Nuclear Reactions

for Structure Research

Introduction
● Exotic structures far from stability
● What do we learn from reactions?
● Nuclear astrophysics
Elastic scattering and reaction channels with light nuclei
● Detection principles
● Production methods
● Channel identification
● Normalisation

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 1/14
The Chart of Nuclei

New phenomena appear far

from stability
Possibly related to changes in
the shell structure

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 2/14
Exotic nuclei: halo nuclei

Halo nuclei
● Low binding energy,
clusterisation
● Low angular momentum
● Large spatial extension

Tanihata, Savajols and Kanungo, 2013

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 3/14
First reactions: BEVALAC at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory

● Combination of a low-energy
heavy ion linear accelerator
and a proton synchrotron
● Transfer line from the Linac
to the Bevatron
● Heavy ion 11B and 20Ne beam
at 800 MeV/A
fragmented on a Be target

I. Tanihata et al
Phys. Lett. 160B (1985) 380

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 4/14
Halo nuclei: interaction cross section and radii
Interaction radii and matter radii
$
Elastic: 𝜎!" = 𝜋ƛ$# ∑ℓ 2ℓ + 1 1 − 𝜂ℓ,#
$
The rest: 𝜎' = 𝜋ƛ$# ∑ℓ 2ℓ + 1 1 − 𝜂ℓ,#
Sharp cut-off model:
𝜂ℓ = 0 for ℓ ≤ ℓ( = 𝑘𝑅
𝜂ℓ = 1 for ℓ > ℓ( = 𝑘𝑅
→ 𝜎' = 𝜋ƛ$ ∑ℓ 2ℓ + 1 = 𝜋ƛ$ ℓ( + 1 $ =𝜋 𝑅+ƛ $

with 𝑅 ≡ 𝑅),*'+, + 𝑅),-.'/!-

Large matter radii for 6He, 11Li

Tanihata et al PRL 55 (1985) 2676

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 5/14
Halo nuclei: role in reaction processes
● Large interaction cross section,
6,4He+64Zn
narrow momentum distribution
of fragments
● Role in elastic scattering and fusion
processes: channel coupling
● Role of the continuum in general
for weakly-bound nuclei

6He+238U A. Di Pietro et al.,

PRC 69 (2004) 044613

RR et al.,
Nature 431 (2004) 823

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 6/14
Exotic nuclei: cluster structures, molecular-type bonds
Clusters
Molecular bonds
● Appear close to the
● Nucleons exchanged
corresponding breakup
between the clusters
threshold

12C: Hoyle state

at 7.6 MeV

Ikeda diagram

Be isotopes: 2 α clusters
and exchange neutrons

Figures: M. Freer
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 to characterize such systems. The most obvious of these of are0.13(0.01) MeV, or !! =! ! 0:46$0:03%.
the beryllium isotopes. From the theoretical perspective the [8] Exotic
The minima were
in mounted
structures
the angular within
distributions
and the
in Fig. reaction chamber
reactions
3 corre-
– 7/14 (Fig
spond to very low yields. There will, however, be a con-
molecular FIG. 2 (color online). The reconstructed center-of-mass emis-
traits of rotational bands have been describedtribution in from which was filled with helium gas (150 mb). These ar
Resonant reactions in inverse kinematics in a gas target
sion angle ("c:m: ) vs the interaction distance. The left-hand panel Rutherford scattering. In order to estimate
terms of theshows exchange
the experimentallynucleons, being inandeither
determined distribution, are composed
orcontribution
the right $- this an analysis ofof the16-element annular
‘‘singles’’ data has been strip detectors wit
the result of simulations for a resonance at 10.15 MeV with ! ! performedinner
(Fig. 4)radius
for threeofbeam energies. The difference
50 mm and an outer radius of 130 mm.
!-type orbitals
296 keV [3].
[6] andExperimental
J# ! 4# . progress validating this between the distributions is marked, with the oscillatory
picture has, however, been less dramatic. In Be two rota- 9 M.resonance’’
Freer etdata. al, Owing
PRL 96 (2006) 042501
● Energy scan:
tional bandsFig.have
3). The
degrade
been
6.18 identified
the
MeV state haswith
beam
a long neutrons
energy
lifetime (1.1 in ps)
pattern only appearing for the ‘‘on
4 6
$ andto!the He– He detection ambiguity, the distributions con-
Window LAMP
inorbits
a thick target
which may be explained in terms of the structure being
[3].different
The characterization10 of the ":2n:"
to that of the Be ground and first excited state.
tain contributions from both
system,
the forward and backward
center-of-mass angle yields (particularly at 6.1 MeV).
Resonance Region
LEDA
where the Thetwo7.54 valence
MeV state neutrons
has been areshownintomolecular
have an anoma- orbitals,
Thus, the calculated elastic scattering yields have 6been
He
● Light ionless
has been target
lously large
successful. →
reduced
use
! width
gas
[10]
The present [confirmed in Ref.
status is summarized
Thus, if the present resonance is a member of this band
[4] ]. filtered through the Monte Carlo simulations. The elastic
scattering was calculated using 260 mm 6 4
the Li # He optical
by Milin etthenal.a [4].
large The molecular
reduced width for !band decayiswouldassociated
also be with model parameters from Ref. [11] (Table II, set 4). The
● Inverse kinematics:
the 6.18 MeV (0!
expected.
2 ) level, which is linked to the 2 stateincrease
The present data can provide ! a measure of the !
!
width
agreement
at
in
with the 6.1 MeV data is good, 6including the
yield at backward angles θw He
which is a conse-
7.54 MeV.(!The corresponding 4 state is believed to be quence the of the aforementioned contribution from both the
180 degrees
10.15 MeVrange in the centre-of-mass
! ) of the resonance. For this analysis the data in the
state"c:m:[5].
! 70Measurements
and 110 , where theof
"
theofspin
effects and parity
the experi-
6 He and 4 He. The agreement with the 11.1 MeV
Collimator
4 He
data is
4
→ of use gas
mental
the state forward
have,acceptances
however, in the
are reduced,
producedlaboratory
were used. From the
conflicting results
simulations it was determined that the efficiency for de-
good at small angles, but the discrepancy at larger angles He
indicates that here the refractive elements in the scattering
d
[4,6] due tecting,
to the model dependent
in coincidence, the nature
6
He # 4 He of pairs
the analysis.
is are not so well accounted for. The oscillatory behavior of
● Coincident
Antisymmetrized
the
10 Be, which are P 2detection to reconstruct kinematics
1.37(0.07)%.molecular
Legendre
This compares dynamics
polynomial
with 7.2% of the
which lies
calculations
within
fraction of
the same
the
ofdistributions in the data acquired at 7.5 MeV data is not
760 mm
4
free from structural constraints, predict 10
6
PHYSICAL REV
PRL 96, 042501 (2006)
that the 0!
2 state in
8000
10
Be at 6.18 MeV 11 should have a cluster
FIG. 1. Experimental setup. The region in the gas volum
structure [7], in which the J=2two valence neutrons are located
9
11.1 MeV
which the 10.15 MeV 10 Be resonance is formed is indic
Ex (MeV)

between two " J=4

6000cores, and exhibit spatial distributions (shaded zone). The resonance subsequently decays into 6 H
5
10
J=6 7
characteristic of $ molecular orbitals. The presence of 4 He which are detected in coincidence in the LAMP array
7.5 MeV

Yield
5
Counts

0 4 10 14 20
4000 4
10
J(J+1)
0031-9007=06=96(4)=042501(4)$23.00 042501-1  2006 The American Physical Soc
2000 6.1 MeV
3
10

40 65 90 115 140
0
50 70 90 110 130 150 θc.m. (degrees)
θc.m. [degrees]
FIG. 4 (color online). State atangular
FIG. 2Normalized
E*=10.15
(color online).
MeV,
distributions Γ=296
for the
The reconstructed
keV, J =4
π +
center-of-mass emis-
FIG. 3 (color online). Experimentally determined center-of- singles data measured at beam energies of 11.1 (circles ( 10),
sion angle (" ) vs the interaction distance. The left-hand panel
mass distribution (data points) compared with simulations for 7.5 (squares ( 1), and 6.1 MeV c:m:
(triangles ( 0:1). The solid lines
the decay of a spin 4 (blue-solid line), 2 (red-dashed line), and 6 shows
overlaid over the threethe experimentally
data sets corresponddetermined distribution, and the right
to the elastic
(black-long-dashed line) resonance. The inset shows the energy- scattering as simulated by the Monte Carlo calculations. Theat 10.15 MeV with ! !
the result of simulations for a resonance
G0S95A – Exotic spin
Nuclei – 2021/2022
systematics of the rotational band of which the present 4# 18/02/2022 –the
dotted line shows296Nuclear
keV Reactions
[6] and
Rutherford # 1/3
J# ! 4contribution
scattering . for the
 Exotic structures and reactions – 8/14
Exoticity in the shell model: new magic numbers

Observations
● Shell model describes well
the properties of stable nuclei
● Far from stability:
new structures, new magic numbers

● Hamiltonian: 𝐻 = 𝐻0+'! + 𝐻1,$ single-particle energies

+ residual interaction 𝑉22 (1,2)

● The structure of nuclei in the vicinity of shell closures

is directly related to the properties of the underlying
(effective) NN interaction
→ New magic numbers are related to modifications
in the NN interaction
(enhancement of specific terms)

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 9/14
Modifications in the NN interaction
• Tensor interaction (only if S=1)

T. Otsuka et al., PRL 95 (2005) 232502

• 3-body forces
T. Otsuka et al., PRL 105 (2010) 032501
Oxygen isotopes

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 10/14
Shell occupancy: transfer reactions

Transfer reactions
Measure how much the wave function of a particular state
may be described by a single-particle configuration

● Angular distributions
→ transferred angular momentum → spins
● Cross sections
→ spectroscopic factors
→ shell occupancy

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 11/14
Example: island of inversion

• As protons are removed 14

from the πd5/2 orbital,
the νd3/2 becomes more unbound
Þ N = 20 gap reduction,
new gap at N = 16 12
intruder states appearing
collectivity, deformation

20
Y. Utsuno et al.,
PRC 60 (1999) 054315
16
p3/2 20
f7/2
20
s1/2
d3/2
14 s1/2
d5/2 ν
π

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 12/14
Exotic nuclei: shape coexistence
A. Andreyev et al., Nature 405 (2000) 430

Shape coexistence 186Pb

● States with different shapes

appear at similar excitation
energies

Figure: T. Cocolios (2010)

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 Exotic structures and reactions – 13/14
Collectivity and single-particle structures
Shape Coexistence 68 Ni
β-decay Transfer Outlook/Summary

Type-II shell evolution T. Otsuka and Y. Tsunoda, JPG 43 (2016) 024009

J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 43 (2016) 024009
T Otsuka and Y Tsunoda, JPG 43 (2016) 024009 T Otsuka and Y Tsunoda

● Type-I shell evolution:

number of nucleons
● Type-I shell evolution:
in different isotopes
number of nucleons in
● Type-II shell evolution:
different isotopes
occupancies within
● same
the Type-II shell evolution:
nucleus
occupancies within the
same nucleus

Probe with transfer reactions!

28
Figure 1. Illustration of the type I and II shell evolutions. Wavy lines indicate tensor
● From Ni to n-deficient force. Closed (open)g 9/2
circles denote neutron particles (holes). 28 i13/2
40
? Fermi energy
Pb region… 3.2. Shell evolution due
ll
to tensor
p1/2
f5/2 llllll fforce h9/2 h9/2
we need information llll p
5/2
3/2
The tensor force has been known for a long time, ? were studied from many
and its effects
Fermi energy
on energy gaps! 28
angles. Those studies include an extraction of the tensor-force component82 in the empirical
f7/2
nucleon–nucleon
llllllll f7/2
interaction by Schiffer
llllllll h11/2 a derivation of microscopic effective
and True [15],
π ν π ν
NN interaction (i.e., the so-called ‘G-matrix interaction’) including second-order effects of the
→ nucleon-transfer Ni
68 Kuo and Brown [16], calculations of magnetic
tensor force by 186 Pb
moments also including
measurements second-order tensor-force contributions by Arima and his collaborators [17] and by Towner
[18], and so-called TOSM calculations of halo nuclei [19].
The robust, systematic and first-order effects of the tensor force on the shell structure
have, however, been discussed since 2005 [7]. We present the basic properties of the
G0S95A Riccardo Raabe
– Exotic Nuclei (KU Leuven)
– 2021/2022 Bormio
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Reactions 1/3
 Exotic structures and reactions – 14/14
Information from nuclear reactions

● Total reaction cross section

→ interaction radius (matter radius)
● Elastic scattering at grazing impact parameters
→ role of different channels in the reaction mechanism
→ fusion probabilities
● Break-up and measurement of momenta of fragments
→ spatial distribution inside nucleus, wave function
● Electromagnetic transitions (Coulomb excitation)
→ coherent motion of charges or magnetism
● Resonant reactions and decay of resonant states
→ Structure of resonant states
● Direct reactions
→ single-particle wave functions

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 Nuclear astrophysics and reactions – 1/4
Main astrophysical processes Introduction: astrophysics –
Main astrophysical processes
The vast majority of reactions encountered in
these processes involve unstable species
hence the need for Radioactive Ion Beams

M.S. Smith and K.E. Rehm,

Ann. Rev. Nucl. Part. Sci, 51 (2001) 91-130

The vast majority of reactions encountered in

G0S95A –these processes involve unstable species
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 Nuclear astrophysics and reactions – 2/4
Nucleosynthesis
● Nucleosynthesis processes:
neutron and proton capture far from stability
● Neutron capture impossible to measure directly
→ use “surrogate” reactions, i.e. (d,p)

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 Nuclear astrophysics and reactions – 3/4
Reactions in main-sequence stars
Introduction: astrophysics – 5/6
● Reaction rate: 𝜎𝑣 = ∫ 𝜎 𝑣 𝜙 𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑣
Reaction rates for charged particles
Example: CNO cycle: C(p,𝛾) N(e 𝜈) C(p,𝛾) N(p,𝛾) O(e 𝜈) N(p,α)
12 13 + 13 14 15 + 15 12C
Introduction: astrophysics – 5/6
Reaction rates for charged particles
•●Reaction rate:
Charged particles!E = ∫ ! Ebarrier
→ Coulomb G E EHE V Coulomb potential

• Reaction rate: !E = ∫ ! E G! E EHE

Tunneling probability 𝑃 ∝ exp( ) V Coulomb potential
Ekin ~ kT (keV)
• Charged particles → Coulomb barrier " Ecoul ~ Z1Z2 (MeV)
Ekin ~ kT (keV)
tunnel
• ●Charged particles → Coulomb barrier
Tunneling probability
Gamow peak: combination I ∝ofexp 1/ O
velocity Ecoul ~ Z1Z2 (MeV) effect
tunnel
Tunneling probability I ∝probability
distribution and tunneling exp 1/ O r0
effect r

• Gamow peak: combination of velocity nuclear well r0 r

• ●Gamow peak: combination of velocity

distribution and tunneling probability
Examples for T ≈ 15x106 K (the Sun)
nuclear well

distribution and tunneling probability

• Examples for T ≈ 15x10
Coulomb
6 K (the Sun)
Area around Maxwell-Boltzmann tunnelling through

• Examples for T ≈ 15x10

Reaction barrier 6 K (the Sun)
E0 (keV) Gamow peak
distribution
∝ exp(-E/kT)
Maxwell-Boltzmann
Coulomb barrier
EG / E )
∝ exp(-through
tunnelling
(MeV) ≈ 𝜎𝑣 distribution Coulomb barrier
Coulomb
relative probability
kT ≈ 8.6x10-8 T[K]
∝ exp(-E/kT) keV EG / E )
∝ exp(-
p+p 0.55 E0
5.9 area under Gamow
7.0x10-6
Reaction barrier
Coulomb relative probability
(keV)
E0 peak ~ <σv>
area under Gamow Gamow peak
Reaction
α + 12C (MeV)
barrier
3.43 56 5.9x10-56
(keV) peak ~ <σv> Gamow peak
(MeV) -237-6
ΔE0
p + p
16O + 16O 0.55
14.07 5.9
237 7.0x10
2.5x10
ΔE0
p + p12 0.55 5.9 7.0x10-6-56
α + C 3.43 56 5.9x10 kT E0 energy
α + 12C
16 O + 16 O
3.43 56 5.9x10-56 kT E0 energy
14.07 237 2.5x10-237
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 Nuclear astrophysics and reactions – 4/4
Introduction: astrophysics – 6/6
Reaction rates for charged particles
Reaction rates for charged particles
•●Resonances, if present, dominate!
Resonances, if present, dominate!

•●Example:
Example:24Mg(p,D)
24Mg(p,𝛾)
AlAl
2525

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 Elastic scattering and reactions –
Elastic scattering and reactions 1/5
–1/5
1/5
Elastic scattering and reaction channels with light nuclei
Elastic scattering and reaction channels with light nuclei
● Beams of light exotic nuclei on heavier targets
• Beams of light exotic nuclei on heavier targets
(Al, Cu, Zn, Pb, U...)
(Al, Cu, Zn, Pb, U…)
→ direct kinematics
→ direct kinematics
(Rutherford experiment)
(Rutherford experiment)
● Special needs:
• Special needs:
--very high efficiency detection
very high efficiency detection EXPERIMENTAL
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
STUDY OF
OFTHE
THECOLLISION
11
COLLISION 11Be
Be......
→ large solid angle coverage,
→ large solid angle coverage, rati
rati
high segmentation of detectors
high segmentation of detectors the
the
I
corr
--high luminosity
high luminosity
cor
was
wa
whe
wh
→ thick targets (but beware of energy degradation!)
→ thick targets (but beware of energy degradation!) type
typ
sym
sym

--channel identification
channel identification
W
one
one
duty
dut
→ particle identification,
→ particle identification, (50
(50
con
con
special identification techniques:
special identification techniques: FIG.
FIG. 1.
1. Experimental
Experimental setup
setupused
usedfor
forthe
10,11
the 10,11Be+
64
Be+64Zn
Znexperiment.
experiment.
the
the
400
400
thou
fusion-fission, gamma rays, beta-decay...
tho
fusion-fission, gamma rays, beta-decay... The
The two
two forward
forward detectors
detectors (DSSSD5
(DSSSD5 and and DSSSD6)
DSSSD6) were were
the
the
larg
larg
--measure excitation function (cross section as funciton of energy)
measure excitation function (cross section as functionwere
ofplaced
placed
energy)
placed about
about 90
were placed
90 mm
at
mm from
at the
from the
the closer
the target,
target, while
closer distance
while the
distance of
the other
of about
other detectors
about 50
detectors
50 mm.
mm. The The
larg
larg
to
tobb
detection
detection system
system hadhad aa very
very compact
compact geometry,
geometry, therefore
→ use a stackof targets
of targets
whi
→ use a stack small
small variations
the
variations ofof the
the beam
beam position
position onto
onto the
therefore
the target,
target, i.e.,
i.e., of
of
wh
cou
cou
the beam
beam axis,
axis, resulted
resulted inin aa non-negligible
non-negligible variation
variation of of the
the and
and
detector
detector angles.
angles. In
In order
order to
to properly
properly reconstruct
reconstruct the
the angular
angular dete
det
distribution,
distribution, for
for each
each run
run the
the correct
correct geometry
geometry had had toto be
be dow
dow
reconstructed.
reconstructed. To
To this
this end,
end, we
we measured
measured the
the elastic
elastic scattering
scattering ≈50
≈5
12 10 197
12C, 10Be+ 197Au at energies Ecm = 25.7 and 27.9 MeV,
C, Be+ Au at energies Ecm = 25.7 and 27.9 MeV, bea
bea
respectively,
respectively, for
for which
which the
the elastic
elastic cross
cross section
section follows
follows the elas
G0S95A –
G0S95A Exotic Nuclei –
– Exotic Nuclei2015/2016
2015/2016
– 2021/2022 14/04/2016 –
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– Nuclear Reactions 1/3
Rutherford
Rutherford formula.
formula. The
The full
full setup
setup was
was simulated;
simulated; using
the
using the
the
ela
Ela
Ela
 120
the mean value
Gaussian thickness wasdistribution
consideredwith for athe FWHM Snoftargets,
20% of and Elastic scattering and reactions –
0.02 Non-uniform Polynomial
Elastic to scattering and reactions – 2/5

Energy probablity / 40 ke

Energy probablity / 4
a the
second
mean one valuewhere the 120 Snfortargets the 120where assumed
The problem of the energy
The problem
have of the energy
a nonuniformity
a second one where the
was considered
similarSntotargets
120 the ones where
Sn targets,
actually assumed
and Elastic scattering and reactions –
observed
to
2/5
The problem of the energy
experimentally
have a nonuniformity M.and reported
FISICHELLA similar et al.intoSec. the IV ones (i.e.,actually the surface observed of the PHYSICAL REVIEW C 92, 06461
Fisichella et al, PRC 92 (2015) 0
● The •energy
experimentally
targets is ofcome theoutbeam
M.and
characterized reported
FISICHELLA
by
The energy of the beam is not well defined, is not well defined,
et al.in Sec. IV (i.e., the surface of the
the presence
from the target, by using a stopping foil after it
of structures which PHYSICAL REVIEW C 92, 064611 (2015)
Fisichella
Fisichella
0.01 et al, PRC 92 (2015) 064611
et al, PRC 92 (2015) 064611
targets
vary •from is few
characterized
hundred by deducing
the to presence of structures which
especially out fromnm
The energy of the beam is not well defined,
for and subsequently 2byµm, using like
fusion the foil
across-sections ones shown
via on-line in 0.01
vary especially for
from few
Fig. 4).especially for
come
In theorand hundred
following,
off-line nm
the target,
detection
subsequently to 2
thisofsecond
deducing µm,
one
fusion like kind
stopping
the
or cross-sections
more ER of ones
after
shown
it
nonuniformity
radioactive
via on-linedecay in
- will
beams
Fig.be from
called
or in-flight
-4).beams from in-flight production
In thechannels
following,
off-line
polynomial
detection
involving production
this of second
one
emission
nonuniformity.
or kind of
more
of gamma, ER nonuniformity
radioactive
x-ray,
For or αdecay
bothradiation.
uniform
will
- and -
be
experiments beams from in-flight production
called channels
Such an
polynomial
using
involving
activation
a
emission
method
nonuniformity.
stack of
of
can gamma,
be
targetsmade x-ray,
Foreven or more
α
both radiation.
efficient
uniform if
and -nonuniform
experiments using a stack of target
nonuniform Such
a systemtargets
an activation theaverage
of multiple methodaveragecan be
foils, consisting thickness
made of several is
even more assumed
efficient if
target/stopper to
-
bebe5 5mg/cm
experiments using a stack of target
2 foils, targets
a system
is93of
used. the
multiple
In foils, consisting
this case, thickness
the of several is
stopper foils assumed
target/stopper
also serve to
to
2. The
foils, Nb
is93used. catcher
In this case, foils
the stopperwere foils assumed
also serve toThe
to have a
● Using mg/cm
an .
average The
degrade energy
Nb
••Using an average energy or an effective
degrade the beamcatcher orusing
energy foils
an
for were
the effective
the next assumed
target in the to have
stack. a
Gaussian
Gaussian Using an average energy or an effective
nonuniformity
nonuniformity
main
the beam energy
main disadvantage
disadvantage
with
with ofofusing
for
aaFWHM FWHM next target in the stack. The
a stack
a stack isof isof
that 15%
that 15%
the the ofbeam
beam
of
the
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REVIEW CREVIEW 92, 064611 (2015)
92, 064611C(2015)
the
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By employing
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chose fissionfission asas the the
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pro- pro-
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offered the
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interest. Complete
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3/5 3/5
lightnuclei.
exotic Effects
nuclei. Effects observed in selected reactions on various ducedaaduced highlyaexcited highly compound
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energiesenergies
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light
lightexotic Effectsobserved in
inselected reactions ononvarious duced highly system
system(excitation energies were
Elastic scattering and reactions –
exotic nuclei. observed selected reactions various excited compound (excitation
target nuclei (dating from the mid 1980s) provided the evidence for E* $ 20 MeV, while the fission barrier
barrier EEFBFB¼¼(5.4 E ¼ (5.4 ^ 0.3) MeV,

Channel identification
target
targetnuclei
nuclei(dating
(datingfrom fromthe themid mid1980s) 1980s)providedprovidedthe theevidence
evidencefor for E* E*$ $20 20MeV,
MeV, while while the the fission
fission barrier (5.4^^0.3)
FB 0.3)MeV,MeV,

Channel identification
an extended spatial distribution of neutron matter, develops ref. 23), which then decayed, emitting two heavy fragments almost almost
which develops ref. 23), which then decayed, emitting two heavy fragments

Channel identification
an extended spatial distribution
an extended spatial distribution of neutron of neutron 6 matter,
matter,
11 which
which
11 develops ref. 23), which then decayed, emitting two heavy fragments almost
into a ‘halo’, in systems such
6 11 He, 11
as Li or Be (refsAlso, 7, 8). Also, back-to-back. The fragmentsdetected were detected in coincidence in a
into
into aa ‘halo’,
‘halo’, in in systems
systems such such as as 6He, He, 11Li Li oror 11Be Be (refs
(refs 7,7, 8). 8). Also, back-to-back.back-to-back. The The fragments
fragments were were detected inin coincidence coincidence inin aa
many many experimental results required the abandonment of the picture highly efficient array of charged-particle detectors, and identified by
manyexperimental
experimentalresults resultsrequired
requiredthe theabandonment
abandonmentof ofthe
thepicture
picture highly highlyefficient
efficientarray arrayofofcharged-particle
charged-particledetectors, detectors,and andidentified
identifiedby by
Prompt techniques
where where the nucleons are bound in a mean field of the nuclear force, their energy and relative emission angle. A schematic view of the set- w
where the the nucleons
nucleons are arebound
bound in inaamean meanfield fieldof ofthethenuclear
nuclearforce, force, their theirenergy PSSisH and Y relative emission 6angle. AAschematic view ofofT
the Eset-
AS ILC A 1.L VR IEE VWIbeam E LLW L TE
energy and relative emission angle. schematic viewT the R Sby the
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en
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Chatterjee et al, PRL 101 (2008) 032701
beam 182
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Chatterjee et al, PRL 101 (2008) 032701
6He
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JULY
Prompt techniques
24

Prompt techniques
nucleons . From the beginning,attention much attention has been paid totwo the two coupled cyclotrons of the Cyclotron Research 24Centre

Prompt techniques
9
nucleons9..From
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effects
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22.6 MeV was obtained from the ISOL werefacility SPIRAL atthen EXOGAM Array Neutron Wall
• Identification of outgoing particles
at a larger distance, effectively lowering the barrier. Properties such atoms were extracted, ionized and then injected and post-acceler-
22.6
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Identification of outgoing particles
effectively lowering the barrier. Properties such atoms extracted, ionized and post-acceler-
Example:
as
α particles in He+ Cu: breakup, 2n- or 1n-transfer?
as
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Example: α particles in
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intensities
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EXOGAM
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cross-section
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oflayer
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laboratory
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in Darmstadt,
Darmstadt, Germany, Germany,
22mg cm ) deposited on a thin C foil
cm22))deposited
depositedon onaathin thinCCfoil foil
Precise signature of the production of an isotope
breakup process
could
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could
Precise signature of the production of an isotope
breakup
breakup process process could just
just vers,
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just prevent
prevent
prevent and
aa 6,15–17
neutronthea
the neutron
capturethe capture
capture
array ofof array
ofthe
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of
of
whole
whole
the whole
useliquid
45 liquid
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cm
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m
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22
). Absolute ). Absolute
Absolute
elements elements
cross-sectionscross-sections
cross-sections were
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were calculated
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the
Precise signature of the production of an isotope
vers,
Precise signature of the production of an isotope and neutron array of 45 liquid scintillator elements
6,15–17
projectile, projectile,
thereby thereby
inhibiting inhibiting
fusion fusion
6,15–17 . Here . Here
we use we
‘fusion’ ‘fusion’
in in number
number of detected of detected
events, events, normalizing
normalizing for beam forintensity,
beam intensity,
target target
projectile, thereby inhibiting[21]. fusion14,17–19. Here we use ‘fusion’ in number of detected events, normalizing for beam intensity, target
(either directly or through evaporation)
252
the sensetheofsense
complete
the sense of complete fusion [21].
[21].
of complete
fusion fusion(the
14,17–19
14,17–19 whole(theprojectile
whole projectile and target and targetthickness thickness
and
(the whole projectile and target thickness and detection efficiency (measured with a Cf fission
and detection
detection efficiency efficiency
(measured (measured
with a with
252
252Cf afission
b)
Cf fission 44
HeHe
4
He
(either directly or through evaporation)
(either directly or through evaporation)
(either directly or through evaporation)
fuse fuse
fusetogether;
together;
together;evaporation
evaporation
incomplete(only
evaporation
fusion Charged
of
Charged
of Charged
fragments
fragments
(only a fragment
of fragments
particles
may
particles
may particles
may
follow)
follow)
of the projectile
follow)
were
as
were
as were
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distinct
as distinct
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from
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from
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and
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to identified
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Measured
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a-particle
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fission
in
source). an
source).
ancross-sections
source).
areinshown
b)
in
b)
66 Fig. 26asHefunctions
incomplete
incompletefusion
the
fusion (only
target; in annular
annular
light annular
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of
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the
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comprising
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transferred
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Fig.
He
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as
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and a beam of nn n
●• Fission after transfer or fusion
Fission after transfer or fusion
6

• Fission after transfer or fusion

the 6
the target; in light nuclei this is not distinguishable from a direct of the centre-of-mass energy, for both the He beam and a beamofof
target; in light nuclei this is not distinguishable from a direct of the centre-of-mass energy, for both the He beam and a beam
(!500"m) elements with active inner and diameters
outer diameters
Fission after transfer or fusion
transfer).
transfer).
transfer).
The halo-nucleus
66
(!500"m)
(!500"m)
of
6
of
He 22
presents
elements
elements
and the70 mm
peculiar
with
with active
covering
active
properties
inner
inner and
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mentionedangular
andouter outer
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of # !25 # # –60# 65
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65
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Cu
γγ γ
The halo-nucleus He
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mentioned
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Cu
67
Cu 66
above,
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has aa relatively small
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breakup from threshold
threshold the target.
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neutron neutron
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cm ¼ isfrom
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0.973 ¼
2n MeV). the
the
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target.
MeV).
It is a It The
isThe
favourable a angular
angular
favourable resolution
resolution was
was Cu
66
Cu
neutron separation energy #is S2n 2n ¼ # 0.973 MeV). It is a favourable
candidate candidate
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for ’1:7
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experimental
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with He
4
He
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elasticelastic scattering measurements ontarget.

a Au target. The energy He
elastic scattering
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onaaAu Au target. The
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at 55 at
cm 55 fromcm from
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covering covering
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of 4#4#of 4#
[21].
[21]. The [21].
The time Theof
time time
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wasobtainedwas obtained
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to FIG. 11FIG.
FIG. (color
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online).
online). online).
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of
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(b) (b)
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270
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MeV).
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Figure 1 Schematic
22of35Raabe
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configuration.
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Figure
Figure11Schematic
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experimental configuration.
configuration. The He
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the 500 mg cm UF target, which surrounded by an array 50 50 mm
the 500 mg cm UF44 target, Small
Small corrections
surrounded
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talk between the
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G0S95A
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2021/2022 18/02/2022
cross-section, j, forofHe–the Nuclear andReactions 1/3
6
silicon detectors (some detectors areinomitted drawing) covering about 70% Figure Figure Fission cross-section,
66 j, for He (filledand
symbols)
44 He (open
66 symbols)
238 U
silicon detectors
detectors (some detectors are omitted
omitted the drawing)
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drawing) included about
covering about 70%70% of
[22]. the
of the Absolute 2 Fission cross-section,
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Figure 2 Fission j, for He (filled
(filledsymbols)
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He (open
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Cu
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on U
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 Elastic scattering and reactions – 4/5
Elastic scattering and reactions – 4/5
Channel identification
Channel identification
Delayed techniques (Activation) PRL for103,
fusion
232701 (2009) Lemasson et
PH al, Y
PRL
S 103
I C (2009)
A L 232701
REVIE

●Delayed techniques (Activation) for fusion

Irradiate targets producing long-living nuclei wi
act
•(usually “evaporation residues” E.R.)
Irradiate targets producing long-living nuclei sen
com
(usually evaporation residues)
● Measure the absolute activity !3
(ha
•through
Measure the absolute activity
X-rays and/or 𝛾-rays sec
through X-rays and/or D-rays est
ate
Lemasson et al, PRL 103 (2009) 232701 in
int

eva
silicon strip
the
detectors
target-catcher mo
stack Off-line activation nu
sur
6He beam
measurement
ari
X- and γ-rays fus
"E
Di Pietro et al, PRC 69 (2004) 044613
64Zn target FIG. 1 (color online). Experimental configuration: (a) Sche- for
matic view of the in-beam experimental setup: A microchannel ide
plate detector (MCP) and a plastic scintillator placed before and me
Di Pietro et al, PRC 69 (2004) 044613 after the target were used to measure the number of incident tai
beam particles. (b) Schematic view of the off-beam experimental 198
setup: Irradiated targets were placed between two HPGe detec-
G0S95A – Exotic Nuclei – 2021/2022 18/02/2022 – Nuclear Reactions 1/3
 Elastic scattering and reactions –
Elastic 5/5
scattering and reactions – 5/5
Overview
Overview

α-emitters: 84 < Z < 90

α γ Decay scheme of E.R.
Large γ-detector array
Charged particle detectors
4,6,8He + Cu
11,9Be + 209Bi
6He + 209Bi

X (delayed)
E.R. decay by EC
Si-Li detectors
4,6He + 64Zn
Fission
Fissile target: Z > 90
Charged particle detectors
11,9Be + 238U
6,4He + 238U E.R.
7Be,7Li + 238U Recoil separators
but low velocities!

G0S95A –
G0S95A Exotic Nuclei –
– Exotic 2015/2016
Nuclei – 2021/2022 14/04/2016 –
18/02/2022 Nuclear Reactions 1/3
– Nuclear Reactions 1/3