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Fire Service Manual - Volume 2 - Fire Service Operations
Fire Service Manual - Volume 2 - Fire Service Operations
10 '-MY ZODO
Firefighting Foam
I
.; 2 ID
Firefighting Foam
~
Firejighling Foam
III
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Firefighting Foam
Contents
Preface iii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Production of Finished Foam 3
2.1 General 3
2.2 Percentage Concentration 4
2.3 Aspiration 4
2.4 Foam Expansion Ratios 5
Firejighling Foam V [
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _--------..;.J
Firefightin Foam
References 87
Further Reading 87
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Firefighting foams have been developed primarily leads to the complete destruction of the foam
to deal with the hazards posed by liquid fuel blanket. Consequently, special firefighting foams,
fires. generally known as 'alcohol resistant' foam con-
centrates, have been developed to deal with these
Water is used for most firefighting incidents, particular types of liquid.
however it is generally ineffective against fires
involving flammable liquids. This is because Some firefighting foams have also been developed
water has a density that is greater than most flam- specifically for use against class A fires.
mable liquids so, when applied, it quickly sinks
below their surfaces, often without having any The main properties of firefighting foams include:
significant effect on the fire. However, when
some burning liquids, such as heavy fuel oils and • Expansion: the amount of finished foam
crude oi Is, become extremely hot, any water that produced from a foam solution when it is
is applied will begin to boil. The resulting rapid passed through foam-making equipment.
expansion as the water converts to steam may
cause burning fuel to overflow its containment • Stability: the ability of the finished foam to
and the fire to spread - this event is known as a retain its liquid content and to maintain the
slop-over. Also, the water that sinks below the number, size and shape of its bubbles. In
fuel will collect in the container and, should the other words, its ability to remain intact.
container become full, this will result in the fuel
overflowing. • Fluidity: the ability of the finished foam to
be projected on to, and to flow across, the
Finished firefighting foams, on the other hand. liquid to be extinguished and/or protected.
consist of bubbles that are produced from a com-
bination of a solution of firefighting foam concen- • Contamination resistance: the ability of the
trate and water that has then been mixed with air. finished foam to resist contamination by the
These air filled bubbles form a blanket that floats liquid to which it is app[ied.
on the surface of flammable liquids. In so doing,
the foam suffocates the fire and can lead to the • Sealing and resealing: the ability of the
knockdown and extinction of the flames. foam blanket to reseal should breaks occur
and its ability to seal against hot and irregu-
The low density of firefighting foam blankets also lar shaped objects.
makes them useful for suppressing the release of
vapour from flammable and other liquids. Special • Knockdown and extinction: the ability of
foam concentrates are available which allow the finished foam to control and extinguish
vapour suppression of many toxic chemicals. fires.
Firefighting Foam 1
Firefighting Foam Chapter
The performance of firefighting foams can be It must be stressed that this Manual only gives
greatly influenced by: general information on the use of firefighting
foams. Incidents requiring the use of foam are
• The type of foam-making equipment used varied and preplanning in support of an effec-
and the way it is operated and maintained. tive risk assessment at the commencement of an
incident is of the utmost importance to ensure Chapter 2 - Production of Finished Foam
• The type of foam concentrate used. that the correct foams, equipment and tactics
are selected and employed.
• The type of fire and the fuel involved.
• The tactics of foam application. 2.1 General fitted with a means of picking up foam concen-
trate at the equipment; these are known as 'self-
• The rate at which the foam is applied. Finished foam is produced from three main ingre- inducing' with [he mixing taking place in the
dients; foam concentrate, water and air. There are foam-making equipment itself.
• The quality of the water used. usually two stages in its production. The first
stage is to mix foam concentrate with water to The second stage is the addition of air to the foam
• The length of pre-burn. produce a foam solution. The foam concentrate solution to make bubbles (aspiration) to produce
must be mixed into the water in the correct pro- the finished foam. The amount of air added
The most effective and efficient use of firefighting portions (usually expressed as a percentage) in depends on the type of equipment used. Hand-held
foam can only be achieved after full consideration order to ensure optimum foam production and foam-making branches generally only mix rela-
has been given to all of the above factors. firefighting performance. This proportioning is tively small amounts of air into the foam solution.
normally carried out by the use of inductors (or Consequently, these produce finished foam with
This Volume of the Manual describes all aspects of proportioners) or other similar equipment. This low expansion (LX) ratios, that is to say, the ratio
the operational use of firefighting foam and in par- results in the production of a 'premix' foam solu- of the volume of the finished foam produced by the
ticular its use against class B liquid fuel fires. tion. In other words, the foam concentrate and nozzle. to the volume of the foam solution used to
Topics covered include recommended minimum water have been mixed together prior to arriving produce it, is 20: I or less. Other equipment is
application rates and application techniques; prac- at the foam-making equipment. Occasionally, pre- available which can produce medium expansion
tical scenario considerations; and the logistics mix solutions are produced by mixing the correct foam (MX) with expansion ratios of more than
involved in dealing with fires in storage tanks. proportions of water and foam concentrate in a 20: 1 but less than 200: I, and high expansion foam
container. such as an appliance tank, prior to (HX) with expansion ratios of more than 200: I and
The section on firefighting foams in Volume I of pumping to the foam-making equipment. In addi- possibly in excess of 1000: 1.
the Manual describes the technical aspects of fire- tion, some types of foam-making equipment are
fighting foam and discusses the types of equip-
ment typically used by the fire service to produce
it. Topics covered include the properties of foam
concentrates, finished foams and foam equipment:
Figure 2./ The
application rates; and the classes of, and types of, Finished
production offinished Foam
fire for which foam can be used. However, the foam
more important operational aspects included in
Volume I are also summarised in Chapters 2,3 and
4 of this Volume. At the rear of this Volume, there
is a glossary of terms used in this Manual and
other terms that may be used in connection with
firefighting foams.
1
Water Venturi
Proportioner
The following Sections describe in more detail • 'Non-aspirated' implies that no aspiration such as wetting agents, may be formulated so that
some of the important factors of foam production of the foam solution has taken place. they do not foam; use of these types of additive
that were introduced above. would result in non-aspirated application, even
Consequently, the term 'non-aspirated foam' is through purpose designed foam-making equipment.
often used incorrectly to describe the product of a
2.2 Percentage Concentration foam solution that has been passed through equip- 2.4 Foanl Expansion Ratios
ment that has not been specifically designed to
All foams are usually supplied as liquid concen- produce foam, such as a water branch. However, (a) General
trates. These must be mixed with water, to form a the use of this type of equipment will often result
foam solution, before they can be applied to fires. Foam Concentrate in some aspiration of a foam solution. This is As mentioned previously, finished foam is usually
They are generally supplied by manufacturers as Water because air is usually entrained into the jet or spray classified as being either low, medium or high
either 6%, 3% or I % foam concentrates. These of foam solution: expansion. The expansion, or more strictly the
have been designed to be mixed with water as expansion ratio. of a foam is the ratio of the vol-
follows: Figure 2.2 6% Foam Concentrate 94% Water
• As it leaves the branch. ume of the finished foam to the volume of the
foam solution used to produce it.
• 6% concentrates
6 parts foam concentrate in 94 parts water, • As it travels through the air due to the tur-
bulence produced by the stream. Typical firefighting foam expansion ratio ranges
are:
• 3% concentrates a foam solution rich in foam concentrate. Not only • When it strikes an object. This causes fur-
3 parts foam concentrate in 97 parts water, will this result in the foam supply being depleted
very quickly and an expensive waste of foam con-
ther turbulence and air mixing.
• Low expansion less than or equal
to 20: I
• 1 % concentrates
I part foam concentrate in 99 parts water.
centrate, but it will also lead to finished foam with
less than optimum firefighting performance, main-
There is sufficient air entrained by these processes
to produce a foam of very low expansion (often
• Medium expansion greater than 20: I
but less than or
ly due to the foam being too stiff to flow ade- with an expansion ratio of less than 4: I). equal to 200: I
I % concentrate is basically six times as strong as
6% concentrate. and 3% concentrate is twice as
quately. Alternatively, using 3% foam concentrate
where the system is set for I % will result in a solu- To more accurately describe the different types of
• High expansion greater than 200: I
strong as 6% concentrate. However. the firefight- tion with too little concentrate to make foam with finished foam produced, the terms 'primary' or Secondary aspirated foams generally have an
ing characteristics of finished foam produced from adequate firefighting performance. 'secondary' aspirated are preferred: expansion ratio of less than 4: I.
1%, 3% and 6% concentrates of a particular type
of manufacturer's foam should be virtually identi- It is also very important to have compatibility of • Primary aspirated foam - finished foam (b) Equipment Used For Generating
cal. foam-making equipment and induction equipment, that is produced by purpose designed foam- Different Expansion Ratio Foams
and just as importantly, foam induction equipment making equipment.
The lower the percentage concentration, the less must be checked regularly to ensure that it is oper- Primary aspirated low expansion foams are usual-
foam concentrate that is required to make finished ating correctly and giving an accurate rate of • Secondary aspirated foam - finished foam ly produced by using purpose designed foam-mak-
foam. The use of say 3% foam concentrate instead induction. that is produced by all other means, usually ing branches or mechanical generators.
of 6% foam concentrate can result in a halving of standard water devices.
the amount of storage space required for the foam 2.3 Aspiration Secondary aspirated low expansion foams are usu-
concentrate, with similar reductions in weight and Secondary aspiration will normally result in a poor ally produced by using standard water delivery
transportation costs, while maintaining the same Once the correctly mixed foam solution has been quality foam being produced, due to insufficient devices. Some purpose designed large capacity
firefighting capability. Not all foam concentrates delivered to the end of a hose line, there are a num- agitation of the foam/air mixture. That is to say, the monitors have also been produced for this particu-
are available in the highly concentrated I % form, ber of forms in which it can be applied to the fire. foam will generally have a very low expansion lar type of application (see Chapter 8, Section 3).
e.g. alcohol resistant and protein based foam con- Generally, foam application is referred to as being ratio and a very short drainage time. However,
centrates. This is because there are technical limits either 'aspirated' or 'non-aspirated': foam blankets with short drainage times can be Medium and high expansion foams are usually pri-
to the maximum usage concentrations of some of advantageous if rapid film-formation on a fuel is mary aspirated through special foam-making
the constituents of foam concentrates. • Aspirated foam is made when the foam required (see this Chapter, Section 4c). equipment. This equipment produces foam by
solution is passed through purpose designed spraying the foam solution on to a mesh screen or
It is extremely important that the foam induction foam-making equipment, such as a foam- It is highly unlikely that a foam solution can be net. Air is then blown through the net or mesh
equipment used is set to the correct percentage. If making branch. These mix in air (aspirate) applied operationally to a fire in such a way that no either by entrainment caused by the spray nozzle,
3% concentrate is induced by an induction system and then agitate the mixture sufficiently to aspiration occurs. However, should such circum- or by an hydraulic, electric or petrol motor driven
set for 6% concentrate, then twice the correct produce uniformly sized bubbles (finished stances occur, then this would be referred to as a fan.
amount of foam concentrate will be used creating foam). non-aspirated application. Some water additives,
t
6 Fire Sen'ice Manual Firejighting Foam 7
Firefig ting Foam h pt
Secondary
Aspirated
Finished Foams
..
aspirated AFFF. There was little difference in the combustible liquids). Combustion of these occurs point above 55°C such as gas oils, sbme diesel oils, Firefighting foams are effective on low flash point
firefighting performances of these indicating that entirely in the vapour that is present above the sur- heavy fuel oils and heavy lubricating oils. At nor- liquids because they trap the vapour at, or just
if adequate amounts of water can be applied to all face of the liquid. For firefighting purposes, Class mal ambient temperatures these liquids have low above, the liquid surface. The trapped vapour then
areas of a wood fire, it will perform just as well as B liquids can be subdivided into three categories, vapour pressures and so do not generate flamma- sets up an equilibrium with the liquid which pre-
a primary aspirated or secondary aspirated foam each requiring different properties from firefight- ble concentrations of vapour. vents further vapour generation. Where deep foam
when used in the same conditions. ing foams in order to achieve effective and effi-
blankets can be formed, such as in storage tanks
cient fire control and extinction. Water spray can be used to extinguish fires in high with a large ullage, this process may be assisted by
Medium and high expansion foam have been flash point liquids since the cooling effect of water the increased pressure exerted by the heavier blan-
advocated for indoor use on class A fires. The con- The categories are: is sufficient to reduce the generation of vapour to ket. Film-forming foams produce a thin film on the
finement provided by the walls of buildings allows below the concentration needed to sustain com- surface of some of these class B liquids which may
the foam to accumulate into a thick blanket and • high flash point water-immiscible Class B bustion. also prevent vapour escaping.
also protects the foam from being torn apart by liquids;
wind. The mechanism put forward for extinguish- Firefighting foams are very effective against this Additional benefits of using firefighting foams on
ment is that the foam cuts down the movement of • low flash point water-immiscible Class B type of fire giving very rapid control and security these liquids are that they cool the liquid surface,
air which supports combustion. There is a cooling liquids: against reignition, however, use of water spray can reduce the vapour generation rate, obstruct radia-
effect as water from the foam evaporates, and the be perfectly satisfactory and far less expensive in tion from the flame to the liquid surface and reduce
steam generated will also tend to reduce the oxy- • water-miscible Class B liquids; many cases. the oxygen leveL by the production of steam, where
gen level in the air surrounding the fire. If the foam the foam, flame and liquid surface meet.
blanket is deep enough, it will exert enough down- Some high flash point liquid hydrocarbon fires, The primary mechanisms by which foams extin-
ward pressure to enable it to refill holes opened up such as those involving fuel oils, can, under very guish high flash point liquid fires is by cooling the Lead, as lead tetra-ethyl (or lead tetra-methyl) has
when the foam is destroyed by the heat from the controlled conditions, be extinguished using only liquid surface and cutting out back radiation from been used for more than 60 years to improve the
fire. Materials and structural members that would the cooling effect of water. the flames. The smothering action of foam plays a pelformance (octane rating) of the hydrocarbon
otherwise be exposed are shielded from heat radi- relatively insignificant role. mixtures that constitute petrol. However, since
ation by the foam. However, most low flash point hydrocarbon fires,
[974, health and environmental concerns have
such as those involving petrol, cannot be extin- (iii) Low Flash Point Water-immiscible
Although high expansion foam can be effective, guished by water alone as the fuel cannot be low- Class B Liquids
the main practical drawback is that firefighters ered to a temperature where the quantity of vapour
cannot be sure that the fire has been extinguished produced is too small to sustain burning. In addi- Water-immiscible liquids with low flash points, or
(see Chapter 5, Section 4). It can be dangerous to tion, water is generally much denser than liquid class A and B petroleum liquids, have flash points
enter a deep foam blanket to track down the seat of hydrocarbons, consequently, when applied during below 21°C and 5SOC respectively. These include
a fire since there is a chance of sudden exposure to firefighting, it immediately sinks below their sur- class A petroleum liquids such as aviation gaso-
heat and products of combustion. Under some faces without having any beneficial effect, in fire- line, benzene, crude oil, hexane, toluene and petrol
conditions, the fire can continue to burn for a con- fighting terms, on the fire. In fact, the application (including lead-free), and class B petroleum liq-
siderable period at a reduced rate supported by the of water may cause the surface area of the fire to uids such as avtur jet fuel and white spirit.
air released from the foam as it breaks down. increase and spread to previously unaffected areas.
Spills or pools of low flash point liquids can pro-
The use of medium expansion foam against indoor Foam is generally applied to both high and low duce flammable vapour under normal ambient
class A fires, such as in warehouses, could be a flash point hydrocarbon fuel fires because it pro- temperatures, and flammable or explosive concen-
more effective and efficient use of foam. It should vides a visible blanket which controls and extin- trations can accumulate at low level, since most of
be possible to restrict the foam application so that guishes these fires faster and more effectively than the vapour will be heavier than air.
the area of origin of the fire is kept under observa- water.
tion whilst maintaining sufficient foam flow to Water sprays are unsuccessful in extinguishing
force the foam onto the fire. The three categories of Class B liquids and their fires in low flash point liquids because vapour gen-
firefighting characteristics are described in the fol- eration is not sufficiently reduced by the degree of
(b) Class B Fires lowing Sections. cooling achieved. However, considerable reduc-
tions in flame height and radiation intensity can be
(i) General (ii) High Flash Point Water·immiscible achieved with water spray application. Obviously,
Class B Liquids care should be taken to ensure that the fuel does
Class B fires are those which involve flammable not overflow any containment. Where the fuel is
liquids, liquefiable solids, oils, greases, tars, oil Water-immiscible liquids with high flash points, or not contained, the application of water will result Figure 3./ Large scale leSI in progress.
based paints and lacquers (i.e. flammable and class C petroleum liquids, are those with a flash in further fuel and fire spread. (PhOfO: Fire E.\perirnenlal VIIi' J
Water-miscible class B liquids, such as some polar Low expansion foam is not suitable since it
solvents, require the use of alcohol resistant type increases the rate of evaporation from the liquid.
foam concentrates for firefighting and for vapour For a liquefied gas spillage any reduction in the
suppression. These foams form a polymer mem- rate of evaporation of the liquid is beneficial in
brane between the water-miscible and the foam that it limits the size of the flammable (or explo-
blanket which virtually stops the destruction of the sive) cloud generated and hence reduces the possi-
foam and allows vapour suppression and cooling bility of ignition.
to continue. Alcohol resistant foam concentrates
lose effectiveness unless they are applied gently to (d) Class D Fires
the surface of polar liquids, avoiding plunging (see
Chapter 5, Section 2). Class 0 fires are those which involve combustible
metals such as magnesium, titanium, zirconium,
(c) Class C Fires sodium, potassium and lithium. Firefighting foams
should not be used with water reactive metals such
Class C fires are those involving gases or liquefied as sodium and potassium, nor with other water Figure 3.2 Foam in use following de-energising of Iron.lformel: (NOle posilion of sand 10 conIC/in spillage.)
gases. reactive chemicals such as triethyl aluminium and (PhOlo: NOr/hem Irl'lolld Fire Brigade)
..
The main characteristic of spill fires is their rela- fast flowing characteristics. Adequate post fire (e) Running Fires
tively short burning times. If an average burn rate security is also required.
of 4mm of the depth of fuel per minute is assumed, This term refers to the case when a burning liquid
then most of the fuel involved in a spill fire will (d) Spreading Fires is moving down a slope on a broad front. The situ-
have burnt away within 7 minutes of ignition. Such ation is rare but extremely hazardous because of
brief burn times are. however. unlikely to occur in Spreading fires can be described as unconfined the rapidity with which objects and people in the
practice. Flammable liquid may remain in a rup- spill or pool fires in which the liquid fuel is being path of the flow can be enveloped. It is not possi-
tured fuel container and burn for a considerable continuously supplemented by a spray, jet or ble to advise any course of action other than rapid
time. continuous leakage may replenish the spill or stream from a ruptured tank or equipment. The evacuation from the oncoming flow. If monitors
numerous deep localised burning pools of fuel continuous supply of fuel often results in burning and hoses are immediately available they could
may form over a large area. liquid flowing into inaccessible areas, such as provide sufficiently rapid knockdown.
drainage systems and floor voids.
(c) Pool Fires On some fuels, film-forming foams are considered
An early step in fighting a spreading fire is to stop particularly effecti ve at fast knockdown. although
Pool fires occur in confined pools of flammable, or the flow of product to the flames whenever possi- other foams can have similarly rapid effects.
combustible, liquids which are deeper than 25mm ble. Water spray provides an excellent screen Another technique is to lay a band of foam at the
but not as deep as the contents of storage tanks. A behind which to approach the fire and close leak- lower end of the path of flow so that any pool that
pool fire may cover a large area depending on the ing valves for instance. The flow from a storage builds up will do so beneath a foam blanket. For
volume of the fuel source and the area of the con- vessel can also be stopped by water displacement this type of application fluoroprotein or film-form-
fined space. It may take the form of a bunded area if there is sufficient ullage above the source of the ing alcohol resistant foams might be considered
in a tank farm or a hollow pit or trench within leak. This method has been successful in the case most suitable because of their stability. although
which flammable liquid has collected from a rup- of a ruptured storage tank line. Water is pumped other foams would also satisfactorily perform the
tured process vessel, road or rail tanker. into the tank to raise the liquid fuel above the level task.
of the outlet line so that water, instead of product,
The difference between pool fires and spill fires is flows from the broken line. The main method of combating running fires is by
that pools may, depending on depth. continue to prevention. Firefighters must be aware of any
burn for a considerable period of time. As a result, [f the flammable liquid is a high flash point fuel. potential for a pool fire to breach or over spill its
firefighters are more likely to encounter a well the burn back rate of flames through the spray, jet containment. Firefighting efforts should be adjust-
developed fire burning evenly over a large area. or stream of fuel leaking from the container may ed to reduce such a risk. for example, minimising
rather than the more isolated, scattered fires which be less than the rate at which the fuel is discharge the use of cooling water which could drain into the
are characteristic of an unconfined spill. Foam from the leak. In this situation, the discharging fuel contained pool and cause overflowing, monitoring
may also be subject to more fuel contamination if will not be on fire. Consequently, the fire can be the integrity of containing bund walls and evacuat-
forceful application is used due to the depth of the extinguished with a foam blanket or water spray in ing in advance any area which could possibly
fuel. Consequently techniques. such as playing the a similar fashion to a pool fire, the only additional become inundated.
foam stream agai nst a sol id surface and allowing precaution being to ensure that the level of fuel
the foam to run onto the fire, may be both desirable does not rise sufficiently to over spill the contain- (I) Other Terms
and a practical possibility if suitable surfaces are ment. Sand bagging, diversion channels and
available (see Chapter 5, Section 2). pumping out are all useful techniques to help pre- Various other terms are used for different types of
vent breakdown of containment. fire and explosion incident such as BLEVE (see
The sustained high levels of heat output may Glossary of Terms - Firefighting Foams, at the
demand more effort to be made in cooling exposed If, on the other hand, the burn back rate of flames rear of this Volume), vapour cloud explosion, gas
structures both to minimise damage during the fire through the spray, jet or stream of fuel leaking flare, etc. These have not been covered separately
and to prevent reignition after extinguishment. It from the container exceeds the rate at which the since the use of firefighting foam is not directly
should be remembered that if water is used for fuel is coming out of the container, then the dis- involved.
cooling. it will break down any existing foam blan- charging fuel will also be on fire. It may be neces-
ket in that area, allowing any remaining flames to sary to use dry powder to extinguish fires in flow-
burn back and preventing further blanket forma- ing jets of liquid or gas in conjunction with foam
tion until the water application ceases. application to the spreading fuel. Water sprays are
effective in reducing the heat output from burning
The pool fire. therefore. requires a foam with a jets although they will break down any foam blan-
high fuel tolerance and heat resistance as well as ket already formed.
))
Firefighting Foam 17
Table 4.1: Home Office Recommended Minimum Application Rates of Foam Solution For the
Production of Low Expansion Foam For Use on Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuel (Class B) Fires
• the type of foam;
Foam Type Minimum Application Rate of Foam Solution Minimum Application Time • the manufacturer of the foam;
(lpm/m 2)
SpilllBund Tanks Tanks
(Minutes)
Tanks
----------------
Spill Tanks Tanks • the method of foam application.
D<45m D>=45m D>=81m Fuel Fuel Some of the most widely used water-miscible
D<81m Flashpoint Flashpoint liquids include:
>40°C <=40°C/
Bund
Alcohols (e.g. Methanol, Ethanol,
Protein 6.5 NR NR NR 15 NR NR Isopropanol)
Fluoroprotein 5.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 15 45 60 Ketones (e.g. Acetone, Methyl Ethyl
Ketone)
AFFF 4.0 6.5 7.3 8.1 15 45 60 Vinyl Acetate
FFFP 4.0 6.5 7.3 8.1 15 45 60 Acrylonitrile
AFFF-AR 4.0 6.5 7.3 8.1 15 45 60
Due to the large number of water-miscible fuels in
FFFP-AR 4.0 6.5 7.3 8.1 15 45 60 use, and the varying firefighting performance of
different foams on each of them, information on
Notes to Table 4. I the recommended application rates for a particu lar
< - less than < =- less than or equal to water-miscible risk should be obtained from the
> - More than > = - more than or equal to
D - Diameter of tank Ipm/m 2 - litres per minute offoam solution
manufacturer of the alcohol resistant foam concen-
per square metre of hurning area offire trate to be used.
m - metre NR Not Recommendedji)r this use
Typical recommended foam application rates for
water-miscible liquid fires range between 4 and 13
Table 4.2: Home Office Recommended Minimum Application Rates Of Foam Solution For the litres per minute per square metre. However, it is
Production of Medium Expansion Foam For Use on Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuel (Class B) Fires recommended that the minimum application time
for a spill of water-miscible fuel should be 15 min-
Foam Type Minimum Application Rate of Foam Solution Minimum Application Time
utes and for tanks involving these fuels it should
(Ipm/m 2) (Minutes)
be a minimum of 60 minutes.
Spill/Bund Spill Bund
SYNDET 6.5 15 60 On water-miscible liquids. application must be
such that the foam blanket is delivered gently onto
FI uoroprotei n 5.0 15 60
the liquid surface without submerging the foam or
AFFF 4.0 l5 60 agitating the liquid surface (see Chapter 5, Section
FFFP 4.0 15 60 2). If some submergence and agitation is unavoid-
able, the foam blanket will be destroyed at a high
AFFF-AR 4.0 15 60 rate and much higher application rates and appli-
FFFP-AR 4.0 15 60 cation times will be required.
Firefighting Foam 21
will result in wasted resources. The foam making capability should be maintained,
application should at least be maintained at resources replenished and remain ready for
the Home Office recommended minimum immediate use until all hazards have been
application rate (see Chapter 4). removed or neutralised.
and backdraught when venting (h) Hazards in High Expansion Foam - All of these methods have disadvantages, and the
a fire (see Fire Service lVlanual Safety of Personnel operational situation will largely determine which
method is used. A high-pressure hosereel is effi-
Volume 2 - COmlJartment Fires High expansion foam, even in a relatively well- cient but will cause further water damage. A dry
and Tactical Ventilation). known environment, has a very claustrophobic powder extinguisher is also extremely efficient but
effect. In an unknown compartment this effect can leaves a combined powder/water residue which
be heightened. Other hazards encountered are: will have to be cleaned by a salvage team. A high
expansion foam generator works well, provided
Should conditions be safe to do so, the best place • there is a general loss in effectiveness of that the water residue is led away by hose and the
for a vent is diametrically opposite the genera- vision, hearing and sense of direction, i.e. ducting is not too long but, to clear all of a com-
tor(s), at the highest level. To be most effective, disorientation; partment, the ducting will have to be moved
Jow-Ievel openings may need to be blocked and around like a vacuum cleaner. This will be difficult
suitable openings may need to be made at a high • penetration of light from torches and equip- where the compartment is large or where there is
level in order to ensure that the compartment is ment is severely affected; machinery, stacked goods, racks etc.
filled with HX foam as quickly as possible.
Opening up a ceiling or roof would be ideal, but in • audibility of speech, evacuation signals, One obvious point which firefighters should
some cases the highest available opening may be low-pressure warning whistles and distress remember is that the longer the high expansion
several feet below the top of the compartment. To signal units is also severely restricted; foam is left, the easier it is to break down.
facilitate ventilation, smoke extractors could be Drainage from the foam weakens the bubble walls
employed in the openings; high expansion foam • transmission of heat is reduced and the loca- and, in the tests using breakdown by water, it took
generators can be adapted for this purpose. The tion and travel of fire are therefore harder to less water to complete the job after a 30-minute
officer-in-charge must station crews with hand- determine. Thermal image cameras are also waiting interval than after a 15-minute interval.
controlled branches or hose-reels at all the ventila- ineffective. Damage to structural features
tion openings to cover any fire which might appear above and around may not be visible, with
there. Under no circumstances should any of this the danger of ceilings etc. collapsing onto
water be injected into the compartment, however, firefighters;
as this would break down the foam.
(f) Maintaining Foam Production • the compartment may contain trapped gases
which, with the introduction of fresh oxy-
gen, could result in backdraught conditions;
Changes in the colour of the smoke issuing from the
fire will give a good indication of whether the foam
is achieving control of the fire. As mentioned above.
• open,ings, machinery, electric cables etc. will
all be harder to discern, and progress must
there will be a degree of breakdown of the foam, therefore be even more careful than usual.
and the application of high expansion foam into the Guide lines and communications equipment
compartment should not be stopped, without good should always be fully used if firefighters
reason, until the fire is extinguished. Deep seated need to be totally immersed in HX foam.
Firejighting Foam 35
associated with each real fire incident will vary cubic metres, and they spread rapidly over a flat To illustrate some of the factors that could be taken Supply of backup foam stocks and rapid access to
considerably. The use of these scenarios is to surface. Then a total area of 1520 square metres into account, the following three cases, involving further water supplies would need to be provided
indicate the likely quantities of foam, water and could be covered to a depth of 25mm (a spill, see tanker crashes, are considered. urgently since, in a multiple pile-up, secondary
equipment needed for direct fire attack. Chapter 3, Section 3b). spills and fire are probable. The water supply prob-
(i) Motorway Tanker Crash lem is eased by the availability of hydrants on
In practice, greater resources are often committed Using the Home Office recommended minimum some motorways.
because of the uncertainty of how serious the inci- foam application rate for film-forming foams of 4 A tanker crash on a motorway may involve high
dent may become, to provide a ready reserve capac- Ipm/m 2 for fifteen minutes duration, a total of speeds, high impact energy and therefore a rapid (ii) Rural Tanker Crash
ity and to provide indirect support or relief to the 91,200 litres of foam solution would be needed at liquid discharge over a relatively flat surface. It is
main fire attack team. It is left to each individual a foam solution flow rate of 6080 litres per minute. normal practice in some brigades to dispatch a first A rural tanker crash is likely to lead to a less exten-
brigade to interpret how the objectives would be This would require 2,736 litres of 3% film-form- response team of four appliances to such incidents. sive spill. Roads are narrower, more cambered and
achieved given their own mix of equipment, materi- ing foam concentrate and more than 88,000 litres The main objective in fighting fires following a often flanked by banks or ditches. In these cases
als, philosophy, logistics, and personnel policies. of water. motorway tanker crash is to control and extinguish the brigade is more likely to be called upon to tack-
fire around exposed vehicles prior to attempting le a number of smaller isolated fires in accumula-
(a) Road Tanker Crashes In terms of equipment, this would require the the rescue of trapped or stranded motorists. For tions of liquid, particularly since with longer
equivalent of fourteen 450 lpm foam-making such incidents, there are arguments for more than response times shallow spills will have been
A wide variety of flammable liquids and toxic branches and inductors, and approximately four the 25% foam provision discussed above, howev- burned off. There would be some justification for
chemicals is transported by road throughout the pumping appliances to supply the branches. er, the emphasis should be on very rapid deploy- less than 25% of the calculated foam supply figure,
UK on urban and rural roads and motorways. ment of the first attack. although water supplies are likely to be a major
Lorries can typically carry 38m' of flammable liq- From a practical viewpoint, it would be difficult to
uid cargo. A number of incidents have occurred deploy this amount of equipment rapidly. Even if
where the contents of road tankers have been dis- hydrants were available, the time for laying hose
charged onto the road and the resulting fire has would be considerable. In addition, assuming a
caused loss of life. fuel burning rate of around 4mm per minute, the
fire would have burnt itself out in just over 7 min-
When a road tanker is damaged in an accident it is utes if no firefighting took place.
unlikely to discharge all its contents at once onto
the roadway. More usually, liquid will steadily In taking a more practical view, there are many
leak from breaks in the tank pipe-work or in the other factors that could be taken into considera-
vessel itself. Frequently, not all the contents are tion. Road surfaces are rarely flat. The road cam-
discharged, and a substantial volume may remain ber will tend to direct spillage into a more restrict-
inside the vessel. Spillage of flammable liquid ed area. Kerbs, banks and surface irregularities
may catch fire immediately or there can be a delay will tend to limit the spread of liquid, whilst rain-
while the flammable vapour spreads far enough to water drains will carry some away (with possible
contact a source of ignition. serious consequences of sewer fires and explo-
sions). In addition. tankers are generally compart-
Consequently, there are a wide variety of fires that mentalised and it would be highly unusual,
may face firefighters when they attend a road although not unknown, for all of the compartments
tanker crash. These can range from an extended to be breached.
spill fire, to a spreading fire, a running fire, a tank
fire, or a combination of them all. Perhaps, because of these factors the foam require-
ment for first response could be reduced to 25% of
In order to make an estimate of the foam resources the "worst case" i.e. 684 litres of 3% film-forming
that should be available on fire appliances, a num- foam concentrate, 22.116 litres of water and a foam
ber of factors will need to be evaluated. but initial- solution f10wrate of 1520 litres per minute. This
ly it is important to set the upper limit of what would require four 450 litre per minute foam-mak-
might be required by establishing a possible ing branches and one pumping appliance. However.
"worst case". experience and likely local conditions would need
to be taken fully into account in setting such guid-
A "worst case" would be to assume that all of the ance for the first response capability, second and Figure 6. J A rural road incident.
contents of a road tanker are spilt, say a total of 38 subsequent responses and back up resources. (Photo: Wan\'ickshire Fire llnd Rescue Sen';cej
There are many chances of complications with a ation, maintalDlng supplies of foam concentrate could be virtually fully laden with Jet Al (aviation In these circumstances, there is a risk of fire from
rail tanker crash, and caution would lead most fire and repositioning equipment. For such incidents it kerosene) which amounts to about 136m 3 (136,000 free fuel flowing out of broken fuel tanks and fuel
brigades to mobilise a considerably larger first is common to mobilise more appliances than litres). lines. This fuel should be immediately covered
response and rapidly arrange for support to be pro- required for operational use to ensure adequate with a thick layer offoam. Frequent replenishment
vided. numbers of personnel are available. If ignition takes place, it is possible that much of of the foam blanket would be required in order to
the spill would have burned or drained away with- ensure continued protection. At all times, foam
Tactics for such an incident require considerable (c) Aircraft Crash in 10 to 20 minutes of the incident and probably by application should be as gentle as possible in order
flexibility. Water supplies may be restricted in the the time the first Local Authority Fire Brigade to minimise fuel contamination of the foam. Even
early stages. and the best use of limited quantities Generally at aircraft incidents on airports or airfields appliances arrived at the scene of the incident. The when a suitable foam blanket has been applied,
of water is to lay a foam blanket beneath exposed the Local Authority Fire Brigade augment the airport initial crash/rescue teams to arrive might have to sufficient firefighting equipment should be
vehicles. FP or an alcohol resistant foam would be fire service. The attendance time for the airport fire control and extinguish a large number of wide- deployed. with firefighters in constant attendance,
preferable because of their good heat resistance service to any incident that occurs anywhere on their spread class A fires and class B pool fires whilst in case a fire breaks out within or around the foam
and stability. Water will be required for class A airfield is normally less than two minutes although assisting any survivors from the incident or from blanket (see Chapter 5, Section 2(a) (viii)).
fires either in the surrounding area or in the interi- regulations state it must be less than 3 minutes. The involved buildings, vehicles etc. In addition, flam-
or of passenger coaches. Water monitors may also airport fire service will have emergency plans for mable vapours would be given off from any Should a large fire break out, then a mass applica-
be needed for cooling exposed tanks, particularly most eventualities and it is likely that they will have unburnt fuel for several hours after the incident tion of foam would be required in order to sup-
if they are exposed to a flare fire. A further tank been put into action well before the arrival of the and this, too, would need to be dealt with. press the fire. Given the limited resources likely to
rupture must be expected and tactics set out with Local Authority Fire Brigade. Problems of adequate water supply and access are be available, the main objective of the attack
rapid redeployment or retreat in mind. Care would likely to hamper any large scale firefighting exer- should be to keep the fire away from any survivors
need to be exercised to ensure that any foam blan- In addition, the airport fire service must attend cise and therefore it is unlikely that large amounts and rescue personnel without obstructing their
ket in the area is not broken down and that liquid incidents up to 1000 metres from the runway of foam concentrate would be required. escape route.
fuel. especially if already burning, is not spread threshold but, for incidents further afield, they may
over a wider area'by the application of water. attend in a reduced capacity, depending on the dis- Not all aircraft crashes will result in fire. There Foam branches should be positioned as closely as
tance from the airport. have been occasions where aircraft have crash possible to the fuselage, the initial discharge being
In major incidents, such as a rail tanker crash, the landed at low speed and from low altitude. [n such directed so that the foam drives the fire outwards
availability of personnel may be a more critical In an off-airport crash incident. a situation could situations. the aircraft may have broken into sever- and away from the wreckage. If possible, fire
factor than equipment. Firefighters are needed for arise where say a Boeing 747 crashes, after take- al large parts without bursting into flames. It is should be kept at least l5 metres away from an
hose laying to water sources, rescue, relief, evacu- off, several miles from an airport. Such an aircraft possible that there could be many survivors. intact fuselage.
b
Additional water hoses may be required to cool hot
steel surfaces to prevent re-ignition and possible
tanks after extinguishment of the fire on the liquid
sUlface. Unless extinguished or dislodged, these
• Foam monitors positioned at such an eleva-
tion that the jetty deck and the ship's deck
buildings, it is possible that damage to the sup-
porting structure and fire spread to the remainder
spread of fire to the stored cargo. However, care deposits can fall back into the cargo and cause are covered at all elevations. The foam mon- of the building could occur. In a high rise
should be taken to ensure that foam blankets are reignition hours after the first extinguishment. itors should be adjustable and may be fitted building, fire spread, structural damage or smoke
not broken down and that liquid fuels, and liquid with either hydraulic or electronic remote logging could have particularly serious conse-
fuel fires, are not spread by cooling water. (e) Terminals - Jetties controls. quences.
(iii) Cargo Tank Fires The UK fire service is responsible for controlling • There should also be space at the jetty External foam inlets are usually used to deliver
and extinguishing fires on oil and gas terminal jet- approach for firefighting appliances and low or medium expansion foam into the room and
If a cargo tank fire has developed after a collision ties. Where jetties are sited in remote areas, fire bulk foam vehicles. ventilation panels should be removed to clear
with a similar coastal tanker carrying fuel oil and brigade response times may be high. On arrival, smoke logging. At this stage it may be possible to
the assistance of the local fire services has been firefighters will often be faced with restricted If a fire occurs at a loading station on an oil termi- enter the boiler room and isolate the source of any
requested by the ship's master, the firefighters access and the need to carry equipment along jet- nal, the fixed equipment should be operated to fuel leak.
must initially assess the requirements for foam ties to reach the remote loading sections. In more maximum effect. This is to ensure that personnel
concentrate, branches and equipment. populous river estuary sites, there is the potential can be evacuated quickly and safely and that the When used in conjunction with a single hose inlet,
for exposure to the surrounding community, par- jetty is protected from exposure to the fire. one 450 Ipm MX branch would produce approxi-
Where burning oil is spilling from a ruptured tank ticularly from burning oiJ slicks on the water or mately l5m 3/min of finished foam (this figure
into the sea, it may be necessary for the firefight- burning vessels drifting from their moorings. With this degree of fixed protection, the need for allows for a reduction in the expansion of the foam
ers to call for the assistance of fire fighting tugs. intervention by the fire service with large amounts of due to the restricting effect of the foam inlet).
The quantities of foam concentrate required AI I of these factors make the provision of adequate equipment is greatly reduced. A tirst attendance of
depend on the area of the cargo tank and here fixed fire protection facilities on jetties a high pri- two fire appliances should be able to supplement the For a boiler room fire, a 2m foam blanket should
advice is required from the ship's master. Further ority. fixed systems in the event of minor sections failing be produced. To achieve this in a boiler room of
quantities of foam concentrate would also be to function. However, the equipment handling prob- floor area 100m 2 would require the following foam
required for the spill fire. Low expansion foam, The majority of jetries should be equipped with the lems may require considerable resources of person- resources:
either a sea water compatible film-forming or FP following: nel and the response should take this into account.
foam, would be suitable at the Home Office rec- The considerable potential for serious loss should • Total amount of finished foam required
ommended minimum application rates and mini- • Fire pumps providing fresh or sea water to mean that a strong second response backed up by
mum application times for spill fires or for tank the jetty hydrants and monitors. firefighting tugs is provided. In the event of vessel = Height of room x floor area
fires (see Chapter 4), dependi ng on the depth of impact on the jetty it may be necessary to isolate sec- = 2m x 100m 2
fuel and the size of the cargo tanks. In estimating • Multi outlet hydrants with hose connections tions of the fixed tire protection system so that the
the quantity of foam needed in the cargo tank, along the jetty approach way. undamaged portion near to the shore can remain in =200m 3
further allowance should be made for burn off operation.
and re-application. This may involve up to four • Hose, branches, monitors, inductors and • Total foam application time
times the calculated amount of foam for each of foam concentrate. Isolated sections of jetty may well be dealt with by
burn off and re-application. fire boats. =Total amount of finished foam
• Water monitors, adjustable or remotely Branch output per minute
Once sufficient stocks of foam and branches have operated, which are fitred with jet/fog noz- (t) Boiler Rooms
arrived, the foam attack should be concentrated at zles. These may be arranged to provide a = 200m 3
a safe distance from the windward side on each water curtain between the jetty and the ship, Oil-fired boiler rooms in commercial and industri- 15m 3/min
tank until the fire is controlled. If the up-draught or for cooling the ship loading manifold area al properties are a specific example of where fire
from the seat of the fire is too high for the foam or the jetty head area. brigades use firefighting foams on a routine basis. = 13 minutes 20 seconds
streams to penetrate, other entrances should be Most boilers in the UK are equipped with auto-
found to apply the foam blanket. • Multi outlet hydrants along the jetty deck, matic shut-off valves on the fuel supply line at the • Total amount of foam solution required
together with adapters for international point of entry to the boiler house. When the fire
When the tank fire has been extinguished, the shore-ship connections. brigade alTives at the scene of a boiler room fire, it = Branch flow x Total foam application
foam application should be continued until the sur- is often difficult or dangerous to gain access and time
rounding steel plates are sufficiently cool so as not • Open water spray nozzles installed at the determine the extent of the potential fire. = 450 lpm x J3 minutes 20 seconds
to reignite the remaining oil. ship side of the loading facility at various
elevations. The risk exists of an oil tank rupture leading to a =6,000 litres
Glowing char embers often remain adhering to the major fire and possibly a boiler explosion. Since
upper walls and roof on the inside of oil cargo boiler houses are usually at the lower levels of
----------------- .2rn ~J
• Total amount of 3% foam concentrate
required
• there has been no research into determining
suitable application rates;
• Possible movement of the gas cloud should
be anticipated and the area of the probable
path evacuated and sources of ignition elim-
=Total foam solution x Foam concentration • up to 3 times the theoretical quantity may be inated.
100 needed for re-application and for burn off in
= 6,000 litres x L
100
warehouse fires.
• Dense curtains of water can be used to direct
the gas cloud away from ignition sources
= 180 litres (h) Vapour Suppression that cannot be eliminated. Monitors, fan
sprays and branches set in fixed positions
• Total amount of water required This example illustrates the use of firefighting
foams in vapour suppression. In the event of a
will enable firefighters to retreat from
potentially dangerous situations where they
=Total foam solution collision between an LPG road tanker and other might be exposed to the gas cloud.
- Total foam concentrate road vehicles, damage to the tank could result in
= 6,000 litres
- 180 litres
discharge of the contents onto the road. When the
fire services are alerted to this type of situation, the
• Once the gas cloud has dispersed to the
extent that its concentration is below the
seriousness of an LPG spill is recognised and a lower explosive limit (LEL) a search should
= 5,820 litres series of emergency planning procedures are set in be made of any low lying areas to disperse
motion. other possible pockets of accumulated gas.
No allowance has been made in the above figures
for burn off or for any necessary re-application. Several appliances are sent to the scene of the inci-
dent and their approach is made from up-wind of
(g) Warehouses the crash. After the leak is isolated, it is estimated
that the spill could extend to about 2,000m 2 and it
Medium expansion foam can be effective in com- is calculated that 4 high expansion foam generators
bating low-level storage warehouse fires, particu- each producing 133m 3/min of finished foam at 7
larly where a mixture of storage is involved pro- bar from 225 Ipm of foam solution, could cover the
ducing a class A fire with possible involvement of spi 11, with an average blanket thickness of around 2
class B liquid fuels. metres, in approximately 8 minutes. This would
require approximately 108 litres of SYNDET foam
The potential advantages of using medium expan- concentrate when used at 1.5% concentration.
sion foam in such situations are:
The above calculations represent the absolute min-
• visibility can be retained - unlike when imum application that could be expected for such
using high expansion foam; an incident. No allowances have been made for re-
application during a prolonged incident or for
• it provides greater volumes of extinguishing replacing foam blown away from the spill by wind.
agent than low expansion foam and possibly Due to the poor tlow characteristics of high expan-
represents a better use of resources. sion foam, problems may also be experienced in
covering areas of the spill furthest away from the
The main disadvantages are: foam generators.
• it may not be effective on deep seated fires; cloud location, explosiometers are required.
... ~>
. .. -..JJII
Firefighting Foam Chapter
7.1 Introduction
In this Chapter. the use of con ventional fire service
equipment to tackle storage tank fires is discussed.
•
•
vehicular access, movement and parking;
space for hose distribution;
Figure 7.3 Fire extillguished. Foaming contillued to ensure
security offoall1 blallket. {Pilow: E.I.\·ex Fire (llId Rescue Sen'ice)
Firejiglzting Foam 49
Access to and around storage tank bunds is often of around 9m diameter can have hand-held branch rapidly rising flame and smoke can radiate heat to view, for the fire to be extinguished. In addition,
by means of a 3-4m wide road near to the outer lines as a primary means of protection and tanks the surroundings and draw fresh air in at the base further losses may occur if other nearby tanks are
base of the bund wall and in many cases this must up to a limit of approximately 20m diameter can creating, in some cases, strong artificial winds at damaged or even ignited by the radiant heat due to
meet the simultaneous needs of monitor placement rely on portable foam monitors. If this equipment ground level. In some circumstances, these the spacing between tanks being inadequate or due
and operation, and appliance movement, parking is not available, or if tanks are greater than 20m in incoming winds can help to cool the area around a to unfavourable wind conditions. The environmen-
and operation. diameter, then fixed systems are recommended as burning tank making working conditions more tal impact of a major storage tank fire is consider-
the primary means of fire protection. bearable. able. Concerns of air pollution alone could build
Deployment of monitors should ideally be on, or up public pressure against a policy of "let it burn".
better still outside, the bund wall. This is not always In general, those who have had experience in fight- Local wind conditions can incline the angle of the
possible as the walls may be too far from the tank. ing tank fires agree with the standards in that con- column so that it closely approaches, or in some The liquid fuel contained within a tank will be
ventional equipment can be used successfully in cases impinges directly upon, nearby structures consumed at a bum rate which will vary according
The predetermined marshalling area for the "over-the-top" applications to tanks with diameters including other storage tanks. If the tank on fire is to the type of fuel and the conditions (e.g. wind
pumps, foam supplies and foam induction equip- of up to 20m (an over-the-top application refers to partially empty, then the exposed ullage may begin strength, air temperature, surface area of fire) but a
ment should be as close as possible to the fire foam that has been projected over the sides of a stor- to distort and collapse inwards towards the surface rate of 4mm of liquid depth per minute is often
ground without putting either personnel or equip- age tank and on to the surface of the fuel). In addi- of the burning liquid. This process may happen quoted as an average for hydrocarbons such as
ment at risk from the fire or potential spread of the tion, many experienced firefighters maintain that suddenly, or may develop over a period of hours, petrol. For crude oils, burning rates have been esti-
fire. Every effort should be made to avoid com- conventional equipment can be used successfully leading to a situation where the wall of the tank mated to be as low as 0.2 mm per minute and as
mitting personnel and equipment inside the bund for fighting fires in tanks of up to 45m in diameter; can be scrolled over and touching the surface of high as 15mm per minute depending on the type of
although this may sometimes be necessary (see above 45m diameter, they believe that conventional the burning liquid. This is a further complication crude.
this Chapter, Section 5 (b) (x)). equipment cannot be successful. In addition, the for firefighters since the scrolled wall can shield a
logistics of using conventional equipment for these large area of burning liquid from direct foam In the case of single boiling point liquids, the sur-
One of the major difficulties created by the often larger fires are said to be far too difficult. However, attack. face temperature of the liquid will never rise above
inadequate number of hydrant outlets available there are even significant problems involved in the boiling point of the liquid no matter how much
and the distance between them is the need for an tackling fires in tanks between 18m and 45m. (c) Fuel heat is generated by the fire. Evaporation from the
excessive number of hose lengths when using stan- surface cools the liquid and hence the greater the
dard firefighting equipment. (c) Tank Height Crude oil, unrefined products and mixtures of heat absorbed by the liquid surface the faster liquid
flammable liquids, can be more difficult to extin- vaporises, and the more intense is the fire.
7.3 Tank Size The height of storage tanks can pose severe prob- guish in storage tank fires compared with single
lems when using conventional equipment. Many boiling point liquids. The presence of volatile With flammable liquid mixtures, such as crude oils
(a) General foam monitors are unable to project foam over "light ends" in these types of fuel tends to cause and partially refined products, there may be very
tank walls in normal circumstances. In addition, disruption to any foam blanket that has already hot layers of high boiling point residue at or near
Storage tanks for flammable and combustible liq- when the distance of the bund wall from the tank been applied. If the foam blanket is not sufficient- the surface, or even crusts of coke may form on the
uids in excess of 91 m diameter and 27 m high are sides is taken into account, often in the order of 50 ly deep, vapour can permeate the foam and ignite burning surface.
used in the UK. Tanks in the range 45m to 91 m metres, the limited throw of conventional foam so greatly reducing its' resistance to heat and
diameter tend to be predominantly of the floating equipment can pose even more problems. flames. Foams that "pick-up" fuel when applied Water-miscible fuels require higher application
roof design although some fixed roof tanks of over (i.e. where the foam blanket mixes and becomes rates due to their destructive effects on foams.
45m diameter do exist. The 27m high tanks are of 7.4 Fire Development contaminated with fuel) can also cause a similar Alcohol resistant type foams should always be
older design and can generally be found in con- breakdown of the foam blanket. used for these types of applications.
gested refineries and depots that are in traditional (a) Ignition
industrial areas such as along the North Thames The Home Office recommended minimum appli- Problems are experienced with fully involved
Estuary. Where space is available, tank heights can The first phase of any tank fire is ignition and cation times (see Chapter 4) are longer for appli- cryogenic storage tank fires such as ethylene, LPG
be as low as 15m development to the stage where the tank surface is cations to fuels that have a flash point below 40°C, or other similar liquefied gases. To apply water or
fully involved in fire. Ignition can occur from this is a consequence of their increased volatility. low expansion foam to the liquid surface would
(b) Tank Diameter many different sources, for example, lightning cause it to warm up which in turn would increase
strikes, static electricity or burning embers from Flammable liquid tank fires will eventually burn to the evaporation rate and intensify the fire. High
The effect of increased tank diameter on the flare stacks. extinction although this is likely to take many expansion foam can be applied to pool fires of
severity of storage tank fires is well recognised in hours or even days. However, severe problems can these fuels when held in retention bunds, however,
standards. Standards for tank installations give (b) Fire Plume OCcur during this time due to slop-overs and boil- this is not the case for tank fires because this type
guidelines intended to show when fixed firefight- overs (see this Chapter, Section 5 (b) (xiii)). Also, of foam cannot be projected any appreciable dis-
ing protection measures should be considered. The fire plume from a fully involved tank fire can the cost of the product in the tank involved in the tance. There is generally little alternative in these
These standards consider that tanks up to a limit be several hundreds of metres in height. The fire can make it desirable, from an owners point of cases other than to pump out as much of the tank
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ .....J!
contents as possible, cool the tank to avoid col- • it is assumed that cooling of the adjacent • Total amount of water required for foam The figures above are for a 60 minute foam appli-
lapse and allow the fuel to burn out under control. storage tank is required for a total of 4 hours production cation period and a 4 hour water cooling period.
to allow enough time for resources to be col- During the firefighting period, assuming that cool-
7.5 Practical Scenarios lected and the fire to be fought. Tank cool- = Total amount of foam solution ing of the adjacent tank continues, the water flows
ing continues during the firefighting period. - Total amount of foam concentrate required would be approximately 11,500 Ipm for
(a) Example of Resources Required For foam production and approximately 13,000 Ipm
A Storage Tank Fire From this information, the following can be calcu- = 70 I ,000 litres - 21,100 litres for cooling the adjacent tank making a total of
lated: 24,500 lpm. In addition, the 3% film-forming
The figures quoted below are based on a fire inci- = 679,900 litres foam concentrate supply would be approximately
dent involving a 45m diameter by ISm high crude Firefighting Foam and Water Requirements 360 litres per minute making the total amount of
oil storage tank with nearby storage tanks that = approximately 680,000 litres of water liquid required during the firefighting phase of this
would require water cooling. The following • Surface area of the top of the tank for foam making incident nearly 25,000 Ipm.
assumptions are made in order to demonstrate the
size of the logistic problem when using conven- = m 2 (where Jt = 3.142 and r = tank radius) Cooling Water Requirements For To supply this would require the following exam-
tional equipment: Adjacent Storage Tank ples of firefighting equipment:
= 3.142 x (22.5m)2
L
blanket with a complete waste of the resources It has been estimated that foam, when applied to Secondly, it is said that the foam blanket can be duce a proportional increase in jet range because
already committed. the suIface of a burning hydrocarbon liquid, can spread over the surface more rapidly if a slow of air resistance factors. They may also lead to a
spread from the edges of its landing area a maxi- swirling motion is imparted by placing one of the break up of the jet at the monitor which may result
Care should always be taken when fighting tank mum distance of 30m although a maximum of monitors to land slightly off centre of the liquid in a lessening of the throw.
fires to ensure that there is sufficient ullage in the 25m may be a better approximation to use opera- suIface. This technique is advocated in conjunc-
tank to contain prolonged applications of firefight- tionally. Obviously, the spreading distance tion with any foam. • Reducing the Distance From Pump to
ing liquid. Pumping out some of the contents of the depends on the type of foam used. The more fluid Monitor
tank may need to be considered (see this Chapter, foams, such as the film-forming types, are more (xii) Increasing the Range of Foam Monitors
Section 5 (b) (ix»). likely to spread over these distances than the stiffer Pressure drops through the hose used to connect
P and FP foams. Tactics which produce a circular The ability to tackle storage tank fires depends to pumps to monitors can greatly reduce the pressure
When applying foam to a storage tank fire, the movement in the foam blanket on the surface of a a large extent on the elevation and range of the at the monitor and hence reduce its throw.
stream from the monitors should be aimed at the foam blanket have also been reported as assisting foam monitors available. Manufacturers literature Reducing the length of these hose runs will reduce
darkened area just above the rim of the tank, and in foam spread (see this Chapter, Section 5 (b) (xi) is often very short of this type of information and these pressure drops as will increasing the hose
below the flames in the fire plume, where air is below). the use of different elevations and operating con- diameter.
being sucked in to the fire. This will help to ditions makes comparisons very difficult. Pre-pur-
ensure that the foam is applied directly to the A substantial bite should be obtained within the chase trials of monitors on the type and size of tank • Higher Capacity Monitors
surface of the fuel and not taken up by the ther- first 20 to 30 minutes of a foam attack. If the attack to be protected are often the only sensible means
mal updraft of the fire as may be the case if the has not succeeded or made significant progress by of ensuring that their performance is adequate. Manufacturers quote improvements in range with
foam were applied directly in to the fire plume. this time (i.e. a bite has not been formed) then These trials should also take into account the vari- increasingly higher capacity nozzles. For instance,
If possible, the rear of the foam landing area there are probably other factors mitigating against ations in heights and distances of the monitors in one manufacturer quotes a range of 50m and a
should be positioned within 25 metres of the the firefighters and the attack should be reassessed. relation to the tank due to the surrounding bund maximum height of l8m for a 1,820 litre per
back edge of the tank. In any case, the momen- In particular, application rates and tactics should walls. The possibility of being able to use these minute nozzle and a 54m range and 22m height for
tum of the foam stream as it strikes the burning be reviewed. If necessary, the foam application monitors under various on-site wind speed and a 2,700 litre per minute. Both are of the same
fuel will push the foam blanket towards this should be stopped in order for further resources to direction conditions should also be considered. design with a recommended operating pressure of
direction. All of this will assist in forming a bite be gathered together before attempting a further 7 bar.
which will be supplemented once foam spreads foam attack. The resources used during this initial Factors that can increase the monitor range and
to, and begins to build up from, the back edge of 20 to 30 minute attack will also need to be trajectory height include: • Minimal Obstructions in Nozzle
the tank. Cooling of the ullage at the rear of the replaced. Waterways
tank will assist in quickening the formation of a • Reducing the Expansion Ratio
foam blanket here. The only equipment permitted within the bund of the Foam Some foam-making monitors include baffles and
should be ground monitors where no other safer gauzes to increase the amount of air mixing of the
On larger storage tanks, foam monitors may need position will allow their streams to reach the tank. For large storage tank fires, expansion ratios of 4 to foam solution that takes place. This can signifi-
to be positioned to have overlapping foam landing It is important that firefighters are not allowed to 6 are preferred for AFFF and AFFF-AR. One of the cantly reduce the throw of these monitors although
areas in order to ensure that a high enough local remain in the bund due to the risks from boil- benefits of these Jow expansions is the increased more consistent quality finished foam is produced.
application rate is achieved in order to form a overs, slop-overs or a split in the tank. throw that can be achieved. The preferred expan-
'bite' (see Chapter 5, Section 2 (a) (iv) and that all sion range for fluoroprotein foams is 6 to 8. • Changing Foam Induction Method
areas of the fuel surface can be covered by the If possible, monitors in the bund should be mount-
flowing foam. The most difficult area of the tank ed above ground level so that any liquid collecting Lower expansion ratios are also believed to assist In-line venturi inductors generally cause pressure
to extinguish will be the area at the front of the in the bund does not affect their operation. foam in penetrating the thermal updrafts produced drops of at least 30% and are sometimes in the
tank, nearest to the monitors. Due to the long fuel by large tank fires; foams with higher expansion region of 40 to 50%. The pressure drops can be
burning time in this area, the tank rim will be (xi) Special Firefighting Techniques ratios are more likely to be carried away up in to greater than this, and the inductors may fail to
extremely hot and cooling of the ullage here will the fire plume. pick-up foam concentrate, if the inductors are not
help the foam blanket to form a seal. However, it Two techniques are strongly suggested by those correctly matched to the monitors. There are other
is likely that by the time the edge of the foam blan- who have fought large tank fires. Firstly, the value • Increasing the Pump Pressure methods of foam induction available that cause
ket has flowed against, and across, the burning fuel of using water spray above the foam blanket to much smaller losses in pressure in the delivery line
to reach the tank sides in this area, it will have seri- cool the fire plume and take away some of the back Increasing the pump pressure leads to a higher to the monitors (see Volume I).
ously degraded and will not be immediately capa- radiation. If monitors run out of foam they should pressure at the monitor and hence a longer throw.
ble of forming a seal. Consequently, further foam be raised to contribute to plume cooling. The water Generally, fire service low pressure pumps are • Elevation of Monitors
application is required in order for a fresher wall of will largely evaporate in the plume and experience operated at around 7 bar but they can be safely
foam to be pushed in to that area to make a final shows that, at the right elevation, this tactic does operated at up to 10 bar if extra throw is required. Elevating monitors above ground level can obvi-
seal. not disrupt the build-up of the foam blanket. However, increased pumpjng pressures do not pro- ously assist in applying foam over tank walls.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ ---'olJ
Firefig ling oam
result of boil-over, and sometimes following a ter- practical difficulty, and alternative techniques are
rorist, or military attack. In these cases, the risk of discussed later.
rupture of the second tank is the major concern. If
bund drainage facilities are adequate, it may be If difficulties are encountered in projecting the
possible to cool this tank with water spray whilst foam to the centre of the bund, then a longer
the foam attack is being prepared. When sufficient
resources have been assembled to mount a foam
duration of supply may be needed. Thus the
dimensions, shape and access to a bund must also
Chapter 8 - Logisitics of Dealing With
attack, the area around the un-ruptured tank should
be tackled first. Tank walls can be used as back-
be considered.
Large Storage Tank Fires
plates to break the jet momentum and run foam Further information and guidance will be found in
onto the liquid surface whilst a blanket is simulta-
neously built up from the bund wall outwards.
Fire Service Manual, Volume 2, Fire Service
Operations - Petrochemicals.
8.1 Introduction • total quantity of foam concentrate required
for 60 minute foam attack;
In Chapter 7, information was given on the practi-
To mount a 60 minute foam attack on the bund
described above using 4 Ipm/m 2 of a film-forming
cal aspects of dealing with storage tank fires when
using conventional fire service equipment.
• number of monitors required;
= 4lpm/m 2 x 12,000m 2 sLllface area of bund and logistics involved in a typical deployment of • lengths of 70mm hose required.
conventional fire service equipment to deal with
= 48,000 Ipm storage tanks of 45m and beyond in diameter. This The main items of conventional fire service equip-
is followed by a discussion of other, larger equip- ment assumed to be available are:
• Total foam solution requirement ment, that is available and the reduction in logistical
problems that the use of these can bring. • 1,900 lpm monitors;
= 48,000 Ipm x 60 minutes
= 2,880,000 litres
8.2 Convcn ional Fire ttack
• 2,250 Ipm pumping appliances;
The logistical problems of using conventional fire • venturi type in-line inductors.
= 2,880,000 litres x 0.03 service equipment to tackle large tank fires are sig-
nificant. Although some brigades and petrochemi- It should be noted that the deployment of equip-
= 86,400 litres cal plants possess specialist equipment to deal with ment shown in the tables is theoretical and approx-
these types of fire, in many instances, only stan- imate, they are based on the Home Office recom-
This would require equipment to the extent of at dard fire service equipment is available. mended minimum application rates (see Chapter
least: 4) and do not represent practical experience. There
This Section highlights the difficulties faced when are few instances where storage tank fires of diam-
• 22 x 2250 Ipm pumps; using conventional equipment to fight flammable eter 45m to 90m have been successfully extin-
liquid storage tank fires of 45, 60, 75 and 90 metre guished. Those claimed have been achieved with
• in excess of 400 lengths of hose (lOkm); in diameter. Tables 8.1 to 8.11 provide the follow- the use of specialist equipment (see this Chapter,
ing estimates for each of these tank sizes: Section 3).
• a water supply capable of providing
48,000 Ipm at 6 to 7 bars.
• quantity of water required per minute for
foam attack and for cooling;
The tables should be used purely as a means of
comparing the practicalities of conventional
The likely shortage of hydrant outlets would deployment as against use of specialist equipment,
necessitate more hose lengths per pump than in the
floating roof tank fire case (above). No allowance
• quantity of foam concentrate required per
minute;
rather than as a model for strategic planning. It
should be noted that 1,900 Ipm monitors may not
has been made in these quantities for replenishing have sufficient range to project foam in to tanks of
the foam blanket. Parking and layout of 70mm
hose on this scale becomes a considerable
• total water usage for a 60 minute foam attack
and 4 hours of water cooling of adjacent tanks;
this size.
ti
The tables do not take account of the number of configuration allows space at the corners of bunds The problems of fire ground organisation can
firefighters required to deploy equipment. For for vehicles and fire appliances to stand during become extreme with insufficient room to lay
large fire incidents, many more personnel may be operations, whilst leaving bund roadways clear. hose, park appliances, and operate monitors. When
required than would be provided with the mini- Road widths are assumed to be 10m to permit both the traffic movement requirements of keeping
mum number of appliances shown. Relief crews hose laying and vehicle passage at the same time. foam dams replenished with concentrate are added
may be required, and many firefighters may be Bund extensions are assumed to be in place, tOm and the number of personnel required is taken into
deployed in establishing a chain of foam concen- wide and projecting halfway towards the tank. account, the logistics can become impractical at
trate supply, or in setting up hose runs to draw suc- These extensions would provide a safe vantage tank farms where space is restricted.
tion from natural water courses. It is recognised point to place monitors during a foam attack and
that these firefighters will be transported in fire an escape route if necessary. In practice, the facil-
appliances, but these appliances would not neces- ities available would probably fall well short of This situation can itself be dangerous to those
sarily form part of the attack team. this, and additional fire brigade equipment would involved in a rapid retreat from, for example, a
be required to compensate. boil-over or a slop-over, or where there is a need to
It is also assumed that firefighting depends entire- re-deploy firefighters and equipment due to a
lyon over-the-top projection of foam by fire Hydrant spacing is taken as 80m, each hydrant change in wind direction. In addition, when failure
brigade monitors. There are cases where fixed sys- being equipped with four 70mm outlets. Tables 8.6 of hoses, pumps, proportioners or monitors occurs,
tems around the tank rim or for base injection of and 8.10 show the derivation of the lengths of hose space is required to remove the equipment
foam will be available and could be used to advan- required. concerned and replace it.
tage, but such provision is by no means certain.
Even if these fixed installations are available, they It has been assumed that water supplies in the The organisation of resources for a major incident
may have been incorrectly maintained or may have hydrant main are at sufficient pressure. The involving a large tank fire is a very complex task
been damaged during the incident thus making hydrant main should be capable of providing the in itself. Sources of foam concentrate must be
them inoperative. full foam and cooling water demand at a residual identified and transported to the fireground,
pressure of not less than 2 bar to ensure a reliable replacement fire crews, messing, first aid, and
The other assumptions made when producing supply to the pumps. control of the public are a few of the ancillary
these tables are discussed below. activities which require organi ·ation.
(d) Limitations of Conventional
(b) Cooling Water Fire Attack The conclusion that it is intended should be drawn
from this Section is that any ways that can be
The NFPA recommended cooling rate of 10.2 One of the main limitations of using conventional found to reduce the quantities of equipment
Ipm/m 2 (see Chapter 7, Section 5 (b) (iii) for dis- equipment for fighting large storage tank fires is required to tackle large tank fires is well worth-
cussion of cooling rates; a rate of 2 Ipm/m 2 may be the range and trajectory height that can be achieved while.
more appropriate) has been used in the calcula- by foam monitors. Methods of increasing these are
tions presented in Tables 8. I to 8.1 J in order to
represent a 'worse case' situation in terms of cool-
discussed in Chapter 7, Section 5 and include:
r
l TPe logistical problems and lack
ing water resources needed. Water can also be use- • Reducing the expansion ratio of the foam.
fully used to cool the external ullage of the tank on I ot'flexibility which would occur
fire during foam appl ication (see Chapter 7, • Increasing the pump pressure. fronl the use of conventional fire
Section 5 (b) (ii». The water requirement for this
b_rigad~ equipment against large
additional cooling has not been specifically includ- • Reducing the distance from pump to moni-
ed in the calculations presented in Tables 8.1 to tor. tank.Jiresshow
- ... -
', -_. -- .. _- -
-.' --;.
that this
-
8.11 but should be more than covered by the app'roach is:'unlikel)' to succeed
resource requirements calculated from the 10.2 • Larger capacity monitors.
lpm/m 2 cooling water application rate. PHd c~~ld:(j~:·q~Dgerous to those
~; ... ' '" . '- ,-
Tank Diameter (ISm high) 45m 60m 75m 90m Tank Diameter (ISm high) 45m 60m 75m 90m
Water For Cooling (lpm) 13,300 20,400 27,600 36,800 Water For Foam Attack (lpm) IIAOO 20,600 31,900 50,300
Water For Foam Attack (lpm) 11,400 20,600 31,900 50,300 3% Foam Concentrate (lpm) 360 640 990 1,600
Total Water Usage (litres) 3,880,000 6,140,000 8,550,000 11,860,000 Foam Solution (lpm) 11,700 21,200 32,900 51,900
60 Minute Foam Attack, 4 Hours Cooling
Total Water (litres) 681,000 1,240,000 1,920,000 3,020,000
Adjacent Tank
Total 3% Foam Concentrate (litres) 21,100 38,200 59,200 93,400
3% Foam Concentrate (lpm) 360 640 990 1,600
Total Foam Solution (litres) 710,000 1,280,000 1,980,000 3,120,000
Total Concentrate Usage (litres) 60 Minute 21,100 38,200 59,200 93,400
Foam Attack Foam Monitors (each 1900 Ipm) 7 12 18 28
Foam Solution (Ipm) 11,700 21,200 32,900 51,900 Pumps (one per monitor) 7 12 18 28
Total Foam Solution Usage (litres) 710,000 1,280,000 1,980,000 3,120,000 Hydrant Outlets (2 per pump) 14 24 36 56
60 Minute Foam Attack Hydrants (4 outlets per hydrant) 4 6 9 14
Foam Monitors (each 1900 Ipm) 7 12 18 28
Lengths of 70mm Hose (each 25m) 48 88 148 288
Water Cooling Monitors (each 1900 Ipm) 7 1I 15 20
Pumps (one per monitor) 14 23 33 48 Notes to Table 8.2:
a. The foam application rates used for these calculations are the Home Office recommended minimum application
Hydrant Outlets (2 per pump) 28 46 66 96 rates (see Chapter 4). The calculations assume 3% alcnhol resistant film-forming foam concentrate is heing used.
464 b. No allowance has been made for any additional foam cnncentrate requirements as a result of an increased jiJam
Number of 25m Lengths of 70mm Hose 96 168 260
application rate during firefighting due to losses, orfor continued application after extinction. Losses could add as
Total Length of 70mm hose (km) 2.4 4.2 6.5 11.6 much as 60% to these requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equipment (see Chapter 4).
c. All numbers are approximate.
Tank Surface Area 3% Foam 6% Foam Tank Surface No. of No. of No. of Distance No. of No. of Total Total
Diameter of Top of Tank Concentrate Concentrate Diameter Area Pumps Hydrant Hydrants From Hose 25m No. of Length
(litres) (litres) of Top Outlets Needed Hydrants Runs Lengths Lengths of Hose
of Tank Needed (4 outlets to Pumps for Each Required of25m
FP Film- FP
per Distance Hose
(m) (m l ) forming
(m) (m 2) hydrant) (km)
45 1,600 26,000 21,100 51,900 42,100
------- ------- ------- 45 1,600 7 14 4 2<25m 8 8 20 0.5
60 2,900 47,000 38,200 94,000 76,300
-------- -------- -------- 2<50m 6 12
75 4,500 72,900 59,200 146,000 119,000
-------- -------- -------- 60 2,900 12 24 6 2<25m 8 8 40
90 6,400 1]6,000 93,400 231,000 187,000
4<50m 16 32
75 4,450 18 36 9 2<25m 8 8 76 2.3
Notes to Tahle 8.4:
a. The foam application rates used for these calculatiolls are the Home Office recommended minimum application 6<50m 24 48
rates (see Chapter 4 J.
b. No allowance has been made for any additional jiJam concentrate requirements as a result of' an increased foam 1<125m 4 20
application rate during firefighting due to losses, or/or continued application after extinction. Losses could add 90 6,400 28 56 14 2<25 m 8 8 176 4.9
as much as 60% to foam concentrate requirements with associated increases in foam attack water and equipment
(see Chapter 4). 6<50m 24 48
c. Allnumhers are approximate.
6<125m 24 120
Large Pumps
range in capacity with the biggest in the order of
50,000 litres of foam solution per minute. Table
8.12 provides some manufacturers pelformance
• They have been claimed to have been used
successfully against large tank fires.
• They are heavy and difficult to manoeuvre,
although the larger ones are mounted on
purpose designed trailers or on appliances.
Larger sized pumps, such as those on 4,500 litre
per minute pumping appliances or skid mounted
information for these larger nozzles. • Some large monitor designs have shorter pumps of similar or larger capacity, have many
ranges than would be expected, primarily advantages. These include a reduction in the
Tank SUlface No. of No. of No. of Distance No. of No. of Total No. Total Tank Surface No. of No. of Length No. of Total No. Total Hose
Diameter Area of Foam Hydrant Hydrants From Hose 25m Hose of Length Diameter Area of Monitors Hose of Runs 25m Hose of25m Length
Top of Monitors/ Outlets Needed Hydrants Runs Lengths Lengths of Hose Top of Needed Runs Lengths lengths From
Tank Pumps Needed (1 outlet to Pumps for Each Required of Tank (each Needed Required From Hydrants
Needed per Distance (150mm 25m Hose 3,800 (l50mm Hydrants to Pumps
(each hydrant) Diameter) Ipm) Diameter) to Pumps to Monitors
3,800 to Monitors
Ipm) (m) (m 2 ) (km)
(m) (m 2) (km)
45 1,600 4 4 <50m 8 14 0.4
45 1,600 4 4 4 2<25m 2 2 6 0.2
60 2,900 6 6 <50m 12 22 0.6
2<50m 2 4
75 4,500 9 9 <50m 18 37 1.0
60 2,900 6 6 6 2<25m 2 2 10 0.3
90 6,400 14 14 <50m 28 72 1.8
4<50m 4 8
75 4,500 9 9 9 2<25m 2 2 19 0.5
Notes to Tahle 8.15:
6<50m 6 12
a. <50m means less than 50 metres.
1<125m 5 b. No allowance has been made for any additionalf(Jam concentrate requirements as a result of an increased foam
application rate during firefighting due to losses, or/or continued application after extinction. Losses could add
90 6,400 14 14 14 2<25 m 2 2 44 1.1 as much as 60% to the foam concentrate requirements lvith associated increases in foam attack water and equip-
6<50m 6 12 ment (see Chapter 4).
c. All numbers are approximate.
6<J25m 6 30
Table 8.16: Large Storage Tank Fires, Specialist Equipment Deployment - 150mm Hose Table 8.17: Large Storage Tank Fires, Specialist Equipment Deployment -150mm Hose
Requirements For a Foam Attack - Hydrants to Pumps, Pumps and Monitors 7,600 lpm Requirements For a Foam Attack - Pumps to Monitors, Pumps and Monitors 7,600 lpm
Tank Surface No. of No. of No. of Distance No. of No. of Total No. Total Tank Surface No. of No. of Length No. of Total Hose
Total No.
Diameter Area of Foam Hydrant Hydrants From Hose 25m Hose of Length Diameter Area of Monitors Hose Runs of Runs Length
25m Hose of25m
Top of Monitors Outlets Needed Hydrants Runs Lengths Lengths of Hose Top of Needed Needed Lengths lengths From
Tank fPumps Needed (I outlet to Pumps for Required of25m Tank (each Required From Hydrants
Needed per Each ( 150mm Hose 7,600 (150mm to Pumps
Hydrants
(each hydrant) Distance Diameter) Ipm) Diameter) to Monitors
to Pumps
7,600
to Monitors
Ipm) (m) (m 2) (km)
2
(m) (m ) (km)
45 1,600 2 2 <50m 4 6 0.2
45 1,600 2 2 2 2<25m 2 2 2 0.1
60 2,900 3 3 <50m 6 10 0.3
60 2,900 3 3 3 2<25m 2 2 4 0.1
75 4,500 5 5 <50m 10 18 0.5
1<50m 2
90 6,400 7 7 <50m 14 26 0.7
75 4,500 5 5 5 2<25m 2 2 8 0.2
3<50m 3 6 Notes to Tahle 8./7:
.,
F-refighting Foam
I. CFBAC, JCFR Report 19, Trials of I. CFBAC, JCFR Report 40, Survey of
Medium and High Expansion Foams on Firefighting Foams, Associated Equipment
Petrol Fires, P L Parsons, 1982. and Tactics [Ewbank Preece Reports] 1990.
ISBN 0 82652 556 X
2. FROG Publication 3/91, Additives for Part I : Firefighting Foams
Hosereel Systems: Trials of Foam on Part 2 : Tactics and Equipment
Wooden Crib Fires, B P Johnson, 1991. Part 3 : Large Tank Fires
3. CFBAC, JCFR Report 49, The Use of 2. Fire Service Manual - Volume 2 - Fire
Foam Against Large-Scale Petroleum Fires Service Operations - Petrochemicals.
Involving Lead-Free Petrol Summary
Report, J A Foster, 1992. 3. Fire Service Manual - Volume 1 - Fire
Service Technology, Equipment and
4. CFBAC, JCFR Report 31, Additives for Media - Foam.
Hosereel Systems Trials of Foams 011 40m 2
Petrol Fires, J A Foster, 1988.
Firejighting Foam 87 ~
Firefighting Foam
(Note: Not all of these terms have been used in this Manual of Firemanship
but they have been included here for completeness)
Alcohol resistant These may be suitable for use on hydrocarbon fuels, and
foam concentrates additionally are resistant to breakdown when applied to the
surface of water-miscible liquid fuels. Some alcohol resistant
foam concentrates may precipitate a polymeric membrane on
the surface of water-miscible liquid fuels.
AFFF concentrate Aqueous film-forming foam. AFFFs are generally based on mix-
tures of hydrocarbon and fluorinated surface active agents and
have the ability to form an aqueous film on the surface of some
hydrocarbon fuels.
Aspirated foam Foam that is made when foam solution is passed through purpose
designed foam-making equipment, such as a foam-making
branch. These mix in air (aspirate) and then agitate the mixture
sufficiently to produce finished foam. (see also primary aspirated
foam and secondary aspirated foam).
Firefighting Foam 89
Boiling liquid The catastrophic failure of a tank containing pressure liquefied Concentration To achieve effective pelformance, foam concentrates must be
expanding vapour gas (PLG) due to mechanical damage or adverse heat exposure mixed to the concentration recommended by the manufacturer.
explosion (BLEVE) will result in a BLEVE. A BLEVE will produce blast and For each 100 litres of the required foam solution, the foam
projectile hazards. If the contents of the tank are toxic, then concentrate must be mixed as follows:
health and exposure hazards may occur. If the contents are
Recommended Volume of Foam Volume of Volume of
flammable, then a fireball may occur with associated thermal
Concentration Concentrate Water Foam Solution
radiation and fire engulfment hazards. (litres) (litres) (litres)
1% 99 100
Boil-over Violent ejection of flammable liquid from its container, caused
by vaporisation of a water layer beneath the body of the liquid. It 3% 3 97 100
will generally only occur after a lengthy burning period in wide 6% 6 94 lOO
flashpoint range products, such as crude oil. The water layer may
already have been in the container before the fire began or may
Critical application The foam application rate below which a fire cannot be
be the result of the inadvertent application of water (perhaps dur-
rate extinguished.
ing cooling of the container walls), or from the drainage of foam
solution from finished foam applied to the fire. (see also froth-
Crude oil Petroleum, in its natural state, as extracted from the earth.
over and slop-over).
Consequently, there are many different types of crude oil, each
with different characteristics and each yielding different quality
Bund area (Dike area) An area surrounding a storage tank which is designed to contain
products. The various constituents ensure that crude oils general-
the liquid product in the event of a tank rupture.
ly have wide ranging flash points with usually sufficient fractions
(or light ends) to classify them as class A petroleum products.
Branch A hand-held foam maker and nozzle.
Foam monitor A larger version of a foam-making branch which cannot be Medium expansion Finished foam of expansion ratio greater than 20: 1. but less than
hand-held. foam (MX) or equal to 200: I.
Foam solution A well mixed solution of foam concentrate in water at the Minimum use The lowest temperature at which the foam concentrate can be
appropriate concentration. temperature used at the correct concentration through conventional equipment
such as inline inductors and other proportioning devices.
Foam, wet Foam with a short drainage time, i.e. the liquid content of the
foam takes a short period of time to drain out of the foam; the Monitor A large throughput branch (water or foam-making) which is
foam breaks down quickly. normally mounted on a vehicle, trailer or on a fixed or portable
pedestal.
Newtonianliquids The viscosity of Newtonian liquids remains the same no matter Premix solution A mixture in correct proportions of a foam concentrate and water.
how quickly or slowly they are flowing (see also non-Newtonian Use of this term generally implies that the foam is stored in a
pseudo-plastic liquids). Most non-alcohol resistant foam premix form, as in a portable foam fire extinguisher or as foam
concentrates (such as AFFF, FFFP, FP, P and SYNDET) are solution in a fire appliance water tank.
Newtonian liquids.
Primary aspirated Finished foam produced from foam solutions that are passed
Non-aspirated The application, by any appropriate means, of a firefighting foam through purpose designed foam-making equipment.
(Unaspirated) liquid that does not mix the liquid with air to produce foam (See secondary aspirated foam).
(i.e. aspiration does not occur). The term 'non-aspirated foam' is
often used incorrectly to describe the product of a foam solution Proportioner A device where foam concentrate and water are mixed to form a
that has been passed through equipment that has not been foam solution.
specifically designed to produce foam, such as a water branch.
However, the use of this type of equipment will often result in Protein (P) foam Protein foam concentrate contains organic concentrates derived
some aspiration of a foam solution. This is because air is usually concentrate from natural vegetable or animal sources. Hydrolysed products of
entrained into a jet or spray of foam solution as it leaves the protein provide exceptionally stable and heat resistant properties
branch, as it travels through the air due to the turbulence to foams although they lack fuel tolerance and have slow knock-
produced by the stream and/or when it strikes an object. This down performance.
causes further turbulence and air mixing. There is sufficient air
entrained by these processes to produce a foam of very low Relative density see Specific gravity
expansion (often with an expansion ratio of less than 5: I).
Consequently, the term secondary aspirated foam is preferred in Secondary aspirated Finished foams that are produced from foam solutions that are
these cases (see also primary aspirated and secondary aspirated foam applied other than by purpose designed foam-making equipment,
foam). usually standard water devices. (See primary aspirated foam).
Non·Newtonian As the rate of flow of non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic liquids Security The ability of a foam to seal around hot objects and prevent
pseudo-plastic increases, their viscosity decreases and so they flow more easily. reignition.
liquids Consequently, getting them to flow initially can be difficult, but
once flowing, their viscosity reduces to a more acceptable level. Shear strength The measurement of the stiffness of a finished foam sample
Many alcohol resistant foam concentrates (such as AFFF-AR and when measured with a foam viscometer. Units of measurement
FFFP-AR) are considered to be non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic are Newtons per square metre (n1m 2 ).
liquids.
Slop-over When some burning liquids, such as heavy fuel oils or crude oils,
Oleophobic Oil repellent. become extremely hot, any applied water may begin to boil on
contact with the fuel, the resulting rapid expansion as it converts
Over-the-top foam The application of foam by projecting it over the sides of a to steam may cause burning fuel to overflow its containment and
application storage tank and directly on to the surface of the contained fuel. the fire to spread (see also boil-over and froth-over).
pH (Acidity/Alkalinity) Measurement of the acidity to alkalinity of a liquid on a scale of Solution transit time The time taken for foam solution to pass from the point where
I to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral (like that of pure water), a pH of I is foam concentrate is introduced in to the water stream to when
very acidic, a pH of 14 is very alkaline. finished foam is produced.
Polar solvent This term is generally used to describe any liquid which destroys Specific gravity The specific gravity of a material is a measure of the density of
standard foams, although it actually refers to liquids whose mole- the material in relation to the density of water. The specific
cules possess a permanent dielectric discharge e.g. Alcohols, gravity is calculated as:-
ketones. Most polar solvents are water-miscible.
Specific Gravity = Density of material
Pour point The lowest temperature at which a foam concentrate is fluid enough Density of water
to pour. This is generally a few degrees above its freezing point.
Synthetic detergent These are based upon mixtures of hydrocarbon surface active
(SYNDET) foam agents and may contain fluorinated surface active agents with
concentrate additional stabilisers. They are multipurpose foams in that they
can be used at low, medium and high expansion.
Viscosity This is a measure of how well a Iiquid will flow. Liquids are
generally classed as either being non-Newtonian or Newtonian.
A low viscosity is often desirable because it improves the flow
characteristics of a foam concentrate through pick-up tubes,
pipework and induction equipment.
Viscosity will also vary with foam concentrate type and with
concentration. AFFF foam concentrates at 3% and 6%
oncentrations tend to be the least viscous, closely followed by
P, FP and FFFP foam concentrates at 6%. AFFF at I% and
SYNDET foams, P, FP and FFFP foam concentrates at 3%
concentration are appreciably more viscous than these. The
alcohol resistant foams are often the most viscous although
recent developments have dramatically reduced the viscosity
of some products.