Disc Contents © IPA, 2006 - Sedimentation in the Modern and Miocene Mahakam Delta, 1998

Contents
Chapter 6 - Regional setting of the Mahakam delta
Search
Introduction

Since the early 1970's numerous studies involving surface sediment samples, cores, boreholes, water
samples and hydrological measurements have been carried out on the modern Mahakam delta by a
number of workers The sedimentology- of the modern and Quaternary delta was studied by
Kartaadiputra, Magnier and Oki (1975), Allen et al. (1976, 1979), Allen and Mercier, (1988), Gayet
and Legigan (1 987), Gastaldo et a1 (1995), Debec et al. (1 994), Allen and Mercier (1 994), Chambers
et al (1 992) and Allen and Chambers (1996) The floral assemblages of the delta were discussed by
Gastaldo and Huc, (1992) and Gastaldo et al (1993) and the micropalaeontology of the modern delta
by Carbonel and Moyes (1987) Studies have also been carried out on the geochemistry of the modern
deltaic sediments, e g , Combaz and de Matharel (1978), and Oudin and Picard (1982),whiIe the high
resolution seismic stratigraphy of the late quaternary delta was studied by Debec et al (1 994), Debec
and Allen (1996); and Roberts and Sydow (1996) In addition to these published works, a large volume
of unpublished borehole data, hydrological measurements, and shallow high-resolution seismic data
have been collected on the delta by several oil companies for drilling site surveys and research on the
delta

These studies have shown that the Mahakam delta has formed under conditions of low wave energy,
low to medium tide ranges, and a large but non-flooding fluvial discharge These conditions are
different from those of the Mississippi or Niger deltas, which are the standard references for fluvial
arid tide-dominated delta systems. As will be shown, this combination of environmental processes
results in distinct facies associations and reservoir geometry These differences in sedimentation
patterns and facies from the so-called Mississippi and Niger "models" would be detectable in the rock
record

In many ways, the modern Mahakam delta is a good analogue for the underlying Miocene deltaic
deposits and reservoirs Certain differences exist however, between the modern and the Miocene
deltas, particularly in terms of the effects of fluvial floods The modern delta is not subjected to floods,
whereas the Miocene deltas contain abundant evidence of alluvial floods In spite of these differences
i n the fluvial regime, the general patterns of sedimentation and reservoir geometries are similar in the
modern and Miocene deltas The following chapter describes the environmental conditions affecting
the coast and the sedimentary processes, facies patterns, and sand geometry in the modern Mahakam
delta

Geographical*Location

The Mahakain delta has formed at the mouth of the Mahakam river on the east coast of Borneo, about
50 kin south of the equator (Fig 6 1) The coastline is oriented NNE-SSW and borders the Makassar
Strait, which separates the islands of Borneo and Sulawesi The western shore of the Makassar strait is
bordered by a 40-50 kin wide shelf on which the modern Mahakam delta has been prograding since the
end of the Holocene transgression about 5000 - 6000 years ago During this time, the delta has
prograded u p to 70 kin across the shelf and the seaward extremity of the prodelta is presently between
I5 and 20 kin from the shelf break (Fig 6 2) The shelf break occurs at a depth of about 100 m and
bot ders a steep slope which extends down to the 2000 metre deep Makassar basin floor

79
The Mahakarn Delta is located in the eastern part of tlie Kutei Basin which lias been a major fluvial
deltaic depoceiitre since tlie Early Miocene (Wain aiid Berod, 1989; Van de Weerd and Armin, 1992;
and Moss et al., 1997: see discussion in Part 3). Although it is believed that the basin began to develop
during an Eocene extensional episode (Moss et al., 1997). tlie present basin geometry developed after a
Late Oligocene tectonic event that saw the development of the northwest-southeast trending down to
the basin Adang fault zone on the southern basin margin and the Sanltulirang - Beiigalon fault zones on
the northern basin margin. Palaeogene sediments are found outcropping both north of the Bengalon
Lineament and south of the Adaiiy Fault Zone. To tlie west, the basin is bounded by the Kuching
Uplift and central Kalimantan Ranges. which consist of Cretaceous and older metasediments,
ophiolites and intrusive igneous roclts.

Sediment supply to the basin lias been iwiable with time. with intervals of rapid sedimentation
occurring in association with periods of uplift and erosion of older sediments. Episodes of volcanic
activity occurred during the Lower Miocene and Pliocene and temporarily changed the nature of the
sediment supply. A background sediment supply of quartz and chert-rich sand and finer suspended
sediment was sourced from thc Cretaceous metasediments throughout the Tertiary and Quaternary, and
this is mixed variabl5 \ k i t h re-eroded and lolcanic-derii ed material (Tanean et al.. 1996).

Over 14 km of sediment have accuiiiiilated within tlie Kutei Basin since the Oligocene (Chambers and
Daley, 1995). The coastal area of’ the basin lias proven to be a major hydrocarbon province and
contains numerous oil and gas fields. The hydrocarbons are of humic origin aiid sourced niainly by
coals and carbonaceous coastal plain shales which have accumulated in delta plain and fluvial
environments (Combai and de Matliarel. 1978; Oudin and Picard. 1982). Recent hydrocarbon
discoveries in offshore marine sediments in the more distal parts of tlie basin suggest that detrital
humic material i n prodelta and slope muds might also have generated hydrocarbons ( Paterson et al..
1997).

Tertiary tectonism has had an important effect 011 both the geomorphology and hydrology of the
Mahakam river. Uplift of the coastal fold belts which began in the early part of the Middle Miocene
(Chambers and Daley. 1995; Ferguson and McClay, 1997) caused the Mahakam riker to incise its
course across north-south trending anticlines in the *vicinity of Samarinda and Saiiga Sanga. This
resulted in the river being fixed in the same position since the Middle Miocene. Because of this, tlie
Mahakam deltaic depocenter since tlie Middle Miocene has remained in the same position on the coast.
As will be discussed in the next section. tectonic subsidence landward of these coastal fold belts has
had a profound effect on the fluvial hydrology of the delta and considerably diminished the effects of
alluvial floods in tlie delta.

The modern Mahakam Delta dates from tlie post Holocene eustatic stillstand c. 5000 yBP. and it is
presently accumulating a 50-70 metre thick regressive highstand deltaic system which downlaps older
transgressive Holocene and Late Pleistocene deltaic lowstaiid deposits (Allen et al. 1979). A detailed
investigation using shallow seismic. Libracores and geotechnical borings on the Mahaltam delta front
(Roberts and Sydow, 1996) and studies of tlie shallow portions of 3-D seisiiiic surveys by Debec et al..
(1 994), Debec and Allen ( 1996) and Suiter ( I 996) enable comparisons of this Recent highstand delta
with the Pleistocene lowstaiid delta.

SO
Environmental processes

Climate

The delta is located in the equatorial climatic belt where seasonal climatic variations are subdued and
yearly temperatures remain relatively constant between 26 and 30" C. Mean annual rainfall in the
Mahakam drainage area varies between 3000 and 4000 mm per year with a maximum in January and a
minimum in August (TAD, 1981; Darman and Hadriyanto, in prep; MacKinnon et al. 1996). This high
rainfall results in a high fluvial discharge and a large volume of sediment supply.

As in most equatorial zones. seasonal winds are weak and storms are rare since the area is sheltered
from the monsoonal storins of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. The only significant winds are those
generated by local thunderstorms. Because of the low energy wind regime and limited fetch in the
Strait of Makassar. coastal wave energy is very low and average wave heights are on the order of
several tens of cm. rarely exceeding one metre.

Figures 6.3 and 6.4 illustrate the rainfall and drainage patterns of the Mahakam river drainage basin
(TAD. 198 1 : Darnian and Hadriyaiito, in prep). From the available rainfall data and the size of the
drainage basin. a mean river discharge was evaluated by Allen et al. (1979) on the order of 3000
m%ec-I. More recent data by Darman and Hadriyanto (in prep) indicates values ranging between 500
and 5000 m;/s. Large seasonal variations in river discharge occur, with peak flow in the months of
March to June and November to December when the inland rainfall is high. During the periods of.high
discharge, strong floods occur in the upper reaches of the drainage basin, and the river level rises more
than ten metres above nornial flow in the lake district, some 150 km upstream from the delta. In spite
of the presence of these alluvial floods in the river upstream from the delta, during the 20 years that the
authors have been working in the area, they have observed no alluvial floods on the delta, nor has there
been any major fluvial overbanking due to high fluvial discharge from the Mahakam River in the
Samarinda Area, and as will be discussed later, no flood deposits occur within the modern delta.

The presence of numerous villages and houses on the banks of the distributaries in the delta and along
the Mahakam River up to and beyond the city of Samarinda (about 80 km upstream from the coast)
also indicates that alluvial flooding does not occur. Changes in water elevation on the delta due to
variations in fluvial discharge probably do not exceed one or two metres (no measured data available),
and tides appear to be the major factor controlling water elevation in the delta.

This downstream transition from a flood-dominant to a non-flooding alluvial system appears to be

related to the presence of a large lake system landward of the delta. Observations by one of the authors
(J. Chambers) suggests that these lakes probably absorb the increased rates of river flow during floods,
thereby dampening the flood surges and smoothing out the variations in.fluvia1 discharge. Downstream
from the lakes, although the river flow varies seasonally, there are no abrupt variations of discharge
such as occurs upstream of the lakes. This peculiar hydrology of the modern Mahakam delta is the
result of tectonic subsidence landward of the zone of coastal uplift which has resulted in the formation
of large lakes. The Miocene Mahakam river basin probably did not contain these lakes, as the Neogene
delta sediments indicate the presence of a strongly flood-dominated fluvial regime.

81
Another effect which can reduce alluvial flooding in the delta is tides. In river mouths affected by large
tide ranges, the volume of water flow introduced into the river by tides (i.e., the tidal prism) can be on
the same order of magnitude or greater than the fluvial flow, even during floods. This results in an
attenuation of the flood surge at the river mouth. In extreme cases, if tide ranges are very high (e.g.. in
macrotidal coasts where tide ranges exceed 4 metres), the effect of alluvial floods on water levels can
be negligible. For example, in the Garonne river in SW France. the amplitude of alluvial floods can
exceed 8 metres, whereas in the tide-dominated river mouth (maximum tide ranges up to 6.3 m),these
flood surges are reduced to only 0.5 m (Allen, 1991). In the Mahaltam delta, tide ranges are much less
and it is unlikely that tides would play such an important role in dampening fluvial floods. They do.
however, furnish an additional factor to reduce the effects of floods in the delta.

Because alluvial floods represent one of the most important sedimentological processes in many
fluvial-dominated deltas such as the Mississippi, their absence is a characteristic feature of the
Mahakam Delta and the lack of flood-deposited sediments is the major difference between the modern
and Miocene deltaic deposits.

Analysis of the volume and age of the present delta suggests an average sediment influx equivalent to
8 million cubic metres of sediment per year (equivalent to 4-5 million tons). Darman and Hadriyanto
(in prep.) report measurements of 1440 tons/day of sediment flux in the Mahakam river. This value
however, would imply a yearly sediment load of only 525,000 tons/year, which is probably much less
than the total yearly influx. In view of the seasonal variation in water discharge, it is likely that the rate
of sediment influx varies considerably with river flow. The variability of river discharge and sediment
supply for the Mahaltam Delta is poorly known and needs further research.

As in many deltas in the equatorial climatic belt, the majority of the sediment load consists of
suspended silt and clay although substantial volumes of sand are also supplied. It can be estimated
from the sediment distribution patterns in the delta. that suspended silt and clay comprise probably on
the order of 70% of the total fluvial sediment load and sand 30 YOor less (Allen et al. 1979). As in most
low gradient, mud-dominant alluvial plain rivers, the grain size of the fluvial sand introduced into the
delta ranges from fine to coarse and very little gravel-sized sediment occurs in tlie delta.

Waves

The wave energy affecting the regional shoreline is very low, since the wind velocity and fetch in the
Maltassar strait are insufficient to generate large swells or storms. The average wave height on the
deltaic coastline is on the order of 60 cm and the effects of littoral drift on sediment transport are nil.
The effects of waves is fh-ther attenuated by the low slope gradient of the delta front, which causes the
waves to break on the shallow distributary mouth bars several ltilometres seaward of tlie shoreline. As
a result the sediments along the deltaic coast are predominantly muddy, and no sandy beaches or
barriers are formed. The only effect of waves on deltaic sedimentation is to winnow the sand at the
crest of the distributary mouth bars and to accumulate floating plant fragments in detrital peat ridges on
the coastal mudflats. Analysis of cores and outcrops of the Miocene deltaic deposits indicates that
similar very low wave conditions also predominated during the Tertiary, and no significant wave-built
deposits have been observed in the Kutei basin.

82
On the coasts to either side of the delta however, the offshore profile is steeper and waves are
somewhat stronger, e.g. between 0.5 and 1 m. This slightly higher wave energy combined with the lack
of sediment influx from the delta results in the formation of thin sandy beaches and littoral bars on the
Goast adjacent to the delta (Fig. 6.5). These wave-deposited sands are eroded from eliffs of
unconsolidated Miocene sand which outcrops along the coast, and they form thin shoreface deposits
which would not represent significant reservoir potential.

Tides

Tides in the Strait of Makassar are semi-diurnal with a marked diurnal inequality (Fig. 6.6). Lunar tidal
cycles are well developed, with 15 day neap-spring-neap periodicity. Tidal ranges vary from less than
0.5 metres during neap tides to 2.9 metres during the high spring tides. .4lthough these tide amplitudes
are not very large when compared to some of the macrotidal coastlines of the world (e.g., the Bays of
Fundy and Mont Saint Michel where tide ranges exceed 10 metres), they are nonetheless sufficient to
generate strong tidal currents in the delta plain channels during spring tides. Tidal current velocities
during spring tides attain 1.5 m.sec-l at the surface and 0.8 m.sec-l at one meter from the bottom
(Allen et al. 1979). These current velocities are sufficient to transport large volumes of sand in the
distributary channels. Tides affect the entire delta plain and delta front, and reversing tidal currents
occur as far upstream as Samarinda (about 80 kni upstream). It is not known however, where the
landward limit of reversing tidal currents occurs.

Because of this combination of coastal processes, the Mahakam Delta occupies a relatively unique
position within the spectrum of delta types defined by Galloway (1975). The delta is forming in a wave
energy setting of practically zero, with medium tides and a strong but non flood-flooding fluvial
regime. It is the only modern delta of this type that has been studied (Fig. 6.7) and therefore furnishes
useful data to understand the variability of deltaic sediment patterns formed by different combinations
of coastal processes.

83
 0

:
0
m
a
e
3
E
cd

84
FIGURE 6.2 - Bathymetry of the Mahakam Delta and adjacent slope. Note the pronounced bulge formed
by the prodelta in the southern extremity of the delta. This regional asymmetry in the delta
is due to the higher rate of suspended sediment influx from the southern distributary zone
and the existence of a net southward oriented coastal current which entrains the suspended
sediment from the northern distributaries.

85
 Drainage Pattern of

Mahakam River
Drainage Basin
I
, River
w Lake
Coast Line
@ city
‘
1 . Drainage Basin Boundary
- Structure Feature

0 SO 100 40
I I \ I Strait
\

Source: IMemnt souccs eg W e d , u a & Armin, kA, 1992,0l$n end EwluUonof the Tertiary Hydrocarbon-BaarfqBesins in Kallmantan (Borneo),
lnmnsdar AAPG BuL v.76. n.11

FIGURE 6.3 - The Mahakam River Drainage Basin (from Darinaii and Hadriyanto, in prep).
KALIMANTAN TlMU R/Precipitation
I 1

M A L A Y S I A

T I M U R

smwm

Weelher slallofl
ii(Ju
Contour itnee In metres
,2100 6 ~ 0 elevelion
1 In m81fe6

, l16Q 3
~

ns of d a h The Inslilutc 01 Meteorology and Geophysics,J s k a r l a . Indonesia. VOSS.rAD 81 Cdrtoqrophy Malwalcl, IId

FIGURE 6.4 - Precipitation map of the Mahakam River Drainage Basin (from TAD, 198 1 . Data compiled
froin The Institute of Meteorology and Geophysics, Jakarta, Indonesia).

87
FIGURE 6.5 - (a and b) Aerial view of the coast adjacent to the delta where wave energy is hgher and forms
sandy swash bars and beaches. Even here however, wave energy remains low and these sand
deposits are thin (less than 1.5 m). ( c ) Locally eroding coastline with a thin transgressive sand
beach accumulating oyer a wave ravinement surface on delta plain clay. Because wave energy
is very low, only 20-30 cm of delta plain sediment is eroded by the wave ravinement.

88
 Water level
(metres)
Spring Tide

FIGURE 6.6 - Example of a tide curve in the Mahakam Delta. Note the diurnal inequality and the
pronounced fortnightly neap-spring cycle. The maximum tide range is about 2.9 metres.

Sao

FIGURE 6.7 - Delta classification based on the types of processes which control sediment transport. This
classification, proposed by Galloway (1975), subdivides deltas into three end-member types,
fluvial-, wave- and tide-dominated systems, each with a characteristic morphology,
sedimentary facies and reservoir geometry. It is particularly applicable in the delta front
environments where coastal processes predominate. Often, a particular delta will be affected
by several processes and sedimentary facies and reservoir geometry will reflect the
interaction of several types of depositional processes. The Mahakam Delta, affected by very
low wave energy and a mixture of fluvial and tidal processes, represents a type of delta that
has not been studied in detail.

89