Chemical Process Safety Standards - Beyond OSHA

Chemical Process Safety Management (PSM) is really well outlined

and defined on the Occupational, Health and Safety Management's
(OSHA) site. But here, we will define succinct terms and practical
working knowledge to keep you on task.

Process: A single process refers to any interconnected actions,

vessels and/or separate vessels located in a way that could involve a
highly hazardous chemical in a potential release.

Chemical Process : any mixing, blending, heating, cooling and

storing of materials in the course of manufacturing.

Chemical Process Safety

Identifying, testing and taking precautions to protect employees and

facilities from any possible adverse reaction of chemicals due to
mixing, blending, heating, cooling and storing of materials in the
course of manufacturing.

Why? As OSHA states, the problem is "Unexpected releases of

toxic, reactive, or flammable liquids and gases in processes involving
highly hazardous chemicals have been reported for many years.
Incidents continue to occur in various industries that use highly
hazardous chemicals which may be toxic, reactive, flammable, or
explosive, or may exhibit a combination of these properties.
Regardless of the industry that uses these highly hazardous
chemicals, there is a potential for an accidental release any time they
are not properly controlled. This, in turn, creates the possibility of
disaster."

This issue often is, companies assume erroneously that chemicals they
use are not toxic, reactive, flammable or explosive... either because
they haven't been in the past or assumptions are made due to past
interactive behavior with other chemicals or under different
conditions.

Are OSHA PSM Standards Law? Most state plans have adopted
Federal OSHA regulations and standards verbatim. The
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 created OSHA, which
sets and enforces protective workplace safety and health standards.
Employers must comply with the General Duty Clause of the OSHA
Act, which requires them to keep their workplaces free of serious
recognized hazards. But, states may set up their own specific
requirements beyond this.

In 1990, OSHA published "Process Safety Management of Highly

Hazardous Chemicals"- containing requirements for the
management of hazards associated with processes using highly
hazardous chemicals to help assure safe and healthful workplaces.
OSHA's proposed standard emphasized the management of hazards
associated with highly hazardous chemicals and established a
comprehensive management program that integrated technologies,
procedures, and management practices.

But, what about its relation to the laws of EPA? Shortly after the
PSM booklet was published, the Clean Air Act Amendments
(CAAA) were enacted into law (November 15, 1990). Section 304 of
the CAAA requires that the Secretary of Labor, in coordination
with the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), promulgate, pursuant to the Occupational Safety and Heath
Act of 1970, a chemical process safety standard to prevent
accidental releases of chemicals that could pose a threat to
employees.

It is important to understand the important and parellel

relationship of OSHA PSM Standards and the CAAA law. Both
require high amounts of ongoing communication and planning - in
initial identification as well as in regularly scheduled safety audits.

"The CAAA requires that the standard include a list of highly

hazardous chemicals which includes toxic, flammable, highly
reactive, and explosive substances.

The CAAA also specified minimum elements that the OSHA

standard must require employers to do, as follows:

1. Develop and maintain written safety information identifying

workplace chemical and process hazards, equipment used in
the processes, and technology used in the processes;
2. Perform a workplace hazard assessment, including, as
appropriate, identification of potential sources of accidental
releases, identification of any previous release within the
facility that had a potential for catastrophic consequences in
the workplace, estimation of workplace effects of a range of
releases, and estimation of the health and safety effects of such
a range on employees;
3. Consult with employees and their representatives on the
development and conduct of hazard assessments and the
development of chemical accident prevention plans and
provide access to these and other records required under the
standard;
4. Establish a system to respond to the workplace hazard
assessment findings, which shall address prevention,
mitigation, and emergency responses;
5. Review periodically the workplace hazard assessment and
response system;
6. Develop and implement written operating procedures for the
chemical processes, including procedures for each operating
phase, operating limitations, and safety and health
considerations;
 7. Provide written safety and operating information for
employees and employee training in operating procedures, by
emphasizing hazards and safe practices that must be developed
and made available;
8. Ensure contractors and contract employees are provided with
appropriate information and training;
9. Train and educate employees and contractors in emergency
response procedures in a manner as comprehensive and
effective as that required by the regulation promulgated
pursuant to section 126(d) of the Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act;
10. Establish a quality assurance program to ensure that
initial process-related equipment, maintenance materials, and
spare parts are fabricated and installed consistent with design
specifications;
11. Establish maintenance systems for critical process-related
equipment, including written procedures, employee training,
appropriate inspections, and testing of such equipment to
ensure ongoing mechanical integrity;
12. Conduct pre-startup safety reviews of all newly installed
or modified equipment;
13. Establish and implement written procedures managing
change to process chemicals, technology, equipment and
facilities; and
14. Investigate every incident that results in or could have
resulted in a major accident in the workplace, with any
findings to be reviewed by operating personnel and
modifications made, if appropriate.

Also the CAAA, identifies specific duties for EPA relative to the
prevention of accidental releases (see section 301 (r)). Generally,
EPA must develop a list of chemicals and a Risk Management
Plan."
PSM and PHA - Process Safety Management (PSM) includes a
thorough and ongoing Process Hazards Analysis (PHA). The key
provision of PSM is a PHA - a careful review of what could go
wrong and what safeguards must be implemented to prevent
releases of hazardous chemicals. Most companies will begin their
PSM planning with a PHA on the most obvious potentially
hazardous areas of production. This can make it easier to set key
indicators with which to begin comparing all processes. The help of
a third party safety engineering and consulting firm can bring
important fresh perspective and experience when starting this
process.

PSM:

 clarifies the responsibilities of employers and contractors

involved in work that affects or takes place near covered
processes to ensure safety
 mandates written operating procedures; employee training;
prestartup safety reviews; evaluation of mechanical integrity of
critical equipment; and written procedures for managing
change
 specifies a permit system for hot work; investigation of
incidents involving releases or near misses of covered
chemicals; emergency, action plans; compliance audits at least
every three years(unless process changes occurs); and trade
secret protection.
PHA:
Per OSHA, the PHA must contain a minimum requirement of
information. This information is key to providing an orderly and
document-able system for planning, organization and maintenance
of all activities involved in process safety. "These include:

 Toxicity
 Permissible exposure limits
 Physical data
 Reactivity data
 Corrosivity data, and
 Thermal and chemical stability data, and hazardous effects of
inadvertent mixing of different materials

Information on the technology of the process must include at least

the following:

 A block flow diagram or simplified process flow diagram

 Process chemistry
 Maximum intended inventory
 Safe upper and lower limits for such items as temperatures,
pressures, flows or compositions, and
 An evaluation of the consequences of deviations, including
those affecting the safety and health of employees

Where the original technical information no longer exists, such

information may be developed in conjunction with the process
hazard analysis in sufficient detail to support the analysis.

Information on the equipment in the process must include the

following:

 Materials of construction
 Piping and instrument diagrams (P&IDs)
 Electrical classification
  Relief system design and design basis
 Ventilation system design
 Design codes and standards employed
 Material and energy balances for processes built after May 26,
1992, and
 Safety systems (e.g., interlocks, detection, or suppression
systems).

The employer shall document that equipment complies with

recognized and generally accepted good engineering practices."

Again, it is important to note, a full service third party testing lab can
provide onsite consulting and auditing, preliminary testing or
retesting, batch testing, and testing under a number of conditions for a
comprehensive PHA and PSM, Essentially, the PHA will provide any
and all What-If scenarios and provide the all important checklist.
This will include a Hazard and Operability Study (HAZOP) and a
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) along with other
methods to systematically and consistently identify all potential
risks.

Management of Change (MOC)

It's also important to introduce the MOC procedure in the PSM as

part of or immediately following the PHA. "OSHA believes that
contemplated changes to a process must be thoroughly evaluated to
fully assess their impact on employee safety and health and to
determine needed changes to operating procedures. To this end, the
standard contains a section on procedures for managing changes to
processes. Written procedures to manage changes (except for
“replacements in kind”) to process chemicals, technology,
equipment, and procedures, and change to facilities that affect a
covered process, must be established and implemented.
These written procedures must ensure that the following
considerations are addressed prior to any change:

 The technical basis for the proposed change,

 Impact of the change on employee safety and health,
 Modifications to operating procedures,
 Necessary time period for the change, and
 Authorization requirements for the proposed change.

Employees who operate a process and maintenance as well as

contract employees whose job tasks will be affected by a change in
the process must be informed of, and trained in, the change prior to
startup of the process or startup of the affected part of the process.
If a change covered by these procedures results in a change in the
required process safety information, such information also must be
updated accordingly. If a change covered by these procedures
changes the required operating procedures or practices, they also
must be updated."

So what's left? Lots. But, here are the highlights. In order to meet
OSHA Standards and go beyond, you must be prepared to provide:

 Operating procedures on any and all equipment in writing

 Pr- job startup safety procedures and training, scheduled
consistently and reviewed in writing
 More resources for "Recognized And Generally Accepted
Good Engineering Practices" (RAGAGEP)
 Regular safety inspections and written documentation
verifying all equipment
 Regular employee and contractor safety and incident report
training and written verification of training
 Emergency Planning and Response Training
 Training, training, and training. Be consistent, do it often, get
it documented. Design a system for constant feedback and
improvement each time. Reward employees for this. 
  Develop a Safety First Culture one that accepts no less than
everyone's best questioning attitude and commitment every
day. Regularly schedule safety awareness activities and reward
safe practices as well.  

What is DIERS Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems?

Per the AIChE, “The Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems
(DIERS) was formed in 1976 as a consortium of 29 companies to
develop methods for the design of emergency relief systems to
handle runaway reactions.

DIERS SPENT $1.6 million to investigate the two-phase vapor-

liquid onset/disengagement dynamics and the hydrodynamics of
emergency relief systems. Of particular interest to DIERS were the
prediction of two-phase flow venting and the applicability of various
sizing methods for two-phase vapor-liquid flashing flow.

DIERS became a Users Group in 1985 with over 200 companies (75
percent domestic and 25 percent international) ultimately
requesting membership and having their corporate representatives
participate in the semi-annual meetings.

The Purpose of DIERS

 To reduce the frequency, severity, and consequences of

pressure producing accidents, and
 To develop new techniques which will improve the design of
emergency relief systems.

Fauske & Associates, LLC (FAI) was the principal research

contractor for the Design Institute for Emergency Relief Systems
(DIERS), an extensive R & D program sponsored by those 29
companies under the auspices of AIChE and completed in 1985. 
Company founder, Dr. Hans K. Fauske served as the principal
investigator and overall technical leader of the DIERS research
project. A primary purpose of that effort was the evaluation of
emergency relief vent requirements, including energy and gas
release rates for systems under upset conditions and the effect of
two-phase flow on the emergency discharge process.

The DIERS program resulted in the development of a bench-scale

low thermal inertia adiabatic calorimeter, which was first
commercialized as the Vent Sizing Package (VSP2™). Later
improvements led to the VSP2™. The Reactive System Screening
Tool (RSST™) was introduced by FAI in 1989 to provide an easy,
inexpensive approach to the DIERS testing method. Recent
enhancements led to the Advanced RSST (ARSST™) in 1999. FAI
uses the DIERS-based VSP2™ and ARSST™ calorimeters to
characterize chemical systems and design emergency pressure relief
systems. Both instruments provide vent sizing data that are directly
applicable to the process scale.

Dr. Fauske provided overall technical direction for the AIChE’s

acclaimed DIERS program formed to develop methods for the
design of emergency relief systems to handle runaway reactions.
Currently, Dr. Fauske is performing a pivotal role in resolving
potential process safety issues and the development of inherently
safe nuclear and chemical process reactor concepts.

Chemical Compatibility Guidelines

Segregate incompatible chemicals

Perhaps the single most important rule of chemical storage is to

segregate incompatible chemicals to prevent accidental mixing
which could cause fire, explosion, or toxic gases.

Hazardous chemical reactions can occur from improper storage

when incompatible materials mix because of:
  Accidental breakage
 Container failure
 Fires and earthquakes
 Mixing of gases or vapors from poorly closed containers
 Mistakenly storing incompatibles together because of
improperly labeled containers

Chemical compatibility groups

Store chemical groups below separately from one another, either in

separate cabinets or in appropriate tubs or secondary containers.
Clearly and legibly label each container and storage location to
indicate its compatibility group.

 Flammable liquids  Liquid oxidizers

 Compressed gases  Non-volatile liquid poisons
 Volatile poisons  Metal hydrides and pyrophorics (air
 Acids or water reactive)
 Liquid bases  Dry solids

 Flammable liquids : (flashpoint <100°F) — Examples: All

alcohols, acetone, acetaldehyde, acetonitrile, amyl acetate,
benzene, cyclohexane, dimethyldichlorosilane, dioxane, diethyl
ether, ethyl acetate, histoclad, hexane, hydrazine, methyl
butane, picolene, piperidine, pyridine, some scintillation
liquids, all silanes, tetrahydrofuran, toluene, triethylamine,
and xylene
o See Flammable and Combustible Liquids Storage
Overview for proper storage details. Flammable liquids
may be stored with volatile poisons or liquid bases, but
not with both bases and poisons.

 Compressed gases Examples: Oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,

arsine, and acetylene
o Store securely mounted.
 o Segregate oxygen from flammable gases.
o Store acutely toxic and toxic gases in gas cabinets or fume
hoods.

 Volatile poisons Examples: Poisons, toxics, and carcinogens,

such as carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, dimethylformamide,
dimethyl sulfate, formamide, formaldehyde, halothane,
mercaptoethanol, methylene chloride, and phenol
o Store in a ventilated cabinet.
o May be stored with flammable liquids if bases are not
present.

 Acids Important: Segregate acids from chemicals which could

generate toxic or flammable gases upon contact (e.g., cyanide
salts, metal sulfides, calcium carbide) and reactive metals (e.g.,
sodium, potassium, magnesium).
o Store in a ventilated corrosive storage cabinet if possible.
 Corrosive to living tissue.
 Corrosive to metal surfaces.
o Store in non-corrosive secondary container (e.g.,
appropriate sized plastic tub).
o Avoid contact with bases!
o Mineral acids:
 Oxidizing Examples: Sulfuric, nitric, chromic,
perchloric
 Store separately from organic acids.
 Highly reactive with most substances, these
acids must be double contained (i.e., the
primary container must be kept inside a non-
corrosive canister, tray, or tub).
 Perchloric acid presents special hazards.
Carefully isolate it from acetic anhydride,
bismuth and its alloys, alcohol, paper, wood,
oil, ether, grease, and sulfuric acid.
  Take special precautions to keep perchloric
acid away from acetic acid.
 Non-oxidizing Examples: Hydrochloric,
hydrofluoric, phosphoric, hydroiodic
 Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is particularly
hazardous and must be handled carefully. HF
is a high-hazard chemical. UCSD researchers
working with HF must follow an approved
hazard control plan obtained through the
Hazard Control Plan (HCP).
o Organic acids Examples: Acetic, butyric, formic,
propionic
 Store separately from oxidizing mineral acids.
 Corrosive to metal surfaces.
 Store in a ventilated corrosive storage cabinet if
possible.
 Can be stored with organic solvents unless otherwise
noted on the Safety Data Sheet.
 Take special precautions to keep acetic acid away
from perchloric acid.

 Liquid bases Examples: Sodium hydroxide, ammonium

hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, glutaraldehyde
o Store in tubs or trays in a normal cabinet.
o Avoid contact with acids.
o Liquid bases may be stored with flammables in the
flammable cabinet if volatile poisons are not present.

 Liquid oxidizers Examples: Ammonium persulfate, hydrogen

peroxide
o Store in a ventilated corrosive storage cabinet.
o Oxidizing liquids react with nearly everything. They may
potentially cause explosions, and must be double
contained (i.e., the primary container must be kept inside
a canister, tray, or tub).
 Non-volatile liquid poisons Examples: Acrylamide solutions,
coomassie blue stain, diethylpyrocarbonate, diisopropyl
fluorophosphate, uncured epoxy resins, ethidium bromide,
triethanolamine
Note: This group contains carcinogens and highly toxic
chemicals.
o Store in a normal cabinet, preventing contact with other
materials.
o May be stored with non-hazardous liquids, such as buffer
or salt solutions.
o Double contain quantities greater than one liter.
o If you are storing carcinogens, see Chemical Carcinogen
Overview for more detailed information.

 Metal hydrides and pyrophorics (air or water reactive)

Examples: Sodium borohydride, calcium hydride, lithium
aluminum hydride.
o Most metal hydrides react violently with water.
o Make sure a Type D fire extinguisher is available.
 Contact EH&S Fire & Life Safety, (858) 822-5706 or
534-3531, if you have questions about fire
extinguishers.
o Store in a waterproof double container in a normal
cabinet.
o May be stored with dry solids.

 Dry solids Examples: All hazardous and non-hazardous

powders, such as cyanogen bromide, ethylmaleimide, oxalic
acid, potassium cyanide, and sodium cyanide
o Store dry solids above liquids in a normal cabinet or on
open shelves. It is particularly important to keep liquid
poisons below cyanide- or sulfide-containing poisons
(solids). A spill of aqueous liquid onto cyanide- or sulfide-
containing poisons would cause a reaction that would
release poisonous gas.
 o If properly double contained, dry solids can be stored
with metal hydrides.
o Solid picric acid or picric sulfonic acid may be stored
with dry solids, but should be checked regularly for
dryness. When completely dry, picric acid is explosive
and may detonate upon shock or friction.

Material of Construction Options for Chemical Process Plants

When it comes to building a process plant, there are many material

of construction options for you to consider.  For some plants, the
application itself can dictate what MOCs are needed.  Previous
experience, continuity and plant standards can also play a crucial
role in this decision. 

Common building materials used for process plants include carbon

steel, stainless steel, steel alloys, graphite, glass, titanium, plastic,
Monel, and many more.  For this discussion let’s focus on materials
of construction that are used for highly corrosive and abrasive
media.  

Selection Variables

There are several variables that should influence your decision when
selecting the best material of construction for your plant.  The three
major ones are:

 Corrosion resistance – What chemicals are you processing?

You’ll need to be conscious of selecting materials that comply
with the chemical composition of your process to ensure it will
perform to your expectations.
 Cost – What is your budget? Capital expenditures need to be
taken into consideration to ensure you don’t exceed the
financial limits for the project. 
 Expected operating life – How long do you plan to keep your
system in operation? Whether it’s a continuous or batch
 process, how frequently it is run, and how many years of
service you hope to get out of it are all questions that need to be
accounted for when you are determining what type of system
components to employ. 

There are other minor variables such as compatibility of material of

construction with existing plant installations, plant operating
conditions, ease of maintenance, and cleaning requirements to name
a few.  While these are less critical, they are still important to keep
in mind as you establish the criteria for your plant. 

Corrosion Resistant MOC Options

When looking at materials of construction for highly corrosive

media your options are more limited. Depending on your operating
conditions and the actual media being processed in your plant you
will most probably end up with a combination of materials,
including:

 Hastelloy C-276 –A nickel-molybdenum-chromium superalloy

that contains tungsten to give it excellent corrosion resistance
in a wide range of severe environments.
 Inconel 600 - Typically used in high temperature applications,
this material forms a thick oxide layer when heated to protect
the surface from chemical attack. 
 Titanium – This alloy combines high strength with low density
to provide good corrosion resistance across a range of
temperatures and is advantageous in applications that benefit
from weight savings (e.g. aerospace structures)
 Tantalum – Offers outstanding resistance to aqueous solutions
and metal melts with a high melting point, superconductivity,
and biocompatibility.
  Monel 400 – A nickel-copper alloy that is resistant to sea
water/salt solutions and steam at high temperatures as well as
caustic solutions.
 Plastics (PFA, PP, FRP, TEFZEL) – A variety of plastic
polymers can be used to provide extended service in hostile
environments, offering excellent mechanical stress resistance
as well as stability at a wide range of temperatures.
 Glass – Available as Borosilicate 3.3 glass (i.e. QVF SUPRA-
Line) and glass-lined steel. We’ll dive into this more in the next
sections.

Glass Benefits and Limitations

Because of the traditional “look and feel” of a process plant, glass

might not be a first choice that will come to mind, but for many
applications glass could be your most economical and optimum
solution.  Here, we’ve noted the top benefits of using glass
components:

Excellent Corrosion and Chemical Resistance

Glass equipment provides unsurpassed corrosion resistance to saline

solutions, organic substances, halogens such as chlorine and
bromine, alkaline mixtures, and many acids (nitric acid, sulfuric
acid, hydrochloric acid).  Its resistance to chemical attack is
superior to that of most metals and other materials, even during
prolonged periods of exposure and at temperatures above 100 °C. 
The corrosion resistance glass offers also applies to the exterior,
making glass a good choice for corrosive plant environments.  And if
you have concerns about corrosion rates, there are simple methods
to measure the wall thickness of your equipment to keep track of
how its holding up to your process.  

 
Ideal Surface Properties

Some materials of construction can pose housekeeping issues when it

comes to ease of cleaning.  Not glass!  With an anti-adhesive and
nonporous surface that resists the buildup of viscous or sticky
products, borosilicate glass is a popular choice for processes where
ease of cleaning is critical.  And its transparency allows you to see
when equipment needs to be cleaned without the need for
interrupting the process and performing an internal inspection. 
More on that subject ahead…

Unmatched Visibility

Unlike most plastic and metal materials, glass equipment provides

transparency to give you an unobstructed view of what is going on
inside your system, enhancing the observation of your process.  For
photosensitive substances, brown coated glass is also available to
offer extra protection.  And if you have concern over potential
mechanical stresses inflicted on the glass, Sectrans coating is
available; this optional covering is applied to the glass surface to add
protection against scratches, blows and splintering. 

Chemical Inertness

Aggressive reaction environments tend to dissolve metals from

unlined mild steel or alloy reactors.  Extractable metals, such as
chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and copper, can leach into and
contaminate your product, producing undesired catalytic effects
that can cause harmful fluctuations in the process reactions.  These
metals can compromise product quality, negatively affect product
yield, and in some cases even cause runaway reactions. Because
there is no interaction or ion exchange between the process media
and glass, there is no catalytic effect and no contamination.  The
inertness of borosilicate glass also means it is nonflammable and
therefore approved for installation in explosive atmospheres. 
As with any option, there are a few limitations of glass that we need
to address:

 Incompatible Solutions

There are only a few chemicals which can cause noticeable corrosion
of the glass - hydrofluoric acid, concentrated phosphoric acid and
strong caustic solutions at elevated temperatures. However, at
ambient temperatures caustic solutions up to 30% concentration
can be handled by borosilicate glass without difficulty.

Size Range

While some may consider the compact design of glass to be a benefit

in many plants where space is at minimum, there are certain
instances where the available size range of glass can be restrictive
for systems that need to process larger volumes.  Vessels, columns
and heat exchangers have a limiting diameter of 1000 mm (39.4
inches) when built out of Borosilicate glass.  If the size limitation is a
problem for your plant, a combination of glass-lined products and
glass components can be your solution.

Operating Precautions

Additionally, there are some limitations related to mechanical and

thermal shocks that aren’t applicable to other materials of
construction.  While some extra precautions do need to be taken, the
material does have a wide operating range and can operate reliably
and efficiently if the proper guidelines are followed.  We’ve included
some technical information for the QVF SUPRA-Line that provides
more in-depth data regarding some basic operating guidelines as it
relates to the thermal and mechanical properties of glass. 
Thermal Properties
Operating temperature TS = 200 °C
Temperature differences between
ΔΘ ≤ 180 K
inside and outside
Individual film heat transfer αi = 1200
coefficient inside W/m2·K
Individual film heat transfer αa = 1200
coefficient outside W/m2·K

Permissible Operating Pressures

Cylindrical Glass Items
DN 15 25 40 50 80 100 150 200 300 450 600 800 1000
PS (bar
4 4 4 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1
g)

Spherical Vessels
V(I) /
5/223 10/280 20/350 50/490 100/610 200/750 500/1005
D(mm)
PS (bar
1 1 1 1 0.8 0.6 0.3
g)

Mechanical Properties
Tensile and bending strength K/S = 7 N/mm2
Compressive strength K/S = 100 N/mm2
Modulus of elasticity E = 64 kN/mm2
Poisson’s ratio (transverse
v = 0.2
contraction figure)

 
Glass-Lined Steel Benefits and Limitations

So how does glass-lined equipment compare to glass components? 

When would you want to use glass-lined equipment in your process
plant over glass?    When it comes to the benefits of glass-lined
components, the list of advantages is almost identical to that of glass
(except for visibility, of course) because glass lining is similar in
composition to borosilicate glass.  Glass-lined steel provides you
with the best of both materials of construction; the external steel
construction provides structural strength and durability while the
internal glass lining gives nearly universal corrosion protection and
a smooth, non-contaminating surface. The result of this is corrosion
resistance to both acids and bases and equipment that is suitable for
high pressure and full vacuum at elevated temperatures.  The chart
shown below illustrates how glass lining has the widest range of
corrosion resistance compared to alternative materials of
construction.  This makes the use of glass lining mandatory in some
processes
As we touched upon earlier, glass-lined components are a good
solution if you need larger sizes that glass can’t accommodate. 
Glass-lined vessels are available in sizes up to 25,000 gallons and
glass-lined columns can range from 6” to 84” diameters. Conversely,
glass-lined equipment has a lower resistance to corrosive plant
environments than glass components and determining wall thickness
for corrosion testing purposes is more complicated than with glass. 
Glass-lined equipment has some additional limitations regarding
temperature and pressure ratings, but if you follow the guidelines of
your equipment and take some common-sense cautions, you can
minimize or eliminate any risks of thermal or mechanical stresses or
shock. 

Don’t be Afraid

Although glass may not be your first “go-to” material of

construction for your new plant, with the wide range of benefits
demonstrated here, glass could be your best solution. Don’t be
afraid of working with glass! The resistance and versatility of the
material, especially when applied to highly corrosive and abrasive
operations, can increase the operating life and capabilities of your
system.
What is process flow diagram?

Process flow diagram are the diagram which will help to us

understand the chemical process with the help of diagrams. These
diagram are the fundamentals diagrams which will provide you the
overall details of the process in any chemical industries.

Types of process flow diagram?

To understand the process in chemical industry or any other

industry, there are different types of process flow diagram.  Each
type of process flow diagram provides specific details of the plant.
The types of process flow diagram are described below.

1. Block Flow Diagram (BFD)

The Block Flow Diagram is the simplest form of Flow Diagram

which provides an overall view of a process.  Block flow diagram
usually resembles an general material flow composed of rectangle
boxes that includes the major equipments of the process of the
process industry. This type of diagram includes the chemical process
flow along with equipment to provide overview of the chemical plant
and process.
Example of block flow diagram

The below diagram is an example of a block flow diagram. As you

can see the whole manufacturing process is described as a block
diagram. The process flow is described in block flow diagram
consisting chemical process equipment in rectangular and square
and process flow is described as arrow. In block diagram. Block
diagram does not includes pipes, valve, interlock etc, only the flow of
process through equipment are described.

2. Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

The Process Flow Diagram goes a little deep than the Block Flow
Diagram in that it provides more detail about major equipment, sub
systems and process flow path.  The Process flow diagram may or
may not includes the process parameters like pressure and
temperature information as well as main parameters of chemical
plant and process.
Now let us understand process flow diagram with example. You can
see the below figure of process flow diagram. Process flow diagram
resemble the chemical process through symbols and process in
details compare to block flow diagram.Process flow diagram contain
specific diagram of the equipment contain information in deep.

Example of Process flow diagram

3. Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)

Piping and instrumentation diagram is also known as process and

instrumentation diagram. This P&ID diagram is the detailed
process flow diagram that includes more details about the process
industry like pipes diameter including pipes types and
identifications, valve types, control valve and interlocks and all the
pipes flow i.e. vents, drain line special fittings tapping and sampling
lines etc.
Example of P&ID diagram – Process and instrumentation diagram

Wrapping Up

Hope this article on Types of Process flow diagram will help you to
have a general idea on what is process flow diagram and types of
process flow diagram along with diagrams. Keep in touch with
Chemical tweak for more such chemical engineering topic. In
upcoming chemical tweak post, we will explore more such chemical
engineering concepts in deep. If you have any suggestion then feel
free to use comment section. Your comment will be appreciated.