MAY 2022

CARBOHYDRATE
METABOLISM

BIOCHEMISTRY
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

METABOLISM
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

METABOLIC PATHWAY
• a series of consecutive biochemical reactions used
to convert a starting material into an end product.
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Why we need to breathe

oxygen to stay alive?

“Cellular Respiration”
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

• Not breathing
• Cells release energy from food
molecules (glucose)
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

TYPES OF RESPIRATION

Oxygen Debt
ETC
ETC
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

PHOSPHORYLATION
• The addition of a phosphate to molecule or protein
• KINASES - enzymes that phosphorylate molecules
- uses phosphate ion from ATP to add to a molecule
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
• Synthesis of ATP by direct transfer of phosphate group from a
substrate to a molecule of ADP
• Reaction is catalyzed by kinases
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

DIGESTION AND ABSOPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOLYSIS
• The metabolic pathway in which
glucose is converted to two
molecules of pyruvate
• Anaerobic catabolism of glucose
• Takes place in cytosol
• Has 10 steps
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 1: PHOSPHORYLATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 2: ISOMERIZATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 3: PHOSPHORYLATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 4: CLEAVAGE
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 5: ISOMERIZATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 6: OXIDATION AND PHOSPHORYLATION

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 7: SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 8: ISOMERIZATION
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 9: DEHYDRATION
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

STEP 10: SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

ATP Production and Consumption

Entry of Galactose
and Fructose
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Control points of glycolysis: Steps 1, 3, and 10

Two Types:
• Allosteric
• Hormonal
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Step 1: Conversion of glucose to glucose 6-phosphate by
hexokinase:
• Hexokinase inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate (feedback
inhibition)
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Step 3: Fructose 6-phosphate converted to fructose 1,6-
bisphosphate by phosphofructokinase:
• High concentrations of ATP and citrate inhibit
phosphofructokinase
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS
• Step 10: Conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate by
Pyruvate kinase:
• Enzyme is inhibited by high ATP concentrations.
• Both pyruvate kinase (Step 10) and phosphofructokinase (Step
3) are allosteric enzymes.
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

FATES OF PYRUVATE
OXIDATION TO ACETYL COENZYME A
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

FERMENTATION

• NADH is oxidized without oxygen • Two common types:

• less efficient → 2 ATPs ‒ Lactate fermentation
‒ Ethanol fermentation
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

LACTATE FERMENTATION
• anaerobic conversion of pyruvate to lactic acid
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

ETHANOL FERMENTATION
• anaerobic conversion of pyruvate to ethanol and CO2
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

FATES OF PYRUVATE
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOGEN SYNTHESIS AND DEGRADATION

• Glycogen: A branched polymer form of glucose is the storage

form of carbohydrates in humans and animals (plant starch):
— In muscle: source of glucose for glycolysis
— In liver tissue: source of glucose to maintain normal blood
glucose levels
— Produced by the process of glycogenesis
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOGENESIS
• Metabolic pathway by which glycogen is synthesized from
glucose
• Involves three steps:
— Formation of Glucose 1-phosphate
— Formation of UDP Glucose
— Glucose transfer to a Glycogen Chain
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOGENESIS
• STEP 1: Formation of Glucose 1-phosphate
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOGENESIS

• STEP 2:
Formation of UDP Glucose
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOGENESIS
• STEP 3: Glucose transfer to a Glycogen Chain
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOGENESIS
• STEP 3: Glucose transfer to a Glycogen Chain
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOGENOLYSIS
• Breakdown of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate:
— It is not just reverse of glycogenesis because it
does not require UTP or UDP molecules
— Glycogenolysis is a two-step process
— Step 1: Phosphorylation of a glucose residue
— Step 2: Glucose 1-phosphate isomerization
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOGENOLYSIS
• STEP 1: Phosphorylation of a glucose residue

• STEP 2: Glucose 1-phosphate isomerization

— This process is the reverse of the first step of glycogenesis.

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLYCOGENOLYSIS
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

The Processes of Glycogenesis

and Glycogenolysis
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

GLUCONEOGENESIS
• Metabolic pathway by which glucose is synthesized from non-
carbohydrate sources
• Non-carbohydrate starting materials for gluconeogenesis:
— Pyruvate
— Lactate (from muscles and from red blood cells)
— Glycerol (from triacylglycerol hydrolysis)
— Certain amino acids (from dietary protein hydrolysis or from
muscle protein during starvation)
 GLYCOLYSIS VS.
GLUCONEOGENESIS
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Cori Cycle
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Terminology For Glucose Metabolic Pathways

• Glycolysis: 10 step process in which glucose is converted to pyruvate
• Gluconeogenesis: 11-step process in which pyruvate is converted to
glucose
• Glycogenesis: 2-Step process in which glycogen is synthesized from
glucose 6-phosphate
• Glycogenolysis: The process in which glycogen is converted to glucose
6-phosphate
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Relationships Among Four

Metabolic Pathways Involving Glucose
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

HORMONAL CONTROL OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

• Three major hormones control carbohydrate metabolism:

— Insulin
— Glucagon
— Epinephrine
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

HORMONAL CONTROL OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Insulin
• 51 amino acid polypeptide
• Produced in the pancreas by beta cells
• Lower blood glucose levels
• The release of insulin is triggered by high blood-glucose levels
• Insulin also produces an increase in the rate of glycogenesis and
glycolysis
 CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

HORMONAL CONTROL OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Insulin
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

HORMONAL CONTROL OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Glucagon
• 29 amino acid peptide hormone

• Produced in the pancreas by alpha cells

• Released when blood glucose levels are low

• Increases blood-glucose concentration by speeding up the conversion of

glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis) in the liver

• Elicits the opposite effects of insulin

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

HORMONAL CONTROL OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Epinephrine
• Also called adrenaline
• Released by the adrenal glands in response to anger, fear, or
excitement
• Function is similar to glucagon, i.e., stimulates glycogenolysis
• Primary target is muscle cells
• Promotes energy generation for quick action
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

HORMONAL CONTROL OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

Epinephrine
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM

THANK YOU!
SEE YOU NEXT MEETING