intertwined" (interweave) is what will replace the

concept of consciousness in the thought of Merleau-Ponty earlier. The unity of the

body and the world is flesh, a term for a prototypical structure of all subject-object

relations (Carman, 2008: 80; Vasseleu, 2002: 26).

Merleau-Ponty called overlap concepts intertwined in perception, body, and

world happens to flesh, as reversibility. Reversibility is a key concept in the end of

Merleau-Ponty's philosophy which is said by him as enigmatic, in which the

existence of a kind touch internally open an internal explosion that flipped toucher be

touched (Merleau-Ponty, 1968: 139-149).

Merleau-Ponty's late philosophy of applying key concepts such as flesh,

chiasm, and reversibility, actually become an enigma for the readers. His death cut

“the Visible and the Invisible” before it finished, leaving no temptation just curious

consequences related to Merleau-Ponty's philosophical thinking, it also cut the

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comprehensive meaning of his words about the "inadequacy" of phenomenology as a

method of philosophizing. "Curious gaping" is still an enigma of its own although

some authors on the themes of Merleau-Ponty's philosophy of trying to carefully

estimate its thoroughness.

3. Ontology Phenomenology of Body Perspective

Merleau-Ponty in-depth critique of the validity sued reflections of

transcendental philosophy in constructing interrelationships ontological - and of

course also epistemological - between the subject and the world. Merleau-Ponty

explicitly states that the character of the most important and earliest of the contiguity

of the subject and the world, is a pre-reflective experience (Merleau-Ponty, 1962:

173). At that point, the subject-the-world experience and are experienced in the unity

perceptually inseparable. Project Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology of the body,

launched from the perceptual unity.

Merleau-Ponty radically distinguishes philosophical project of Descartes and

Kant both the accused had separated (detached) subjects experienced consciousness

of the world. For Merleau-Ponty, the two philosophers have done "analytical

reflection": departing from the experience of the world and back to the subject as a

condition of the possibility, which is different from the experience (Merleau-Ponty,

1962: ix), does not describe the world that appeared to the subject, but the world as a

product of the subjective synthesis. These reflections do not depict the world is

experienced, but reconstruction.

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 Transformation of object perception to thinking about the object of perception,

or in other words rearrange the world in immanence, Merleau-Ponty also addressed

the important aspects of Husserl's phenomenology, the phenomenological reduction.

"Phenomenological reduction is idealistic," says Merleau-Ponty (1962: xii), making

the presence of the same subject with the awareness of the subject itself, and

transform the experience of the world into the thinking of the world.

Through the phenomenon of "phantom limb", Merleau-Ponty's Husserl

reduction dispute. "Habitual body" was introduced by Merleau-Ponty (1962: 46) to

further emphasize the impossibility of fully phenomenological reduction. For patients

who lost an limb but still feel the sensation of the limb, being correlated the world

"who used to say on" hands to play the piano, or open the door. Subjects were

confined (epoche) on Husserlian reduction, paradoxical and absurd. From the

perspective of the body-subject phenomenon of "phantom limb " can be described

accurately. Subjects who discovered the world through his body, "the phantom limb "

is just a way for the subject to deny certain conditions to live according to a set of

rules that have been studied previously about body and into the handles (Merleau-

Ponty, 1962: 97).

Merleau-Ponty uses the phrase "lived body" to emphasize the active

involvement of the body in a "carry" that exist in the world. Instead of the physical

body with pure consciousness, Merleau-Ponty describes the living body as a basis for

thought and consciousness (Jensen, 2002: 74). "Lived body" was later attributed

Merleau-Ponty with flesh, the body listen the listener, touch the toucher - the

15
sensitive Sensible (Merleau-Ponty, 1968: liv). Merleau-Ponty represents a major shift

in emphasis from the temporal aspects of the body to "spatial" quality, by interpreting

"my own body" (le corps propre) as a way of life that is stationary concrete sense of

the world in movement and practical orientation. Merleau-Ponty (1962: 148) raised

the concept of "to be a body is to be tied to a world", exemplifies how even with an

amputated hand, is still trying to "achieve" something with "phantom limb ".

Merleau Ponty identify subjects with body and looked at the perception of the

body as the primary mode in "wander" beyond itself. The body first of all is not the

unity of a group of organs that later confrontation with everything around it, but the

body is an integral part of the subject-object dialogue, openness to all things to

present more fully, at the same time and even then getting everything to bring self-

fulfillment the body (Merleau-Ponty, 1962: 408). Body’s slippage or possibilitiness

hold on to these things, for Merleau-Ponty (1962: 212, 214) is a place of

"communion" (close ties), and that is why Merleau-Ponty (1962: 343) called it "a

primordial faith". According to Merleau-Ponty, the world is perceived is always

implied foundation for all rationality, all value and all existence. Although there is a

whole world of cultural construct a second level of perceptual experience, but

perception is a fundamental base that can not be ignored (Merleau-Ponty, 1964d: 13,

33).

Merleau-Ponty identifies the project as a "rediscovery" of the body (Merleau-

Ponty, 1962: 199). This is operationalized by directing a project developed as a

rejection of the view of interrelationships between body and consciousness raised

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some philosophers such as Kant, Husserl, and Sartre. Merleau-Ponty declare that the

project is "back to the actual world, experience life", trying to return the creature to

"concrete physiognomy" and "united in history". Merleau-Ponty's task is to "reinvent"

and reveals the 'system' self-others-world '"(Merleau-Ponty, 1962: 57).

To start the "rediscovery" of the body, Merleau-Ponty commented that we do

not just think about the body but is experiencing our bodies. Experiencing the body

and from meaning of it, inconsistent with the notion of "pure consciousness" separate

from the world. Merleau-Ponty asserts that "we have no other way of knowing what

the world" except through the body. Metaphor, the body is "in the factory where all

objects intertwined", and "an instrument of 'my understanding'" (Merleau-Ponty,

1962: 235).

The root of consciousness lies in the attachment to the body and in the world.

Understood as a unified body in the meeting point with the world and the existence of

the other and these meeting point is turned on by consciousness. Life perception is to

be one of the key concepts in phenomenology body estuary leading to the monistic

ontology that connects the self, others, and the world, in a perceptual unity. Merleau-

Ponty called pre-reflective experience of what it is in order to explain the body-

subject. Body-soul distinction just discovered that someone has been using reflective

thinking to the experience - it is not a fundamental mode of being (Merleau-Ponty,

1963: 190).

Hass (2008: 55) analysis, Merleau-Ponty suggests that the perception of life as

the synergy and interaction, and 'self-others-world' defined as a "system" that creates

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a shared experience, a "symbiosis". In the innermost layer, the complete constitutive

levels of Merleau-Ponty's philosophy, self, others, and the world is united with the

body, is symbiotic, intertwined, mutually involved - with each "component"

contribute to the synergy of life experience.

The relation between I and others - as I and the world - for Merleau-Ponty is

not generally known relationships intersubjectivity based on the philosophy of

reflective consciousness. Merleau-Ponty looked at the relationship I and others as a

primordial relationship, namely the pre-reflective level. The interaction of these

subjects united in the body thus are anonymous, because in the pre-reflective, no

naming.

Merleau-Ponty was never in doubt or deny the existence of mental phenomena,

but insisted that it happens only against the background of perceptual activity is

always understood in the framework of the body, to engage in it. Furthermore, the

body is assumed to underestimate the dichotomy between transparency of

consciousness and concentration of objective reality: "the difference between subject

and object blur in my body ..." (Merleau-Ponty, 1964b: 167).

Merleau-Ponty insists that his project as an elaboration of the ontology, or the

study of existence which in turn is going to shift the transcendental subjectivity,

including ideas such as subject, object, and meaning (Merleau-Ponty, 1968: 167).

Note ontology of flesh is the size of the pour back ambitions interrelationships

between self and world, and I with others in language perception. Not only change

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the terms the body’s and experience, but this perception language also reiterated how

that philosophy can be expressed thinks about him.

Merleau-Ponty attempted to describe the pre-existence of the underlying

objective scientific view and the everyday, the body-subject that underlies traditional

conceptions of self, and the primary interaction between pre-reflective self and the

world's pre-objective. Merleau-Ponty thus tracing the body’s to the traditional cogito,

cogito unspoken operative at the level of pre-reflective perceptual experience. At the

end of Merleau-Ponty's work so just ignore this unspoken cogito and try to achieve a

level of distinction disappearing under "consciousness" and "intentional object" is

also implied by this unspoken cogito. The goal is the emergence unveil the meaning

of the Being are "wild" through "rolls" like a wave that makes the flesh "experiencing

self" (Langer, 1989: 161).

By using or user experience as meaning, Merleau-Ponty rejected the notion

phenomenological analysis is understood by the followers of the classical

behaviorists as solely an analysis of the phenomenon. The real phenomenon is real or

the most original experienced, is the body, the body moves to pay attention

(Syamsuddin , 2010: 218). This problem is related to the implications for the general

problem of ontology development, because "the body in its original nature, including

the existence of the region once the regions own subjectivity" (Henry, 1975: 7).

Merleau-Ponty in the language; "The human body is part of the real world that

existed as" partes extra partes" (Merleau-Ponty, 1964; 112). This is intentional arc,

the term to indicate a relationship between an agent's body and the unity of the world,

19
feedback loops between the agent's body and the perceptual world (Merleau-Ponty,

1962: 136). Therefore, the agent (subject perceives) requires various life skills, these

skills "saved" not as representations in the mind, but as more and more regulation

refined to respond to the demands of the perceptions of the current situation is also

more and more refined.

Departing from the concept of the body as a phenomenological, Merleau-Ponty

come to the unity of univocal being, not matter nor mind, at once both. Syamsuddin

(2014: 124, 126, 129) asserts that the reality of Merleau-Ponty's ontology is single,

that is what is referred to as "Being". The difference between the things are only

observable difference in the respective dimensions of "Being" is equally

indispensable. The single reality is not the ideal and the material, but a fleshy. The

reality also quotes double understanding of the world "that different but inseparable ":

the world-outside-my body, and the world-for me. What existentially inseparable,

integral in reflective thinking.

Thought and reflection, for Merleau-Ponty, not pinning the self to the flesh

from outside, but emerges through the flesh. Merleau-Ponty states it from the

architectonic body, ontological framework, the language of thought and reflection is

also available in the flesh in the touching of world intended (Merleau-Ponty, 1968:

155).

Person's body (le corps propre) to itself must be understood as the flesh world,

not the physical flesh (Merleau-Ponty, 1968: 250). As said by Merleau-Ponty, the

flesh was not an objective body and the body is considered as his own soul

20
(Descartes), in the sense of something that can be felt, the world that can be

perceived, as well as the correlation my aktif body (Merleau-Ponty, 1968: 259). The

flesh has a "spontaneous activity itself", leading to the assertion that the flesh is in

itself the being (Abram, 1996b: 85). The mutual stranded covered in this flesh,

breaking down the ontological dualism views. The idea of a complete re-

conceptualization of the relation of human flesh and nature, subject and object

overlapping unveil the perception (Bannon, 2011: 328).

Merleau-Ponty on his phenomenology description emphasizes the importance

of formulating the idea of "intertwined" or "reversibility". To show an example of this

reversibility, Merleau-Ponty explores the experience of touch. As hands feel good on

the inside and outside, as touching touched by what is being touched, then concepts

of separation from his predecessors was fallen. Disappeared were the subject-object,

essence-fact, Being and Nothingness distinctions. Also disappeared and the provision

of false truths about who acted to whom (Primozic, 2001: 63). Disappearance duality

diametrically key concepts in the history of philosophical debate this, Merleau-Ponty

cemented as "proper monism" (Radovic, 1998: 4).

Main issues which are often formulated when the philosophical debate about

the mind-body problems are a formulation that aims to unravel the metaphysical

relationship between the mental and the physical (Syamsuddin , 2006: 296). Someone

may suspect orientation (frame of mind) that dominate the appearance of dualistic

term "metaphysical relationship" is, for Merleau-Ponty because, in fact substantially

elliptic being and Nothingness, body and soul, the essence and fact, subject and

21
object, becomes meaningless when the principle intertwining and reversibility applied

(Primozic, 2001: 63; Carman, 2008: 79).

Merleau-Ponty's phenomenological monism representation of subject-object

rejects empiricism, intellectualism, materialism, idealism, and realism. The position

of transcendental philosophy also disputed that up on utterly rejected intentionality in

Husserl's philosophical system is built. Subject (body) and object (the world) is

understood as a pre-reflective perceptual unity through flesh intertwined, is one of the

crowning achievement of Merleau-Ponty's philosophy enigma.

Merleau-Ponty's ontology is relational ontology. Ontological conception of

flesh is an attempt to establish a radically relational ontology, in which the internal

relations between the body is constitutive of-existing identity (Bannon, 2011: 345).

Merleau-Ponty (1968: 160) calls this form of relationship as "the chiasm", mutual

intertwining of I and the world.

This chiasm, in the introduction to the translator of the book “The Visible and

The Invisble” (Merleau-Ponty, 1968: xl) is a remarkable new conception, which

explores the production of visibility and "metaphysical structure of the flesh". Chiasm

is reversibility: the world-I, I-the other, "doubling" of the body on the inside and the

outside. Any relation with that-there is simultaneously cause and effect (Merleau-

Ponty, 1968: 264, 266). In the flesh, relations chiasmic folds and form a so-called

interior dimension of consciousness, in the context of specific relationships and the

self-anyone-else (Bannon, 2011: 346-347).

22
 This rediscovery of the body-subject destroys the embodiment view in Western

philosophy and put it directly in the center of ontology for describing the self and the

world. Merleau-Ponty seeks to re-establish roots in the perceptual world body and he

woke his readers to appreciate the inherent ambiguity of life experience. Merleau-

Ponty's phenomenology to investigate intentionality radicalizes returning to its source

in body subjectivity and suggests that subjectivity is part of a dialectical exchange

with the world and subjectivity the body’s others. Radicalization by Merleau-Ponty's

phenomenology is by Langer (1989: 150) is hailed as the only philosophical tradition

of phenomenology and existentialism to successfully commercialize the truly radical

reflection, to uncover the roots of the actual experience.

Implementation of Merleau-Ponty's ontology of the body in the late 20th

century and early 21st century is widely used as the foundation, framework, or

context, for example on the language (philosophy of language), psychology

(especially gestalt), or the environment (environmental philosophy) - particularly in

relation to ethics. Compliments exclusively provided by Cataldi and Hamrick (2007:

5) in terms of environmental philosophy: "...it is difficult to imagine another

philosophy that so completely supports environmental well-being and prepares for a

coherent philosophical ecology". Merleau-Ponty monistic completion of the Cartesian

dualism is not only implementable trace incised into thematic philosophical thought,

but also to the various fields of applied science, including sports.

23
5. Base of Philosophy of Sport Science

The term "philosophy of sport science" researchers mean as short term

"philosophy of science (about) sport science", which is in a nutshell means the study

of the philosophy of science on the sport science, unlike the philosophy of sports that

examines sport from the perspective of philosophy [or terms Kosiewicz (2006: 56), "a

reflection of the philosophy of sport"], examines the philosophy of sport science from

the standpoint of the philosophy of science. These two are different disciplines in

either the material or formal object, so that the contents of the study and the process

to arrive at the results of the study are also different.

a. Ontological Base of Sport Science

Ontology is the science disciplines authorized to arrive at a clear and orderly-

sorted studied what a science. At least the discussion about what science studied

include two terms, (1) the substance or material, called as a material object, and (2)

the angle of view therefore the material studied and can be distinguished by material

in other disciplines, known as a formal object (Horrigan, 2008: 1).

The mention of "human movement" as a material object of sport science (KDI-

Sport, 2000: 9) requires the restriction of the field of investigation, viewpoint, and

purpose of the special way with human movement is not to be confused with human

movement discussed by other sciences such as physics or biomechanics. The

movement in question is human movement with "use/shared" her body. Sport is

limiting human movement, the barrier of material object of sport science. The author

24
assumes that the object of sport science studies the phenomenon of movement

exercise (the mention of "man" is eliminated as something inherent in the term

"sport").

Formal object of sport science "in order to formation and education" (KDI-

Sport, 2000: 11). This is in line with the notion that sports development as well

understood as the process of formation through the medium of sport, physical

activity, or physical experience in developing human potential as a whole in the

direction of perfection. However, based on various definitions and arguments related

to the content of the term sport can be found in various references, then there is one

more concept that needs to be added as a formal object of sport science, namely the

play. Almost all definitions of sport, always involves the concept of " play ",

something which has become "root" of sports (without it, there can be no sport). The

play, in itself implied "free time".

Based on the above, in full, the material object of sport science is the sport

movement phenomenon, while the formal object is human movement in the context

of the play, formation, and education. So, sport science is a systematic and organized

knowledge about the sports movement which is seen in the context of the play,

formation, and education, as well as established through scientific research system

derived from the fields of investigation, in which the product in fact appear in the

body of sport science which has consequences applicative to certain values.

How about the mind sports like chess? As of 2014, there are five branches of

"mind sports" recognized IOC: go, draft, poker, bridge, and chess. International Mind

25
Sports Association even held to accommodate a special international competition for

four mind sports "playing field" of the board (can be seen in www.imsaworld.com).

Sport competitions such as chess also requires physical test and doping to athletes

before competing. Chess takes practice, intense competition with tactics, and strategy.

Chess is sport endurance, an interesting blend between sport, art, and science.

In chapter 2, article 3 and 4 of Law No. 3 Th. 2005 mentioned that the national

sports develop the ability to function physically, spiritually, and socially as well as

shaping the character and personality of the nation's dignity; as well as national sports

aimed at maintaining and improving health and fitness, achievement, human

qualities, inculcate moral values and noble character, sportsmanship, discipline,

strengthen and nurture national unity, strengthen national defense, as well as raise the

dignity, and honor of the nation. National sports viewed from the perspective of

Merleau-Ponty’s body-subject, undoubtedly are from of intentional arc intertwined in

the chiasm in the flesh as a living symbiotic cohesion with the articulation of the pre-

reflective and reflective experiences associated with awareness systems that have

been formed, for example, the character local culture to the Indonesian-ness.

In terms of the development of sport science, mentioned in the book KDI-Sport

that field studies include (1) play, (2) exercise (within the meaning of sport), (3)

physical and health education, (4) recreation and leisure, and (5) dance. Five field

spectrum of this study indicate derivation of formal objects in the extension study of

sport science centered on the problem of movement of the body in the context of

sport. This means, research on the phenomenon of motor skills studied in

26
biomechanics, for example, can still be categorized as a "study area" that can be

applied sport science sport scholar. However, if it includes the aesthetic theory of

movement skills in dance, of course this has become the area of study of dance

aesthetics, or part of the sub-discipline of sports philosophy. This is based on the

assumption that sports science is an amalgamation of various well-established sub-

disciplines that are recognized as the body of knowledge (KDI Sport, 2002), such as:

sports philosophy, sports history, sports paedadogy, sports psychology, sports

medicine, sports biomechanics, and sports sociology.

b. Epistemological Base of Sport Science

Epistemology of science dwell on the investigation of the "means of acquiring

scientific knowledge" concerned with logical and methodological composition,

sequence and relationships between the various steps in a scientific investigation.

Epistemology deals with various issues such as the analysis of knowledge and

interrelationship within faith and truth, justification theory, and how to respond to the

challenge of skepticism that there could be no knowledge (Ladyman, in Kuipers (ed.),

2007: 303).

With the ontological view, Merleau-Ponty (1962: viii-ix) provide a perspective

that is very important for such specialized knowledge of sports science. He called

special sciences as "second-order expression" because he thinks the special sciences

always follow one basic experience of the world. Sport science without bodily

movement experienced of a person's life, scientific knowledge about the movement of

27
the sport would not exist and therefore is always secondary to the actual experience

of movement.

What is Merleau-Ponty’s mean with a return to "the world as directly

experienced"? TG Johnson explanation (2012: 1) about re-consideration and re-

conceptualization of kinesiology can be implemented to explain this. For sport

science, this means "to revive the sport movement experiences". Core foundation of

human existence and knowledge is a pre-scientific experience. Direct experience is

non-conceptual, pre-reflective. In order to obtain "wisdom" or quality improvement,

intentional arc, related to the presence and knowledge of the sport activity, one needs

to "studying, conceptualizing, and constructing", which is lifted to reflective thinking-

conceptual stage, what is experienced in the pre-reflective (of with "a series of

selective interpretation" of the successive perception). Special sciences such as sport

science, is responsible for managing the reflection (lift pre-reflective experience to

reflective-conceptual awareness) and develop as a logical sequence of fulfillment

scientific laws.

Merleau-Ponty criticizes scientism in terms of reductive and objectified

character. Body-world-consciousness intertwined as a pre-reflective experience fused

with the body, of very rich with information from the pre-objective perception of it.

The style objectified and reductive which Merleau-Ponty criticized (1964c: 160-161)

is when what is "very rich" is negligible importance in order to "proclaim the thought

of holistic, relational, or "process", is more congruent with Merleau-Ponty inference

about the critique of scientism.

28
 Innate structures, basic general ability, and the ability of the culture that departs

from the body that overlaps with the world and consciousness, in this study be pursed

on the concepts and skills context. Merleau-Ponty uses the term "habit" (customs) as

a synonym for "skill", so that when he refers to the attainment of proficiency he said

"the achievement of a habit". His ability to experience is the same as the achievement

of proficiency bodily (Merleau-Ponty, 1962: 143 and 153).

Intentional arc is a way through which reflective consciousness begins by

lifting the pre-reflective perceptual unity of the players (chess), the world, and

consciousness. Departing from the bodily skills, intentional beam filed Dreyfus

(1996: 3) as a way of affirming perception and action skills, how to incorporate a

third way the bodily skills in determining how all things show you to someone,

interconnection the bodily skills of action and perception. Intentional arc should the

bodily skills in the sense that the know-how that is achieved is reflected back to a

person in that situation invitations correlated with setting response to the situation.

This is the body's capacity to act, an "I can", not its structures but its essential nature

(Dreyfus, 1996: 9).

Meaning of "I can" lead to body crucial characteristic: motivation. Merleau-

Ponty has original thinking about what leads a person to act on the basis of skills

possessed and to achieve a new personal. Merleau-Ponty assumed when the situation

deviates from the optimum body-environment interrelationships, one move closer to

the optimum and thus liberates "pressure" of such deviations. One does not need a

29
purpose or specific intent to act that invited by the person's body to get into

equilibrium situation (Dreyfus, 1996: 10; Merleau-Ponty, 1962: 153).

Based on the description Dreyfus, corporeal schema thickened at the proficient

players, less thickened at regular player let alone a novice. Beginner tennis players,

for example, the focus of the players are still struggling on how to hold the racket or

hitting the ball effectively. In contrast to the professional tennis player, he absorbs it

as if the game moving hand and put it right punch, or a racket that has been shaping

the optimal angle, and so on. The term "skill" that Merleau-Ponty replaced with

"habit", a systematic concept is right-applicative.

Exposure to the body or content of sport science which is presented Haag

(2000) showed that the content of sport science theory always be cooperation

between related sciences are applied in the field of sports. This suggests that sport

science is not a single discipline. Sport science is an independent science (as noted in

discussing the ontological base), but is classified as a type of interdisciplinary science

that can not stand alone without the cooperation of other integrative sciences (Choi

and Pak, 2006). The interdisciplinery knowledge concerns the content and methods.

On an integral methodology, there are three positions that are prevalent in Sport

Science: (1) to clump positivistic-empirical natural science disciplines, such as in

sports medicine and sports biomechanics; (2) the phenomenology of the social-

behavioral sciences clump, as in sport sociology and sport pedagogy; (3) to clump

hermeneutics as in humanities sciences or hermeneutic-normative as in sports history

and philosophy of sport (Haag, 1994: 60). Third position of the research model

30
mentioned above related as a continuum in the development of science, which raises

two main methods that are commonly used in sport science research: descriptive and

experimental methods with variations naturalistic-realistic (KDI Keolahragaan, 2000:

17). Each of the relevant disciplines in addition to contributing to integrative in terms

of content knowledge, also contribute to the integrative method. Thus, it should be

agreed that sport science is independent science ontologically, the interdisciplinary

approach epistemologically.

The perception, body, minds, and the world is a unity. The connectedness is

first in the pre-reflective perceptual, to be constructed together with the mind and

diverse patterns of development, nutrient intake, and so on (as the perception of the

world in the next) in an integrative way. This is a living body, with athletes

understand and realize the importance of the body as a perceiving subject, which

became her identity. Loss of control over the body, for Merleau-Ponty, is losing

control over the self. In a positive sense, it is expected optimal conceptual reflection

on the athlete's body that is dominated bt consciousness, by learning experiences for

the sake of her experience. Only in this context, what is said the Roman poet Juvenal

said in the Satires of the 2nd century AD becomes relevant: mens ada in corpore sano

(in a healthy body there is a healthy soul).

c. Axiological Base of Sport Science

Research reports from Lumpkin, Stoll, and Beller indicate that the longer

athletes in competitive sports, declining moral values and ethical behavior (Lumpkin

31
and Cuneen, 2001: 40). Nevertheless Randolph Feezell (1995: 94) states the intrinsic

value of sports content, which can be seen in at least two respects. First, the sport

provides an opportunity for perpetrators an experience that is intrinsically interesting,

and this is more nuanced aesthetic. Secondly, sports also provide valuable existential

meaning as a search for meaning of life. In line with Feezel, Magdalinski also

underlines the sporting character of this axiological. Sports activities regarded as "an

antidote" rational modern world through the ideals of fair play, physical rejuvenation,

and balance the body and soul. These matters suspected Magdalinski (2009: 2) has

built a sports phenomenon more than just of physical activity and is believed to be the

embodiment of a philosophy that offers participants the opportunity to learn and very

positive characteristics need to be adapted from the "real life". Personal philosophy,

usually familiarize themselves changed as formed through experiences. Moral

reasoning is a problem-solving activity of individuals in developing and sharpening

his personal philosophy (Lumpkin and Cuneen, 2001: 40).

Phenomenology of the body is not merely offered to "patch up" the Cartesian

framework, but requires a radical acceptance of basic and further development

projections that the body should be seen and experienced as a subject, which is

expressed and implemented structural and systematic, in the experience of both the

scientific, normative and applicative, and complex (includes biological aspects,

physical, psychological, pedagogical, sociological, anthropological, philosophical and

its derivatives such as environmental aspects, the mass media, to gender issues).

Athletes are not merely seen as "an animal with the body's ability to think promising",

32
and therefore "exploited in such a way to optimize the performance of the functions

and organs" (review of the application of Cartesian dualism), but also more

importantly for see it in the phenomenological vision as "organic living body and the

intelligence, which has the potential ability of the body promising towards a more

human experience".

Sport science as a science is a relatively "new", does not escape from this

reasoning. Appreciation of the body that does not equate with the object (scissors for

hands, or lights for the eyes), preference should also impact on attitudes and actions

that do not make the body as "milking slave" (which usually do not realize, however,

forced to "comfortable" by Umwelt place ordinary person interacting). Pragmatically,

the application of the conception of the phenomenology of the body's framework into

a concrete activity, should be considered as an existential expectations (ranging from

academic classes, training, vision and mission of the organization, the game rules)

(Pramono, 2003a: 107-108).

The body which is in the realm of philosophy is often underestimated and

represent symbols values such abject odious, cemeteries, prisons, and so on, in fact in

the phenomenological view is precisely the perceiving subject, which assumes the

value axiological means neutral, even positive productive. Feezell (1989: 204) refer

to the sport as character building. The extent to which the views of the triumph of an

athlete, competition, rules, and friendship, will deliver the athlete towards fuller

character and independent (stand on its own feet, to borrow a Sukarno’s phrase). This

is in line with the spirit of sport in times of Ancient Greece which for over 2500 years

33
remains a primary goal of sports in education. That goal is the attainment of virtue.

Sports included in the education system because they raised the old-fashioned values

Arete (virtue) that can be applied in all aspects of daily life. Plato devises four main

properties of presumably relevant to the choice of the value of sports. Piety (in the

context of self-knowledge), discipline (self-control), courage, and justice are the four

virtues that can be explicitly linked to the sport, and implicitly with the victory

(Gibson, 1993: 46-49).

Revitalization requires a broad and profound understanding of the body

concepts throughout history, and the conception and planning needs extensive and

intensive anyway to turn on an understanding of "old" to the packaging demands of

contemporary and futuristic projections. But this is commensurate with the expected

ideal turning point meets the expectations of universal humanity: athletes are not

merely a victory or achievement-oriented, but a historical and a deep understanding

of the embodiment-self as a subject expression to gaining the wisdom of experience,

have appointed themselves to appreciate the view of the culture or history of their

embraced on the body, for further addressed as the optimization of functions of

organs and smart to achieve maximum benefits. The Mens Sana in corpore Sano

phrase get value-fulfillment through the subject's body.

VI. CONCLUSION

Maurice Merleau-Ponty's body-subject constructs a view that is seriously suing

various spectrums of objectivity and duality view of the body (as an object). Merleau-

34
Ponty's phenomenology of the body is essentially asserts that man is his body.

Merleau-Ponty introduces a new perception of the meaning, which is always rooted in

the body in an environment. The body is the subject of perception. This is the "body-

subject", Merleau-Ponty's views are well known. Of perception, Merleau-Ponty

decrypts the pre-reflective experience (perceptual) the touching humans through the

body in the world. The body and the world mutually intertwined, chiasm, using the

meat to refer to the unconscious and spontaneity in the touching with the world body.

From this point of view, one is not only being in the world, it is the world itself.

Merleau-Ponty's philosophy of the body is the phenomenology of the body and

is the ontology of the body. Pre-reflective consciousness negated the separation of

body and soul. Body in Merleau-Ponty's phenomenology is a living body, being-in-

the world, but rather as a basis for thought and consciousness. Experience of the

world, in contrast to thinking about the world. The perception that "mediate" the

body, the world, and awareness in the real and inevitable overlapped, is the most

important key concepts to show that the positive ontological status of what is "out

there", and that "in here", is no longer a substantial (in the sense of dualism), but in

the monistic-ontological unity. Flesh is the central point of Merleau-Ponty's

phenomenological approach to the idea of the body. Merleau-Ponty's flesh ontology

is relational ontology, in which the internal relations between the body is constitutive

of identity-existent. The form of this relation is called chiasm (intertwined I and the

world). "I am my body", the body subject, has a way of making it up (mode of being)

Merleau-Ponty called as being-in-the-world, a pre-reflective mode of existence that is

35
bound together with concepts that cannot be distinguished from the subjective

existence and the objective world. Rediscovery of the body-subject is undermining

embodiment’s view in Western philosophy and place it directly in the center of

ontology for describing the self and the world. Reality is ontologically single, which

is represented by the term "Being" is not ideal and material, but fleshy. Merleau-

Ponty's phenomenology of the body, thus, included as "proper monism".

Reconstruction philosophical foundation of sport science as this research

estuary, using three scholarly foundation as ontology-based format with the

development of the body in the form of the concept of body-subject.

1. The first bases is the ontology of science. Sport science’s material object is the

phenomenon of sport movement. Formal object is a sport in order to play,

formation, and education. Body which is moves in order to exercise become an

ontological status to all fields of study, by way of it, sport science based it’s

development projects.

2. Epistemology of science is the second runway. Intentional arc important to

understand the implications as a way to process the pre-reflective consciousness

bodily toward acts and perceptions of skills in life experiences, in this case in the

field of sports. Sport science is independent ontologically, but interdisciplinary

epistemologically with various field theories and themes. Thus, the development

of the theory and that theme should reflect the treatment of the body as a subject,

or in a negative sentence, does not reflect treatment and reduce body objectivity

36
 clicking it. Consequently, studies of the body in sport science, ontologically is in

position "his/her body is he/she-in-his/her world".

3. Axiologically base of science base boils that appreciation of the body that does

not equate with the object as it emphasized the concept of body-subject of

Merleau-Ponty who refuse reduction and objectification, preferences impact on

attitudes and actions that do not make the body as "milking slave" (which is

usually not realized, however, forced a "comfortable" by the ordinary person's

place interact Umwelt). Phenomenological view of the body in precisely the

perceiving subject, which assumes the value axiological means neutral, even

positive productive.

37
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