WA7 1O:OO -

STATE SPACEANALYSISOFELECTRICPOWERSYSTEMS

Glen E. Beer Van E. Mablekos

Applied Physics Laboratory Electrical Engineering Department
The Johns Hopkins University University of Washington
L a u r e l , Maryland
20810 S e a t t l e , Washington 98195

Abstract well a s t h e a l g o r i t h m f o r , t h e a n a l y s i s o f a
loadedinductionmotor.
The dynamic a n a l y s i s of a balancedthree-
p h a s e e l e c t r i c a l power systemcomprisedof a G e n e r a l l y , a given power system is comprised
f i n i t es e to f : (1) synchronousgenerators, (2) of a f i n i t e set o f : (1) synchronousgenerators,
inductionand/orsynchronousdevices, (3) t r a n s - (2) inductionand/orsynchronousmotors, (3) RL
mission line networks , ( 4 ) RL (orRLC)-loads, (orRW)-loadsand ( 4 ) mechanicalloads a l l i n t e r -
and(5)mechanicalloads is analyzed by useof connectedin a s p e c i f i e d manner t h r o u g h t r a n s -
t h es t a t ev a r i a b l ea p p r o a c h . Eachcomponent of m i s s i o nl i n e s . While theabovementionedauthors
t h e e l e c t r i c power system is d e s c r i b e d by its u t i l i z e t h e e uivalentcircuitoftheidealtrans-
own s t a t e model.These c o n s t i t u e n t component m i s s i o n l i n e ??, 83, they do n o t c o n s i d e r t h e
s t a t e models a r e t h e n i n t e r c o n n e c t e d a s d i c t a t e d equivalentcircuitoftherealtransmissionline.
by t h e t o p o l o g y o f t h e power system a t hand,and It is well e s t a b l i s h e di nl i t e r a t u r e ,e . g . ,1 5 1 ,
t h e s t a t e model f o r t h e t o t a l s y s t e m is derived. t h a tt h ea c t u a lb e h a v i o ro f a t r a n s m i s s i o nl i n e
The r e s u l t a n t s t a t e model canthen be solved on a is a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d by a medium l e n g t h (50
d i g i t a l computer. The s t a t e modelsof theenergy 5 a 150; a = l e n g t ho ft h et r a n s m i s s i o nl i n ei n
c o n v e r t e r s , t h e RL-load,and themechanicalload m i l e s )t r a n s m i s s i o nl i n e .
a r e borrowedfrom 1 6 , 7 and81,and thestate
model of t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i s borrowedfrom Thus,theobjectiveofthispaper is three
[l]. F i n a l l y ,t h ea l g o r i t h m GEBVEM, developedin f o l d : (1) t o d e v e l o p t h e s t a t e model of s bal-
[11 i s used t o f o r m u l a t e t h e s t a t e model ofthe a n c e dt h r e e - p h a s ee l e c t r i c power system (referred
power system a t hand and t o p r o v i d e s o l u t i o n s f o r
the desired state variables.
t ot h ed q - r e f e r e n c ef r a m e )a sd e f i n e da b o v e ;
t o u t i l i z e t h e a l g o r i t h m GEBVEM developed in [l
toformulatethestate
(23
model o f t h e g i v e n e l e c t r i c
power s y s t e md e f i n e di n [l], and (3) t o s e t f o r t h
1. Introduction the procedure for the solution of the state model
that describes the electric power systemderived
Inconventional power systemstudies,be- i n C13.
c a u s eo fm a t h e m a t i c a la n a l y s i sl i m i t a t i o n s ,t h e
a n a l y s t is concerned with the behavior of the 2. Discussion
g i v e n e l e c t r i c a l power systemover three d i s t i n c t
i n t e r v a l s o ft i m er a t h e rt h a n a continuouslong The d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e model of a given
i n t e r v a l of time. These s t u d i e s a r e performed i n transmission line approximated by a T-equivalent,
thefrequencydomain, by use o f s t e a d y - s t a t e Figure 1, is basedontheimplementation of
ana lysis techniques and synchronous generator l i n e a rg r a p ht h e o r y .I no r d e rt og e t a compati-
e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t s comprisedof the &- b l e s t a t e model, t h a t i s , a s t a t e model t h a t h a s
t r a n s i e n t , t r a n s i e n t and s t e a d y - s t a t e r e a c t a n c e s theinputcurrentsasstatevariables,thetest
behind corresponding voltage sources. v o l t a g es o u r c e s ,F i g u r e 2 , a r e used.Hence, with
theaidofthelineargraphtheorysetforthin
Dynamic a n a l y s i s o f power s y s t e m s v i a s t a t e [21,thestate model ofFigure 2 , a s d e r i v e d i n
modeling e x h i b i t s t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e power s y s - C11, is w r i t t e n a s :
tem a t hand over a l l time, t h u s y i e l d i n g a con-
tinuoustime-domainbehaviorofthesystem.
Dynamic a n a l y s i s o f power s y s t e m s v i a s t a t e mod-
dt
els hasbeenintroduced,throughtheapplication
ofKron'swork, by MablekosandGrigsby [63. In
r e f e r e n c e[ 6 it h e s ea u t h o r sp r o v i d et h es t a t e
models o ft h ec l a s s i c a le n e r g yc o n v e r t e r s .F u r -
thermore,in [ 7 ] theydevelopthemodelingtheory
o f , a s well a s t h e a l g o r i t h m f o r the a n a l y s i s o f
a loadedsynchronousgeneratorwithanRL-load.
As a com liment to these works, Mablekosand El-
Abiad [By developedthemodelingtheoryof,as

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 -L -L

- +i2 equations describing the corresponding systems

2 2 havetimeindependentcoefficients. Forcompati-
+ A
Y + b i l i t yt h e n , Eqs.3 and 4 a r et r a n s f o r m e dt ot h e
iL2 1 dq-referenceframe in accordancewiththetheory
of t11. A c c o r d i n g l yt h e ya r ew r i t t e na s :

VCd wr 0 0 g 0 VCd
0 0 0 0

- -1 0 - K -5 0 0 i
Lql f 0 0 0
Fig. 1 The T-Equivalent Circuit of a Single-PhaseMedium -
d
dt 0 -1 y -E 0 0 (5)
Length Transmission Line iMl L R L itdl 0 2 0 0 'dZ

iL@
- 2- 0 0 0 - ;-'WR iLq2
0 0 2 0
R

- -_

E1

- (6)
Fig. 2 The Equivalent Circuit Used to Formulate the State
Model of the Single-PhaseMedium Length
Transmission Line i
Lq2
S i m i l a r l y , t h e s t a t e modelof t h e medium
l e n g t h ,t h r e e - p h a s eb a l a n c e dt r a n s m i s s i o nl i n e -iLdZ
e x h i b i t e di nF i g u r e 3, a sd e r i v e d in Ell, i s
w r i t t e n i n terms oftheABC-variablesas:
'

i-
r o o o ~ o o ~ v ou - oo o o o o ; **I
0 0 0 0 0 0 *.I
O O Q O ~ O O ~ yo) O

vcc 0 0 0 0 0 0 aCl
0 0 0 0 0 $ O O $

- 25 . 0 0 - f O O 0 0 0 8
h ~ O Q O O o

- 0-f 0 0 -f 0 0 0 0 iuI+ 0 0 0 0 0 sI2

oo-; a ;
0 0 - ; 0 0 0 lLcl 0

0 0 0
0

f
0

0
0

0
--
.C2

-;O 0 0 0 0 - e 0 0 iu2

0-$ 0 0 0 0 o'f 0 iu2 0 0 0 0 $ 0

- 00-; 0 0 0 0 0 - e
L
iW2
- L
0 0 0 0 0 f-

r -
--- - Fig. 3 The T-Equivalent Circuit of a Balanced Three-Phase
Medium Length Transmission Line
i ~ T ~ o o l o o o e vu o *A1

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
The a n a l y s i s o f t h e power systemscan now be
:Bl vcB '81
pursued through use of state modeling techniques,
icl 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 YCC 'Cl by combiningproperly the dq-reference frame state
*o v a r i a b l e s . The i n t e r c o n n e c t i o no ft h ed e s c r i b i n g
iA2
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 A
'2 equationsofthegivensubsystems,asdictated
O O O O O O U l O
t h ep r i n c i p l e sg i v e n in [ 9 , 10and 111, is set
iBI 'LB1 82
f o r t h i n [l]. A c c o r d i n g l y ,t h es t a t e model of
i
ic2
-
0
-
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
- ILC1. *C2d
-
i n t e r c o n n e c t e ds u b s y s t e m s ,t h es t a t e
which a r e known, i s obtained in thefollowing
modelsof

ir2 manner. The s t a t ee q u a t i o n sf o re a c h component

subsystem a r e combined i n t o one s e t o f s t a t e equa-
iLB2
tions, i.e., E*. 7 and 8, w r i t t e n i n compactform
as:
-kc2-
Mablekos,Grigsby,andEl-Abiad in [6, 7 andSI
dX
dt
=AX + BU (9)
have transformed the ABC-variables to stationary
d q - r e f e r e n c ef r a m ev a r i a b l e s .H e r et h es t a t e

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 -- - -
A1 0 0 0 B I O O O
X1

0 A2 0 0 0 B 2 0 0
X2

X3 0 0 A) 0 0 0 B 3 0

-
d . 0 0 0 0 0 0 .
dt

-- X"
j L

~ ~ ~~~~~

Y = CX + DU (10) S u b s t i t u t i o no f E q s . 11, 12, and 13 i n t o E q s . 9

where X1, X2,X3,

vectorsofeach
... X, r e p r e s e n tt h es t a t e
component subsystem.Similar
and 10 y i e l d s :

interpretations are given to matrices A1, A2,

... ...
... ...
A39 A,; B1,B2,B3, Bu; U1,Up,U3,
u,; Y1,Y2,Y3,
Dl,D2, D3, D,.
Y '
. a .

...
C,; and
8 i t k t z ! $ , c & r o u g hp r o p e r l y
definedtransformationsofthestatevector X = U t i l i z a t i o n of t h e p r o d u c t r u l e , [ 1 3 1 , enables
$ ( X ) , t h e o u t p u t v e c t o r Y = @ ( Y ) , and f o r c i n g the writing of the left hand s i d e o f E q . 14 a s :
f u n c t i o n v e c t o r U = E ( U ) , E q s . 7 and 8 y i e l d t h e
s t a t e model of a t o t a l s y s t e m comprisedof u I!YX=XdY +YdX
interconnected component subsystems. d td t dt

The procedure of transformation [ 9 , 10 and Herein is a constantmatrixwithelements +1,

111 i s o u t l i n e d a s follows: (1) t h es u b s y s t e m sa r e -1, and 0. T h e r e f o r e ,t h ef i r s t term of t h er i g h t
interconnectedintothedesiredsystem;the mathe- hand s i d e o f E q . 16 is z e r o and E q . 14 canbe r e -
m a t i c a lr e l a t i o n s h i p s ,d u et ot h ep h y s i c a li n t e r - written as:
connection of the subsystems into the desired
systemareestablishedbetweenthestatevector Y-d X = AYX + Bk U
dt (17)
X, o u t p u t v e c t o r Y, andforcingfunctionvector U
of thegivensubsystems(henceforthreferredto P r e m u l t i p l i c a t i o no f
E q . 15 by I'@ yields:
E q . 17 by I"'
andof
a s o r i g i n a l ) and t h e s t a t e v e c t o r X, outputvector
Y , andforcingfunctionvector U , o ft h ei n t e r -
connected system (henceforth referred to as
The f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e o r i g i n a l
new). ad tX = Y-'AYX + Y-lBk U (18)
s t a t e v e c t o r X and t h e new s t a t e v e c t o r X is
written as:

x = YX (11) Performance of the indicated matrix multiplica-

t i o n s i n E q s . 18 and 19 y i e l d s t h e s t a t e model of
The f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e o r i g i n a l the interconnected system written as:
o u t p u t v e c t o r Y and t h e new o u t p u t v e c t o r Y is
written as:

y = PY (12) Y =cx + DU (2 1)

F i n a l l y ,t h ef u n c t i o n a lr e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Fortheinterconnectedsystemcomprisedof u
originalforcingfunctionvector U and t h e new component subsystems:thefollowingdefinitions
forcing function vector U is w r i t t e n a s :

u = Bu (13)
X ( t ) , x (t),
&tor;
...
a r e v a l i d : (1) X comprisedoftheelements
x (t) is d e f i n e da st h es t s t e
X (t),

s 2 ) k i s deyined a s t h e t i m e d e r i v a t i v e
of the state veetor X ; ( 3 ) Y comprisedof the

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 e l e m e n t sy l ( t ) ,y 2 ( t ) ,y $ t ) ,
f i n e d a s t h eo u t p u tv e c t o r ;
... v y ( t ) i s de-
(4) U comprisedof
The s o l u t i o n o f t h e s t a t e e q u a t i o n , Eq. 22,

t h ee l e m e n t su l ( t ) ,U 2 ( t ) ,U 3 ( t ) ,
f i n e da st h ef o r c i n gf u n c t i o nv e c t o r ;
... " $ ( t ) is de-
(5) A is a n
for the total system
of the 4th order
i s achieved through the use
Runge-Kutta i t e r a t i v e t e c h n i q u e
1141. However, p r i o r t o t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e
a x a-dimensional matrix; (6) B is a n CY x B-di- solutionofthestateequations,thecontrolla-
mensionalmatrix; (7) C i s a Y x @-dimensional b i l i t y , o b s e r v a b i l i t y , and s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s y s -
m a t r i x and (8) D i s a y x @-dimensionalmatrix. tem a t hand a r ei n v e s t i g a t e d .C o n t r o l l a b i l i t y
M a t r i c e s A and B d e s c r i b e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f and observability are investigated throu h use of
thesystemunderinvestigationandrelatevector t h e c r i t e r i o n set f o r t h byKolman i n [12!.
u t o the time
X and t h e f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n v e c t p r
d e r i v a t i v eo ft h es t a t ev e c t o r .X
and D r e l a t e the o u t p u t v e c t o r Y o f t h e s y s t e m
Matrices C 3. Theory Implementa t i o n

i t s s t a t e v e c t o r X and Thedynamic behavior of t h e t e s t e l e c t r i c

underinvestigationto
i t s f o r c i n gf u n c t i o n U
written explicitly:
. Eqs. 20 and 21 a r e power system,Figure 4, comprised of: (1) two
synchronousgenerators,(2)threethree-phase,
b a l a n c e dt r a n s m i s s i o nl i n e s , (3) one RL-load and
. . (4) oneloadedinductionnutor is obtained by
. . implementation of the theory set forth herein and
i n [l]. The dq-variablestate-modelsofthe con-
. . s t i t u e n ts u b s y s t e m sa r em a t h e m a t i c a l l yi n t e r c o n -
nected(inaccordancewiththeconstraintsde-
f i n e d by the topology of the system a t hand) t o
yield the dq-variable state model of t h e test
. . e l e c t r i c power system. The d e s c r i b i n ge q u a t i o n s
are then solved, via the algorithm GE3VEM develop-
. . ed i n [11, and y i e l d t h e t i m e domain behaviorof
t h e t e s t power system a t hand.
. .
. . The s t a t e model and the corresponding para-
metersofeachsubsystemaregivenin [l]. Imple-
m e n t a t i o no ft h ei n t e r c o n n e c t i o nt h e o r ys e tf o r t h
h e r e i n y i e l d s Eqs. 24 and 25 which d e s c r i b e t h e
. . electricpartofthe test systemand Eqs. 26, 2 7 ,
and 28 which describe the mechanical part of the
t e s t system.

Fig. 4 Test System

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 (i) s t a t e v a r i a b l e s X (11, i 2 , isr
o u t p u tv a r i a b l e s Y (il, 12,ig,
(iiil f o r c i n gf u n c t i o n u ( e l , e2, e3,
......... V ), ( i i )
i 2 ( ~ f , and
e6);
and (3) the mechanical: ti) a t a t e v a r i a b l e s
(el, S2); (ii) o u t p u t v a r i a b l e s YM (er&) ,
end (iii) f o r c i nf gu n c t i o n (Tern). Comparison
between t h e c o r r e s p o n & i n g v a r i a b l e s o f F i g u r e 4
enablesoneto:(1)express the o r i g i n a l s t a t e
vector as a functionofthe new s t a t e v e c t o r , Eq.
29; (2) e x p r e s s t h e o r i g i n a l o u t p u t v e c t o r a s a
functionofthe new o u t p u t v e c t o r Eq. 30 and (3)
express the original forcing function vector as
a functionofthe new f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n v e c t o r ,
Eq. 31. S u b s t i t u t i o no f Eqs. 29, 30and 31 i n t o
t h e e x p l i c i t formsofEqs. 24 and 25, which a r e
o b t a i n e d by p r o p e r s u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e s t a t e model
of each component subsystem(pergivenparameters)
i n t o Eqs. 24 and 25, a s d i c t a t e d by Eqs. 18 and
19, y i e l d s Eqs. 32 and 33. Eqs. 32 and 33 con-
p -

1 0 0 0 0
Ode1
OdrGl
0 0 0 0 0

e 0 0 0 0 0
9.c1
0 0 0 0 0
qra
The e l e c t r i c a l a n d m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m s a r e a p p r o -
0 1 0 0 0
p r i a t e l yc o u p l e du t i l i z i n g Eq. 6.5of [11. In *drC2
Eqs. 24 and 25: (1) t h e s u b s c r i p t s G l and62 0 0 0 0 0
designatevariablesandparametersthatcorres- "dffi2
pond t o t h e g e n e r a t o r s 81 and#2; (2) t h e s u b - 0 0 0 0 0 0
s c r i p t s T1, "2 and T3 d e s i g n a t e v a r i a b l e s a n d qrC2
parametersthatcorrespondtotransmissionline 0 0 1 0 0
networks 41, 82and 83; (3) t h e s u b s c r i p t L 'qrG2
designates variables and parameters that corres- 0 0 0 0 0
'qlTl
pond t o t h e RL-load and ( 4 ) t h e s u b s c r i p t M
d e s i g n a t e sv a r i a b l e s a n dp a r a m e t e r st h a tc o r r e s - 0 0 0 0 0
'dlTl
pond t o t h e motor.For t h e mechenieal state
model,Eqs.26, 27 and28, (1) t h e s t a t e v e c t o r 0 0 0 0 0
'q2T1
X is comprisedof the r o t o r s p e e d 4(t)i n r a d . /
0 0 0 0 0
sec.and i t s angulardisplacement BR(t) i n r a d . ; 'd2Tl
(2) t h e f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n v e c t o r UM is comprised 0 0 0 0 0
of the load torque 78 minus the electromagnetic 'qlT2
torquec6, 81; (3) t h em a t r i x AM i s a 2 x 2- 0 0 0 0 0
dimensional matrix and the matrix % i s a 2 x 1- 'dlT2
dimensionalmatrix. These two m t r i c e sd e s c r i b e 0 0 0 0 0
the c h e r a c t e r i s t i c s of the mechanicalsystem 'q2T2
underinvestigationandrelatethestatevector 0 0 0 0 0
+ and the f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n UM t o t h e t i m e d e r i v -
'd2T2
ative of the state vector XM; ( 4 ) t h e m a t r i x % Oql'f3
0 0 0 0 0
i s a 2 x 2-dimensional matrix and the matrix %
i s alwayszero.These two m a t r i c e sr e l a t et h e 0 0 0 0 0
'dlT3
s t a t e v e c t o r XM a n d t h e f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n v e c t o r
t o t h e o u t p u t v e c t o r YM of the mechanical sys- 0 0 0 0 0
'q2T3
temunderinvestigation. Note t h a t Eq. 28de-
finesthequadraticoutput of the motor, i.e., 0 0 0 0 0
'd2T3
the electromagnetic torque T a i n terms o f t h e
e 0 0 0 0 0
motor s t a t e v a r i a b l e v e c t o r 4, its t r a n s p o s e XM, qL1
and t h e matrix G. The e l e m e n t s o f m a t r i x G a r e 0 0 0 0 a
comprised of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of % ( t ) i n t h e 'at1

e61 .
merinputequationofthesystemasderivedin
The interconnectedsystemdefinedabove
e x h i b i t e d i n Figure 4 alongwith (1) t h e o l d : (i)
is 'dm
0 0 0 1 0

s t a t ev a r i a b l e s X (idrG1,idsG1, iqsG1, ... edrKl

0
0 0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
iqffil, ...
iqsM1) a (ii) o u t p u tv a r i a b l e s Y (idrG1,idsG1,
iqsMI) and ( i i i ) f o r c i n g f u n c t i o n U 'prill
0 0 0 0 1
(edrG1, ed&1> eqsG1s * . e eqsM1); (2) t h e new:
- -
'q.nr
-
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Fll 01000000000000000000000000 l2 Start
o O l O O O O O O Q O O O o O O O O O O o o 0 o o o 11,
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0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1,
conditiom
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ooooooooo2ooooooooooopoooooo ll Formulate state
equations for Make changes
.00000000002000000000000000 ll system
00000000000200000000000000 ll
00000000000020000000000000 ll
O O O O O O O O O O O O O Z ~ ~ O tl ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
00000000000000200000000000 il

00000000000000020000000000 l1
System stable ?
00000000000000002000000000 i1

00000000000000000200000000 ll J. Yes
oooooooooooooooooolooooooo l1

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- i2

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Controllability
and observability
test
"2
"2

"4
Integration of Transform output
"J electrical system data to three phase
-"f

1 I I J

The dynamicbehaviorofthe t e s t s y s t e m is Store data for

studiedthroughtheanalysisofthetrend of a plots and realize Tabulate and
g i v e ns y s t e m ' ss t a t ev a r i a b l ea n dt h eo u t p u t electrical and plot data
v a r i a b l e sp l o t s ,F i g u r e 4 . T h e s ev a r i a b l e sa r e mechanical
system connections
obtained with the aid of the algorithm GEBVEM
exhibitedinFigure 5.

4. C o n c h si o n s
mechanical
system over next
The p r o c e d u r e f o r t h e dynamic a n a l y s i s o f time interval
e l e c t r i c power s y s t e m s u t i l i z i n g s t a t e modeling
techniques i s s e tf o r t hh e r e i n . The d q - r e f e r -
enceframe s t a t e modelsoftheenergyconverters,
t h e RL-loadand the mechanical load are borrowed plots and realize
from [ 7 , 81, w h i l et h ed q - r e f e r e n c e frame s t a t e electrical and
model of thebalancedthree-phasetransmission mechanical system
l i n e is d e r i v e di n [lj. These s t a t e models a r e
interconnectedmathematicallythroughuseofthe
t h e o r ys e tf o r t hi n 19, 103. The solutionsof I
t h e r e s u l t a n t s t a t e model a r e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h
t h e a l g o r i t h m GEBVEM developed in [11. Fig. 5 Flow Chart of GEBVEM

The merit of t h i sa p p r o a c h is evidenced by

andeventhousands;thus,thetimerequired by
thegraphsofFigures 6 and 7. Thesegraphs show t h e d i g i t a l computer becomes p r o h i b i t i v e i n c o s t .
t h a tt h es y s t e mr e a c h e ss t e a d y - s t a t ei n 2 seconds
Thus, the method o f s o l v i n g t h e s y s t e m s t a t e
when t h es y s t e ms t a r t s from r e s t .S i n c et h ed y -
equationsshould be examined, and a technique
namic b e h a v i o ro ft h et e s ts y s t e m is obtained
s u c ha sd i a k o p t i c s( l e s s time consuming on t h e
through s t a t e modelingtechniques,comparison
d i g i t a l computer)should be considered a s a
withotherapproaches i s of l i t t l e v a l u e .
possibleresearchproject.
It should be n o t e d t h a t t h e c o n s t r a i n t o f
t h i s a p p r o a c h is t h e number of s t a t e v a r i a b l e s .
The t e s ts y s t e ms t u d i e di nt h i sp a p e r is com-
prisedof 32 s t a t ev a r i a b l e s .T h i s is a r e l a -
t i v e l y small system.Forlargersystemsthe
number of s t a t e v a r i a b l e s a p p r o a c h e s h u n d r e d s

253

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 Time (sec)
References
Fig 7 lDRGl versus Time
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