Physics Notes PDF

Srinivas University BTech 2020-2021
SRINIVAS UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
ENGINEERING PHYSICS
(Subject Code: 21SPH11/21)
For the academic year 2021-2022
STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY

DR.SANTHOSH D.SHENOY
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
SRINIVAS UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
MUKKA
ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 1

Contents
Module Page
Title
No. Number
1 Electrical properties of metals 9
2 Laser and Fiber optics 27
3 Science of Superconducting materials and 62

magnetic materials
4 Crystal structure 84
5 Interference and Diffraction of Light 110
Model Question Papers and Solutions 125

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
Subject Code 21SPH11/21 IA Marks 50
Number of Lecture 02 (L) + 02 (T) Exam Marks 50
Hours/Week
Total Number of 45 Total Marks 100
Lecture Hours
Credits 03 Exam Hours 02
Course Objectives:
1. Learn and understand basic concepts and principles of Physics.
2. Make students familiar with latest trends in material science research and learn about novel materials
and its applications.
3. Make students confident in analyzing engineering problems and apply its solutions effectively and
meaningfully.
4. Gain knowledge in interference and diffraction of light and its applications in new technology.
Course Outcomes:
CO1: Learn and understand more about basic principles and to develop problem solving skills and
implementation in technology.
CO2: Study material properties and their application and its use in engineering applications and studies.
CO3: Understand crystal structure and applications to boost the technical skills and its applications.
CO4: Apply light phenomena in new technology.
Module 1
Classical free electron theory-Free–electron concept (Drift velocity, Thermal velocity, Mean collision
time, Mean free path, relaxation time) –Expression for electrical conductivity- Failure of classical free
electron theory.
Quantum free electron theory, Assumptions, Fermi factor, Fermi–Dirac Statistics. Expression for
electrical conductivity based on quantum free electron theory. Merits of quantum free electron theory.
Temperature dependence of electrical resistivity –Specific heat – Thermionic emission. Hall effect
(Qualitative) - Wiedemann-Franz law.
9 Hours
Teaching Methodology:
Chalk and talk method: Classical free electron theory-Free–electron concept (Drift velocity, Thermal
velocity, Mean collision time, Mean free path, relaxation time) –Expression for electrical conductivity-
Failure of classical free electron theory.
Powerpoint presentation: Quantum free electron theory, Assumptions, Fermi factor, Fermi–Dirac
Statistics. Expression for electrical conductivity based on quantum free electron theory. Merits of
quantum free electron theory. Temperature dependence of electrical resistivity –Specific heat –
Thermionic emission. Wiedemann-Franz law.
Self-study material: Hall effect (Qualitative)
Module 2
Interaction of radiation with matter – Absorption-Spontaneous emission – Stimulated emission-
Einstein’s coefficients (expression for energy density). Requisites of a Laser system. Condition for laser
action. Principle, Construction and working of He-Ne laser.
Propagation mechanism in optical fibers. Angle of acceptance. Numerical aperture. Types of optical
fibers- Step index and Graded index fiber. Modes of propagation- Single mode and Multimode fibers.
Attenuation- Attenuation mechanisms.
9 Hours
Chalk and talk method: Interaction of radiation with matter – Absorption-Spontaneous emission –
Stimulated emission-Einstein’s coefficients (expression for energy density). Requisites of a Laser
system. Condition for laser action. Propagation mechanism in optical fibers. Angle of acceptance.
Numerical aperture.
Powerpoint presentation: Types of optical fibers- Step index and Graded index fiber. Modes of
propagation- Single mode and Multimode fibers.
Video: Construction and working of He-Ne laser.
Self-study material: Attenuation- Attenuation mechanisms.
Module 3
Temperature dependence of resistivity in metals and superconducting materials. Effect of magnetic field
(Meissner effect). Isotope effect - Type I and Type II superconductors–Temperature dependence of
critical field. BCS theory (qualitative). High temperature superconductors- Josephson effect – SQUID-
Applications of superconductors- Maglev vehicles (qualitative).
Magnetic dipole- dipole moment-flux density-magnetic field intensity-Intensity of magnetization-
magnetic permeability-susceptibility-relation between permeability and susceptibility. Classification of
magnetic materials- Dia, Para, Ferromagnetism. Hysteresis-soft and hard magnetic materials.
9 Hours
Chalk and talk method: Temperature dependence of resistivity in metals and superconducting materials.
Effect of magnetic field (Meissner effect). Isotope effect - Type I and Type II superconductors–
Temperature dependence of critical field. BCS theory (qualitative). High temperature superconductors-
Powerpoint presentation: Josephson effect – SQUID- Applications of superconductors. Magnetic dipole-
dipole moment-flux density-magnetic field intensity-Intensity of magnetization-magnetic permeability-
susceptibility-relation between permeability and susceptibility. Hysteresis-soft and hard magnetic
materials.
Video: Maglev vehicles (qualitative).
Self-study material: Classification of magnetic materials- Dia, Para, Ferromagnetism
Module 4
Amorphous and crystalline materials- Space lattice, Bravais lattice–Unit cell, primitive cell. Lattice
parameters. Crystal systems.
Direction and planes in a crystal. Miller indices – Determination of Miller indices of a plane. Expression
for inter – planar spacing.
Atoms per unit cell - Co-ordination number. Relation between atomic radius and lattice constant -
Atomic packing factors (SC, FCC, BCC).
Bragg’s law. Determination of crystal structure using Bragg’s X–ray diffractometer – X-ray spectrum.
9 Hours
Chalk and talk method: Direction and planes in a crystal. Miller indices – Determination of Miller
indices of a plane.

Powerpoint presentation: Atoms per unit cell - Co-ordination number. Relation between atomic radius
and lattice constant - Atomic packing factors (SC, FCC, BCC).
Bragg’s law. Determination of crystal structure using Bragg’s X–ray diffractometer – X-ray spectrum.
Self-study material: Amorphous and crystalline materials- Space lattice, Bravais lattice–Unit cell,
primitive cell. Lattice parameters. Crystal systems.
Module 5
Interference of light – Superposition of two coherent waves- Constructive and destructive interference.
Interference in thin films – Wedge shaped thin film- Air wedge – Application to find the diameter of a
thin wire. Newton’s rings – Application to find the refractive index of a liquid.
Diffraction of light – Classes of diffraction – Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction. Fresnel theory of half
period zone – Zone plate. Diffraction grating – Grating element – Grating equation -Construction of
grating- Reflection and transmission grating.
9 Hours
Chalk and talk method: Interference of light – Superposition of two coherent waves- Constructive and
destructive interference.
Powerpoint presentation: Interference in thin films – Wedge shaped thin film- Air wedge – Application
to find the diameter of a thin wire. Newton’s rings – Application to find the refractive index of a liquid.
Fresnel theory of half period zone – Zone plate. Diffraction grating – Grating element – Grating
equation -Construction of grating- Reflection and transmission grating.
Self-study material: Diffraction of light – Classes of diffraction – Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.
Internal Marks Distribution

Sl. No Type of Assessment Mode of Assessment Marks
1 Mini –Project Regular mode of 15
Assessment
2 One Open Book written Exam at Regular mode of 10
the end of the Module 4 Assessment
3 Assignments on Regular mode of 10
Advanced Topics Assessment
4 MCQ at the end of each module 2 marks for each 10
Module
5 Attendance As per the regulations 5
Total 50
SCHEME OF EXAMINATION FOR END SEMESTER EXAMINATION OF 5O MARKS:

PART A: TEN Multiple Choice Questions to be set for ONE MARK each.
01 Mark x 10 Questions = 10 Marks
PART B: TWO questions to be set from each module. Students have to answer FIVE full questions,
choosing at least ONE full question from each module.
08 Marks x 05 Questions = 40 Marks

TEXT BOOKS:
1. S. P. Basavaraju, Engineering Physics, Subhas Stores, Bangalore – 2, Revised edition, 2013.
2. S.O.Pillai, ‘Solid state physics’, New Age international, 9th edition, 2020.
3. Dr.N.Subrahmanyam, Brij lal, Dr. M.N. Avadhanulu “A text book of optics”, S Chand & Company
Ltd, New Delhi, Revised edition, 2018.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. V Rajendran, “Engineering Physics”, Tata McGraw Hill Company Ltd., New Delhi, 2011.
2. M.N. Avadhanulu, P.G.Kshirsagar, “Text Book of Engineering Physics”, S Chand Publishing, New
Delhi – 2014.
3. A. Marikani, “Engineering Physics”, PHI learning Private Limited, Delhi, 2nd edition, 2013.
4. Francis A.Jenkins and Harvey.E.White, “Fundamentals of Optics”- McGraw-Hill Science
Engineering, Import edition –2001.
5. Wiley, “Engineering Physics” – Wiley precise textbook series, Wiley India Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi, 2014.
6. Michael Bass, “Handbook of Optics”, Third edition, McGraw Hill, New York, 2010.
Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):

https://youtu.be/Scpi91e1JKc
https://youtu.be/e4Y5u1YLvas
https://youtu.be/RyY4PEpV2RQ
https://youtu.be/XjwF-STGtfE
https://youtu.be/BjVTdZ_htu8
https://youtu.be/Q-oQKSLhLKw
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Classification-of-Magnetic-Materials_38543/
https://www.britannica.com/science/fiber-optics
https://www.britannica.com/technology/laser

Subject (Code): ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS (19SPH11/21)

LESSON PLAN
HOUR
TOPIC TO BE COVERED
NUMBER
01 CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY-INTRODUCTION
FREE ELECTRON CONCEPT-ASSUMPTIONS-THERMAL
02
VELOCITY-MEAN COLLISION TIME-MEAN FREE PATH
03 MOBILITY-EXPRESSION FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
FAILURE OF CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY-
04
RESISTIVITY-SPECIFIC HEAT-HALL COEEFICIENT
05 QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY-ASSUMPTIONS
FERMI FACTOR-FERMI DIRAC STATISTICS-GRAPH-
06
EXPLANATION
07 MERITS OF QUANTUM FREE ELECTRON THEORY
08 HALL EFFECT-IMPORTANCE-APPLICATIONS
09 WIEDEMANN FRANZ LAW- LORENTZ NUMBER

INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER-ABSORPTION,
10
SPONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED EMISSION
RELATIONS BETWEEN EINSTEIN’S COEFFICIENTS-
11 DERIVATION
CONDITIONS FOR LASER ACTION-METASTABLE STATE-
12
RESONANT CAVITY-PUMPING
13 HE-NE LASER-CONSTRUCTION-ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM
14 PROPAGATION MECHANISM IN OPTICAL FIBERS
15 NUMERICAL APERTURE-ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBER-ON THE BASIS OF MATERIAL-
16
REFRACTIVE INDEX PROFILE
17 MODES OF PROPAGATION
18 ATTENUATION- EQUATION - MECHANISM

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY-GRAPH AND
19 EXPLANATION
20 MEISSNER EFFECT-ISOTOPE EFFECT
TYPE I AND TYPE II SUPERCONDUCTORS-MAGNETISATION
21 GRAPHS-EXPLANATION-EXAMPLES
CRITICAL MAGNETIC FIELD-TEMPERATURE DENDENCE
22
GRAPH- EQUATION
BCS THEORY-COOPER PAIRS-PROPERTIES-HIGH
23 TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTORS
24 JOSEPHSON EFFECT-SQUID-MAGLEV VEHICLES
MAGNETIC DIPOLE-DIPOLE MOMENT- FLUX DENSITY-FIELD
25
DENSITY-MAGNETISATION-
PERMEABILITY-SUSCEPTIBILITY- RELATION BETWEEN B,H
26
AND M
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS- MAGNETIC
27
HYSTERESIS-SOFT AND HARD MATERIALS
SPACE LATTICE-BRAVAIS LATTICE-UNIT CELL-LATTICE
28
PARAMETERS
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS-CUBIC-TETRAGONAL-ORTHORHOMBIC-
29
MONOCLINIC-TRICLINIC-RHOMOHEDRAL-HEXAGONAL
DIRECTION AND PLANES- MILLER INDICES-DETERMINATION
30
OF MILLER INDICES
31 EXPRESSION FOR INTERPLANAR SPACING-DERIVATION
COORDINATION NUMBER FOR SIMPLE CUBIC, BODY
32
CENTERED CUBIC AND FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURES
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR FOR SIMPLE CUBIC, BODY
33
CENTERED CUBIC AND FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURES
34 BRAGG’S LAW- DERIVATION
BRAGG’S X-RAY DIFFRACTOMETER-CONSTRUCTION-
35
WORKING
36 X-RAY DIFFRACTION SPECTRUM
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT – SUPERPOSITION OF TWO
37
COHERENT WAVES- CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE
INTERFERENCE
38 INTERFERENCE IN THIN FILMS
WEDGE SHAPED THIN FILM- AIR WEDGE – APPLICATION TO
39
FIND THE DIAMETER OF A THIN WIRE
40 NEWTON’S RINGS
41 APPLICATION TO FIND THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A LIQUID

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT – CLASSES OF DIFFRACTION –
42
FRESNEL AND FRAUNHOFER DIFFRACTION
43 FRESNEL THEORY OF HALF PERIOD ZONE - ZONE PLATE
DIFFRACTION GRATING – GRATING ELEMENT – GRATING
44
EQUATION
CONSTRUCTION OF GRATING- REFLECTION AND
45
TRANSMISSION GRATING

MODULE 1
Electrical properties of metals

Free electron concept
All metal atoms consist of valence electrons which are responsible for electrical conduction. Valence
electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus. When a large number of atoms join to form a metal, the
boundaries of the neighbouring atoms overlap, and thus, valence electrons can move easily throughout
the body of the metal.
These electrons are called free electrons or conduction electrons which account for properties such as
electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, opacity, surface luster etc.
Classical free electron theory
This theory was developed by Drude and Lorentz and hence is also known as Drude-Lorentz theory.
Drude Hendrik Lorentz

According to this theory, a metal consists of electrons which are free to move about in the body of the
metal like molecules of a gas in a container. The velocity distribution of the electrons obeyed the
Maxwell-Boltzmann law. The Drude-Lorentz theory could successfully explain the Ohm’s law and the
high electrical conductivity in metals.
Assumptions
1. A metal is imagined as a structure of 3-dimensional array of ions between which, there are freely
moving valence electrons (conduction electrons) confined to the body of the material.
2. Mutual repulsion between electrons is ignored and hence potential energy is taken as zero. Therefore
the total energy of the electron is equal to its kinetic energy.
3. The free electrons are treated as equivalent to gas molecules and thus they are assumed to obey the
laws of kinetic theory of gases. In the absence of field, the energy associated with each electron at a
3
temperature T is given by kT
2
where k =1.38 × 10-23 J/K.

4. If no electric field is applied on a conductor, the free electrons move in random directions. They
collide with each other and also with the positive ions. Since the motion is completely random, average
velocity in any direction is zero. If a constant electric field is established inside a conductor, the
electrons experience a force F = -eE due to which they move in the direction opposite to direction of the
field. These electrons undergo frequent collisions with positive ions. In each such collision, direction of
motion of electrons undergoes random changes. As a result, in addition to the random motion, the
electrons are subjected to a very slow directional motion. This motion is called drift and the average
velocity of this motion is called drift velocity (Vd).
Thermal velocity
The ionic cores will be vibrating constantly about a mean position due to thermal agitation. The thermal
agitation also causes the conduction electrons to keep moving constantly inside the metal. The velocity
with which the free electrons keep moving due to thermal agitation is called thermal velocity.

Mean collision time and mean free path
Mean collision time (τ) is the average time that elapses between two consecutive collisions of an
electron with lattice ions.
Average distance traveled by the conduction electrons between successive collisions is called mean free
path (λ).
If ‘v’ is the total velocity (combined effect of thermal and drift velocities) of an electron, then mean free
path, λ= v τ
Relaxation time (τr)
When the field E is withdrawn, due to the collision of the electrons with lattice ions and lattice defects,
their velocity will start to decrease. This process is called relaxation.
1
The relaxation time (τr) is the time required for the drift velocity to reduce to of its initial value, when
e
the electric field is turned off.
If the probability of scattering of electrons by lattice ions is same in all directions, mean collision time
can be treated as relaxation time. Its value is of the order of 10-14s.
Mobility
Mobility of a charge carrier is the ratio of the drift velocity to the electric field.
Vd
Mobility μ = E
where ‘Vd’ is the drift velocity and E is the applied electric field.
m2
The unit of mobility is .
Volt..Sec
The mobility represents the ease with which electrons move in a solid.
Expression for drift velocity
Consider a conductor subjected to an electric field E in the x-direction.
The force on the electron due to the electric field = eE.
In the steady state, let ‘Vd’ be the drift velocity and ‘τ’ the mean collision time.
Vd
By Newton’s law, eE = ma = m
τ
eEτ
Vd = --------------- (1)
m
Expression for electrical conductivity in metals
Consider a wire of area of cross section ‘A’ subjected to an electric field E.
If ‘n’ is the concentration of the electrons, ‘e’ charge on an electron, ‘Vd’ drift velocity, Current flowing
through the wire is given by,
I = neAVd

I
But Current density J = = neVd --------------- (2)
A
By Ohm’s law, J = σ E
J
Thus electrical conductivity σ = -------------- (3)
E
Substituting the value of J from equation (2) in equation (3),
Vd
σ = ne = neμ ------------- (4)
E
Substituting the value of Vd from equation (1),
ne2 τ
σ= ------------- (5)
m
Effect of temperature and impurity on electrical resistivity of metals (Matthiessen’s rule)
The variation of electrical resistivity () with temperature T for a metal is shown below:
Resistivity arises due to scattering of conduction electrons. In metals, two types of scattering
mechanisms exist.
1. Resistivity ph due to scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations (phonons) which is temperature
dependent and is called ideal resistivity.

2. Resistivity i due to the scattering of the electrons by the presence of impurities and imperfections.
This resistivity is temperature independent and exists even at 0K. Hence it is called residual resistivity.
The total resistivity  of a material is given by,
 = ph + i
This is called Matthiessen’s rule. Matthiessen’s rule states that the total resistivity of a metal is the sum
of the resistivity due to phonon scattering (temperature dependent) and the resistivity due to scattering
by impurities (temperature independent).
At low temperatures, lattice vibration is negligible and phonon scattering is very less.
At low temperatures,   i
At high temperatures, lattice vibration becomes very significant and resistivity becomes linearly
dependent on temperature.
At high temperatures,   ph
Hall Effect
The Hall-effect principle is named for physicist Edwin Herbert Hall. Hall-effect results from the
interaction of charged particles, like electrons, in response to electric and magnetic fields.
Consider a rectangular slab that carries a current I in the X-direction. A uniform magnetic field of flux
density B is applied along the Z-direction. The current carriers experience a force (Lorentz force) in the
downward direction. This leads to an accumulation of electrons in the lower face of the slab. This makes
the lower face negative. Similarly the deficiency of electrons makes the upper face positive. As a result,
an electric field is developed along Y-axis. This effect is called Hall Effect and the emf thus developed
is called Hall voltage VH. The electric field developed is called Hall field EH.
In metals, the Hall voltages are generally negative, indicating that the electric current is composed of
moving negative charges, or electrons. The Hall voltage is positive, however, for a few metals such
as beryllium, zinc, and cadmium, indicating that these metals conduct electric currents by the movement
of positively charged carriers called holes. In semiconductors, in which the current consists of a
movement of positive holes in one direction and electrons in the opposite direction, the sign of the Hall
voltage shows which type of charge carrier predominates.

Edwin Herbert Hall

Importance of Hall effect
Hall effect proved that band theory of solids is more accurate than free electron theory. Hall effect
proved that electrons are the majority carriers in all the metals and n-type semiconductors. In p-type
semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers.
Applications of Hall effect
1. To determine the type ( n-type or p-type) of semiconductors.
2. To determine the concentration of the carriers.
3. In nondestructive testing.
4. In Hall generators.
Wiedemann-Franz law
This law is named after Gustav Wiedemann and Rudolph Franz. Thermal Conductivity (K) is the degree
(measure) of capacity of a material to conduct heat. Electrical Conductivity (σ) is the degree (measure)
of capacity of a material to conduct electricity.
Gustav Wiedemann
According to Wiedemann-Franz law, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity of a
metal is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
K
i.e, ∞T
σ
K
Or, σT = L, a constant for all temperatures and is known as Lorentz number.
3 kB 2
L= [ ] =1.12×10-8 WΩ K-2
2 e
Failure of classical free electron theory
1. Temperature dependence of electrical resistivity
1 3
According to kinetic theory of gases, Kinetic energy of electron, 2 mv2 = kT
2
3kT
 v =√
m
or v ∞ √T
ne2 τ
But electrical conductivity σ = and mean free path, λ= v τ,
m
ne2 λ
σ=
mv
1
Since v ∞ √T , σ ∞
√T
or resistivity, ρ ∞ √T
But experimental observation is ρ ∞ T.

Thus in this case, classical free electron theory is not agreeing with the experimental observations.
2. Specific heat
Specific heat, Cv is the amount of heat required to change the heat content of exactly 1 gram of a
material by exactly 1°C.
3
The theoretically predicted value of specific heat (Cv = 2 R) of a metal does not agree with the
experimentally obtained value (10-4 RT).
Experimentally observed value of specific heat is far lower than expected value.
3. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration
ne2 τ
As per the classical free electron theory, σ = m
Or, σ ∞ n
But experimental observation disagrees with this.

4. Positive Hall co-efficient of Zinc
Metals are expected to exhibit negative Hall co-efficient since current carriers in them are electrons. The
free electron theory cannot explain why Zinc and some other metals have positive Hall co-efficient.
5. Wiedemann-Franz law
According to Wiedemann-Franz, the ratio of thermal conductivity to electrical conductivity of a metal
is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
K
i.e, σT = L=1.12×10-8 WΩ K-2 a constant for all temperatures.
But experimentally calculated value does not match with this value.
6. The free electron theory cannot explain the classification of materials into conductors,
semiconductors and insulators.
7. This theory fails to explain ferromagnetism, superconductivity, photoelectric effect, Compton effect
and blackbody radiation.
Quantum free electron theory
Classical free electron theory could not explain many physical properties. In classical free electron
theory, we use Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics which permits all the free electrons to gain energy. In
1928, Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld developed a new theory, in which he retained some of the
features of classical free electron theory and included quantum mechanical concepts and Fermi-Dirac
statistics to the free electrons in the metal. This theory is called quantum free electron theory. Quantum
free electron theory permits only a fraction of electrons to gain energy. The main assumptions of this
theory are:
1. The electrons move in a constant potential inside the metal and are confined within defined
boundaries.
2. The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion between the electrons
themselves are ignored.
3. The energy values of conduction electrons are quantized and are realized in terms of a set of energy
levels.
4. The distribution of electrons in various allowed energy levels takes place according to Pauli’s
exclusion principle.
Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld

Fermi-Dirac statistics
According to Fermi-Dirac statistics, the probability that an electron occupies an energy level E at
thermal equilibrium is given by,
1
f(E) = E−EF
( )
1+e kT
where EF is called Fermi level,. Fermi level is the highest filled energy level by an electron at 0 K.
Energy corresponding to Fermi level is known as Fermi energy. Fermi energy is the maximum energy
that a free electron can have in a conductor at 0K.
The probability f(E) is known as Fermi factor.
Fermi Velocity (vF)
The velocity of the electrons occupying the Fermi level is called Fermi velocity (vF)
1
EF = mvF2
2
2EF
Or, vF = √
m
where m is the mass of the electron and EF is the Fermi energy.

Fermi Temperature (TF)
Fermi Temperature is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electron in a solid
becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 00K.
The thermal energy possessed by electrons is given by the product kTF, then kTF =EF
EF
or TF = where k is the Boltzmann constant and EF is the Fermi energy at 00K.
k
The Fermi temperature is only a theoretical concept, since at ordinary temperature, it is not possible for
the electrons to receive thermal energy in a magnitude of EF. For metals order of Fermi energy is a few
electron volts. If EF= 3 eV,
E 3× 1.6 × 10−19
TF = kF = = 34783 K
1.38×10−23
This temperature is quite an exaggerated temperature to be realized in practice.
Effect of temperature on Fermi factor
Fermi factor is given by,
1
f(E) = E−EF
( )
1+e kT
where k is the Boltzmann constant and EF is the Fermi energy at 00K.
At T=0K, for E < EF, f(E)=1

At T=0K, for E >EF, f(E)=0
At T=0K, for E = EF, f(E)= indeterminate
At T>0K, for E=EF, f(E)= ½.
All these results are depicted in the figure.
Fermi energy at absolute zero (0K) temperature

h2 3n 2/3
EF (0) = ( )( )
8m π
Expression for electrical resistivity/conductivity and its temperature dependence
According to Quantum free electron theory, electrical conductivity of a metal is given by,
ne2 F
=
m
λ
Here F = , where vF is the Fermi velocity which is the velocity of electrons occupying Fermi level
vF
and  the mean free path.
ne2 λ
Now electrical conductivity can be expressed as,  = ---------(1)
mvF
Here vF is independent of temperature but  is temperature dependent. As the temperature increases, the
lattice ions start vibrating with larger amplitudes and offer scattering of the electrons which results in
the reduction in the value of mean free path of the electrons.
1
i.e.,  
T
But from equation (1),   

1
  and   T
T
Classical free electron theory and quantum free electron theory-Comparison
Similarities
1. Valence electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal.
2. The mutual repulsion between the electrons and the force of attraction between the electrons and ions
are considered insignificant.
Differences
1. According to classical free electron theory, free electrons obey Maxwell-Boltzman statistics.
According to quantum free electron theory, free electrons obey Fermi-Dirac statistics.
2. According to classical free electron theory, free electrons can possess any energy values and it is
possible that many electrons possessing same energy. According to quantum free electron theory, free
electrons can occupy certain energy levels with discrete energy values and they obey Pauli’s exclusion
principle. Hence no two electrons possess same energy.
Merits of quantum free electron theory
Temperature dependence of electrical resistivity/conductivity
According to Quantum free electron theory, electrical conductivity of a metal is given by,
ne2 F
=
m
λ
Here F = , where vF is the Fermi velocity which is the velocity of electrons occupying Fermi level
vF
and  the mean free path.
ne2 λ
Now electrical conductivity can be expressed as,  = ---------(1)
mvF
Here vF is independent of temperature but  is temperature dependent. As the temperature increases, the
lattice ions start vibrating with larger amplitudes and offer scattering of the electrons which results in
the reduction in the value of mean free path of the electrons.
1
i.e.,  
T
1
But from equation (1),      and   T
T
This result is in accordance with experimental observation.
2. Specific heat
3
According to classical free electron theory, specific heat Cv = R. But experimentally observed value is
2
around 10-4 RT which is very low. According to classical free electron theory, all electrons are capable
of absorbing heat energy. Thus the theory predicts a large value of specific heat. But according to
quantum free electron theory, only those electrons which occupy energy levels close to Fermi level EF
absorb heat energy and hence specific heat value becomes very small.

3. Thermionic emission
When a metal surface is heated it emits electrons. This is called thermionic emission. Here heat provides
enough energy for an electron to escape from the surface.
The number of electrons emitted per second from a substance is known as the rate of thermionic
emission. This value depends on the nature of the material, surface temperature and surface area.
−W
The emitted electron current density is given by, J = AT2 e kT
where ‘T’ is the metal temperature in Kelvin, ‘e’ charge on an electron, ‘W’ the work function of the
metal, ‘k’ the Boltzman constant and ‘A = 1.2 × 106 Am-2 K-2’ is the Richardson constant.
This relation is called Richardson-Dushman equation which obeys well as per quantum free electron
theory.
Demerits of quantum free electron theory
1. It fails to explain properties of metal alloys.
2. It fails to explain why only some solids are metals and others are either semiconductors or insulators.

Solved Problems
1. Calculate the mobility of electrons in copper assuming that each atom contributes one free electron
for conduction. Given: Resistivity of copper = 1.7×10-8Ohm-m, Atomic weight = 63.54, Density =
8.96×103kg/m3 and Avogadro’s number NA = 6.025×1026/K mole.
Solution:
Valency ×NA ×D
n=
Atomic weight
1×6.025×1026 ×8.96×103
=
63.54
= 8.5×1028 m-3
σ = neμ
𝜎
⸫μ=
ne
1
=
ρne
1
=
1.7×10−8 ×8.5×1028 ×1.6×10−19
= 4.325×10-3 m2/vs
2. The Fermi level in the silver is 5.5 eV. Find the velocity of conduction electrons in silver.
Solution:
1
EF = mvF2
2
2EF
⸫ vF = √
m
2×5.5×1.6×10−19
=√
9.11×10−31
= 1.39×106m/s

3. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.01 eV above the Fermi level at
100 K in a material.
Solution:
1
f(E) = E−EF
( )
1+e kT
1
= 0.01×1,6×10−19
( −23 ×100)
1+e 1.38×10
= 0.239

Objective questions
1. In a metal, if the temperature is increased, then resistivity

A) Increases B) decreases
C) remains same D) none of these
2. For T > 0K, probability of occupancy of Fermi level is

A) 75% B) 90% C) 100% D) 50%
3. The electron mobility in metals is given by

A) vd/V B) vd/E C) vd/L D) vd/
4. The Fermi factor for E = EF at any temperature is

A) 1 B) ½ C) 0 D) 2
5. If the mobility of electron in a metal increases, the resistivity

A) Decreases B) Increases
C) Remains constant D) none of these.
6. Ohms law relates to the electric field E, conductivity  and current density J as
A) J = E/ B) J = E2 C) J = /E D) J = E
7. The average drift velocity vd of electrons in a metal is related to the electric field and collision time 
as
eEτ m eEτ m
A) √ B) √ C) D)
m eEτ m eEτ
8. Experimentally specific heat at constant volume Cv is given by

A) 3/2 R B) 10 -4 RT C) 2/3 R D) 10 -4 R
9. If the mobility of the electron is 7 × 10-3 m2/vs, when accelerated by a field 1v/cm, the vd is given by
A) 7 × 10-3 m/s B) 0.7 m/s C) 7 × 10 -2 m/s D) 0.007 m/s
10. The temperature dependence for electrical resistivity of metal is

A)   1/T B)   1/T C) T D)  T
11. According to quantum free electron theory, the energy levels in a metal are
A) Continuous B) Discrete C) Overlapping D) None
12. Which one of the following is correct expression for current density?
A) J = neAvd B) J = neA/vd C) J = nevd D) J = 1/nevd
13. The value of Fermi distribution function at absolute zero (T= 0 K) is 1, under the condition
A) E = EF B) E > EF C) E >> EF D) E < EF
14. If the Fermi energy of silver is 5.5 eV, the Fermi velocity of conduction electron is
A) 0.98 × 106 m/s B) 1.39 × 106 m/s C) 2.46 × 105 m/s D) None of these
15. The collision time and root mean square velocity of an electron at room temperature are 3×10 -14 sec
and 1×105 m/s respectively. The classical value of mean free path of the electron is
A) 3×10-19 nm B) 3Å C) 3 nm D) 17.3 nm
16. The quantum mechanical expression for electrical conductivity is

A)  = m*vF/ne2F B)  = ne2F/m2vF
C)  = m*vF/n2e2F D)  = m*/ne2F
17. Mobility of electron is

A) Reciprocal of conductivity B) Flow of electrons per unit
C) Reciprocal of resistivity D) Average electron drift velocity per unit electric field
18. The classical value of molar specific heat of a conductor is

A) 3/2 R B) ½ R C) 3R D) 5/2 R
19. Classical free electron theory was developed by

A) Drude and Lorentz B) Fermi and Dirac
C) Bose and Einstein D) Sommerfel
20. Average distance traveled by the conduction electrons between successive collisions is called A)
Wavelength B) Interplanar distance
C) Mean free path D) Relaxation

Important Questions
1. Define drift velocity, mobility and relaxation time for free electron, derive the expression for
conductivity in metals.
2. Write down the assumptions of classical free electron theory.
3. Derive an expression for electrical conductivity in metals.
4. Explain failure of classical free electron theory.
5. Explain Matthiessen’s rule.
6. Explain Hall effect.
7. Write a note on Wiedemann-Franz law.
8. Discuss the various drawbacks of classical free electron theory of metals. What are the assumptions
made in quantum theory to overcome the same?
9. What is Fermi energy? Discuss variation of Fermi factor with energy and temperature.
10. Write a note on merits of quantum free electron theory.

Problems
1. A uniform silver wire has resistivity 1.54×10-8 ohm-m at room temperature for an electric field 2 v/m.
Calculate relaxation time and drift velocity of the electrons, assuming that there are 5.8×1022 conduction
electrons per cm3 of the material.
2. Calculate the drift velocity and thermal energy of electrons in a metal of thickness 1 mm across which
a potential of 1 volt is applied at temperature 300 K. Given the mobility of electrons is 40 cm2/volt.sec.
3. Calculate the drift velocity and thermal energy of conduction electrons in copper at a temperature of
300K, when a copper wire of length 2 m and resistance 0.02 Ω carries a current of 15 A. The mobility of
free electrons in copper is 0.043 m2v-1s-1.
4. Calculate the conductivity of sodium given τm= 2x10-14s. Density of sodium is 971 kg/m3, its atomic
weight is 23 and has one conduction electron/atom.
5. Obtain electron concentration, mobility and drift velocity in a metal for the following data:
Length = 5 m, Resistivity = 2.7 ×10-8 ohm-m, R = 6×10-2 ohm, I = 15 Amp,
Atomic weight = 26.98×10-3 kg/mol, Valency = 3, Density = 2.7×103 kg/m3.
6. Calculate the Fermi velocity and mean free path for conduction electrons in silver, given that its
Fermi energy is 5.5eV and relaxation time for electrons is 3.83x10-14s.
200 K, in a material.
8. Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.02 eV above the Fermi level and
0.02 eV below the Fermi level at 200 K.
200 K and 400 k in a material.
10. The Fermi level in Silver is 5.5 eV. What are the energies for which the probabilities of occupancy
at 300K are 0.99 and 0.01?
11. The Fermi level in Potassium is 2.1eV. What are the energies for which the probabilities of
occupancy at 300K are 0.99 and 0.5?
12. Find the temperature at which there is 1 % probability that a state with energy 0.5eV above Fermi
energy will be occupied.

Module 2
Laser and Fiber optics
LASER
LASER is the acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Characteristics of a laser beam
1. Directionality: The laser beam is highly directional. It can be focused to a fine point. This property is
useful in surgical and industrial applications.
2. Monochromaticity: The laser beam is highly monochromatic. I.e., line width () associated with
laser beams are extremely narrow. For ruby laser, =5×10-4Å.
3. Coherence: Laser beam is highly coherent. It is possible to observe interference effects from two
independent laser beams.

4. Brightness (High intensity): The laser beam is highly intense as compared to ordinary sources of
light. This property is used in industry for cutting, drilling and welding operations.
The figure given below is a comparison of different characteristics of a laser beam with an ordinary
source of light.
Basic concepts of laser -Interaction of radiation with matter

Consider a system having two energy levels E1 and E2 with E2-E1=h. When it is exposed to radiation
having a stream of photons, each with energy h, three distinct processes can take place. They are
1) Absorption
2) Spontaneous emission and
3) Stimulated emission.
Absorption
An atom in the ground state E1 can absorb a photon of energy h and go to the higher energy state E2.
This process is known as absorption and is illustrated in figure.

Rate of absorption R12 is proportional to population (number of available atoms per unit volume) of the
lower energy level N1 and u(), the energy density of radiation u().
i.e, R12  N1u()
R12 = B12N1u() ------------(1)
Where B12 is called Einstein coefficient.
Spontaneous Emission
In spontaneous emission, the atoms in the higher energy state E2 eventually return to the ground state by
emitting their excess energy spontaneously.
This process is independent of the external radiation. The rate of spontaneous emission R21 is directly
proportional to the population of the energy level E2 (N2).
i.e., R21  N2
R21 = A21N2 --------------(2)
Where A21 is called Einstein coefficient.
Stimulated emission
In stimulated emission, a photon having energy h (E2-E1) stimulates an atom in the higher state E2 to
make a transition to the lower state E1 with the creation of a second photon.

The rate of stimulated emission R’21 is proportional to population at the energy level E2(N2) and energy
density of radiation u().
i.e, R’21  N2u()
R’21 = B21N2u() --------------(3)
Where B21 is called Einstein coefficient.
Neils Bohr

Einstein’s theory of stimulated emission
Consider a two level energy system E1 and E2. Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms in the ground state
and excited state respectively. Let us assume that only the spontaneous emission is present and there is
no stimulated emission of light. At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission
I.e., B12N1u() = A21N2
A21 N2
u() = -------------(4)
B12 N1
−E
By Boltzmann law, N  e kT
Where ‘k’ is the Boltzmann constant and ‘T’, the absolute temperature.
−E2
N2 e kT −(E2 −E1 ) −hν
 = −E1 =e kT =e kT
N1
e kT
Substituting this in equation (4),

A21 1
u() = hν --------------(5)
B12
e kT
According to the theory of blackbody radiation, the energy density is given by,
8πhν3 1
u() = hν ------- (6)
c3
ekT −1
Comparing (5) and (6), we observe that equations are not in agreement.
To rectify this, Einstein proposed another kind of emission known as stimulated emission.
Therefore the total emission is the sum of spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation.
At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission
I.e., B12N1u() = A21N2 + B21N2u()
u()[B12N1-B21N2] = A21N2
A21 N2
u() =
B12 N1 −B21 N2
Divide numerator and denominator by B12N2.

A21
B12
Now u() = N1 B21
−
N2 B12
N1 hν
But = e kT
N2
A21
B12
 u() = hν ------- (7)
B
e kT − 21
B12

Comparing equations (6) and (7),
A21 8πhν3
= ------- (8) and
B12 c3
B21
=1
B12
Or, B12 = B21 ------- (9)

Equations (8) and (9) represent the relations connecting various Einstein coefficients.
Albert Einstein
Ratio of rate of spontaneous emission to the rate of stimulated emission,
R21
R=
R′21
A21 N2
=
B21 N2 u(ν)
hν
= ekT − 1
A21 8πhν3 8πhν3 1
(Since = and u() = c3 hν )
B12 c3
ekT −1
R gives fairly large values at ordinary temperatures. Hence stimulated emission is highly improbable at
ordinary temperatures.
In order to make stimulated emission dominant over the spontaneous emission, we need,
1. Large radiation density u()- for this, some sort of feedback is provided by placing two mirrors. This
forms a resonant cavity.
A21
2. small- for this, we choose the excited state a metastable one.
B12
3. N2 > N1- this is called population inversion. This can be accomplished by a pumping mechanism.
Metastable state
Typical life time of an excited state is around 10-8 s (A few nanoseconds). A metastable state is an
excited state having a larger life time, a few milli seconds (10-3s).

Population inversion and pumping

A system in which N2 > N1 is said to be in a state of population inversion. In general cases, number of
atoms in the excited state (N2) is lower than that of the ground state (N1). Therefore, to realize
population inversion, atoms in the ground state have to be continuously raised to the higher energy
levels by supplying energy continuously. This method is called pumping.
Different pumping mechanisms

1. Optical pumping: Here an external optical source like Xenon flash lamp is employed to produce
population inversion. This method is used in Ruby laser (in figure) and Nd:YAG laser.
2. Direct electron excitation (Electrical pumping): This method is used in gas lasers. In this method,
electrons produced during electric discharge directly excite the active atoms to achieve population
inversion. This method is used in Argon ion laser.
3. Inelastic atom-atom collisions: In this method, a combination of two types of atoms is used, say A
and B, both having same excited state A* and B* that coincide or nearly coincide.
In the first step, during electric discharge, A gets excited to A* due to collision with electrons.
A+e → A*
The excited atom A* now collide with B atom so that B gets excited to B* (metastable).
A*+B → A+B*
This type of excitation and transition is used in He-Ne laser.
4. Chemical pumping: Here certain suitable exothermic reaction produces active material. For example,
hydrogen fluoride chemical laser, in which HF molecules in the excited state result from the following
exothermic chemical reaction.
H2+F2 → 2HF
5. Heat pumping (Gas dynamic pumping)
Here the active material is heated to a high temperature and rapidly cooled to get necessary population
inversion.
Cavity resonator
In the laser, positive feedback may be obtained by placing the active medium between a pair of mirrors
which forms an optical cavity. The stimulated signal is amplified as it passes through the medium and
fed back by the mirrors.
Some commonly used resonators are given below:
Plane-parallel resonator
This consists of two plane mirrors set parallel to one another.
Confocal resonator
This consists of two spherical mirrors of the same radius of curvature R and separated by a distance L
such that L=R.
Concentric resonator
This consists of two spherical mirrors having the same radius of curvature R separated by distance L
such that L=2R.
In all cases, are mirror will be made 100% reflecting while the other partially reflecting to derive laser
output.

Laser systems
A laser system generally consists of three components:
1. An active medium with metastable energy levels and having a population inversion between some
levels.
2. A pumping mechanism to produce population inversion.
3. A resonant cavity.
He-Ne laser
The He-Ne laser was constructed in 1960, by Ali Javan, W.R. Bennett and D.R. Herriott, at Bell
Laboratories, USA. He-Ne gas laser consists of a fused quartz tube (discharge tube).
The tube is filled with a mixture of Helium and Neon gases in the weight ratio 10:1. Partial pressures of
He and Ne in the tube are 1mm of Hg and 0.1mm of Hg respectively.
The ends of the tube have Brewster windows W1 and W2 made of borosilicate glass so that the output is
plane polarized.
Two mirrors M1 and M2 in which one is fully reflecting and the other one partially reflecting are acting
as resonant cavity.
Electrodes are connected to a high voltage source. Here population inversion is achieved by direct
electron excitation and successive inelastic atom-atom collisions.
The energy level diagram of He-Ne laser is as shown:
He Ne
The electrons produced during electric discharge interact with the ground state F1 He atoms. As a result,
He atoms gets excited to higher energy levels F2 and F3 with low lifetimes.
He + e → He*
The energy levels F2 and F3 of He are very close to E6 and E4 of Ne atom. On collision Ne atom goes to
excited states E6 and E4 which are metastable states.
He* + Ne → He + Ne*
Now three types of laser transition are possible.
E6 to E5 (3.39m) E4 to E3 (1.15m) and E6 to E3 (6328Å)
From E3, by spontaneous emission, the atoms comes to the level E2 and thereafter colliding with walls,
de excitation takes place and atoms comes to the ground state.
3.39m and 1.15m laser beams lie in the infrared region. The popular line of He-Ne laser is 6328Å.

He:Ne Laser in a laboratory

Applications of laser
1. Industrial application: Welding, drilling and cutting. Industrial laser applications can be divided into
two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing.
In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial
materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the
optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts. Laser systems in the 50-300W
range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W
are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as
measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin
metal welding. High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding,
require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes. Micro
material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1
kilowatt. The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the
development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs.

2. Medical applications: In dermatology, dentistry, ophthalmology, in surgery of tumours, kidney stone
and for cancer treatment.
3. For making sensors.
4. In holography.
5. In laser printers.
6. In research.
7. In microelectronics.
8. In accelerating certain chemical reactions.
9. In fibre optic communication.
10. In underwater communication.
11. In military applications.
12. In measuring atmospheric pollutants.
Holography
The method of producing the 3-diamensional image of an object due to the interference phenomena of
coherent light waves on a photographic plate is known as holography.
Interference is the phenomenon of superposition of two or more light waves and redistribution of their
energies.
In Greek, ‘Holos’ means complete and ‘Graphos’ means writing. So holography stands for complete
writing.
The idea of holography was first developed by Dennis Gabor in 1948. For this he was awarded the
Nobel prize in Physics.
Dennis Gabor

Because of the non availability of good coherent sources, this idea was not a success during the initial
stages. The invention of laser during 1960 enhanced research in this field and its tremendous potential
for applications in diversified fields was realized.
When an object is photographed by a camera, a 2-dimensional image of 3-dimensional object is
obtained. Here only the amplitude of the light wave is recorded on the photographic film. In holography,
both the phase and the amplitude of the light waves are recorded in the film. The resulting photograph is
called hologram. The recorded hologram has no resemblance to the original object. It has in it a coded
form of information of the object. The image is reproduced by a process called reconstruction.
Recording of a hologram
The experimental arrangement for the recording of a hologram using a laser beam is shown below:

A laser beam from a source is made to fall on an optical device called beam splitter. A part of the beam
splitter is made to fall on a mirror M2. The beam is reflected from the mirror and made to fall on the
object. The reflected waves from the surface of the object, called object wave, is made to fall on the
photographic plate. The other part of the beam is made to fall on a mirror M1 and then to photographic
plate. This beam is called reference wave. The object wave and reference wave interfere and the
interference pattern characteristic of the object is recorded on the photographic plate. This recorded
interference pattern gives hologram.
Reconstruction of images
In order to view the image, hologram is to be illuminated with the laser having the same wavelength
used for recording of the hologram. Illumination of the hologram results in two images - a two
dimensional real image and a three dimensional virtual image.

Applications of holography
1) In information storage in computers.
2) In fog droplet camera.
3) In dynamic aerosol camera.
4) In holographic interferometry.
5) In holographic cinema.
6) In acoustical holography.
7) In data processing.
8) Hologram can be used as an optical grating.
9) In information coding.
10) In pattern recognition.
11) In photolithography.

FIBER OPTICS
Introduction
Conventional methods of long distance communication use radio waves (~ 106 Hz) and micro waves
(~1010 Hz) as carrier waves.
A light beam acting as carrier waves is capable of carrying far more information since optical
frequencies are extremely large (~1015 Hz). Soon after the discovery of laser,
some preliminary experiments in propagation of information carrying light waves through
the open atmosphere wave carried out, but it was realized that the unwanted elements such as rain, fog
etc. leads to adverse effects.
Thus in order to have an efficient and dependable communication system one would require a guiding
medium in which the information carrying light waves could be transmitted. This resulted in the
development of optical fiber which is an efficient guiding medium for laser light.

Basic principle- Multiple total internal reflection
The basic principle of optical fiber is multiple total internal reflection. When a ray of light travel from
denser to a rarer medium, at an angle of incidence greater than critical angle θc, the ray is not reflected
but it is reflected into the same denser medium. This property is called total internal reflection.
Light signals are transmitted through optic fibers by multiple total internal reflection.
Fiber construction and fiber dimension

An optical fiber consists of a vary thin transparent cylindrical core having refractive index n1 surrounded
by a cylindrical shell called cladding of slightly lower refractive index n2. The core cladding system is
surrounded by plastic jackets.
Optical fibers are hair thin threads of glass or plastic. Plastic fibers have the advantage of more
flexibility than glass fibers but attenuation is greater in plastic fibers, comparing with glass fibers.

Light propagation in optical fibers

Consider an optical fiber with n1 and n2 as the refractive indices of core and
cladding material respectively. Consider a ray of light entering through one end making an angle i with
the axis.

sin i
By Snell’s law, n1=
sin θ
sin i
Or sinθ= ------(1)
n1
n1
At core –cladding interface, refractive index µ =
n2
Total internal reflection takes place at core-cladding interface if the angle of incidence at core-cladding
interface is equal or greater than critical angle ϕc .
n1 1
We have µ = =
n2 sinϕc
n2
 sinϕc = -----(2)
n1
For total internal reflection to take place,

ϕ ≥ ϕc
or, sinϕ ≥ sinϕc
n2
or, sinϕ ≥ [from eqn(2)]
n1
But from figure, sinϕ =cosθ

n2
cosθ ≥
n1
n2
i.e, (1-sin2θ)1/2 ≥
n1
n
1-sin2θ ≥ ( 2 )2
n1
n
sin2θ ≤ 1- ( 2 )2
n1
n21 −n22
sin2θ ≤
n21
sin2 i
From Equation (1), sin2θ=
n21
 Condition for total internal reflection is.
sin2 i n21 −n22

≤
n21 n21
sin2i ≤ n12 − n22
sin i ≤ √n21 − n22
i ≤ sin-1√n21 − n22

Thus if the angle of incidence is greater than sin-1 √n21 − n22 , total internal reflection and transmission
of light will not take place.
Acceptance angle (im)
The maximum angle of incidence at which light may enter the fibre in order to be propagated is, im =
sin-1√n21 − n22
This angle is called acceptance angle for the fiber.
Numerical aperture (NA)
Numerical aperture of an optical fiber is a measure of its gathering capacity and it is denoted as the sine
of acceptance angle.
NA=sin im= √n21 − n22
Fractional index change (Δ)
Fractional index change (Δ) is the ratio of the refractive index difference between the core and cladding
to the refractive index of the core of an optical fiber.
𝐧𝟏 −𝐧𝟐
Δ=
𝐧𝟏
where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of core and cladding material respectively.

Numerical aperture, NA = √n21 − n22
= √(n1 + n2 )(n1 − n2 )
Since n1n2, n1+n2 =2n1 and n1-n2 = n1Δ
NA = √2n1 n1 Δ
= n1√2Δ
Types of optical fibers

i) On the basis of materials
On the basis of materials used for the construction of core and cladding, optical fibers are classified into
three categories:
1. Glass fibers (Glass core with Glass cladding)
2. Plastic fibers (Plastic core with Plastic cladding)

3. PCS fibers (Polymer cladding with silica core)
Plastic fibers have the advantage of more flexibility than glass fibers but attenuation is greater in plastic
fibers, comparing with glass fibers.
ii) On the basis of refractive index profile-Step index and graded index fiber
If the optical fiber has a core of uniform constant refractive index n1 and a cladding of slightly lower
refractive index n2, it is called a step index fiber. The cross sectional refractive index profile is
as shown:
If the core of optic fiber has a non-uniform refractive index that decreases gradually from the centre
towards the core-cladding boundary, it is called a graded index fiber. The cladding surrounding the core
has a uniform refractive index, slightly lower than the refractive index of the core. The cross sectional
refractive index profile is as shown:

iii) On the basis of modes of propagation - Single mode and multimode fiber
In single mode fibers, only one mode of light ray is guided through the fiber.
For this, a step index fiber with a small core diameter (around 10μm) is used.
In multimode fibers, a number of modes of light rays guided through the fibers.
For this, a step index fiber with a large core diameter (around 50μm) or a graded index fiber is used.

V-number of a multimode fiber

The number of modes supported for propagation by a multimode fiber is determined by a parameter
called V-number (denoted as V). If the surrounding medium is air, then the V-number is given by,
𝛑𝐝
V= √n12 − n22
𝛌
where ‘d’ is the core diameter and ‘λ’ is the wavelength of light propagating in fiber. The number of
V2
modes supported by the fiber is given by, n =
2
Attenuation
Absorption and scattering of light traveling through a fiber leads to decrease the strength of the signal
which is referred as attenuation of the signal.
𝟏𝟎 𝐏𝐢
Attenuation co-efficient or attenuation α = log dB/km
𝐋 𝐏𝐨
where Pi is the optical power launched at the input and Po, the output power after travelling a distance
‘L’ km.
Different mechanisms of attenuation
1. Absorption: The optical fiber material and the impurities present in the material absorb light leading
to fiber loss.
2. Rayleigh scattering: This occurs due to the local variations in refractive index. The Rayleigh
1
scattering loss depends on the wavelength. It varies as and becomes significant at lower wavelengths.
λ4
Below 0.8μm, the scattering loss is very high.

3. Radiation losses: This occurs due to the bending of the fiber. There are two types of bends-
Macroscopic and Microscopic.
Dispersion losses due to various modes of propagation

1) Waveguide dispersion
In single mode fibers, part of the light ray will be refracted into the cladding. The loss due to this is
referred as waveguide dispersion. Waveguide dispersion is negligible in multimode fibers.
2) Intermodal dispersion
The intermodal dispersion occurs in multimode fibers where rays associated with various modes travel
different distances through the fiber. As a result, the signal broadens and the output signal is no longer
identical with the input signal. Signal broadening is less in graded index and step index single mode
fibers.
3) Material dispersion or chromatic dispersion
If we use white light, all the colours of the input radiation are not reaching the other end at the same
time since they travel with different velocities. Signal distortion of this kind is called material dispersion
or chromatic dispersion.
Fibre amplifier
Fibre loss in optical fibres is the main disadvantage of fibre optic communication system. To overcome
this, optical amplifiers are used. There are 4 types of optical amplifiers:
Erbium doped fibre amplifier (EDFA)
Fibre Raman amplifier (FRA)
Semiconductor laser amplifier (SLA) and
Integrated optical amplifier (IOA)
Erbium doped fibre amplifier (EDFA)
Here Erbium doped silica fibres are used. When incident photon energy is incident on a doped fibre,

Erbium ions in the medium are made to move to higher energy levels. The Erbium ions in the excited
state return to the ground state either spontaneously or by stimulation. Erbium doped fibres have long
metastable states leading to coherent amplification. A practical configuration of EDFA is as shown:
Advantages of EDFA
High gain
High output power
Low noise
Less gain variation
Wide bandwidth
Compatible to transmission fibre with minimum loss
Cross talk immunity and
Low power consumption.
Applications of optical fibers
1. In fiber optic communication.
In the communication system, telecommunication has major uses of optical fiber cables for transmitting
and receiving purposes. It is used in various networking fields and even increases the speed and
accuracy of the transmission data. Compared to copper wires, fiber optics cables are lighter, more
flexible and carry more data.
2. In fiber optic sensors.
3. For industrial automation.
4. In security alarm systems.
5. In local area network (LAN) of computers.
6. For high speed data transmission in computers.
7. Medical applications- Because of the extremely thin and flexible nature, it used in various instruments
to view internal body parts by inserting into hollow spaces in the body. It is used as lasers during
surgeries, endoscopy, microscopy and biomedical research.
8. Military applications.
Fibre optics are used for data transmission in high-level data security fields of military and aerospace
applications. These are used in wirings in aircraft, hydrophones for SONARs and Seismics applications.
Used in fiber guided missiles.
9. For Lightening and Decorations.
10. In Mechanical Inspections.
On-site inspection engineers use optical fibres to detect damages and faults which are at hard to reach
places. Even plumbers use optical fibres for inspection of pipes.
11. for Broadcasting.
These cables are used to transmit high definition television signals which have greater bandwidth and
speed. Optical Fibre is cheaper compared to the same quantity of copper wires. Broadcasting companies
use optical fibres for wiring HDTV, CATV, video-on-demand and many applications.
Light wave communication using optic fiber
A simple block diagram of fiber optic communication system is shown in figure.
Optical transmitter
A light emitting diode (LED) or a semiconductor laser can be used as optical source. Modulation
modulates the input signal and optical signal and then transmitted through optical fiber cables to the
receiver.

Optical receiver
A photodiode can be used as optical detector. The detected wave is demodulated to extract the signal.
Advantage of fiber optic communication
1) Wide band width.
2) Low attenuation and other transmission losses.
3) Small size and weight.
4) Safe from electrical interference caused by lightning, electric motors, fluorescent tube and other
electrical noise sources.
5) Lack of cross talk between parallel fibers.
6) Easy installation and easy maintenance.
7) Flexible.
8) Temperature resistance.
9) Highly economical.
10) High degree of signal security.
11) Longer life span.
Disadvantages of fiber optic communication
1) Highly skilled man power required for splicing.
2) Optic connectors which are used for splicing are highly expensive.
3) Fiber amplifiers are required to counter fiber loss.

Solved Problems
1. The average output power of laser source emitting a laser beam of wavelength 6328Å is 5mW. Find
the number of photons emitted per second by the laser source.
Solution:
hc
Power P = n
λ
Pλ
⸫n=
hc
5×10−3 ×6328×10−10
=
6.63×10−34 ×3×108
= 1.59 ×1016
2. A medium in thermal equilibrium at temperature 300 K has two energy levels with a wavelength
separation of 1 μm. Find the ratio of population densities of the upper and lower levels.
Solution:
N2 −hc
= e λkT
N1
−6.63×10−34 ×3×108
=e 1×10−6 ×1.38×10−23 ×300
= 1.364 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟏
3. An optical fiber has a core material with refractive index 1.55, and its cladding material has a
refractive index of 1.50. The light is launched into it in air. Calculate its numerical aperture, the
acceptance angle and fractional index change.
Solution:
Numerical Aperture, NA= √n21 − n22
= √1.552 − 1.502
= 0.39
Acceptance angle = sin-1(NA)
= sin-1(0.39)
= 230

𝐧 −𝐧
Fractional index change, Δ = 𝟏 𝟐
𝐧𝟏
1.55−1.50
=
1.55
= 0.032
4. Calculate the V-number for a fiber of core diameter 40μm & with refractive indices of 1.55 and 1.50
respectively for core and cladding when the wavelength of the propagating wave is 1400 nm. Also
calculate the number of modes that the fiber can support for propagation. Assume that the fiber is in air.
Solution:
𝛑𝐝
V= √n12 − n22
𝛌
3.14×40×10−6
= ×√1.552 − 1.502
1400×10−9
= 35
V2
Number of modes the fiber support = n =
2
352
=
2
= 612
5. An optical fiber 600m long has input power of 120mW which emerges out with power of 90mW.
Find the attenuation in the fiber.
Solution:
𝟏𝟎 𝐏𝐢
α= log dB/km
𝐋 𝐏𝐨
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟑
= log 𝟗𝟎×𝟏𝟎𝟑
𝟎.𝟔
= 2.08 dB/km

Objective questions
1. Rate of induced absorption depends on

A) number of atoms in the lower energy state B) the energy density
C) number of atoms in the higher energy state D) Both A and B
2. The required condition to achieve laser action in a system is

A) state of population inversion B) existence of metastable state
C) a resonant cavity D) all the three
3. The idea of holography was first developed by

A) Dennis Gabor B) Young
C) Ali Javan D) Kammerlingh Onnes
4. 3D image of an object constructed by hologram is the process of

A) Intensity recording B) Phase information recording
C) Both phase and intensity information recording
D) Transmission and reflection recording
5. Which of the following is not a laser property?

A) Highly monochromatic B) High directionality
C) Very narrow bandwidth D) Highly divergent
6. Important characteristic of laser beam is

A) Interference B) Diffraction
C) Dispersion D) Coherence
7. Emission of a photon by an excited atom due to interaction of external energy is called

A) Spontaneous emission B) Stimulated emission
C) Induced absorption D) Light amplification
8.In He-Ne laser, the ratio of He-Ne gas molecules in the order
A) 1:10 B) 10:1 C) 1:1 D) 1:2
9. The life time of an atom in a metastable state is of the order of

A) a few seconds B) unlimited
C) a nanosecond D) few milliseconds
10The life time of an atom at the ordinary excited state is of the order of
A) few milli second B) few nano second
C) few micro second D) Unlimited
11. N1 be the number density of lower energy E1 and N2 be the number density of higher energy E2, if
N2>N1 is called
A) Thick population B) Inverted population
C) Normal population D) No population
12. Supply of energy to atoms for excitation is called

A) Glowing B) Bombarding
C) Incidenting D) pumping.
13. The relation between Einstein’s coefficient’s A and B is

8πhν3 8πhν3 8πhλ3 8πh2 ν3
.A) B) C) D)
c3 c2 c3 c3
14. In a single mode fiber, the diameter of the core is nearly equal to
A) 125 μm B) 100 μm C) 50 μm D) 10 μm
15. Loss of power during transmission through optical fiber is called

A) Power factor B) Energy loss
C) Attenuation D) Amplification
16. Which one of the following is an attenuation mechanism?

A) Absorption B) Scattering
C) Microscopic and macroscopic bending D) All of these
17. Carrier wave which is not used in long distance communication is

A) Radio waves B) Microwaves
C) Light waves D) Ultrasonic waves
18. The basic principle of optical fiber is

A) Refraction B) Absorption
C) Total internal reflection D) Rayleigh scattering
19. If optic fiber is kept in a medium of refractive index μ(>1) instead of air, the acceptance angle
A) increases B) decreases
C) remains constant D) None of these
20. Optical fiber is a

A) Waveguide B) Signal generator
C) Amplifier D) None of these
21. The innermost part of the fiber is

A) Cladding B) Core
C) Jacket D) Modulator
22. The acceptance angle for the fiber is

A) sin√n21 − n22 B) sin-1√n21 − n22
C) sin-1√n22 − n21 D) sin-1√n1 − n2
23. For a fiber, fractional index change is

𝐧𝟏 −𝐧𝟐 𝐧𝟐 −𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐 −𝐧𝟏
A) B) 𝐂) D) None of these
𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟏 𝐧𝟐
24. Which one of the following is true for an optical fiber

A) n1>n2 B) n2>n1 C) n1= n2 D) n1 = n22
25. Fractional index change of optical fiber for R.I. of core and cladding are 1.563 and 1.498
respectively is
A) 0.00415 B) 0.0415 C) 0.043 D) 0.004

Important questions
1. Write a note on characteristics of laser.
2. Discuss the possible ways through which radiation and matter interaction takes place.
3. Obtain an expression for energy density of radiation under equilibrium condition in terms of Einstein
co-efficients.
4. Write a note on basic requirements of a laser system.
5. With help of energy level diagram, describe the construction and working of He-Ne laser.
6. Explain the principle of holography and mention its applications.
7. Describe the recording and reconstruction processes in holography, with the help of suitable
diagrams.
8. Derive the expression for numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an optical fiber.
9. Explain the different types of optical fibers.
10. What is attenuation? Write a note on attenuation mechanisms.
11. Explain point to point communication using optical fiber with the help of a block diagram.

Problems
1. Calculate on the basis of Einstein’s theory the number of photons emitted per second by He-Ne laser
source emitting light of wavelength 6328Å with an optical power 10 mW.
2. A laser beam with power 1 mW lasts for 10 ns. If the number of photons emitted per second is 3.491
× 107, calculate the wavelength of laser.
3. A ruby laser emits pulse of 20 ns duration with average power per pulse being 100 kW. If the number
of photons in each pulse is 6.981 × 1015, calculate the wavelength of photons.
4. The refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.50 and 1.48 respectively in an optical fiber. Find the
numerical aperture and angle of acceptance.
5. An optical fiber has core R.I. 1.5 and R.I. of cladding 3% less than the core index. Calculate the
numerical aperture, angle of acceptance and internal critical acceptance angle.
6. An optical fiber of refractive index 1.50 is to be clad with another glass to ensure internal reflection
that will contain light traveling within 5o of the fiber axis. What maximum index of refraction is allowed
for the cladding?
7. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 30o when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance when
it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33.
8. Calculate the N.A., V-number and number of modes in an optical fiber of core diameter 50 μm, core
and cladding refractive indices 1.41 and 1.4 at wavelength 820 nm.
9. A fiber 500m long has an input power of 8.6 mw and output power 7.5 mw. What is the loss
specification in cable?
10. An optical fiber 500m long has input power of 100mW which emerges out with power of 90mW.
Find the attenuation in the fiber.
11. An optical fiber has lost 85% of its power after traversing 500 m in a fiber. What is the loss in fiber?
12. The attenuation of light in an optical fiber is estimated as 2.2 dB/km. What fractional initial intensity
remains after 2kms and 6kms?

Module 3
Science of Superconducting materials and magnetic materials
Science of Superconducting materials
Temperature dependence of resistivity in superconducting materials
The electrical resistivity of many metals and alloys drops suddenly to zero when their specimens are
cooled to a sufficiently low temperature, often a temperature in the liquid Helium range (4 K). This
phenomenon is known as superconductivity. Materials which show superconductivity property are
called superconducting materials. Superconductivity was first observed by Kammerlingh Onnes in 1911
while measuring the resistivity of mercury at low temperatures. In the year 1913, he received the Nobel
Prize for his work.
Kammerlingh Onnes

The temperature at which the resistivity of the material suddenly changes to zero is called critical
temperature or superconducting transition temperature (TC). The transition temperature of mercury is
4.15 K. The transition temperatures of some superconducting materials are given below:
In 1986, Bednorz and Muller synthesized a particular type of ceramic material (LaBa2Cu3O7) whose
transition temperature was 30 K.
For this they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in the year 1987.
Bednorz and Muller
Later researchers synthesized YBa2Cu3O7 with Tc around 90 K. The success broke the barrier of liquid
nitrogen temperature of 77 K, and was a sort of dream come true for many scientists. It is because liquid
nitrogen is readily available in most of the places and inexpensive.

All high temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of copper assuming perovskite
crystal structure.
The critical temperature is higher for those materials which have more number of copper-oxygen layers.
The formation of supercurrents in high temperature superconductors is direction dependent.
The supercurrents are strong in the copper-oxygen planes and weak in a direction perpendicular to the
planes.
In bulk materials, the grain boundary effects decreases the critical current value.
Critical current density (Jc)
The application of a large value of electric current to a superconducting material destroys its
superconducting property. The current required for this is called critical current (IC) and corresponding
current density is called critical current density (JC).
Specific heat
Specific heat of superconductors undergoes a discontinuous change below transition temperature.
Isotope effect
It has been observed that the superconducting transition temperature for various isotopes of a
superconductor is different. This effect is known as isotope effect. This effect was discovered in
isotopes of mercury by Maxwell and Reynolds in the year 1950.
If ‘M’ is the isotopic mass and ‘TC’ the superconducting transition temperature,
MαTC = constant.
‘α’ a constant of isotopic series.
For Mercury series, α = 0.5. α values of some superconductiong substances are listed in the table given
below.
Effect of magnetic field-Meissner effect

Meissner and Ochsenfeld in 1933 found that if a superconductor is cooled in a magnetic field below the
transition temperature, the magnetic flux lines are pushed out of the body of the superconductor as
shown:

This phenomenon is called Meissner effect which establishes that a superconductor is a perfect
diamagnetic.
 Inside the specimen, the magnetic field, B=0
But B = μ (H +M)
H+M = 0 (since B=0)
Or H = -M
M
Thus Magnetic susceptibility χ = = -1
H
Type I and Type II Superconductors

Based on magnetization curves (H Vs M), superconducting materials are classified into two categories.
They are
1) Type I superconductors and
2) Type II superconductors.
In type I superconductors, magnetization curve is as shown:
They are completely diamagnetic or exhibits complete Meissener effect up to critical field Hc. They are
also called soft superconductors. The Hc value for Type I superconductors are found to be very low.
Hence it is not used for the construction of superconducting magnets.
Eg: Al, In, Sn, Pb etc.
In type II superconductors, magnetization curve is as shown:
For applied fields below Hc1 the specimen is diamagnetic, exhibiting complete Meissner effect. At Hc1,
the flux begins to penetrate the specimen and the penetration increases until Hc2 is reached. Here
Meissner effect is incomplete and the specimen is said to be in a vortex (mixed) state. At Hc2, the
specimen becomes a normal conductor. Hc2 is called upper critical field. They are also called hard

superconductors. Hc2 value is larger than (may be even 100 times) the Hc value for type I
superconductors. Hence they are used in the construction of superconducting magnets.
Eg: Nb3Au, Nb3Ge etc.
Temperature dependence of critical field

When the superconducting materials are subjected to a strong magnetic field, it will result in the
destruction of the superconducting property. I.e. they return to the normal state.
The minimum magnetic field required to destroy the superconducting property is called the critical field
(Hc). The variation of Hc with temperature is shown in the figure.

The dependence of critical field on temperature is governed by the following relation,
T
Hc(T) = Hc(0) [1- ( )2 ]
Tc
Where Hc(0) is the critical field at 0 K.

BCS Theory of Superconductivity
This theory was developed by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer in 1957 based on electron- lattice-
electron interaction.
Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer
According to this theory, an electron attracts lattice ions towards itself, so that it is surrounded by a
region of positive charges. Another electron gets attracted to this region of high positive ion
concentration.
Thus an electron- lattice- electron interaction results in an electron pair formation. These pairs are called
Cooper pairs. They can be scattered only if the energy involved is sufficient to break it up into two
single electrons.

Cooper pair electrons possess opposite momenta and spin (K↑ and –K↓). In addition, a Cooper pair does
not obey Pauli’s exclusion principle and hence any number of Cooper pairs can be accommodated into a
single quantum state.
Since an electron pair has a lower energy than the two normal electrons, there is an energy gap between
the paired (Cooper pair) and the two single electrons. As long as Cooper pair electrons remain in Cooper
pair states, they do not suffer scattering and hence resistivity will be zero. When the temperature is
raised, to overcome the energy gap, Cooper pair electrons gets separated to normal single electrons
which may undergo scattering due to the presence of imperfections in the crystal or lattice vibrations,
which leads to a finite resistivity.
The idea that the electron interaction plays a crucial role in superconductivity is supported by the fact
that the best of the conductors such as gold, silver and copper do not exhibit superconductivity. The
reason attributed is that the electrons in those metals move so freely in the lattice that, the electron-
lattice interaction is virtually absent. This rules out the possibility of formation of Cooper pairs, and also
that of occurrence of superconductivity in the material.
High temperature superconductors
In 1986, Bednorz and Muller synthesized a particular type of ceramic material (LaBa2Cu3O7) whose
transition temperature was 30 K. For this they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in the year
1987.
Later researchers synthesized YBa2Cu3O7 with Tc around 90 K. The success broke the barrier of liquid
nitrogen temperature of 77 K, and was a sort of dream come true for many scientists. It is because liquid
nitrogen is readily available in most of the places and inexpensive.
All high temperature superconductors are different types of oxides of copper assuming perovskite
crystal structure.
The critical temperature is higher for those materials which have more number of copper-oxygen layers.
The formation of supercurrents in high temperature superconductors is direction dependent.
The supercurrents are strong in the copper-oxygen planes and weak in a direction perpendicular to the
planes.
In bulk materials, the grain boundary effects decreases the critical current value.

Magnetic Levitating Trains
Maglev trains use magnetism to levitate above the tracks on which they travel. They are faster, more
efficient, and more environmentally friendly than modern wheeled trains. It may be that one day soon,
maglev technology will be commonplace throughout the world.
The principle of the repulsion of magnetic flux (Meissner effect) can be used here. A cross sectional
view of maglev vehicle is shown in figure:
Maglev trains do not have wheels or rails. They have guideways, and they float down these guideways
without ever touching them. Levitation is the ability for the train to stay suspended above the track. This
eliminates loss due to friction and heat and thus allowing the trains to achieve very high speeds. There
are two important types of levitation technology: Electromagnetic Suspension (EMS) and
Electrodynamic Suspension (EDS).
The lifespan of maglev parts are appropriately much longer. Maglev trains are safer, environmental
friendly, energy efficient and with less noise pollution.

Josephson effect
This effect was first predicted by Josephson in 1962. The experimental arrangement was a Josephson
junction which consists of a thin insulator sandwiched between two superconductors as shown:
If the insulator layer is very thin, of the order of 10-50 Å in thickness, a tunneling phenomenon called
Josephson tunneling (Josephson effect) takes place through the insulator. Thus the insulator turns into a
superconductor.
I-V characteristics of a Josephson junction is as shown:
With no applied voltage, a dc current (ic) will flow across the junction. This is called dc Josephson
effect.
When a small voltage is applied across the junction, current oscillates with a frequency ω = 4πeV/h.
This is called ac Josephson effect. If the applied voltage is increased beyond the critical voltage (vc), the
current attains an ohmic behaviour.

SQUID
If a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the junction, critical current drops to zero whenever
h
magnetic flux through the junction is a multiple of flux quantum ϕ0 (flux quantum ϕ0 = ).
2e
This property is used in Superconducting QUantum Interference Device, SQUID. It consists of a ring of
superconducting material with two side arms A and B. P and Q are the Josephson junctions (insulating
layers) of different thickness.
Applications of superconductors
1. For the production of high magnetic fields.
2. In high energy physics experiments.
3. In NMR imaging.
4. In magnetohydrodynamic power generation.
5. In magnetic separation for refining ores and chemicals.
6. As memory storage element in computers.
7. In superconducting generators and motors.
8. In superconducting fuses, switches and cables.
9. In Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID).
10. In levitating trains.

Magnetic materials
Magnetic dipole
Two opposite poles (north pole and south pole) separated by a distance ‘2l’ constitute a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic pole strength is ‘m’.
Magnetic dipole moment (µm)

If ‘m’ is the magnetic pole strength and ‘2l’ is the length of the magnet, magnetic dipole moment,
µm = m×2l.
It’s a vector quantity.
Magnetic flux density (B)
Magnetic flux density is defined as the number of lines of force through unit area of cross section.
ϕ
B = Weber/m2
A
Magnetic field intensity (H)
Magnetic field intensity (H) at any point in a magnetic field is the force experienced by a unit north pole
placed at that point.
Its unit is Ampere/meter.
Intensity of magnetization (M)
Intensity of magnetization (M) is defined as magnetic moment induced per unit volume.
Its unit is Ampere/meter.
Magnetic permeability (µ)
Magnetic permeability (µ) is defined as the ratio of amount of magnetic density (B) to applied magnetic
field intensity (H).
B
µ=
H

Relation between B, H and M
The relation is B = µ0(H+M)
where ‘µ0’ is the permeability of free space and is equal to 4π×10-7 Henry/meter.
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) is defined as the ratio of induced magnetization (M) to the applied magnetic
field (H).
M
χ=
H
Relation between permeability and susceptibility
Relative permeability µr = 1+χ.
Classification of magnetic materials
Magnetic materials are classified into three categories:
1. Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic moment. Paramagnetic materials attract
magnetic lines of force. The susceptibility is positive and small. Aluminium, Sodium, Chromium,
Titanium, Zirconium etc. are examples.
In paramagnetic materials, For a fixed value of the applied magnetic field, the magnetic susceptibility is
1
inversely proportional to temperature, that is χ ∞ .
T
C
Or χ = T . This Curie’s law. ‘C’ is Curie constant.
2. Diamagnetic materials with no permanent magnetic moment. Diamagnetic materials repel magnetic
lines of force. The susceptibility of diamagnetic material is negative. There are no atomic dipoles in
diamagnetic materials because the resultant magnetic moment of each atom is zero due to paired
electrons.
The relative permeability is slightly less than unity. These materials are independent of temperature,
diamagnetic materials do not obey Curie’s law.
Copper, Gold, Bismuth, Antimony, Water, Mercury, Silver, Zinc etc. are examples.

3. Ferromagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic moment. These materials exhibit spontaneous
magnetization even in the absence of an external magnetic field. The susceptibility is positive and large.
Iron, Cobalt and Nickel are examples.
A ferromagnetic material is divided into tiny regions called magnetic domains. Within each domain, the
spins are aligned, but the spins of separate domains point in different directions and their magnetic fields
cancel out, so the object has no net large scale magnetic field.
B-H graph in ferromagnetic materials

When a ferromagnetic material is taken through a cycle of magnetization, a curve as shown below is
obtained. This curve is known as hysteresis curve (B-H curve).

When a magnetic field H is applied to a ferromagnetic material, the magnetic flux density B (or
magnetization M) will vary. As the magnetic field is increased, the flux density (or magnetization)
increases and reaches a saturation value Bs (or Ms).
When the field intensity is reduced to zero, the flux density will not become zero, but will have a finite
value which is called remnant flux density Br (or remnant magnetization Mr).
This remnant flux density may be reduced to zero by applying a magnetic field in the opposite direction.
The field Hc required to reduce the flux density to zero is called the coercive field.
Soft and hard magnetic materials
Magnetic materials which are easily magnetized and demagnetized are known as soft magnetic
materials. They are characterized by thin hysteresis loop (loop area small) with low coercive field, low
hysteresis loss and high initial permeability.
All these properties are by virtue of the domain wall motion that occurs easily in soft magnetic
materials.
Permalloy, Silicon-Iron alloy and ferrites are examples.
Hard magnetic materials are those which have a high resistance to demagnetization. They are
characterized by large hysteresis loop (loop are large) with high coercive field, high hysteresis loss and
low initial permeability.
In these materials, domain walls are highly immobile.
Alnico alloy, Invar, Platinum-Cobalt alloy etc. are examples.


Solved Problems
1. The critical field of Niobium is 100000 A/m at 8 K and 200000 A/m at 0K. Calculate the transition
temperature of the element.
Solution:
T
Hc(T) = Hc(0) [1- ( )2 ]
Tc
T
⸫ Tc =
H (T)
√1− Hc (0)
c
8
=
100000
√1−
200000
= 11.3 K
2. Find the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic material if a magnetic field of strength 190 A/m
produces magnetization of 2280 A/m in it.
Solution:
Relative permeability,
µr = 1+χ
M
=1+
H
2280
=1+ 190
= 13
3. A magnetic material has a magnetization of 3300 A/m and produces a flux density of 0.00471 wb/m2.
Calculate magnetizing force and relative permeability of the material.
Solution:
B = µ0(H+M)
B
⸫ Magnetising force, H = –M
μ0
0.00471
= – 3300
4×3.14×10−7
= 450 A/m
Relative permeability,
µr = 1+χ
M
=1+
H
3300
=1+
450
= 8.33

Objective questions
1 The conductivity of a superconductor is

A) Infinite B) Zero C) finite D) none of these
2. According to Meissner effect, material in superconducting state is,

A) Paramagnetic B) diamagnetic C) ferromagnetic D) anti-ferromagnetic
3. The critical temperature of mercury is

A) 4.2 K B) 6.2 K C) 7.8 K D) 20 K
4. Superconductivity was first observed by

A) Meissner B) Kamerlingh Onnes C) Josephson D) Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer
5. The superconducting transition temperature of LaBa2Cu3O7 is

A) 4 K B) 140 K C) 90 K D) 30 K
6. Partial Meissner effect is observed in

A) type I superconductors B) type II superconductors C) Metals D) Mercury
7. Type I superconductors are not used for the construction of superconducting magnets since
A) they are metal alloys B) their Hc value is too low
C) their Hc value is very high D) they are diamagnetic
8. The minimum magnetic field required to destroy the superconducting property is called
A) Saturation magnetization B) Magnetic flux density C) Destruction field D) Critical field
9. Which one of the following is not a feature of BCS theory

A) electron- lattice- electron interaction B) Cooper pair electrons
C) electrons possess opposite momenta and spin
D) Cooper pair obey Pauli’s exclusion principle
10. Type I superconductors are known as

A) Semiconductors B) Soft superconductors C) Hard superconductors
D) None of the above
11. Type II superconductors are known as

A) Semiconductors B) Soft superconductors C) Hard superconductors
D) None of the above
12. If ‘M’ is the isotopic mass and ‘TC’ the superconducting transition temperature, for isoptopes of
mercury, TC is proportional to
1 1
A) M B) C) D) None of these
M √M

13. Which of the following metal is not showing superconductivity property?

A) Mercury B) Lead C) Indium D) Copper
14. Which metal is superconducting?

A) Gold B) Silver C) Aluminium D) Copper
15. Two opposite poles (north pole and south pole) separated by a distance ‘2l’ constitute a
A) Magnetic dipole B) Magnetic moment C) Susceptibility D) Superconductor
16. The unit of magnetic field intensity is

A) Ampere/meter B) Weber/m2 C) Henry/m D) Ampere
17. The permeability of free space is equal to

A) Infinite B) Zero C) 4π×10-7 Henry/meter D) 2π×10-7 Henry/meter
18. Which of the following relation is true

A) B = µ0(H+M) B) M = µ0(H+B) C) H = µ0(B+M) D) B = µ0(H-M)
19. Which of the following is an example for diamagnetic material?

A) Aluminium B) Cobalt C) Nickel D) Copper
20. Which of the following is an example for paramagnetic material?

A) Iron B) Sodium C) Cobalt D) Gold
21. Which of the following is an example for ferromagnetic material?

A) Gold B) Silver C) Copper D) Iron
22. The susceptibility of diamagnetic material is

A) Zero B) Infinite C) Positive D) Negative
23. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic material is

A) Positive and large B) Negative and large
C) Negative and small D) Positive and small
24. In ferromagnetic materials, the field required to reduce the flux density to zero is called
A) Coercivity B) Remnance C) Saturation D) Susceptibility
25. Hard magnetic materials

A) Have thin hysteresis loop B)Have a high resistance to demagnetization
C) Are easily magnetized D) Have high initial permeability

Important questions
1. Discuss Meissner effect.
2. Define superconductivity and explain Type I and Type II superconductors.
3. Write a note on critical magnetic field.
4. What is Isotope effect?
5. Explain BCS theory of superconductivity.
6. Write notes on magnetic dipole, dipole moment, flux density, magnetic field intensity and intensity of
magnetization.
7. Define magnetic susceptibility and permeability. What is the relation between them?
8. Write a note on classification of magnetic materials.
9. What is Hysteresis? Explain with the help of a graph.
10. Distinguish between soft and hard magnetic materials.

Problems
1. The transition temperature of Pb is 7.2 K. However, at 5 K, it loses the superconducting property if

subjected to magnetic field of 3.3×104 A/m. Find the maximum value of H which will allow the metal to
retain its superconductivity at 0 K.
2. A superconducting tin has a critical field of 306 Gauss at 0 K and 217 Gauss at 2 K. Find the critical
temperature of superconducting tin.
3. A magnetic material has a magnetization of 2300 A/m and produces a flux density of 0.00314 wb/m 2.
Calculate magnetizing force and relative permeability of the material.
4. Find the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic material if a magnetic field of strength 220 A/m
produces magnetization of 3300 A/m in it.

MODULE 4
Crystal structure
Solids are of two types: Amorphous and crystalline.
In amorphous solids, there is no order in the arrangement of their constituent atoms (molecules). Hence
no definite structure could be assigned to them.
A substance is said to be crystalline when the arrangement of the units (atoms, molecules or ions) of
matter inside it is regular and periodic.
Space lattice
An array of points which describe the three dimensional arrangement of particles (atoms, molecules or
ions) in a crystal structure is called space lattice. Here environment about each point should be identical.
Basis
A crystal structure is formed by associating with every lattice point a unit assembly of units or
molecules identical in composition. This unit assembly is called basis.

A crystal structure is formed by the addition of a basis to every lattice point.

I.e., lattice + Basis = crystal structure.
Thus the crystal structure is real and the crystal lattice is imaginary.
Bravais lattice
For a crystal lattice, if each lattice point substitutes for an identical set of one or more atoms, then the
lattice points become equivalent and the lattice is called Bravais lattice.
On the other hand, if some of the lattice points are non-equivalent, then it is said to be a non-Bravais
lattice.
Unit cell and lattice parameters

The smallest portion of the crystal which can generate the complete crystal by repeating its own
dimensions in various directions is called unit cell.
The position vector R for any lattice point in a space lattice can be written as
R= n1a+n2b+n3c
Where a, b and c are the basis vector set. The angles between the vectors b and c, c and a, a and b are
denoted as ,  and  and are called interfacial angles.
The three basis vectors and the three interfacial angles, form a set of six parameters that define the unit
cell, and are called lattice parameters.
Primitive cell
A primitive cell is a minimum volume unit cell. Consider a bravais lattice (in two dimensions) as shown
below:
We can imagine two ways of identifying the unit cell in this structure.
One is, with a1 and b1 as the basis vectors in which case, the unit cell will be a parallelogram.
Here four lattice points are located at the vertices. This is a primitive cell.
Other one is with the basis vectors a2 and b2 which would make a rectangle for the unit cell.
Here in addition to the 4 points at the corners, one lattice point is at the centre. This is a nonprimitive
cell.

The atoms in the primitive unit cell are present only at the corners.
Crystal systems
Bravais demonstrated mathematically that in 3-dimensions, there are only 14 different types of
arrangements possible. These 14 Bravais lattices are classified into the seven crystal systems on the
basis of relative lengths of basis vectors and interfacial angles.
Bravais


Seven crystal systems are:
1. Cubic
2. Tetragonal
3. Orthorhombic
4. Monoclinic
5. Triclinic
6. Rhombohedral (Trigonal)
7. Hexagonal
14 Bravais lattices are
1. Simple cubic 2. Body centered cubic 3. Face centered cubic
4. Simple tetragonal 5. Body centered tetragonal
6. Simple orthorhombic 7.Base centered 8. Body centered 9. Face centered

10. Simple monoclinic 11. Base centered monoclinic
12. Triclinic
13. Trigonal( Rhombohedral)

14. Hexagonal
Direction and planes in a crystal
Many physical properties of crystalline solids are dependent on the direction of measurement or the
planes across which the properties are studied. In order to specify directions in a lattice, we make use of
lattice basis vectors a, b and c.
In general, any directional vector can be expressed as
R= n1a+n2b+n3c
where n1, n2 and n3 are integers.
The direction of the vector R is determined by these integers. If these numbers have common factors,
they are removed and the direction of R is denoted as [n1 n2 n3].

A similar set of three integers enclosed in a round bracket is used to designate planes in a crystal.
Lattice planes and Miller indices
The crystal lattice may be regarded as made up of a set of parallel, equidistant planes passing through
the lattice points. These planes are known as lattice planes and may be represented by a set of three
smallest possible integers. These numbers are called ‘Miller indices’ named after the crystallographer
W.H.Miller.
Determination of Miller indices
Consider a crystal plane intersecting the crystal axes as shown:
The procedure adopted to find the miller indices for the plane is as follows:
1. Find the intercepts of the plane with the crystal axes along the basis vectors a, b and c. Let the
intercepts be x, y and z respectively.
2. Express x, y and z as fractional multiples of the respective basis vectors. Then we obtain the fractions,
x y z
, , .
a b c
a b c
3. Take the reciprocal of the three fractions to obtain , ,z.
x y
4. Find the least common multiple of the denominator, by which multiply the above three ratios. This
operation reduces them to a set of 3 integers (h k l) called miller indices for the crystal plane.

For the plane given above,
2 3
1. x = a y= b z = 2c
3 2
x y z 2 3
2. ( a )=(3 2)
b c 2
3 2 1
3. Taking reciprocal, ( 2 )
3 2
4. Multiplying throughout by the least common multiple 6 for the denominator, we have the miller
indices, (9 4 3)
Some planes with their Miller indices are shown below.

Expression for interplanar spacing
Let ABC be one of the parallel planes represented by the miller indices (h k l). Its intercepts on the
crystal axes are x, y and z.
Another plane parallel to the plane ABC passes through the origin O.
If OP is drawn perpendicular from O to the plane ABC, then OP is equal to the interplanar distance dhkl.
Let the angle made by OP with respect to the axes X, Y and Z be θ1, θ2 and θ3 respectively.
dhkl
Now cos θ1 =
x
dhkl dhkl
Similarly we can write, cos θ2 = and cos θ3 =
y z

But for orthogonal co-ordinates, cos2 θ1+ cos2 θ2+ cos2 θ3 = 1
d2hkl d2hkl d2hkl
i.e., + + =1
x2 y2 z2
1 1 1
Or, d2hkl ( + + )=1
x2 y2 z2
a b c
But from the definition of miller indices, x = y= and z =
h k l
h2 k2 l2
d2hkl ( + + )=1
a2 b2 c2
1
Or, d2hkl = h2 k 2 l2
( 2 + 2+ 2 )
a b c
The interplanar spacing dhkl is given by,

1
dhkl = 2 2 2
√h2 +k2 + l 2
a b c
For a cubic lattice, a = b =c

a
dhkl =
√h2 +k2 +l2
Number of atoms per unit cell (n)

1. Simple cubic lattice
There are eight corner atoms. Each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells. Hence the share of each
unit cell is equal to one eighth of an atom.
1
Therefore the total number of atom in one unit cell = 8 × = 1.
8
2. Body centered cubic lattice

There are eight atoms at the eight corners of the unit cell and one atom at the body centre. As each
1
corner atom is shared by eight unit cells, the contribution to each cell is 8 × = 1. Moreover, there is
8
one body centre atom per unit cell.
Therefore total number of atoms per unit cell= 1+1 = 2.
3. Face centered cubic lattice
There are eight atoms at the eight corners of the unit cell and six face centered atoms at the centre of six
1
faces. As each corner atom is shared by eight unit cells, the contribution to each cell is 8 × = 1. Each
8
face centered atom is shared by two unit cells. Hence the contribution of six face centered atoms to each
unit cell is 6 x ½ = 3.
Therefore the total number of atoms per unit cell = 1 + 3 = 4.

Co-ordination number
Co-ordination number is the number of equidistant neighbours surrounding an atom in the given crystal
structure. When the coordination number is larger, the structure is more closely packed.
Here any corner atom has four nearest neighbours in the same plane and two nearest neighbours in a
vertical plane. Hence co-ordination number in this case is six.
For any corner atom of the unit cell, the nearest atoms are the atoms which are at the centers of unit
cells. A corner atom is surrounded by eight unit cells having eight body centered atoms. Hence co-
ordination number is eight.
For any corner atom, there will be four face centered atoms of the surrounding unit cells in its own plane
as nearest neighbours and four face centered atoms each in two perpendicular planes. Hence co-
ordination number is 4 + 4 + 4 = 12.
Relation between atomic radius and the lattice constant
Atoms touch each other at least in one direction in a unit cell. All atoms could be assumed to be
spherical in shape.
The front view of one face of unit cell is shown:
If ‘a’ is the lattice constant and ‘R’ the atomic radius, a = 2R.
In this structure the corner atoms do not touch each other. But each corner atom touches the central
atom. From the geometry of the cube,
AB2 = AC2 + BC2
But AB=4R AC2=a2+a2 and BC=a
(4R)2 = a2+a2 +a2 = 3a2
4R = 3 a
4
a=( )R
√3

Corner atoms do not touch each other. But each corner atom touches the central atom in the
corresponding face as shown:
From figure, AB2 = a2+a2

But AB=4R
(4R)2 = 2a2
4R = √2 a

4
a= R or a = 2√2 R
√2
Packing factor (fraction)

Packing factor is the ratio of total volume of the atoms in the unit cell to the total available volume in
the unit cell.
4
( R3 )
3
Packing factor (p.f) = n
𝑎3

n=1 a = 2R
4
1×3R3 
 p.f = = 6 = 0.52
(2R)3

4
n=2 a=( )R
√3
4
2× R3 √3𝜋
 p.f = 4
3
= = 0.68
( R)3 8
√3

n=4 a = 2√2 R
4
4× R3 π
 p.f = 3
= = 0.74
(2√2R)3 3√ 2
The table below shows different parameters for cubic structures:
Number of atoms Relation between lattice constant (a) Packing Coordination

Structure
per unit cell and atomic radius (R) fraction number
Simple
1 a = 2R 0.52 6
cubic
Body 4
centered 2 a=( )R 0.68 8
cubic √3
Face
centered 4 a = 2√2 R 0.74 12
cubic

Lattice parameter and density
Density of a cubic crystalline material can be written as
Total mass of molecules in the unit cell
Density  =
volume of the unit cell
nM⁄
NA
=
𝑎3
Where ‘M’ is the molecular weight, ‘NA’ the Avogadro number and ‘a’ the lattice parameter.
nM
a3 =
ρNA
nM 1⁄
or, a = ( ) 3
ρNA
Bragg’s law
From figure, Path difference = PE + EQ

= BE sin + BE sin
= d sin + d sin
= 2d sin
Intensity of the reflected light will be maximum when path difference is n.
i.e., 2d sin = n
This result is known as Bragg’s law.
‘’ is called Bragg angle or glancing angle and ‘n’ is the order of diffraction.
W.H Bragg
Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer
Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer consists of three parts:

1. A source of X-rays (X-ray tube). Here electrons are emitted by thermionic emission from the filament
F. These electrons strike the metal target T, which produce X-rays.
2. A crystal held on a circular turn table provided with vernier
3. A detector (ionization chamber)

X-rays from an X-ray tube collimated by two narrow slits S1 and S2 are allowed to fall upon the crystal
C.
The crystal is mounted on the turn table, which can rotate about a vertical axis and its position can be
determined by vernier V1.
The table is provided with a radial arm which carries ionization chamber. This arm can also be rotated
about the same vertical axis as the crystal. The position of this arm can be determined by the vernier V2.
The ionization chamber is connected to an electrometer E to measure the ionization current. The slits S3
and S4 limit the width of the diffracted beam.
The crystal table and ionization chamber are connected in such a way that the chamber turns through 2,
when the crystal turns through .
To begin with, the glancing angle  is kept very small and corresponding ionization current is noted.
The glancing angle is increased in equal steps and in each case, ionization current is noted down. The
ionization current is plotted against the glancing angle.
This graph is called X-ray spectrum. The peaks in the graph occur whenever Bragg’s law is satisfied.
One can measure the interplanar spacing‘d’ through Bragg’s relation 2d sin = n, by using the
measured value of ‘’, the order ‘n’ and x-ray wavelength ‘’.
The figure below shows a typical X-ray spectrum of a crystalline material.

Bragg with X-ray spectrometer

Allotropy
Allotropy is the property by virtue of which an element can have more than one type of structure all of
which have identical chemical properties but their physical properties differ.
Eg: Diamond & Graphite
The Structure of diamond is combination of two interpenetrating FCC sub-lattices, while graphite
consists of parallel layers of carbon atoms in which carbon atoms are arranged in a network of
hexagonal rings. Graphite is an electrical conductor, while diamond is an insulator. Diamond is a
hardest material, while graphite is soft.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism is the ability of a substance to crystallize in several solid phases that posses different
lattice structures at different temperature. Many metals exhibit Polymorphism.
Eg: Iron possess BCC structure at room temperatures. It retains its structure upto 910°C.At 910°C it
undergoes transformation in structure from BCC to FCC. It retains its FCC structure up to 1400°C. But
beyond 1400°C the structure again becomes BCC up to melting point 1540°C.

Solved Problems
1. Find the Miller indices of a set of parallel planes which make intercepts in the ratio 3a:4b on X and Y
axes and are parallel to Z-axis, a,b,c being primitive vectors of the lattice.
Solution:
From data, x:y = 3a:4b
Since the plane is parallel to z-axis, x:y:z = 3a:4b:∞c
x y z
(a, b, c) = (3,4,∞)
1 1
Taking reciprocals, we obtain (3, 4, 0)
Multiplying throughout by LCM of the denominator 12, we obtain, (4 3 0)

⸫ The Miller indices are (4 3 0)
2. Ni has fcc structure with lattice constant 3.52 Å. Calculate the interplanar spacings for (101), (123)
and (320) planes.
Solution:
a
dhkl =
√h2 +k2 +l2
3.52 ×10−10
For (101) planes, dhkl =
√12 +02 +12
= 2.49×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎m
3.52 ×10−10
For (123) planes, dhkl = √12 +22 +32
= 9.41×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 m
3.52 ×10−10
For (320) planes, dhkl = √32 +22 +02
= 9.76×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 m
3. The minimum order of Bragg’s reflection occurs at an angle 200 in the plane [212]. Find the
wavelength of X-ray if lattice constant is 3.615 Å.
Solution:
a
dhkl =
√h2 +k2 +l2
3.615 ×10−10
d212 =
√22 +1+22
= 1.205 × 10−10 m
2dsinθ = n𝛌
2dsinθ 2× 1.205 ×10−10×sin20
𝛌= = = 0.824Å
𝑛 1

Objective questions
1. Which of the following is not an amorphous substance?

A) Glass B) Rubber C) Polymers D) Copper
2. The minimum volume unit cell is known as

A) Primitive cell B) nonprimitive cell C) Amorphous D) Photocell
3. All types of Bravais lattices observed in

A) Rhomohedral B) Orthorhombic C) Triclinic D) Monoclinic
4. A crystal of tetragonal lattice is

A) a=b=c B) abc C) a=bc D) ab=c
5. Which one of the following Bravais lattices is not found in cubic crystal?
A) Simple cubic B) Face centered C) Body centered D) Base centered
6. The crystal with lattices a = b ≠ c and angles α = β = γ = 900 represents

A) Tetragonal B) Hexagonal C) Orthorhombic D) Cubic
7. The relation for angles between axes of a triclinic crystal is

A)  = β = γ = 900 B)  ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 900 C)  ≠ β ≠ γ = 900 D)  = β = γ ≠ 900
8. A crystal of hexagonal lattice is

A) abc B) a=b=c C) a=bc D) ab=c
9. The planes in a crystal are represented by

A) Interfacial angles B) Basis vectors C) Unit cells D) Miller indices
10. A plane intercepts at a, b/2, 2c in a simple cubic unit cell. The miller indices of the plane are
A) (214) B) (241) C) (421) D) (124)
11. The miller indices of the plane parallel to x and y axis are
A) (100) B) (010) C) (001) D) (111)
12. In a simple cubic lattice the ratio d100:d110:d111 is

A) 6:3:1 B) √3:√6:1 C) 6:3:√2 D) √6:√3:√2
13. The interplanar distance for (212) planes of copper with lattice constant 3.615 Å is
A) 1.205 Å B) 3.615 Å C) 2.41 Å D) None of these
14. The number of atoms per unit cell in a body centered cubic lattice is
A) 1 B) 2 C) 4 D) 8

15. The coordination number for a face centered cubic lattice is
A) 12 B) 8 C) 6 D) 26
16. The coordination number in the case of simple cubic crystal structure is
A) 12 B) 6 C) 2 D) 1
17. Which one of the following is true for fcc lattice

4 8
A) a = 2R B) a = ( ) R C) a = 2√2 R D) a = ( )R
√3 √3
18. The ratio of total volume of the atoms in the unit cell to the total available volume in the unit cell is
called as
A) Density of states B) Packing factor D) Coordination number D) Density
19. More closely packed structure is

A) Simple cubic B) BCC C) FCC D) both BCC and FCC
20. The packing factor for fcc structure is

A) 52% B) 68% C) 92% D) none of these
21. Bragg’s law is

A) 2d sin = n B) nd sin = 2 C) d sin = 2n D) 2n sin = 
22. Which of the following is not a part of Bragg’s spectrometer?

A) X-ray tube B) Crystal table C) Ionization chamber D) Barometer
23. For every rotation by angle  in Bragg’s spectrometer, detector turns by an angle
A)  B)3 C) 4 D) 2
24. The property by virtue of which an element can have more than one type of structure all of which
have identical chemical properties but their physical properties differ is called as
A) Allotropy B) Polymorphism C) Isotope effect D) Superconductivity
25. The ability of a substance to crystallize in several solid phases that posses different lattice structures
at different temperature is known as
A) Allotropy B) Polymorphism C) Isotope effect D) Superconductivity

Important questions
1. Define unit cell and primitive cell.
2. Explain the terms space lattice and lattice parameters.
3. Explain in brief the seven crystal systems with neat diagrams.
4. How do you find Miller indices of a given plane?
5. Sketch the (1 ī 2), (1 1 0) and (1 0 0) planes in a simple cubic unit cell.
6. Draw the following planes in a cubic unit cell:

i) (2 0 0) ii) ( ̅2 1 0) iii) (1 3̅ 2)
7. Draw the planes (1 1 0), (1 0 1), (1 1 1), (2 1 4), (1 0 2), (1 1 2), (0 0 ī) and (ī ī 0)
8. Derive expression for interplanar spacing in terms of Miller indices.
9. Define coordination number and packing factor. Calculate the packing factor for sc, fcc and bcc
structures.
10. Derive Bragg’s law.
11. Describe how the crystal structure of a crystal can be found out using Bragg’s X-ray diffractometer.
12. Write notes on Allotropy and Polymorphism.

Problems
1 1
1. Obtain Miller indices of the crystal plane with intercepts x = a, y = 1b and z = c in a simple cubic
3 2
unit cell.
2. Iron crystallizes in bcc structure. Calculate the lattice constant. Given that, the atomic weight and
density of iron are 55.85 and 7860 kg/m3 respectively.
3. The minimum order of Bragg’s reflection occurs at an angle 200 in the plane [111]. Find the
wavelength of X-ray if lattice constant is 3.04 Å.
4. Calculate the glancing angle for incidence of X-rays of wavelength 0.58Å on the plane (132) of NaCl
which results in second order diffraction maxima taking the lattice as 3.81Å.
5. A monochromatic X-ray beam of wavelength 1.5 Å undergoes second order Bragg reflection from the
plane (211) of a cubic crystal, at a glancing angle of 54.380. Calculate the lattice constant.
6. Inter planar distance for a crystal is 3Å and the glancing angle for second order spectrum was
observed to be equal to 10030’. Find the wavelength of the X-rays used.
7. Monochromatic X-rays of wavelength 0.82 Å undergo first order Bragg reflection from a crystal of
cubic lattice with lattice constant 3 Å, at a glancing angle of 70 51’ 18”. Identify the possible planes
which give rise to this reflection in terms of their Miller indices.

Module 5
Interference of Light
The superposition of two or more light waves and redistribution of their energies is called interference.
Coherent waves
Sources used should be coherent to observe interference phenomenon. Coherent waves are light waves
with same frequency, which maintain the same phase or constant phase difference over a distance and
time.
Superposition of two coherent waves - Constructive and Destructive Interference.
When two waves are in phase, the amplitude of the resultant wave is equal to the sum of amplitudes of
the two waves.
The interference produced at these points is known as constructive interference leading to bright band.
When two waves are in opposite phase, amplitude of the resultant wave is equal to zero. The
interference produced at these points is known as destructive interference leading to dark band.
If the path difference between two waves is equal to nλ, it results in constructive interference.
λ
If the path difference between two waves is equal to (2n+1)2, it results in destructive interference.
The regions of brightness and darkness are also known as regions of maxima and minima.
Theory of Interference fringes
The two coherent sources must lie close to each other in order to discern the fringe pattern. If the
sources are far apart, the fringe width will be very small and fringes are not seen separately. The
distance of the screen from the two sources must be large. The vector sum of the overlapping electric
field vectors should be zero in the dark regions for obtaining distinct bright and dark fringes.
Interference in thin films

Everyone is familiar with the beautiful colours produced by a thin film of oil on the surface of water and
also by the thin film of a soap bubble. These beautiful colour effects arise from interference between
light waves
(1) Reflected and
(2) Transmitted from the two surfaces of thin transparent films.
Interference due to reflected light
Consider a transparent film of thickness‘t’ and refractive index ‘µ’. A ray AB is incident on the upper
surface of the film. The light partly gets reflected along BP and partly refracted along BC. At C, part of
it is reflected along CD and finally emerges out along DQ. The rays BP and DQ interfere and we
observe interference pattern.

The path difference between the two rays BP and DQ can be calculated.
Draw DM normal to BP and CN normal to BD.
It is evident from figure,
∟BCN = r and ∟BDM = i
Optical path difference between the two waves = µ (BC+CD) - BM
But from figure, BC = CD
Optical path difference = 2µBC-BM ----- (1)
From Δ BCN,
CN t
cos r = =
BC BC
t
Or BC = ----- (2)
Cos r
BM
From Δ BDM, sin i =
BD
Or BM = BD sin i ----- (3)
BN BN
From Δ BCN, tan r = =
CN t
Or BN = t tan r
But BD = 2 BN
BD = 2 t tan r ----- (4)
Substituting the value of BD from equation (4) in equation (3),
BM = 2 t tan r sin i
sin r
=2 t × sin i
cos r
sin r sin i
=2 t × × sin r
cos r sin r
sin2 r sin i
=2 µ t ----- (5) [µ = ]
cos r sin r
Substituting the value of BM from equation (5) and BC from equation (2) in equation (1),

t sin2 r
Optical path difference = 2 µ –2µt
Cos r cos r
t
=2µ [1 - sin2r]
Cos r
t
=2µ × cos2r
Cos r
= 2 µ t cos r
By electromagnetic theory, when light is reflected from the surface of an optically denser medium, a
λ
phase change of π, equivalent to a path difference of 2 occurs.
λ
 Correct path difference = 2 µ t cos r - 2
Condition for constructive interference (Bright bands)

Path difference = nλ
λ
 2 µ t cos r - 2 = nλ
λ
2 µ t cos r = nλ + 2
λ
2 µ t cos r = (2n+1) 2
Condition for destructive interference (Dark bands)

λ
Path difference = (2n+1) 2
λ λ
2 µ t cos r - 2 = (2n+1) 2
λ λ
2 µ t cos r = (2n+1) 2 + 2
= (2n+2) λ/2
= (n+1) λ
Since n is an integer, (n+1) can also be taken as n.
2 µ t cos r = nλ
Colours in thin films

When light is incident on a thin film, the reflected light will not include the colour whose wavelength
satisfies the equation 2 µ t cos r = n λ. Therefore the film will appear coloured and the colour will
depend upon thickness and the angle of incidence (refraction). If ‘r’ and‘t’ are constant, the colour will
be uniform. In the case of oil on water, different colours are observed because ‘r’ and‘t’ vary.

AIR WEDGE/WEDGE SHAPED THIN FILM
Let an air wedge be formed between two glass plates, slightly inclined to each other at an angle θ as
shown. Illuminate the wedge by a parallel beam of monochromatic light. Interference occurs between
the rays reflected from the upper and lower surfaces of the air film. Alternate dark and bright bands of
equal width are observed.
Let‘t’ be the thickness of the air film at a distance ‘x’ from the edge. From figure,
t
tan θ =
x
Since θ is small, tan θ ~ θ
t
θ=
x
Or t = θ x ----- (1)
Condition for occurrence of a dark band is
2 µ t cos r = nλ
For air film, µ = 1. For normal incidence, cos r = 1
2t = nλ
Substituting‘t’ from equation (1),
2 θ x = nλ
nλ
Or, xn =
2θ
(n+1)λ
xn+1 =
2θ
Fringe width β = xn+1 - xn
λ
=
2θ
For a liquid wedge,
λ
β=
2μθ
Applications of air wedge
Determination of thickness (diameter) of thin objects
The given object is placed between two glass plates to form an air wedge. On illumination, we can see
λ
alternate bright and dark bands with bandwidth β =
2θ
From figure,
d
θ=
L
λ
But β =
2θ
λL
β =
2d
λL
Or, d =
2β
Testing of optical planeness of surfaces

A surface is said to be optically flat if it is plane upto 1/10 th of the wavelength of light used. In order to
test the planeness, we can use interference fringes obtained from an air film. The surface to be tested is
placed in contact with an optically flat glass plate and the fringes are viewed. If the fringes of equal
thickness are formed, then the surface is flat. Irregular and distorted fringe pattern is obtained if the
surface is not flat.

Newton’s Rings
Figure shows the experimental setup for the Newton’s rings experiment. The arrangement consists of a
Plano convex lens of large radius of curvature placed on an optically plane glass plate, with convex
surface touching the glass plate. Light from a sodium source is reflected by a glass plate, inclined at an
angle of 45° to the horizontal. This falls on the lens placed over a plane glass plate.
A thin film of air of varying thickness is formed between the lens and the glass plate. The thickness of
the film is zero at the point of contact and gradually increases towards the edge of the lens.
A beam of monochromatic light is incident normally on the lens. A part of light is reflected from the top
surface of the air film and another part is reflected from the top surface of the glass plate. These two
reflected beams interfere destructively or constructively and produce dark or bright ring. Fringes are
circular since thin air film in between plane glass plate and planoconvex lens has circular geometry.

From figure, PM2 = PN2 + MN2

If “R” is the radius of curvature of the lens and “t” is the thickness of the air film at Q,
R2 = rm2 + (R-t)2
Or, R2- (R-t)2 = rm2
R2- (R2- 2Rt+t2) = rm2
rm2 = 2Rt-t2
As R>>t, t2 can be neglected.
⸫ rm2 = 2Rt
For normal incidence, condition for darkness at Q is 2t = m𝛌
⸫ rm2 = m𝛌R
Or, rm = √mλR
Diameter of the dark ring Dm = 2√mλR
= √4mλR
Determination of wavelength of light
If D2m+p and D2m represent diameters of (m+p)th and mth dark rings respectively, then wavelength of
light source used is given by,
D2m+p −D2m
𝛌=
4pR
Determination of radius of curvature of lens

If Dm+p and Dm represent diameters of (m+p)th and mth dark rings respectively, then radius of curvature
of the lens used is given by,
D2m+p −D2m
R=
4pλ

Determination of refractive index of a liquid
Let (Dm+p)air and (Dm)air represent diameters of (m+p)th and mth dark rings respectively in air medium
and (Dm+p)liquid and (Dm)liquid represent diameters of (m+p)th and mth dark rings respectively in liquid
medium. Then refractive index of the liquid is given by,
(D2m+p )air – (D2m )𝑎ir
μ=
(D2m+p )liquid – (D2m )liquid
Diffraction
The bending of waves around the edges of an obstacle is called diffraction. The dimension of the
obstacle should be comparable to the wavelength of waves.
Diffraction of light
The bending of light round the edges of an obstacle and the encroachment of light within the
geometrical shadow is known as diffraction of light.
Classes of diffraction
There are two classes of diffraction- Fresnel diffraction and Fraunhoffer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction
Here either the source of light or the screen or both are at finite distances from the obstacle causing
diffraction.
Here to get the diffraction effect on the screen, no modification is made by lenses and mirrors.
Example: Diffraction at a single slit, Diffraction at a straight edge.
Fraunhoffer diffraction
Here the source and the screen are at infinite distances from the object causing diffraction.
Here we use converging lens to make the incident light a plane wavefront.
A wavefront is plane if the source is at infinity.
Diffracted light is focused on the screen using another convex lens.
In actual practice, the source and the screen are placed at the focal planes of two convex lenses.
Then both the source and image (screen) are effectively at infinity.
Fresnel theory of half period zones
ABCD is a plane wavefront perpendicular to the plane of the paper and P is an external point at a
distance ‘b’ perpendicular to ABCD. To find the resultant intensity at P due to the wavefront ABCD,
Fresnel’s method consists in dividing the wavefront into a number of half period elements or zones
called Fresnel’s zones and to find the effect of all the zones at the point P.

Each zone differs from its neighbour by a phase difference of p or a path difference of 𝛌/2.
The area of the first half period zone is
π OM12 = π [M1P2 – OP2]

λ
= π[(b + )2 – b2]
2
𝜆2
= π [(b2 + + b𝛌) – b2]
4
𝜆2
= π [b𝛌 + ]
4
As “𝛌” is small, 𝛌2 can be neglected.
⸫ The area of the first half period zone is πb𝛌.
Since the area of the first half period zone is π OM12 which is equal to πb𝛌, the radius of the first half
period zone is r1 = OM1 = √bλ.
The radius of the second half period zone is OM2 = [M2P2 – OP2]1/2
= [(b + 𝛌)2 – b2)]1/2
= [(b2 + 2b𝛌 +𝛌2) – b2]1/2
= [2b𝛌 +𝛌2]1/2
As “𝛌” is small, 𝛌2 can be neglected.
⸫ The radius of the second half period zone is √2bλ
The area of the second half period zone = π [ OM22 - OM12 ]

= π [2bλ – bλ]
= πb𝛌
Thus, area of each half period zone is πb𝛌.
Also the radii of the 1st , 2nd, 3rd etc. half period zones are √1bλ, √2bλ, √3bλ etc. Therfore, the radii are
proportional to the square roots of the natural numbers.

Let m1,m2,m3, etc. represent the amplitudes of vibration of the particles at P due to secondary waves
from the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc. half period zones.
The quantities m1,m2,m3, etc. are of continuously decreasing order. Displacements of particles due to
odd numbered zones are in positive direction and even numbered zones are in negative direction.
Therefore the resultant amplitude at P due to the whole wavefront is m1/2.
m21
The intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude. I.e.,
4
Thus, the intensity at P is only one-fourth of that due to the first half period zone alone.
Since in diffraction, it is possible to observe illumination in the region of the geometrical shadow also,
rectilinear propagation of light is only approximately true.
Zone Plate
A zone plate is a specially constructed screen such that light is obstructed from every alternate zone. It
can be designed so as to cut off light due to the even numbered zones or that due to the odd numbered
zones.
To construct a zone plate, concentric circles are drawn on white paper such that the radii are
proportional to the square roots of the natural numbers. The odd numbered zones are covered with a
black ink and a reduced photograph is taken.
In the negative of the photograph, the odd zones are transparent to incident light and the even zones will
cut off light.

The focal length of the zone plate is given by,
r2n
fn = b =
nλ
Thus, a zone plate has different foci for different wavelengths.
Diffraction Grating
An arrangement which is equivalent in action to a number of parallel, equidistant, narrow rectangular
slits of equal width placed side by side is called a diffraction grating.
Gratings are made by ruling equidistant parallel lines on an optically transparent sheet of material with a
sharp diamond point, the line portion being opaque and the space between the lines being transparent to
light.
This sheet acts as a transmission grating. To get a reflection grating, lines are drawn on a plane silvered
surface.
General equation of Grating
A plane wavefront is incident on the grating surface. All the secondary waves will reinforce one another
at P, giving a central bright maximum.
Consider the secondary waves traveling in a direction inclined at an angle q with the direction of the
incident light. The collecting lens is suitably rotated to focus secondary waves at P1

Here path difference = (a+b) Sinθ
The point P1 will be of maxiumm intensity,
If path difference, (a+b) Sinθ = n𝛌
This is called grating equation.
(a+b) is called grating element.
If N is the number of lines per meter of the grating, (a+b) = 1/N
Then grating equation becomes,
Sinθ = nN𝛌
P corresponds to the position of central maximum and 1, 2 etc. on the two sides of P represent the 1st,
2nd etc. principal maxima. a,b,c etc. are secondary maxima and d,e etc. are secondary minima.
Resolving power of grating
The ability of an optical instrument expressed in numerical measure to resolve the images of two nearby
points is termed as the resolving power.
In the case of grating, the term resolving power is referred to the ability of the grating to resolve two
nearby spectral lines so that the two lines can be viewed as separate lines.
λ
Resolving power of grating, = nN*
dλ
Where N* is the total number of lines on the grating surface.
Dispersive power of Grating
Dispersive power of a Grating is defined as the ratio of the difference in the angle of diffraction of two
neighbouring spectral lines to the difference in their wavelengths.
dθ nN
Dispersive power of grating, =
dλ cosθ
Where N is number of lines per meter of the grating.

Objective questions
1. The bending of waves around the edges of an obstacle is called
A) Diffraction B) Polarisation C) Interference D) Refraction
2. To observe diffraction, the dimension of the _________ should be comparable to the wavelength of
waves.
A) Lens B) Source C) Screen D) Obsatcle
3. Diffraction where either the source of light or the screen or both are at finite distances from the
obstacle causing diffraction is known as
A) Fresnel diffraction B) Fraunhoffer diffraction C) X-ray diffraction
D) Neutron diffraction
4. Diffraction where the source and the screen are at infinite distances from the object causing
diffraction is known as
5. Converging lens is used in
6. In Fresnel theory wavefront is divided into
A) two equal parts B) four equal parts C) Many half period zones D) None of these
7. Each half period zone differs from its neighbour by a path difference of
𝝀
A) λ B) 𝟐 C) 2λ D) None of these
8. The area of each half period zone is equal to

A) b λ B) πbλ C) √bλ D) √nbλ
9. The radius of nth half period zone is
A) √𝐧𝐛𝛌 B) √nλ C) √nπbλ D) √πbλ
10. The focal length of the zone plate is given by
𝐫𝟐
𝐧 r3 r
A) 𝐧𝛌 B) nλn C) nλn D) None of these
11. A zone plate can be used for the wavelengths

A) Visible waves B) Microwaves C) X-rays D) All of these
13. An arrangement which is equivalent in action to a number of parallel, equidistant, narrow
rectangular slits of equal width placed side by side is called a
A) Zone plate B) Interferometer C) Grating D) Biprism

14. Optical device used to study diffraction phenomenon is
A) Lens B) Mirror C) Prism D) Grating
15. To get a reflection grating, lines are drawn on a
A) Plane glass plate B) Masked glass plate C) Plane silvered surface D) None of these
16. The grating equation is
A) Sinθ = (a+b) λ B) Sinθ = nNλ C) Sinθ = nλ D) (a+b) Sin θ = Nλ
17. Grating element (a+b) is given by
𝟏 1
A) N B) nλ C) 𝐍 D) n
18. The ability of an optical instrument expressed in numerical measure to resolve the images of two
nearby points is termed as the
A) Dispersive power B) Emissive power C) Focal length D) Resolving power
19. Resolving power of grating is
𝛌 λ dθ nN dθ nλ
A) 𝐝𝛌= nN* B) dλ= nλ C) dλ = cosθ D) dλ = cosθ
20. Dispersive power of a Grating is

λ λ 𝐝𝛉 𝐧𝐍 dθ nλ
A) dλ= nN* B) dλ= nλ C) 𝐝𝛌 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉 D) dλ = cosθ

Important questions
1. What is interference? Explain constructive and destructive interference on the basis of superposition
of two coherent waves.
2. Obtain the conditions for maxima and minima in interference in thin films due to reflected light.
3. Derive a relation for fringe width for air wedge. Explain how the thickness of the spacer can be
determined using this method.
4. Write a note on Fresnel’s theory of half period zones.
5. Explain how a zone plate is constructed. Compare a zone plate and a convex lens.
6. What is a diffraction grating? Deduce the general equation of a grating and explain diffraction
spectrum using a neat figure.
7. What is diffraction of light? What are the classes of diffraction?
8. What is a grating? How is it constructed? Distinguish between transmission grating and reflection
grating.
9. Write a note on resolving power of a grating.
10. Write a note on dispersive power of a grating.

Problems
1. A soap film 5×10-5cm thick is viewed at an angle of 35o to the normal. Find the wavelength of light in
the visible spectrum which will be absent from the reflected light. Given refractive index of soap film =
1.33.
2. A soap film of refractive index 1.33 and thickness 1.5×10-4 cm is illuminated by white light incident
at an angle of 60o. The light reflected by it is examined by a spectroscope in which is found a dark band
corresponding to a wavelength of 5×10-5 cm. Calculate the order of interference of the dark band.
3. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 15th ring was found to be 0.59 cm and that of 5th
ring was 0.336 cm, If the radius of the plano-convex lens is 100 cm, calculate the wavelength of the
light used.
4. Newton’s rings are observed in reflected light of λ = 5900 Å. The diameter of the 10th dark ring is 0.5
cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens and thickness of the air film.
5. In a Newton’s ring experiment, the diameter of the 10th ring changes from 1.4 cm to 1.27 cm when a
drop of liquid is introduced between the lend and the glass plate. Calculate the refractive index of the
liquid.
6. A glass wedge of angle 0.01 radian is illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength 6000Å
falling normally on it. At what distance from the edge of the wedge, will the 10th fringe be observed by
reflected light.
7. A beam of monochromatic light of wavelength 5820Å falls normally on a glass wedge of angle 20
seconds of an arc. If the refractive index of the glass is 1.5, find the number of dark fringes per cm of the
wedge length.
8. How many half period zones are there in a circular patch of radius 1 cm due to a wavelength 6× 10-5
cm, when observed from a distance of 1 m?
9. The diameter of the first ring of a zone plate is 1.1 mm. If plane waves (λ = 6000 Å) fall on the plate,
where should be screen placed so that light is focused to a bright spot?
10. What is the radius of the first half period zone in a zone plate behaving like a convex lens of focal
length 60 cm for light of wavelength 6000Å?
11. A plane diffraction grating has the value of grating constant equal to 15×10-4cm. Calculate the
position of the third order maximum for λ = 2.4×10-4cm.
12. What is the highest order spectrum, which may be seen with monochromatic light of wavelength
6000Å by means of a diffraction grating with 5000 lines/cm.
13. Light of wavelength 5000Å falls on a grating normally. Two adjacent principal maxima occur at
11o30’ and 17o24’ respectively. Calculate the grating element.
14. Find the number of lines in a grating to resolve in the first order sodium doublet having a
wavelength difference of 6Å at 5893Å.
15. A diffraction grating which has 4000 lines to a cm is used at normal incidence. Calculate the
dispersive power of the grating in the third order spectrum in the wavelength region 5000Å.

USN: 19SPH11
Srinivas University
College of Engineering and Technology
Srinivas Campus, Mukka, Mangaluru-574146
First Semester - B.Tech. Degree Examination, December 2019
Engineering Physics of Materials
Time: 2 hours Max. Marks: 50
Note: All the objective questions are compulsory (Part A)
Answer any ONE full question from each module (Part B).
Physical constants: Velocity of light, c = 3×108 m/s; h = 6.63×10-34Js; k = 1.38×10-23J/K;

me = 9.1×10-31Kg; e = 1.6×10-19C.
Part A
1. Classical free electron theory was developed by
A) Drude and Lorentz B) Fermi and Dirac C) Bose and Einstein D) Sommerfel
2. Average distance traveled by the conduction electrons between successive collisions is called A)
Wavelength B) Interplanar distance C) Mean free path D) Relaxation
3. In He-Ne laser, the ratio of He-Ne gas molecules in the order
A) 2:1 B) 10:1 C) 1:1 D) 1:2
4. Carrier wave which is not used in long distance communication is
A) Radio waves B) Microwaves
C) Light waves D) Ultrasonic waves
A) Paramagnetic B) Diamagnetic
C) Ferromagnetic D) Anti-ferromagnetic
6. Two opposite poles (north pole and south pole) separated by a distance ‘2l’ constitute a
A) Magnetic dipole B) Magnetic moment
C) Susceptibility D) Superconductor
7. The minimum volume unit cell is known as
A) Primitive cell B) Nonprimitive cell C) Amorphous D) Photocell
8. The planes in a crystal are represented by
A) Interfacial angles B) Basis vectors
C) Unit cells D) Miller indices
9. In a three dimensional structure if all the 3 dimension are of nanosize, then the structure is-
A) Quantum well B) Quantum wire
C) Quantum dot D) None of these
10. The physics of nanotechnology is also called
A) Mesoscopic physics B) Macroscopic physics
C) Microscopic physics D) Atomic physics
(1Mark × 10 =10 Marks)
Part B
Module 1
1 (a) Write down the assumptions of classical free electron theory. (4 Marks)
(b Calculate the probability of an electron occupying an energy level 0.02 eV above the Fermi level and
0.02 eV below the Fermi level at 200 K. (4 Marks)
(OR)
2 (a) What is Fermi energy? Discuss variation of Fermi factor with energy and temperature.
(4 Marks)
-8
(b) A uniform silver wire has resistivity 1.54×10 ohm-m at room temperature for an electric field 2
v/m. Calculate relaxation time and drift velocity of the electrons, assuming that there are 5.8×1022
conduction electrons per cm3 of the material. (4 Marks)
Module 2
3 (a) Obtain an expression for energy density of radiation under equilibrium condition in terms of
Einstein co-efficients. (5 Marks)
(b) A fiber 500m long has an input power of 8.6 mw and output power 7.5 mw. What is the loss
specification in cable? (3 Marks)
(OR)
4 (a) Derive the expression for numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an optical fiber.
(4 Marks)
(b) The average output power of laser source emitting a laser beam of wavelength 632.8nm is 5 mW.
Find the number of photons emitted per second by the laser source. (4 Marks)
Module 3
5 (a) Explain BCS theory of superconductivity. (5 Marks)
(b) Find the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic material if a magnetic field of strength 220 A/m
produces magnetization of 3300 A/m in it. (3 Marks)
(OR)
6 (a) Discuss Meissner effect and isotope effect of superconductors. (5 Marks)
(b) A magnetic material has a magnetization of 2300 A/m and produces a flux density of 0.00314
wb/m2. Calculate magnetizing force and relative permeability of the material. (3 Marks)
Module 4
7 (a) Derive expression for interplanar spacing in terms of Miller indices. (4 Marks)
(b) Write notes on Allotropy and Polymorphism. (4 Marks)
(OR)
8 (a) Describe how the crystal structure of a crystal can be found out using Bragg’s X-ray
diffractometer. (5 Marks)
(b) Sketch the (1 1 2), (1 1 0) and (1 0 0) planes in a simple cubic unit cell. (3 Marks)
Module 5
9 (a) Explain density of states for various quantum structures. (4 Marks)
(b) Explain Sol-gel method. (4 Marks)
(OR)
10 (a) Write a note on applications of CNT. (5 Marks)
(b) Write a note on shapes of nanomaterials. (3 Marks)

Scheme of Evaluation
Part A
1. A) Drude and Lorentz
2. C) Mean free path
3. B) 10:1
4. D) Ultrasonic waves
5. B) Diamagnetic
6. A) Magnetic dipole
7. A) Primitive cell
8. D) Miller indices
9. C) Quantum dot
10. A) Mesoscopic physics
Part B
1 (a) 4 Assumptions -4×1 Mark
1
(b) f(E) = E−EF - 2 Marks
( )
1+e kT
Above Fermi level - f(E) = 0.24 - 1 Mark

Below Fermi level - f(E) = 0.76 - 1 Mark
2 (a) Fermi energy – 1 Mark

Variation of Fermi factor with energy and temperature – Graph – 1 Mark Explanation – 3 Marks
m
(b) τ = ne2ρ - 1 Mark τ = 3.97×10-14s – 1 Mark
E
Vd = ρne - 1 Mark Vd = 0.014 m/s – 1 Mark
A21
⁄B
12
3 (a) B12N1u() = A21N2 + B21N2u() - 1 Mark u() = N1 B21 - 1 Mark
⁄N − ⁄B
2 12
A21
⁄B A21 8πhυ3
12
u() = hυ⁄ B
- 1 Mark = − 1 Mark B12 = B21 − 1 Mark
B12 c3
e kT − 21⁄B
12
(b) α = -10/L log (Pout/Pin) -1 Mark Substitution – 1 Mark Result α = 1.19 dB/km – 1 Mark
4 (a) Figure – 1Mark

Derivation of acceptance angle im = sin-1√n12 − n22 – 2 Marks
Numerical aperture √n12 − n22 – 1 Mark
P Pλ
(b) ) N = ΔE = hc − 2 Marks
Substitution – 1 Mark
N = 1.59 × 1016 – 1 Mark
5 (a) Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer – 1 mark

Electron- lattice- electron interaction and explanation – 2 Marks
Cooper pairs and properties – 2 marks
M
(b) µr = 1+ χ = µr = 1+ H - 1 Mark
µr = 16 – 1 Mark

6 (a) Meissner effect – 3 Marks
Isotope effect – 2 Marks
(b) B = µ0(H+M) – 1 Mark H = 200 A/m – 1 Mark
M
µr = 1+ χ = µr = 1+ = 12.5 – 1 Mark
H
7 (a) Figure – 1 Mark

dhkl dhkl dhkl
cos θ1 = cos θ2 = cos θ3 = - 1 Mark
x y z
(b) Allotropy with example – 2 Marks

Polymorphism with example – 2 Marks
8 (a) Figure – 1 Mark Three parts – 1 Mark Working – 3 Marks

(b) Drawing three planes – 3 ×1 Mark
9 (a) Density of states – 1 Mark 3 Quantum structures - 3 ×1 Mark

(b) Figure – 1 Mark Explanation – 3 Marks
10 (a) Any 5 applications - 5 ×1 Mark

(b) Quantum Well – 1 Mark Quantum Wire – 1Mark Quantum Dot – 1 Mark

USN: 19SPH11
Srinivas University
First Semester - B.Tech. Degree Examination, December 2019

me = 9.1×10-31Kg; e = 1.6×10-19C.
Part A
1. In a metal, if the temperature is increased, then resistivity
A) Increases B) Decreases C) Remains same D) None of these
2. The Fermi factor for E = EF at any temperature is
A) 1 B) ½ C) 0 D) 2
3. Which of the following is not a laser property?
A) Highly monochromatic B) High directionality
C) Very narrow bandwidth D) Highly divergent
4. Which one of the following is an attenuation mechanism?
A) Absorption B) Scattering
C) Microscopic and macroscopic bending D) All of these
5. In ferromagnetic materials, the field required to reduce the flux density to zero is called
A) Coercivity B) Remnance C) Saturation D) Susceptibility
A) Paramagnetic B) Diamagnetic
C) Ferromagnetic D) Anti-ferromagnetic
7. The miller indices of the plane parallel to x axis and y axis are
A) (100) B) (010) C) (001) D) (111)
8. Which of the following is not a part of Bragg’s spectrometer?
A) X-ray tube B) Crystal table
C) Ionization chamber D) Barometer
9. Decomposition of materials at high temperature is called
A) Carbon arc discharge B) Sol-Gel method
C) Pyrolysis D) Milling.
10. Which one of the following is a structure of CNT?
A) Armchair B) Zig-zag
C) Chiral D) All of these

Part B
Module 1
1 (a) Write a note on merits of quantum free electron theory. (4 Marks)
(b) Find the temperature at which there is 1 % probability that a state with an energy 0.5eV above Fermi
energy will be occupied. (4 Marks)
(OR)
2 (a) Explain failure of classical free electron theory. (4 Marks)
(b) A uniform silver wire has resistivity 1.54×10-8 ohm-m at room temperature for an electric field 2
Module 2
3 (a) Explain the different types of optical fibers. (4 Marks)
(b) The average output power of laser source emitting a laser beam of wavelength 632.8nm is 5 mW.
Find the number of photons emitted per second by the laser source. (4 Marks)
(OR)
4 (a) Obtain an expression for energy density of radiation under equilibrium condition in terms of
Einstein co-efficients. (5 Marks)
(b) The refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.41 and 1.40 respectively in an optical fiber. Find
the numerical aperture. (3 Marks)
Module 3
5 (a) Write a note on classification of magnetic materials. (3 Marks)
(b) Explain BCS theory of superconductivity. (5 Marks)
(OR)
6 (a) Define superconductivity and explain Type I and Type II superconductors. (5 Marks)
Module 4
7 (a) Derive expression for interplanar spacing in terms of Miller indices. (4 Marks)
(b) The minimum order of Bragg’s reflection occurs at an angle 20 in the plane [212]. Find the
0
wavelength of X-ray if lattice constant is 3.615 Å. (4 Marks)

(OR)
8 (a) Define coordination number and packing factor. Calculate the packing factor for sc, fcc and bcc
structures. (8 Marks)
Module 5
9 (a) Explain Ball milling method. (4 Marks)
(b) Write a note on different properties of CNT. (4 Marks)
(OR)
10 (a) Write a note on shapes of nanomaterials. (3 Marks)
(b) Explain Carbon arc discharge method for the synthesis of CNT. (5 Marks)

Part A
1. A) Increases
2. B) ½
3. D) Highly divergent
4. D) All of these
5. A) Coercivity
6. B) Diamagnetic
7. C) (001)
8. D) Barometer
9. C) Pyrolysis
10. D) All of these
Part B
1 (a) Temperature dependence of electrical resistivity/conductivity – 2 Marks
Specific heat – 1 Mark
Thermionic emission – 1 Mark
1
(b) f(E) = E−EF - 2 Marks Substitution -1 Mark T = 1261 K -1 Mark
( )
1+e kT
2 (a) Any 2 failure - 2×2 Marks

m
E
3 (a) Step index – 1 Mark Graded index – 1 Mark

Single mode – 1 Mark Multimode – 1 Mark
P Pλ
(b) N = ΔE = hc − 2 Marks
N = 1.59 × 1016 – 1 Mark
A21
⁄B
12
4 (a) B12N1u() = A21N2 + B21N2u() - 1 Mark u() = N1 B21 - 1 Mark
⁄N − ⁄B
2 12
A21
⁄B A21 8πhυ3
12
u() = hυ⁄ B21
- 1 Mark = − 1 Mark B12 = B21 − 1 Mark
B12 c3
e kT − ⁄B
12
(b) NA= = √n21 − n22 - 1 Mark Substitution – 1 Mark NA = 0.1676 – 1 Mark
5 (a) Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic - 3× 1 Mark

(b) Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer – 1 mark
6 (a) Superconductivity – 1 Mark

Type I with graph – 2 Marks Type II with graph – 2 Marks
M
µr = 1+ χ = µr = 1+ = 12.5 – 1 Mark
H

7 (a) Figure – 1 Mark
dhkl dhkl dhkl
cos θ1 = cos θ2 = cos θ3 = - 1 Mark
x y z
a
(b) dhkl = − 1 Mark = 1.205 Å − 1 Mark
√h2 +k2 +l2
2dsinθ = nλ – 1 Mark λ= 0.825 Å - 1 Mark
8 (a) Coordination number – 1 Mark

Packing factor – 1 Mark
Packing factor for sc, fcc and bcc structures -3×2Marks
9 (a) Figure – 1 Marks Explanation – 3 Marks

(b) 4 properties - 4×1Mark
10 (a) Quantum Well – 1 Mark Quantum Wire – 1 Mark Quantum Dot – 1 Mark
(b) Figure – 1 Marks Explanation – 4 Marks

USN: 19SPH11
Srinivas University
First Semester - B.Tech. Degree Examination, April 2021

me = 9.1×10-31Kg; e = 1.6×10-19C.
Part A
1. Quantum free electron theory was developed by
A) Drude and Lorentz B) Newton C) Hall D) Sommerfeld
2. Fermi factor is
E−EF E−EF
1 1
C) 1 − e( )
D) 1 + e( )
A) E−EF B) E−EF
kT kT
( ) ( )
1+e kT e kT
3. The idea of holography was first developed by

A) Dennis Gabor B) Young C) Ali Javan D) Kammerlingh Onnes
4. Optical fiber is a
A) Waveguide B) Signal generator C) Amplifier D) None of these
5. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic material is

A) Positive and large B) Negative and large
C) Negative and small D) Positive and small
6. Type II superconductors are known as
A) Semiconductors B) Soft superconductors
C) Hard superconductors D) None of the above
7. The crystal with lattices a = b = c and angles α = β = γ = 900 represents
A) Tetragonal B) Hexagonal C) Orthorhombic D) Cubic
8. Which of the following is not a crystalline material?
A) Glass B) NaCl C) Diamond D) Graphite
9. Which of the following is not a structure of carbon nanotube.
A) Armchair B) Zig-zag
C) Sol-Gel D) Chiral.
10. A property of CNT is
A) Highly elastic B) High tensile strength C) High ductility D) All of these

Part B
Module 1
1 (a) Write a note on any 2 merits of quantum free electron theory in detail. (4 Marks)
-8
(b) A uniform silver wire has resistivity 1.54×10 ohm-m at room temperature for an electric field 2
(OR)
2 (a) Explain failure of classical free electron theory. (4 Marks)
(b) Explain the terms Fermi factor and Fermi temperature. (4 Marks)
Module 2
3 (a) Explain Spontaneous emission and stimulated emission. (4 Marks)
(b) An optical fiber of 600 m long has input power of 120 mW which emerges out with power 90 mW.
Find attenuation in the fiber. (4 Marks)
(OR)
4 (a) Derive the expression for numerical aperture in an optical fiber. (5 Marks)
(b) The refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.41 and 1.40 respectively in an optical fiber. Find
the numerical aperture. (3 Marks)
Module 3
5 (a) Define superconductivity and explain Type I and Type II superconductors. (5 Marks)
(OR)
6 (a) Explain BCS theory of superconductivity. (5 Marks)
(b) Write a note on classification of magnetic materials. (3 Marks)
Module 4
7 (a) Define coordination number and packing factor. Calculate the packing factor for sc, fcc and bcc
structures. (8 Marks)
(OR)
8 (a) Draw the planes (100), (110), (111) and (321) (4 Marks)
(b) A monochromatic X-ray beam of wavelength 1.5 Å undergoes second order Bragg reflection from
the plane (211) of a cubic crystal, at a glancing angle of 54.380. Calculate the lattice constant.
(4 Marks)
Module 5
9 (a) Write a note on shapes of nanomaterials. (3 Marks)
(b) Explain Ball milling method. (5 Marks)
(OR)
10 (a) Write a note on different properties of CNT. (3 Marks)
(b) Explain Carbon arc discharge method for the synthesis of CNT. (5 Marks)

Part A
1. D) Sommerfeld
1
2. A) E−EF
( )
1+e kT
3. A) Dennis Gabor
4. A) Waveguide
5. A) Positive and large
6. C) Hard superconductors
7. D) Cubic
8. A) Glass
9. C) Sol-Gel
10. D) All of these
Part B
1 (a) Any 2 merits - 2×2 Marks
m
E
2 (a) Any 2 failure - 2×2 Marks

(b) Fermi factor – 2 Marks Fermi temperature – 2 Marks
3 (a) Spontaneous emission – 2 Marks Stimulated emission – 2Marks

(b) α = -10/L log (Pout/Pin) -1 Mark Substitution – 1 Mark Result α = 2.08 dB/km – 2 Marks
4 (a) Figure -1 Mark Derivation – 4 Marks

(b) NA= = √n12 − n22 - 1 Mark Substitution – 1 Mark NA = 0.1676 – 1 Mark
5 (a) Superconductivity – 1 Mark

Type I with graph – 2 Marks Type II with graph – 2 Marks
M
µr = 1+ χ = µr = 1+ H = 12.5 – 1 Mark
6 (a) Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer – 1 mark

(b) Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic - 3× 1 Mark
7 (a) Coordination number – 1 Mark

Packing factor – 1 Mark
Packing factor for sc, fcc and bcc structures -3×2Marks
8 (a) 4 planes – 4 × 1 Mark
(b) 2dsinθ = nλ – 1 Mark d= 1.845 Å - 1 Mark

a
dhkl = − 1 Mark a = 4.519 Å − 1 Mark
√h2 + k 2 + l2

9 (a) Quantum Well – 1 Mark Quantum Wire – 1 Mark Quantum Dot – 1 Mark
10 (a) 3 properties - 3×1Mark



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Srinivas University BTech 2020-2021

SRINIVAS UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF

STUDY MATERIAL PREPARED BY

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 1

1 Electrical properties of metals 9

2 Laser and Fiber optics 27

3 Science of Superconducting materials and 62

5 Interference and Diffraction of Light 110

Model Question Papers and Solutions 125

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 2

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 4

Internal Marks Distribution

SCHEME OF EXAMINATION FOR END SEMESTER EXAMINATION OF 5O MARKS:

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 5

Web links and Video Lectures (e-Resources):

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 6

Subject (Code): ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS (19SPH11/21)

09 WIEDEMANN FRANZ LAW- LORENTZ NUMBER

14 PROPAGATION MECHANISM IN OPTICAL FIBERS

15 NUMERICAL APERTURE-ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

18 ATTENUATION- EQUATION - MECHANISM

41 APPLICATION TO FIND THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A LIQUID

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 8

Electrical properties of metals

Drude Hendrik Lorentz

where k =1.38 × 10-23 J/K.

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 10

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 11

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 12

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 13

Edwin Herbert Hall

But experimental observation is ρ ∞ T.

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 15

Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld

where m is the mass of the electron and EF is the Fermi energy.

where k is the Boltzmann constant and EF is the Fermi energy at 00K.

At T=0K, for E < EF, f(E)=1

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 17

At T=0K, for E = EF, f(E)= indeterminate

At T>0K, for E=EF, f(E)= ½.

All these results are depicted in the figure.

Fermi energy at absolute zero (0K) temperature

But from equation (1),   

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 19

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 20

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 21

ENGINEERING PHYSICS OF MATERIALS 22

1. In a metal, if the temperature is increased, then resistivity

2. For T > 0K, probability of occupancy of Fermi level is

3. The electron mobility in metals is given by

4. The Fermi factor for E = EF at any temperature is

5. If the mobility of electron in a metal increases, the resistivity

8. Experimentally specific heat at constant volume Cv is given by

10. The temperature dependence for electrical resistivity of metal is

16. The quantum mechanical expression for electrical conductivity is

17. Mobility of electron is

18. The classical value of molar specific heat of a conductor is